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*  An  era  is  fast  approaching  when  no  writers  will  be  read  by  the  majority,  save  and  except  those  who  can  effect /or  bales  of  manuscript 
what  the  hydrostatic  screw  performs  /or  hales  0/  cotton — condense  into  a  period  what  be/ore  occupied  a  Page. — CoTTER. 


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THE 


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XHeeful  Iftnowlefcge 

A  COMPLETE  CYCLOPEDIA 
OF  REFERENCE 

HISTORICAL,  BIOGRAPHICAL,  SCIENTIFIC  AND  STATISTICAU-f^X- 

or  THF      ' 

UNIVERSITY    i 

EMBRACING 

or 


THE  MOST  IMPROVED  AND  SIMPLE  METHODS  OF 

Self-Instruction  in  all  Branches 

O  F 

Popular  Education 


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COMPILED    AND   EDITED   BY 

R.    S.    PEALE 

ASSISTED   BY   EMINENT    SPECIALISTS   IN   EACH    DEPARTMENT. 


CHICAGO 

Zhe  Ibome  Uibrarp  association 

MUCCCLXXXXII. 


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Copyright,  1883, 

—BY — 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


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Copyright,  1884,  by  R.  S.  Peale. 
Copyright,  1885,  by  R.  S.  Peale 
Copyright,  :886,  by  R.  S.  Pkale. 
Copyright,  1887,  by  R.  S.  Peals. 
Copyright,  1888,  by  R.  S.  Peal*. 
Copyright,  1889,  by  R.  S.  Pkale. 
Copyright,  1890,  by  R.  S.  Pkale. 
Copyright,  1891,  by  R.  S.  Peale. 
Copyright,  1893,  by  R.  S.  Peale. 


Press  of 
tCt^e  {Some  library  Association, 

Chicago. 


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|IBBON  has  well  said:  "Every  man  has  two  educations:  one  which  he  receives 
from  others,  and  one,  more  important,  which  he  gives  to  himself."  Sir  Walter 
Scott  emphasizes  the  sentiment  when  he  says,  using  almost  the  same  words:  "The 
best  part  of  every  man's  education  is  that  which  he  gives  to  himself." 

The  mind  has  been  endowed  with  no  more  laudable  or  profitable  ambition  than  that 
of  self-improvement.  The  educated  man,  in  every  walk  of  life,  carries  with  him  his  own 
capital — a  capital  unaffected  by  monetary  crises;  an  investment  whose  interest  is  not  regu- 
lated by  the  success  of  speculation ;  a  treasure  which  none  can  dispute  and  of  which  none 
can  deprive  him.  It  is  his  greatest  source  of  pleasure  and  profit,  and  it  is  the  best  legacy 
he  can  leave  to  his  children. 

In  preparing  the  present  volume,  it  has  been  the  endeavor  of  the  publishers  to  omit 
no  branch  of  study  that  may  be  useful  in  the  busy  life  of  these  busy  times,  and  a  perusal 
of  the  book  will  convince  the  reader  that  every  subject  has  been  treated  concisely  and 
thoroughly,  presenting  in  an  attractive  shape  all  those  points  that  go  to  make  a  finished 
education.  Practical  application  to  the  affairs  of  life  has  been  constantly  kept  in  view, 
and  throughout  has  been  maintained  a  systematic  arrangement  making  reference  easy,  and 
a  degree  of  artistic  typography  pleasing  to  the  eye,  making  the  search  for  knowledge 
doubly  pleasurable. 

To  the  youth  who  has  not  had  the  advantages  of  an  early  education  is  here  offered  a 
means  of  thorough  self-instruction  —  a  complete  commercial  college  bound  in  a  book.  The 
business  man  who  consults  these  pages  will  find  every  variety  of  forms  used  in  business 
life,  and  will  not  seek  in  vain  for  such  legal  information  as  may  be  needed.  The  profes- 
sional man  will  have  in  this  work  a  vade  mecum  of  useful  and  practical  information,  saving 
both  the  expense  of  purchasing  and  the  time  of  consulting  a  vast  number  of  volumes. 

It  is  customary  to  burden  the  initial  pages  of  a  new  publication  with  apologies.  The 
publishers  of  this  book  have  none  to  make.  They  have  invested  a  large  amount  of  diligent, 
painstaking  labor  and  research,  and  no  small  amount  of  capital,  and  recognize  the  fact  that 
they  must  depend  upon  merit  and  excellence  for  success. 


YL 


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TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 


Table  of  Oo^ttezstts- 

[For  an  Alphabetical  Index  of   Principal  Subjects,  see  page  819.] 


I  ,  Page. 

Educational  Department 9 

The  Points  which  go  to  Make  a  Finished  Education  —  The 
Origin  of  Language  —  Classification  of  the  Tongues  of  the 
Earth. 


The  English  Language 13 

Its  Origin,  Growth,  Development  and  Present  Form  —  English 
Grammar — Formation  and  Derivation  of  Words  —  Spelling: 
Simple  but  Comprehensive  Rules  —  Reformed  Spelling — The 
Use  of. Capital  Letters  —  Punctuation  —  The  Parts  of  Speech 
and  their  Proper  Use  —  Errors  in  Speech,  etc. 


Composition  and  Rhetoric 32 

How  to  Write  the  English  Language  Correctly — Accuracy  in  the 
Arrangement  of  Words  and  Correct  Expression  in  Written 
Language — The  Qualities  Constituting  a  Good  Style — Figures 
of  Rhetoric — Prosody  and  Versification —  Poetic  License. 


Elocution 


40 


Vocal  Culture  and  Gesture  —  How  to  Read  and  Speak  Correctly 
and  Elegantly — The  Three  Forms  of  Speech  —  Conversation, 
Reading,  Public  Speaking  —  Dramatic  Action. 


Business  and  Social  Correspondence       ....      48 

Let ter-Wri ting  in  all  its  Forms  — Style,  Arrangement  and  Com- 
position of  Letters — The  Proper  Use  of  Titles  —  Models  for  all 
Kinds  of  Epistolary  Correspondence. 


A  Dictionary  of  Synonyms  and  Antonyms   . 

Containing  over  Twenty  Thousand  Words  of  both  Similar  and 
Contrary  Significance  —  A  Ready  Vocabulary  from  which  to 
Select  Words  that  will  Clearly  and  Forcibly  Convey  the  In- 
tended Meaning. 


64 


7- 


A  Self-Instructor  in  the  German   Language 

The  New  System  of  Object-Teaching,  the  Simplest  Method 
Known — Exercises  for  Self-Instruction,  and  a  Comprehensive 
Collection  of  Words  and  Phrases  Designed  to  Facilitate  Con- 
versation in  German. 


S2 


8, 


French  Without  a  Master 100 

A  Simple  System  of  Self-Instruction  in  the  French  Language. 


VL- 


9 .  Pacb 

Practical  and  Ornamental  Penmanship      ,  .116 

The  Work  of  the  Pen  Described  and  Illustrated,  from  the  Plain- 
est Letter  to  the  Most  Elaborate  Design — How  to  Learn  and 
How  to  Teach  Writing— Faults  to  be  Guarded  Against  — 
Study  and  Practice — Copies  for  a  Course  of  Twenty  Lessons- 
Alphabets  and  Specimens  for  all  Purposes— Examples  of 
Blackboard  Writing  and  Drawing,  Engrossing,  Flourished 
Cards,  Designs  for  Albums  and  Ornamental  Lettering. 

10. 

Short-Hand  and  Typewriting 148 

How  to  Acquire  and  How  to  Practice  these  Arts — A  History  of 
Stenography,  and  a  Practical  Exposition  of  the  Various  Sys- 
tems. 

II. 

A  Self-Instructor  in  Short-Hand  Writing    .     .     .     156 

A  Complete  Course,  in  Twelve  Practical  Lessons,  based  on  the 
Benn  Pitman  System  of  Phonography. 

12. 

The  Art  of  Book-Keeping 168 

The  Systems  of  Single  and  Double  Entry  Compared  Side  by  Side 
—The  Principles  Set  Forth  Clearly  and  Concisely  —  How  to 
Prevent  Errors  and  How  to  Detect  Them— Comprehensive 
Rules,  of  Value  to  the  Practical  Accountant  as  well  as  to  the 
Student— Complete  Forms  Illustrating  the  Two  Systems,  Pre- 
senting, besides  the  Ordinary  Forms  of  Single  and  Double 
Entry,  a  Complete  Set  Illustrating  the  Combination  of  Day- 
Book  and  Journal,  as  well  as  the  Six-Column  Journal  (combin- 
ing in  One  Book  the  Day-Book,  Journal,  Cash- Book  and  Sales- 
Book),  and  the  Combined  Statement  (showing,  on  one  Sheet, 
Trial  Balance,  Losses  and  Gains,  Assets  and  Liabilities) — How 
to  Change  Single  Entry  Books  into  Double  Entry. 

A  Compendium  of  Biography 209 

Embracing  the  Names  and  Records  of  Eminent  Personages  of  All 
Ages,  Arranged  in  Alphabetical  Order  and  Selected  with  Special 
Reference  to  the  Literature  of  America,  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many. 

14. 

A  Panorama  of  History 2S2 

A  Graphic  Account  of  Every  Nation  on  the  Globe— Profusely 
Illustrated,  and  with  Maps  of  the  World  and  of  all  Countries  of 
Historic  Interest. 


5*- 


•• 


^ 


VI. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


15 


Fags. 


Historical  Charts 321 

A  Simple  Contemporaneous  Exposition  of  Universal  History 
from  the  Flood  to  the  Present  Year,  with  Special  Charts,  Illus- 
trating the  Civil,  Political  and  Military  History  of  the  United 
States— A  Chronological  Record  of  the  Impartant  Historical 
Events  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Times,  Presentee'  in  a  Novel 
and  Original  Manner— Sixteen  Full-page  Plates,  printed  in 
Four  Colors. 


l6. 


A  Dictionary  of  Dates 337 

The  World's  Progress  as  Shown  in  an  Alphabetical  Record  of 
Notable  Events  and  Discoveries. 

Scientific  Department 340 

A  Brief  and  Simple  Introduction  to  All  the  Sciences. 

l8. 

Natural  Philosophy 342 

The  Forces  of  Nature  and  the  Laws  which  Govern  Them — The 
Elements  of  Natural  Science — Physic*  and  Chemistry — Hy- 
drostatics and  Hydraulics — Optics  and  Acoustics — Magnetism 
and  Electricity. 


19. 


Astronomy 355 

The  Wonders  of  the  Heavens  as  Revealed  by  the  Telescope — A 
History  of  the  Progress  of  Astronomical  Science — Our  Solar 
System  and  the  Universe  of  Stars — A  Dictionary  of  Astronom- 
ical Definitions. 


20. 


376 


How  to  Read  the  Sky 

Half-Hours  with  the  Stars— A  Plain  and  Easy  Guide  to  the 
Knowledge  of  the  Constellations— With  Twelve  Maps  of  the 
Heavens,  True  for  Every  Year. 

21. 

Physical  Geography 390 

Our  Globe,  as  it  Was,  and  as  It  Is— Weather  and  Climate — Ani- 
mal and  Vegetable  Life  —  Geology,  Meteorology,  Climatology, 
Mineralogy,  Botany,  Zoology,  Ethnology. 

22. 

Commercial  Law  and  Forms 403 

Notes,  Bills,  Orders,  Receipts,  etc.,  Properly  Drawn  for  Every 
State  —  Negotiable  Paper,  and  the  Various  Forms  of  Endorse- 
ment —  The  Endorser's  Responsibility  —  Necessary  Legal 
Points  —  Swindling  Notes — Points  of  Business  Law — Laws 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada  Relating  to  Interest — Laws 
Relating  to  Limitation  of  Actions. 

23- 

States  and  Territories 305* 

Maps  of  nil  the  States  and  Territories  showing  Compara- 
tive Statisli.  .  \n  1,  Railroads,  etc.— Printed  In  three 
colors — Population  given  on  page,  following  page 
584. 


24.  P*o«- 

Population  of  Cities  and  States 584* 

The  Population  of  the  Cities  and  States  of  the  United 
States,  of  8,000  and  Over,  Together  with  Population  of 
all  the  States  and  Territories  according  to  1890  census. 


25. 


Loisette  Memory  System '63 

The  Loisette  Memory  System,  the  Art  of  Never  Forget- 
ting. 

26. 

Banks  and  Banking «JI1 

How  the  Business  is  Carried  on  —  Discount  —  Officers  and  Em- 
ployes —  How  to  do  Business  with  a  Bank  —  Deposits  —  How 
to  Draw  and  Endorse  a  Check  —  Banking  Frauds  —  Drafts  and 
Bills  of  Exchange  —  Letters  of  Credit  —  Bills  of  Lading  as  Se- 
curity —  The  Clearing-House  —  Our  National  Banking  System 
—  Stocks  and  Bonds  —  Common  and  Preferred  Stock — How 
Stock  is  "  Watered  " — Government  Securities. 

27. 

The  Tariff 4«9 

The  New  McKinley  Tariff  Bill  (iSoo>— Comparison  of 
New  Rates  with  the  Old— An  Act  to  Reduce  the  Re.- 
enue  and  Equalize  Duties  on  Imports,  etc. 


28. 


Lightning  Calculator 439 

Valuable  Computations  and  Calculations  for  the  Use  of  the  Fanner, 
Mechanic  and  Business  Man  —  Complete  Tables  of  Simple  and 
Compound  Interest  —  Short  Insurance  Rates  —  Practical  Cal- 
culations —  A  Calendar  for  the  Century  —  The  Legal  Bushel  — 
Standard  and  Foreign  Weights  and  Measures  —  The  Metric 
System. 


29. 


Legal  Business  Department 451 

How  to  Avoid  Litigation  —  All  Kinds  of  Legal  Forms,  and  How 
They  are  Drawn  and  Executed  —  Agreements  and  Contracts  — 
Agency  and  Attorney—  Affidavits  —  Apprentices  —  Arbitration 
— Assignments —  Bills  of  Sale  —  Bonds  —  Corporations — Deeds 
—  Abstract  of  Title  —  Guaranty  —  Landlord  and  Tenant  — 
Rights  of  Married  Women— Real  Estate  and  Chattel  Mort- 
gages—  Mechanics'  Liens — Wills  —  Executors  and  t 
trators —  Partnership,  etc.,  etc 


SO- 


Patents,  Pensions,  Etc. 

A  Complete  Synopsis  of  the  Rules  and  Regulations  Governing  the 
United  States  Patent  Office  —  The  Pension  Laws  — The  Legal 
Fence. 

3X- 

The  Collection  of  Debts 

How  to  Settle  Accounts—  Legal  Steps  to  Enforce  Payment- 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices—  Legal  Forms,  etc.— The  Australian 
Ballot  System— Its  History  and  Objects. 

32- 

Special  Laws  of  the   States   and   Territories     .     . 
Assignments,  Attachments,  Chattel  Mortgages,  Divorce,  Exemp- 
tions, Rights  of  Married  Women,  Deeds  and  Their  Ackno.  *- 
edgmr  nt ,  Will* ,  ami  Mechanics'  Liens— A  Complete  Synopsis  of 
State  and  Territorial  Laws,  Compiled  from  the  Latest  Sources. 


483 


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TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.                                                                                             vii. 

33.                                                                  P.GK. 

A  2  .                                              Page. 

F 

Causes  of  Success  and  Failure 524 

How  to  Avoid  Failure — Choosing  an  Occupation — Health— Self- 

The  Mechanism  of  the  Human  Body — The  Digestive,  Circula- 

Reliance— Attention    to     Detail — Perseverance — Decision   of 

tory,  Respiratory  and  Excretory  Organs — The  Muscular  Sys- 

Character. 

tem  and  the  Bones — The  Nervous  System — The  Eye  and  the 
Ear— Various  Ailments,  and  How  to  Treat  Them — How  to 

34- 

Proceed  in  Emergencies — Hygienic  Suggestions, 

Study  of  Character  in  its  Relation  to  Business  Sue- 

43- 

* 

Physiognomy  and  Phrenology — The  Two  Paths  of  Life  :  Effects 

of  Training  and  Modes  of  Life  on  the  Human  Countenance — 

The  Latest  Designs,  with  Plans,  Specifications,  and  Estimates — 

Face-Reading — The  Temperaments  Illustrated — How  to  Read 

Beautiful  Homes,  and  How  to  Build  Them — Choosing  a  Site — 

Character — A  Synopsis  of  the  Organs  of  the  Brain. 

How  the  Money  is  Applied — Water  Supply — Cellar  and  Ice- 
House— Outhouses  and  Barns — Valuable  Suggestions. 

35- 

44. 

Statistical   Department — Population,   Religion,   Education,   Re- 

A Compendium  of  the  Rules  and  Habits  of  Polite  Society — The 

sources,  Productions  and  Industries  of  the  World — More  than 

•      True  Spirit  of  Good  Manners — Refinement  and  Good  Breeding 

a  Hundred  Thousand  Facts  Presented  in  an  Alphabetical  Ar- 

—Etiquette  for  All  Occasions,  at  Home  and  Abroad. 

rangement  of  Topics,  with  Twenty-three  Illustrative  and  Com- 

parative Diagrams,  Twenty  of  Which  are  Printed  in  Colors — 

45- 

The  Only  Dictionary  of  the  Kind  in  any  Language. 

36. 

Familiar  Poems,  and  Those  Who  Wrote  Them     .     741 

A  Collection  of  the  Brightest  Gems  of  English  Poetry,  Those 

Which  we  All  Wish  to  Preserve  in  some  Enduring  Form,  Illus- 

Department of  Public  Business 587 

trated  with  Portraits  of  the  Poets. 

A  Complete  Digest  of  Parliamentary  Law  and  Rules — How  to 

Call,  Organize  and  Conduct  Meetings  and  Conventions — Com- 

4.6. 

mittees  and  Their  Work — A  Comprehensive  Table  of  Points  of 

Order. 

A  Dictionary  of  Prose  and  Poetical  Quotations          768 

37- 

Arranged  both  Topically  and  Alphabetically. 

Memorials  and  Petitions 592 

47- 

The  Right  of  Petition — Forms  for  Remonstrances,  Petitions  and 

Memorials. 

Heroes  and  Heroines  of  Prose  and  Poetry                     786 

38. 

A  Compendium  of  the  Celebrated  Characters  in  the  Literature  of 

the  World. 

Lyceums  and  Debating  Clubs 594 

48. 

Forms  of  Constitutions  and  By-Laws— Questions  for  Debate. 

39- 

A  Comprehensive  List  of  Assumed  Names  in  English  and  Ameri- 

can Literature. 

The  Steps  in  the  Growth  of  American  Liberty   .      .     596 

49. 

The  Magna  Charta — The  Mecklenburg  Declaration — The  Dec- 
laration of  Independence. 

40. 

The  Heathen  Deities,  and  Other  Fabulous  Persons  of  Greek  and 

Roman  History. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States     ....     599 

5°\ 

Full  Text  of  the  Charter  of  American  Liberty,  with  all  the 
Amendments. 

Words  of  Phrases,  Persons,  Places,  Pictures,  Buildings,  Streets 

41. 

and  Monuments  Frequently  Alluded  to  in  Literature  and  in 

The  Departments  at  Washington 604 

Conversation. 

A  Complete  Analysis  of  our  Government — The  Executive  De- 

51- 

partment — Department  of  Slate — The  Diplomatic  Service — The 
Treasury  Department — The  War  Department  and  th    Amer- 

ican Army— The  Militia— The  Navy  Department— Oui  Naval 

Sentences  and  Quotations  from  both  Living  and  Dead  Languages. 

History — The  Post-office  Department  and  its  Workings — The 

Department  of  the  Interior — The  General  Land  Office — Home- 

52- 

stead  and  Preemption — Indian  Affairs,— The  Bureaus  of  Educa- 

J 

tion  and  Agriculture — The   Attorney-General — The  Supreme 

k 

Court — The  Duties  and  Powers  of  Congress. 

A  Comprehensive  Glossary  of  Logogriphs  in  Good  English  Usage. 

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ex  LANGUAGE  is  a  collection 
of  certain  articulate 
sounds  used  as  the  signs 
of  our  ideas,  or  of  certain 
written  characters  which 
,  represent  those  sounds. 
Language  owes  its  ori- 
gin to  the  imitation  and  modifica- 
tion, aided  by  signs  and  gestures,  of 
various  natural  sounds,  the  voices 
of  other  animals  and  man's  own 
instinctive  cries.  Language  con- 
sists in  the  oral  utterances  of 
sounds  which  usage  has  made  the 
representatives  of  ideas.  When 
two  or  more  persons  customarily 
annex  the  same  sounds  to  the  same  ideas  the 
expression  of  these  sounds  by  one  person  com- 
municates his  ideas  to  another.  This  is  the 
primary  sense  of  language,  the  use  of  which  is 
to  communicate  the  thoughts  of  one  person  to 
another  through  the  organ  of  hearing.  Articu- 
late sounds  are  represented  by  letters,  marks  or 
characters,  which  form  words. 

Language  is  sometimes  denoted  by  other 
terms ;    as  speech,  tongue,  idiom,  dialect. 

Language  is  generic,  denoting  any  mode  of 


kl 


conveying  ideas ;  as  the  language  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb. 

Speech  is  the  language  of  articulate  sounds 
and  contemplates  language  as  broken  or  cut 
into  words  of  different  kinds ;  as  the  parts  of 
speech,  the  gift  of  speech. 

Tongue  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  term  for  the  lan- 
guage of  a  particular  people ;  as  the  English 
tongue. 

Idiom  denotes  the  form  of  the  construction 
peculiar  to  a  language. 

Dialects  are  varieties  of  expression  which 
spring  up  in  different  parts  of  a  country,  or  in 
different  professions,  etc. 

Origin  of  Language. 

There  are  various  ways  by  which  men  can 
communicate  with  one  another.  They  can  make 
gestures,  utter  cries,  speak  words,  draw  pictures, 
write  characters  or  letters.  Articulate  language 
is  peculiar  to  man ;  but  he  uses,  in  common  with 
the  lower  animals,  inarticulate  cries  to  express 
his  meaning,  aided  by  gestures  and  the  move- 
ments of  the  muscles  of  his  face.  This  especially 
holds  good  with  the  more  simple  and  vivid  feel- 
ings which  are  but  little  connected  with  our 
higher  intelligence.  Our  cries  of  pain,  fear,  sur- 
prise,   anger,   together  with   their   appropriate 


^ 


I 


r\~ 


IO 


EDUCATIONAL    DEPARTMENT. 


actions,  and  the  murmur  of  a  mother  to  her  be- 
loved child,  are  more  expressive  than  any  words. 
It  is  not  the  mere  power  of  articulation  that 
distinguishes  man  from  other  animals,  for,  as 
every  one  knows,  parrots  can  talk  ;  but  it  is  his 
large  power  of  connecting  definite  sounds  with 
definite  ideas;  and  this  obviously  depends  on 
the  development  of  his  mental  faculties. 

Gesture  Language. 

When  for  any  reason  people  cannot  talk  to- 
gether by  word  of  mouth,  they  take  to  convers- 
ing by  gestures,  in  what  is  called  dumb  show  or 
pantomime.  Imagine  a  simple  case.  A  boy  opens 
a  parlor  door;  his  brother  sitting  there  beckons 
to  him  to  be  quiet,  for  his  father  is  asleep ;  the 
boy  now  intimates  by  signs  that  he  has  come 
for  the  key  of  the  box,  to  which  his  brother  an- 
swers by  signs  that  it  is  in  the  pocket  of  his  coat 
hanging  in  the  hall,  concluding  with  a  signifi- 
cant gesture  to  be  off  and  shut  the  door  quietly 
after  him.  This  is  the  gesture  language.  Ges- 
ture language  has  little  power  of  expressing 
abstract  ideas. 

The  next  step  in  the  origin  of  language  is  to 
show  the  workings  of  another  sort  of  signs, 
namely,  the  sounds  of  the  human  voice.  Sounds 
of  voice  may  be  spoken  to  express  our  feelings 
and  thoughts  on  much  the  same  principle  that 
gestures  are  made,  except  that  they  are  heard 
instead  of  seen.  One  kind  of  sounds  used  by 
men  as  signs  consists  of  emotional  cries  or  tones. 
Men  show  pain  by  uttering  groans  as  well  as  by 
distortion  of  the  face  ;  joy  is  expressed  by  shouts 
as  well  as  by  jumping;  when  we  laugh  aloud, 
the  voice  and  features  go  perfectly  together. 
Such  sounds  are  gestures  made  with  the  voice 
— sound-gestures. 

The  next  class  of  sounds  used  as  expressive 

.lie  imitative.     As  a  deaf  and  dumb  child 

expresses    the   idea    of  a  cat  by  imitating  the 

i  rc.it hit's  art  of  washing  its  f.uc,  so  a  speaking 

child  will  indicate  it  by  imitating  its  miaou. 


Natural  Language. 

Now,  joining  gesture-actions  and  gesture- 
sounds,  they  will  form  together  what  may  be 
called  a  Natural  Language.  This  natural  lan- 
guage really  exists,  and  in  wild  regions  really 
has  some  practical  value,  as  when  a  European 
traveller  makes  shift  to  converse  in  it  with  a 
party  of  Australians  around  their  camp-fire  or 
with  a  Mongol  family  in  their  felt  tent.  What 
he  has  to  do  is  to  act  his  most  expressive  mimic 
gestures,  with  a  running  accompaniment  of  ex- 
clamations and  imitative  noises.  Here  there  is 
found  a  natural  means  of  intercourse,  much  fuller 
than  mere  pantomime  of  gestures  only.  It  is  a 
common  language  of  all  mankind,  springing  so 
directly  from  the  human  mind  that  it  must  have 
belonged  to  our  race  from  the  most  remote  ages 
and  most  primitive  conditions  in  which  man 
existed.  Language  is  one  branch  of  the  great 
art  of  sign-making  or  sign-choosing,  and  its  busi- 
ness is  to  hit  upon  some  sound  as  a  suitable  sign 
or  symbol  for  each  thought.  It  is  maintained  by 
the  best  philologists  that  emotional  and  imita- 
tive sounds  are  the  very  source  of  all  language, 
and  that,  although  most  words  now  show  no 
trace  of  such  origin,  this  is  because  they  have 
quite  lost  it  in  the  long  change  of  pronunciation 
and  meaning  they  have  gone  through,  so  that 
they  have  now  become  mere  symbols.  Besides 
the  emotional  and  imitative  ways,  there  were 
several  other  devices  by  which  man  chooses 
sounds  to  express  thoughts.  That  there  was 
always  some  kind  of  fitness  or  connection  which 
led  to  each  particular  sound  being  taken  to  ex- 
press a  particular  thought  is  more  than  likely, 
and  in  this  seems  to  lie  the  most  reasonable 
opinion  to  be  held  as  to  Oe  famous  problem  of 
the  origin  of  1  So  far  as  language  can 

be  traced  to  its  actual  source,  that  source  doe? 
not  lie  in  some  lost  gifts  or  powers  of  man,  but 
in  a  state  of  mind  still  acting,  and  not  above  the 
level  of  children  and  savages.  The  origin  of 
language  was  not  an  event  which  took  place 
long  ago,  once  for  all,  and  then  ceased  entirely. 


• 


A 


I 


V 


EDUCATIONAL    DEPARTMENT. 


II 


On  the  contrary,  man  still  possesses,  and  uses 
when  he  wants  it,  the  faculty  of  making  new, 
original  words  by  choosing  fit  and  proper  terms. 
But  he  now  seldom  puts  this  faculty  to  serious 
use,  for  this  good  reason,  that  whatever  language 
he  speaks  has  its  stock  of  words  ready  to  furnish 
an  expression  for  almost  every  fresh  thought 
that  crosses  his  mind. 

Articulate  Language. 

A  sentence  being  made  up  of  its  connected 
sounds  as  a  limb  is  made  up  of  its  joints,  we 
call  language  articulate,  or  jointed,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  inarticulate,  or  "unjointed,"  sounds 
uttered  by  the  lower  animals.  Conversation  by 
gestures  and  exclamations,  as  was  shown  above 
to  be  a  natural  language  common  to  mankind,  is 
half-way  between  the  communications  of  animals 
and  full  human  speech.  Every  people,  even  the 
smallest  and  most  savage  tribe,  has  an  articulate 
language  carried  on  by  a  whole  system  of 
sounds  and  meanings  which  serves  the  speaker 
as  a  sort  of  catalogue  of  the  contents  of  the  world 
he  lives  in,  taking  in  every  subject  he  thinks 
about,  and  enabling  him  to  say  what  he  thinks 
about  it.  As  in  the  course  of  ages  man's 
knowledge  became  wider  and  his  civilization 
more  complex,  his  language  had  to  keep  up 
with  them.  Comparatively  few  and  plain  ex- 
pressions had  sufficed  for  his  early  rude  con- 
dition, but  now  more  and  more  terms  had  to  be 
added  for  the  new  notions,  implements,  arts, 
offices  and  relations  of  more  highly  organized 
society.  New  words  were  made  by  adding  and 
combining  old  ones,  carrying  on  old  words  from 
the  old  state  of  things  to  do  duty  to  the  new, 
shifting  their  meanings  and  finding  in  any  new 
thought  some  resemblance  to  an  old  one  that 
would  serve  to  give  it  a  name.  As  terms  in- 
crease in  every  nation  and  the  vast  field  of 
language  is  filled  up,  words,  by  a  thousand  fan- 
ciful and  irregular  methods  of  derivation  and 
composition,  deviate  widely  from  the  primitive 
character  of  their  roots  and  lose  old  resem- 
blance in  sound  of  the  things  signified.     Words 


as  we  now  use  them,  taken  in  general,  may  be 
considered  as  symbols,  not  imitations ;  as  arbi- 
trary or  instituted,  not  natural,  signs  of  ideas. 

Classification  of  Languages. 

The  classification  of  the  different  languages 
of  the  earth  into  a  few  great  families  is  due  to 
the  science  of  comparative  philology  and  is  of 
recent  origin.  Till  the  latter  end  of  the  last  cen- 
tury the  preference  as  to  the  antiquity  of  lan- 
guage was  usually  given  to  the  Hebrew,  but 
a  striking  improvement  of  linguistic  study  is 
dated  from  the  discovery  of  the  Sanskrit,  the 
ancient  language  of  the  northern  parts  of  Hin- 
dustan, in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century.  A 
belief  in  an  affinity  between  languages  and  a 
separation  of  them  into  certain  great  groups  or 
families  then  arose. 

The  languages  of  the  world  are  divided  into 
four  great  branches,  viz.,  the  Aryan,  or  Indo- 
European,  the  most  important ;  next  the  Sem- 
itic, the  Turanian  and  the  Dra vidian. 

The  Turanian  family,  called  also  the  Tataric, 
or  Altaic,  includes  the  numerous  and  widely  dif- 
ferent languages  of  the  Manchoos,  the  Mongols, 
the  Turks  (in  Asia  and  Europe),  the  Magyars 
(in  Hungary),  the  Finns  (in  Russia),  and  a  multi- 
tude of  other  tribes. 

The  Dravidian  includes  the  Tamil  and  the 
dialects  in  Ceylon  and  the  islands  off  Asia, 
etc. 

The  Semitic  includes  the  Hebrew,  Syriac, 
Arctic  and  Ethiopic,  Basque  (in  the  Pyrenees), 
etc. 

The  Indo-European,  to  which  extensive 
family  the  English  language  belongs,  is  divided 
into  six  principal  branches. 

I.  The  Indian  branch,  represented  by  the 
Sanskrit,  which  has  now  ceased  to  be  spoken, 
but  is  the  mother  of  the  Hindustani,  Bengali, 
Mahratti  and  the  other  numerous  dialects  of 
modern  India. 

II.  The  Medo-Persic  branch,  at  the  head  of 
which  is  the  Zend,  in  which  the  Zend-Avesta 
is  composed  and  the  cuneiform  inscriptions    of 


/ 


77 


ax* 


K 


12 


EDUCATIONAL    DEPARTMENT. 


I 


Cyras,  Darius  and  Xerxes.  Next  follow  the 
Fehlevi,  of  the  Sarsanian  dynasty ;  the  Parsee,  in 
which  the  national  poem  of  Ferdusi  is  written 
(A.  D.  iooo),  and  lastly  the  modem  Persian. 

III.  The  Celtic  branch,  divided  into  two  dia- 
lects, the  Gaelic  and  the  Cymric ;  the  former 
comprising  the  Irish  or  Erse,  the  Scottish  Gaelic 
or  Highland-Scotch,  and  the  Manx  of  the  Isle 
of  Man ;  and  the  latter  Welsh,  the  Cornish  (now 
extinct)  and  the  Armorican  of  Britanny. 

IV.  The  Gr&co-Latin  branch,  comprising  the 
two  ancient  classical  languages,  and  the  so- 
called  Romanic  languages,  derived  from  the 
Latin,  which  are  six  in  number,  namely;  the 
French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Walla- 
chian,and  the  Roumanish  or  Romanese  spoken 
in  the  Grisons  in  Switzerland. 

V.  The  Teutonic  branch,  which  comprises  all 
the  different  German  and  Scandinavian  dialects. 

VI.  The  Slavonic  branch,  divided  into  three 
principal  classes:  I.  The  Lettic,  comprising 
the  Lithuanian,  the  Old  Prussian  (now  extinct) 
and  the  Lettish,  the  language  of  Kurland  and 
Livonia.  2.  The  Western  Slavonic,  comprising 
the  Polish ;  the  Bohemian  or  Tchechian,  spoken 
in  Bohemia ;  the  Slovakian,  spoken  by  the  Slov- 
aks in  Hungary,  and  the  Wendian,  spoken  in 
Lusatia.  3.  The  Eastern  Slavonic,  comprising 
the  Old  Slavonic,  preserved  in  the  translations 
of  the  Bible  made  by  Cyrillus  in  the  ninth  cent- 
ury, and  its  derivate  dialect,  the  Bulgarian;  the 
Russian,  Servian,  Croatian  and  Slovinian. 

The  Teutonic  branch  of  the  Indo-European 
family  of  languages  is  divided  into  two  great 
branches,  the  German  and  Scandinavian. 

The  German  is  divisible  into  three  principal 
dialects,  the  Mceso- Gothic,  the  Low  German 
and  the  High  German,  the  two  latter  being  so 
called  because  the  Low  German  is  spoken  by 
the  inhabitants  of  the  low  or  flat  country  near 
the  shores  of  the  German  Ocean,  while  the  High 
German  belongs  to  the  higher  country  in  the 
interior. 

1.  The  Moeso-Gothic,  the  most  easterly  of 
all  the  German  dialects,  has  long  ceased  to  be 


spoken,  but  is  preserved  in  the  translation  of 
the  gospels  by  Ulfilas. 

2.  The  Low  German  comprised  the  follow- 
ing dialects :  ( 1 )  Anglo-Saxon,  which  was  culti- 
vated with  great  success  in  England,  and  in 
which  the  second  most  ancient  specimens  of  the 
Germanic  language  are  preserved.  (2)  The  Old 
Saxon,  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  An- 
glo-Saxon in  England,  formerly  spoken  in 
Westphalia.  (3)  The  Frisian,  now  confined  to 
a  small  district  in  Holland.  (4)  The  Dutch, 
the  present  language  of  Holland.  (5)  The 
Flemish,  spoken  in  many  parts  of  Belgium. 

3.  The  High  German  comprises  the  Old 
High  German,  from  the  seventh  to  the  eleventh 
century;  the  Middle  High  German,  from  the 
twelfth  century  to  the  Reformation,  and  the  New 
High  German,  which  since  Luther's  time  has 
been  the  literary  language  of  Germany. 

The  Scandinavian  branch,  of  which  the 
most  ancient  language  is  the  Old  Norse,  the  lan- 
guage of  Norway,  is  represented  by  the  Icelandic, 
which  was  carried  into  Iceland  by  the  Norse 
colonists  in  the  ninth  century  and  which  con- 
tinues to  be  spoken  on  that  island  with  little 
alteration.  On  the  Continent  the  Old  Norse  is 
represented  by  the  Swedish,  Danish  and  Nor- 
wegian, of  which  the  last  has  now  become  a 
mere  patois. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  relationship 
of  the  different  Teutonic  languages : 

1.  Maso-Gothie. 

2.  Low  German. 
(i.)  Anglo-Saxon. 

English. 

iii.)  Old  Saxon. 
iii.)  Frisian, 
iv.j  Dutch. 
tA  Flemish. 
Hlgk  German. 
Teutonic -i  ~   (i.)  Old  High  German. 

(it)  Middle  High  German, 
(iii.)  Now  1 1  ivjh  German. 
1.  OMSemmdi* 


II.  SCANDINAVIAN 


(1.)  1>  clandic 

(a  " 


vii.)  F 
2.  .!/,'./<•' n  Scandinavian. 
[,.)  Danish. 
(ii.)  Swedish. 
[Ui.)  Norwegian. 


4^ 


• 


T>  V 


rr 


/ 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


13 


9^&9s^^^^^^^^^^&^^&59yyy^E&A 


English  Language. 


w^w^ 


"WWW 


Its  Origin,  Crowth,  Development  and  Present  Form. 


HE  English  Language  is 
the  descendant  and  repre- 
sentative of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon.  It  has  lost  very 
much  of  the  inflection  and 
very  many  of  the  words 
which  belong  to  the  parent  lan- 
guage ;  and  on  the  other  hand 
it  has  borrowed  words  largely, 
to  the  extent  even  of  half  its 
vocabulary,  from  other  lan- 
guages, especially  the  French 
and  the  Latin.  Yet  all  the  in- 
flections that  remain  in  it,  and 
most  of  its  formative  endings, 
the  pronouns  and  particles,  and  in  general  the 
words  which  are  in  most  frequent  and  familiar 
use,  have  come  to  it  from  the  Anglo-Saxon.  All 
the  constituents  of  the  English  Language  as  it 
now  exists  are  presented  in  a  condensed  form  as 
follows : 

1st.    Saxon  and  Danish  words,  of  Teutonic  and  Gothic  origin. 

2nd.  British  or  Welsh,  Cornish  and  Armoric,  of  Celtic  origin. 

3rd.  Norman,  a  mixture  of  French  and  Gothic 

4th.  Latin. 

5th.  The  French,  chiefly  Latin  corrupted. 

6th.  Greek. 

7th.  A  few  words  directly  from  the  Italian,  Spanish,  German, 
and  other  Continental  languages  of  Europe. 

8th.  A  few  foreign  words  introduced  by  commerce  or  by 
political  and  literary  intercourse. 


"Suppose,"  says  Dr.  Trench  {English  Past 
and  Present),  "the  English  language  to  be  di- 
vided into  a  hundred  parts;  of  these,  to  make  a 
rough  distribution,  sixty  would  be  Saxon,  thirty 
would  be  Latin  (including  of  course  the  Latin 
which  has  come  to  us  through  the  French),  five 
would  be  Greek;  we  should  then  have  assigned 
ninety-five  parts,  leaving  the  other  five,  perhaps 
too  large  a  residue,  to  be  divided  among  all  the 
other  languages  from  which  we  have  adopted 
isolated  words." 

The  English  Language  from  the  time  of  its 
first  formation  has  been  subject  to  continual 
changes.  Old  words  have  been  from  time  to 
time  falling  away,  and  new  ones  have  been 
formed  and  brought  into  use. 

The  oldest  Saxon  manuscript  dates  about 
A.D.  700,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  then  ran  thus: 

"Uren  fader  thic  arth  in  heofnas,  sic  gehalgud  thin  noma,  to 
cymeth  thin  ric,  sic  thin  willa  sue  is  in  heofnas,  and  in  eortho," 
etc. 

The  Modern  Period  of  English  commenced 
with  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
its  present  form  was  then  assumed. 

Though  it  is  impossible  to  assign  any  exact 
date  to  the  change  of  Anglo-Saxon  into  English, 
the  chief  alterations  in  the  language  may  be 
arranged  approximately  under  the  following 
epochs : 


_M 


K 


v 


14 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


I.  Anglo-Saxon,  from  A.D.  450  to  1 150. 

II.  Serai-Saxon,  from  A.D.  1150  to  1250,  so  called  because  it  par. 
takes  strongly  of  the  characteristics  of  both  Anglo-Saxon  and  Old 
English. 

III.  Old  English,  from  A.D.  1250  to  1350. 

IV.  Middle  English,  from  A.D.  1350  to  about  1550. 

V.  Modern  English,  from  A.D.  1550  to  the  present  day. 

ANGLO-SAXON. 

A.D.  700. 

From  the  Anglo-Saxon  Version  of  Matthew,  Eighth  Chapter. 

S6dllce  tha  se  Haelend  of  tham  munte  nydher  astah,  tha  fylig- 
don  him  mycle  manio.  Tha  genealsehte  an  hre6fla  to  him  and  hine 
td  him  ge-eadhmSdde,  and  thus  cwadh :  Drihten,  gyf  thu  wylt' 
thu  miht  me  geclaensian.  Tha  astrehte  se  Haelend  hys  hand 
and  hrepode  hyme  and  thus  cwadh :  Ic  wylle,  beo  geclaensod 
And  hys  hreofla  was  hradlice  geclaensod.  Tha  cwadh  se  Hselend 
to  him  :  Warna  the  thai  thu  hyt  naenegum  men  ne  secge ;  ac 
gang,  3te6w  the  tham  sacerde,  and  bring  hym  tha  lac  the  Moy- 
ses  bebead,  on  hyra  gecydhnesse. 

Translation. — [Words  wanting-  in  the  original  are  introduced  in 
italics;  explanations  or  kindred  words  are  inserted  in  brackets.] 
Shortly  when  the  Savior  from  the  mountain  came-down,  there  fol- 
lowed him  a  great  multitude  [mickle,  many].  Then  came-near  a  leper 
to  him,  and  him[sclf]  to  him  humbled  and  thus  said  [quoth]  :  Lord, 
if  thou  wilt,  thou  may  est  me  cleanse.  Then  stretched-outthe  Savior 
his  hand  and  touched  him  and  thus  said :  I  will,  be  cleansed.  And  his 
leprosy  was  quickly  cleansed.  Then  said  the  Savior  to  him :  Beware 
[warn  thee]  that  thou  it  to  no  man  say;  but  go,  show  thee  to-the 
priest  [Latin,  sacerdos]  and  bring  them  the  gift  that  Mo«es  bade,  for 
their  information. 

A.D.  700. 

From  Beowulf. 

Tha  com  of  more  under  mist-hleodum 

Grendel  gongan,  godes  yrre  bar. 

Mynte  se  mlnscadha  manna  cynnes 

sumne  besyrwan  in  sele  tham  hean, 

wod  under  wolcnum  to  thas  the  he  winreced 

goldsele  gumend  gearwost  wisse 

fiettiun  feline :  ne  was  that  forma  sidh 

that  he  HrOdhglres  him  ges6hte. 
Translation. — Then  came  from  the  moor  under  mist-hills  Grendel 
to-go,  God's  ire  he  bare.  He  meant,  the  wicked  destroyer  [scather], 
of  nirn's  kin  some  one  to. ensnare  in  the  high  hall,  raging  under  wel- 
kin, seeing  that  the  friend-mansion,  the  gold-hall  of  men,  he  most* 
readily  knew,  with  jewels  bedecked  ;  nor  was  that  the  first  [foremost] 
time  that  Hrothgar's  home  he  visited  [sought]. 

A.D.  800. 

From  King  Alfred's  Translation  of  Boethius. 

On  tharc  tide  the  Gotan  of  Scidhdhiu-mcegdhe  widh  Rfimana- 
rice  gewin  upfthofon,  and  mid  heora  cyningum,  Rsdgota  and 
Kallcrlca  mron  hatne,  Romana-bwih  abraecon  and  call  Italia- 
rice,  that  is  betwux  tham  muntuin  and  Sicilia  tham  e&londe,  in 
anwald  gerehton ;  and  thA  after  tham  foresprecenan  cyningum 
1  hcodrlc  feng  to  tham  ilean  rice. 

Translation. — In  the  time  that  the  Goths  from  Scythla-country 
against  the  Komi  an -empire  commeiieril  u.ir  [war  upheaved],  and  with 
their  kings,  who  Ilhadagast  ami  Al.iric  were  called  [hight],  the  Roman* 
city  sacked  [broke]  and  all  Italy-realm,  that  is  betwixt  the  mountains 
and  Sicily  the  island,  into  their  dominion  reduced  ;  and  when  alter  the 
•  lid  [fore-spoken]  kings  Theodoric  obtained  [took  to]  the 
same  kingdom. 


A.D.    MOO. 

From  Ike  Latter  Part  of  the  Saxon  Chronicle. 

Thissum  thus  gedone,  se  cyng  Willem  cearde  ongein  to  Nor- 
mandige.  Re6wlic  thing  he  dyde  and  redwltcor  him  gelamp. 
Hfl  re6wlicor?  Him  geyfelade,  odh  that  him  strangllce  eglade. 
Hwat  mag  ic  teollan  ?  Se  scearpa  deadh,  the  ne  forbet  ne  rice 
menn  ne  heine,  se  hine  genam.  He  swealt  on  Normandige  on 
thone  nehstan  dag  after  nativitas  See  Marie;  and  man  be- 
byrgede  hine  on  Cathum  at  See  Stephanes  mynstre;  aerer 
he  hit  araerde,  and  sidhdhan  manifaldlice  gegodade. 

Translation.— This  being  thus  done,  the  king  William  returned 
again  to  Normandy.  A  rueful  thing  he  did  and  a  ruefullcr  befel  him. 
How  ruefullcr?  He  [literally,  to  him]  grew-ill,  till  that//  strongly 
ailed  him.  What  may  I  tell?  The  sharp  death,  that  does  not  let-pass 
neither  rich  men  nor  poor,  thus  took  him.  He  died  in  Normandy  on 
the  next  day  after  the  nativity  of  St.  Mary;  and  men  [man]  buried 
him  in  Caen  at  St.  Stephen's  minster ;  earlier  he  up  -reared  it  and  af- 
terward [sithence]  manifoldly  enriched  [conferred-goods-on]  it. 

SEMI-SAXON. 

A.  D.  1150. 

From  Layamon's  Brut. — Earlier  Text. 

An  preost  wes  on  leoden, 

Layamon  wes  ihoten: 

he  wes  Leouenadhes  sone ; 

lidhe  hein  beo  drihten ; 

he  wonede  at  Emleye, 

at  cedhelen  are  chirechen, 

uppen  Scuarne  stathe. 
Translation.— There  was   a  priest  on  earth  [or  in  He  land]  trio  was 
named    Layamon ;  he  was  son  of    Lsovenath — may    the    Lord   be 
gracious  to  him  !— -he  dwelt  at  Ernley  at  a  noble  church  upon  Severn's 
bank. 

A.D.   1260. 

From  Layamon's  Brut. — Later  Text. 

A  priest  was  in  londe 

Laweman  was  [i]  hote : 

he  was  Leucais  sone; 

lef  him  beo  drihte: 

he  wonede  at  Ernleie 

wid  than  gode  cnithe, 

uppen  Scuarne. 
Translation. — There  was  a  priest  in  /*/  land  who  was  named  Laya- 
mon ;  he  was  a  son  of  Lcuca— may  the  Lord  be  gracious  to  him  :— he 
dwelt  at  Krnlcy  with  the  good  knight  upon  the  Severn. 

A.D.  1260. 

From  the  Ormulum. 
Nu,  brotherr  Wallterr,  brotherr  min 

affterr  the  pheshess  kinde  ; 
annd  brotherr  min  i  Crisstenndom 

thurrh  fulluhht  annd  thurrh  trowwthe ; 
annd  brotherr  min  i  Godess  hus, 

yet  o  the  thride  I 
thurrh  thatt  witt  hafenn  takenn  b* 

an  rcyhellboc  to  follyhenn. 
unmlerr  kanunnkess  had  annd  lif, 
twa  summ  Sannt  Awwstin  sette. 
TlsmHsslslH     tTmr   brother   Walter,  brother   mine  after  the  flesh's 
kindred;    and   brother  mine   in   Christendom  through   baptism   and 


Y- 


•saS.* 


K 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


IS 


through  truth ;  and  brother  mine  in  God-s  house,  yet  on  the  third 
wise,  seeing  [through]  that  we -two  have  taken  both  one  rule-book  to 
follow,  under  a  canonic's  hood  and  life,  so  as  St.  Austin  set. 

OLD  ENGLISH. 

A.D.  1300. 

From  the  Chronicle  of  Robert  of  Gloucester. 
Thus  com  lo !  Engelond  into  Normannes  honde, 
and  the  Normans  ne  couthe  speke  tho  bote  her  owe  speche, 
and  speke  French  as  dude  atom,  and  here  chyldren  dude  al  so 
so  that  heymen  of  thys  lond,  that  of  her  blod  come,        [teche  : 
lioldeth  all  theilke  speche  that  hii  of  hem  nome. 
vor  bote  a  man  couthe  French,  me  tolth  of  hym  wel  lute. 

Translation. — Thus  came,  lo !  England  into  the  Normans'  hand, 
and  the  Normans  knew  not  how  to  speak  then  but  their  own  speech, 
and  spoke  French  as  they  did  at  home,  and  their  children  did  all  so 
teach,  so  that  the  high -men  of  this  land,  that  of  their  blood  came, 
hold  all  the-same  [the  ilk]  speech  that  they  of  them  took:  for  unless 
[but]  a  man  should-know  French,  men  reckon  [tell]  of  him  very 
[well]  little. 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH. 

A.D.  1350. 

From  the  Travels  of  Sir  John  Mandeville. 
After  for  to  speke  of  Jerusalem  the  holy  cytee,  yee  schull  un- 
derstonde  that  it  stont*  full  faire  betwene  hilles,  and  there  be 
no  ryveres  ne  welles,  but  water  cometh  by  condyte  from  Ebron. 
And  yee  schulle  understonde  that  Jerusalem  of  old  tyme,  unto 
the  tyme  of  Melchisedech,  was  cleped  f  Jebus;  and  after  i*.  was 
clept  Salem,  unto  the  tyme  of  Kyng  David,  that  put  these  two 
names  to  gider,  and  cleped  it  Jerosolomye.  And  after  that 
men  cleped  it  Jerusalem,  and  so  it  is  clept  yit 

A.D.  1350. 

From  the  Vision  of  Pier's  Ploughman. 
In  a  somer  seson  when  softe  was  the  sonne, 
I  shoop  me  into  shroudes  J  as  I  a  sheep  \  weere. 
in  habit  as  a  heremite  unholy  of  werkes, 
wente  wide  in  this  world  wondres  to  here. 

A.D.  1375. 

From  the  Prologue  to  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 
When  that  Aprille  with  his  schowres  swoote  || 
the  drought  of  Marche  hath  perced  to  the  roote, 
and  bathud  evrry  veyne  in  swich  licour, 
of  which  vertue  engendred  in  the  flour. 

A.D.  1380. 

From  Wycliffe's  Translation  of  the  Bible. 

Forsothe  when  Jhesus  hadde  comen  doun  fro  the  hill,  many 
cumpanyes  folewiden  hym.  And  loo !  a  leprouse  man  cum- 
mynge  worshipide  hym,  sayinge :  Lord  yif  thou  wolt,  thou 
maist  make  me  clene.  And  Jhesus  holdynge  forthe  the  hond, 
touchide  hym,  saying:      I  wole,  be  thou  maad  clene.      And 

*  Stont,  standcth.  {  Shoop  me  into  shroudts,  put  me 

t  Cleped,  clept,  called.  into  clothes. 

§  Sheep,  shepherd.  ||  Swoote,  sweet. 


anoon  the  lepre  of  hym  was  clensid.  And  Jhesus  saith  to  hym : 
See,  say  thou  to  no  man :  but  go  shewe  thee  to  prestis,  and  offre 
that  yifte  that  Moyses  comaundide,  into  witnessing  to  hem. 

A.D.  1400. 

From  Purvey' s  Recension  of  Wycliffe's  Translation. 
But  whanne  Jhesus  was  come  doun  frc  the  hil,  mych  puple 
suede  hym.  And  loo  !  a  leprouse  man  cam  and  worschipide 
hym  and  seide:  Lord  if  thou  wolt  thou  maist  make  me  clene. 
And  Jhesus  helde  forth  the  hoond  and  touchide  hym  and  seide : 
Y  wole:  be  thou  maad  cleene.  And  anoon  the  lepre  of  hym 
was  clensid. 

A.D.  1450. 

From  Caxton's  Prologue  to  Malory's  Morte  a" Arthur. 
For  it  is  notoyrly  knowen  thorugh  the  unyversal  world  that 
there  been  IX  worthy  and  the  best  that  ever  were,  that  is  to 
wete,  thre  paynyms,  thre  jewes,  and  thre  crysten  men.  As  for 
the  paynyms,  they  were  tofore  the  incarnacyon  of  Cryst,  whiche 
were  named,  the  fyrst  Hector  of  Troye,  of  whome  thystorye  is 
comen  bothe  in  balade  and  prose ;  the  second  Alysaunder  the 
grete;  and  the  thyrd  Julyus  Cezar,  emperour  of  Rome,  of 
whome  thystoryes  ben  wel  kno  and  had. 

A.D.  1500. 

From  Tyndale's  New  Testament. 
When  he  was  come  downe  from  the  mountayne,  moch  pecple 
folowed  him.  And  lo !  ther  came  a  lepre  and  worsheped  him, 
sayinge :  Master  if  thou  wylt  thou  canst  make  me  clene.  And 
Jesus  put  forthe  hys  hond  and  touched  hym;  saying:  I  wylL  be 
thou  clene,  and  immediately  his  leprosie  was  clensed.  And 
Jesus  sayde  vnto  him :  Se  thou  tell  nc  man,  but  go  and  shewe 
hy  selfe  to  the  preste  and  offer  the  gyfte  that  Moses  com- 
maunded,  in  witness  to  them. 

MODERN  ENGLISH. 

A.D.  1550. 

From  a  Letter  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland. 
Honble  Lord,  and  in  this  distress  my  especiall  refuge,  most 
wofull  was  the  newes  I  recey ved  this  evenynge  by  Mr  Lieutenant 
that  I  must  prepare  myselfe  against  tomorrowe  to  receyve  my 
deadly  stroke.  Alas,  my  good  lord,  is  my  cryme  so  heynous  as 
noe  redemcion  but  my  blood  can  washe  awaye  the  spottes 
thereof?  An  old  proverb  ther  is,  and  that  most  true,  that  a 
lyving  dogge  is  better  than  a  dead  lyon. 

A.D.  1650. 

From  a  Letter  of  Queen  Henrietta  Maria. 
This  day  I  received  yours  of  the  21,  to  which,  being  streight- 
ened  in  tyme,  I  shall  answer  in  English  that  it  may  be  soonest 
put  into  cypher.  In  the  first  place  you  conclude  right,  that  noth- 
ing but  the  abundance  of  my  love  could  make  me  take  upon 
me  the  harsher  part  of  pressing  things  which  are  inacceptible 
to  you. 


'■ 


^. 


\K 


16 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


$t 


A.D.  1760. 

From  a  Letter  of  John  Wesley. 

Always  take  advice  or  reproof  as  a  favour:  it  is  the  surest 
mark  of  love.  I  advised  you  once  and  you  took  it  as  an  affront: 
nevertheless  I  will  do  it  once  more.  Scream  no  more  at  the 
peril  of  your  soul.  God  now  warns  you  by  me,  whom  He  has 
set  over  you. 


A.D.  1850. 

From  a  iMter  of  H'm.  M.  Thackeray. 
My  dear  Reed — Though  I  am  rather  slow  in  paying  the 
tailor,  I  always  pay  him  :  and  as  with  tailors  so  with  men  ;  I 
pay  my  debts  to  my  friends,  only  at  rather  a  long  day.  Thank 
you  for  writing  to  me  so  kindly,  you  have  so  much  to  do.  I 
have  only  begun  work  ten  days  since,  and  now,  in  consequence, 
have  little  leisure. 


&-&-¥& 


ENGLISH 


Cmmnw^^^n\^m\\L 


V»  Q 


GRAMMAR. 


English  Grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking, 
reading  and  writing  the  English  language  cor- 
rectly. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts :  Orthography, 
Etymology,   Syntax  and  Prosody. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separate  words 
and  spelling. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speech  with 
their  classes  and  modifications. 

S>  lltax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  government  and 
arrangement  of  words  in  sentences. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures  and  versi- 
fication. 

LETTERS. 

A  Letter  is  an  alphabetic  mark  or  character  commonly  ren- 
ting some  elementary  sound  of  a  word. 

An  elementary  sound  of  a  word  is  a  simple  or  pri- 
mary sound  of  the  human  voice  usnl  In  speaking. 

The  sound  of  a  letter  is  commonly  called  its  power: 
when  any  letter  of  a  word  is  not  sounded  it  is  said  to  be  silent 
or  mute. 

The  letters  in  the  English  lang-^-ge  are  twenty-six  ;  the  sim- 
ple or  primary  sounds  in  the  language  are  forty-one. 

lett«n  "re:  A  a;  11  b;  C  c;  D  d;  E  e;  F  f;  ft  g; 
JIli;  Ii;]j;  Kk;  I.[|  Mm;  \n;  O  o;  P  p;  Q  q;  Rr; 
Ss  :  Tt;  U  u;  V  v;  W  w;  Xx;  Vy;  Zi. 

The  letters  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  Towels 
and  consonants. 


fl»J> 


A  vowel  is  a  letter  which  forms  a  perfect  sound  when  ut- 
tered alone  ;  as,  a,  e,  o. 

A  consonant  is  a  letter  which  cannot  be  perfectly  uttered 
till  joined  to  a  vowel ;  as,  b,  c,  d. 

The  vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  andj'. 

W  or  y  is  called  a  consonant  when  it  precedes  a  vowel  heard 
in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  wine,  twine,  ye,  yet.  In  all  other 
cases  these  letters  are  vowels ;  as,  newly,  dewy,  eye-trow. 

Consonants  are  divided  intosemi-vowels  and  mil  ti  -. 

A  semi-vowel  is  a  consonant  which  can  be  imperfectly 
sounded  without  a  vowel,  so  that  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  its 
sound  may  be  protracted ;  as,  /,  n,  t,  in  al,  an,  ax. 

A  mute  is  a  consonant  which  cannot  be  sounded  at  all 
without  a  vowel,  and  which  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  suddenly 
stops  tlu.-  breath  ;  as,  I;  p,  t,  in  ah,  a/,  at. 

The  semi-vowels  are/,  *,/,  /,  m,  n,  r,  s,  v,  w,  x,  y, 
;.  and  c  axukg  soft;  but  w  or  y  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  is  a 
vowel. 

The  mutes  are  eight :  b,  d,  i,  p,  q,  t.  and  c  and  g  hard ; 
three  of  these — i,  f,  and  e  hard — sound  exactly  alike. 

The  four  semi-vowels,  /,  m,  n  and  r,  are  also  called 
liquids.  1".  UN  they  readily  unite  with  other  consonants, 
flowing,  as  it  were,  into  their  sounds. 

The  following  consonants  are  styled  dentals.  \i-.:  ,/,/,  s, 
t,  t,  and  g  soft,  being  pronounced  chiefly  by  the  aid  of  the 
teeth. 

D,g,j,  h,  I,  n  and  q  are  called  palatals,  from  the  use 
made  of  the  palate  in  pronouncing  them. 

B,  p,  /,  v  and  m  are  called  labials,  being  pronounced 
chiefly  by  the  lips. 


4— 


^ 


K~ 


— s> 


V 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


17 


M,  n  and  the  digraph  ng  are  called  nasals,  being  sounded 
through  the  nose. 

A",  q  and  c  and  g  hard  are  called  gutturals,  being  sound- 
ed by  the  throat. 

Peculiarities  in  Sounds  of  Consonants. 

B  preceded  by  m  in  the  same  syllable  is  generally  silent ;  as, 
lamb,  limb,  comb;  but  succumb  is  an  exception.  It  is  silent 
befo«e  /  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  debt,  doubt,  etc. 

The  letter  C  is  hard  and  sounds  like  k  before  a,  0  and  u;  it  is 
soft  and  sounds  like  j  before  e,  i  and_y;  except  in  sceptic,  scir- 
rhus,  and  their  derivatives,  in  which  it  is  hard,  like  k.  In  the 
words  indict,  indictable,  indictment,  czar  and  victuals,  c  is 
silent.  Where  c  comes  after  the  accent  and  is  followed  by  ea, 
ia,  to  or  eous,  it  takes,  like  s  ox  t  under  the  same  circumstances, 
the  sound  of  sh;  as,  ocean,  social,  tenacious,  cetaceous.  In  the 
words  discern,  sacrifice  and  suffice,  c  has  the  sound  of  z. 

The  regular  sound  of  the  digraph  Ch  is  the  same  as  that  of 
tch  or  tsh;  as  in  chair,  child,  rich.  In  words  from  the  French 
it  has  the  sound  of  sh;  as  in  chagrin,  chaise.  In  words  derived 
from  the  ancient  languages  ch  is  generally  hard,  like  k;  as, 
chemistry,  choler,  echo,  chorus,  stomach.  Exceptions,  cherub, 
charity,  chart,  charter.  Ch  is  hard  in  all  words  where  it  is  fol- 
lowed by  /  or  r;  as,  Christian,  chlorosis.  When  arch,  signify- 
ing chief,  begins  a  word  from  the  Greek  language,  followed  by 
a  vowel,  it  is  pronounced  ark;  as,  archangel,  architect;  but 
when  arch  is  prefixed  to  an  English  word  it  is  pronounced  so  as 
to  rhyme  with  march;  as,  archbishop,  archduke.  In  drachm, 
schism  and  yacht,  ch  is  silent. 

D  is  silent  in  Wednesday  and  handkerchief. 

G,  like  c,  has  two  sounds,  one  hard  and  the  other  soft.  It  is 
hard  before  a,  0  and  ».  The  only  exception  is  gaol,  which  is 
commonly  written  as  well  as  pronounced/a//.  G  followed  by  « 
at  the  beginning  of  a  word  is  silent ;  as,  gnarl,  gnash,  gnat.  It 
is  also  silent  when  followed  by  n  at  the  end  of  a  word  ;  as,  ar- 
raign, design,  impugn.  G  before  e,  i  and  y  is  sometimes  hard 
and  sometimes  soft.  It  is  generally  soft  before  words  derived 
from  the  Greek,  Latin  and  French,  and  hard  before  words  from 
the  Saxon. 

Gil.  At  the  beginning  of  a  word  the  h  is  silent;  as  ghost, 
ghastly.  At  the  end  of  words  both  letters  are  commonly  silent ; 
as,  sigh,  nigh,  weigh.  In  some  words  it  has  the  sound  of  f; 
as,  rough,  laugh;  and  in  some  the  sound  of  k;  as,  hough, 
lough. 

The  combination  of  letters  ougll  at  the  end  of  words  has  no 
less  than  seven  different  sounds,  which  are  exhibited  in  the 
following  lines : 

'Tis  not  an  easy  task  to  show 
How  o-ug-h  sounds  ;  since,  though 
An  Irish  lough  and  English  slough 
And  cough  and  hiccough,  all  allow, 
Differ  as  much  as  tough  and  through, 
There  seems  no  reason  why  they  do. 

Gilt.  In  this  termination  the  letters  gh  are  always  silent ; 
as, fight,  right;  except  in  draught,  which  is  pronounced,  and 
in  some  of  its  senses  usually  written,  draft. 

The  letter  h  is  a  note  of  aspiration,  and  it  is  silent  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  number  of  words ;  as,  heir,  heiress,  honor,  honesty, 


honorable,  honor,  hour,  hostler,  etc.  In  hospital,  humble, 
humor,  herb,  etc.,  according  to  some  authorities,  it  is  silent; 
according  to  others  it  is  sounded.  It  is  always  silent  after  r; 
as,  rheum,  rhetoric,  rhapsody. 

J  has  the  same  sound  as  sohg. 

K.  has  the  same  sound  as  c  hard.  It  is  always  silent  before 
n;  as,  knee,  know.     It  is  also  silent  after  c;  as,  barrack,  back. 

Li  is  silent  in  many  words ;  as,  calf,  half,  talk,  balm,  calm, 
would,  should,  etc. 

M  always  preserves  its  sound  except  in  accompt,  accomptant, 
comptroller,  pronounced  and  more  commonly  written  account, 
accountant,  controller.  M  is  silent  when  it  precedes  n ;  as, 
mnemonics. 

K  is  mute  when  it  ends  a  syllable  and  is  preceded  by  /  or  m ; 
as  in  kiln,  hymn,  limn,  solemn,  column. 

P  is  silent  before  n,  s  and  /  at  the  beginning  of  words  ;  as, 
psalm,  psalter,  ptisan,  pneumonia. 

Ph  has  generally  the  sound  of  f;  as,  physic,  philosophy.  In 
nephew  and  in  Stephen  it  has  the  sound  of  v  ;  and  in  diph- 
thong, triphthong,  naphtha,  the  h  is  silent. 

<J  is  always  followed  by  «,  and  qu  has  commonly  the  sound 
of  kw;  as,  queen,  quart;  but  in  many  words,  mostly  from  the 
French,  it  has  the  sound  of  k;  as  coquette,  etiquette,  liquor, 
mosque. 

§  final  has  the  sound  of  z  when  it  immediately  follows  any 
consonant  except  the  mutes  k,p,  t,  the  semi-vowely  and  th  aspi- 
rated, a;  in  ribs,  heads,  hens;  also  when  it  forms  an  additional 
syllable  with  z  before  it,  in  the  plural  of  nouns  and  the  third 
person  singular  of  verbs,  as  churches,  boxes,  teaches;  likewise  in 
some  verbs  ending  in  se  to  distinguish  them  from  nouns  and 
adjectives  of  the  same  form,  as  abuse,  use,  close,  diffuse,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  nouns  abuse,  use,  and  the  adjectives  close 
and  diffuse. 

S  takes  the  sound  of  sh  in  words  ending  in  sion  preceded 
by  a  consonant;  as  diversion,  passion,  mission;  also  in  censure, 
sure,  sugar,  fissure,  etc. 

S  has  the  sound  of  zh  in  the  termination  sion  preceded  by  a 
vowel;  as  evasion,  decision,  explosion;  also  in  a  number  of  words 
in  which  s  is  preceded  by  an  accented  vowel  and  followed  by 
the  termination  ure,  as  in  measure,  pleasure,  treasure,  leisure; 
also  in  several  words  ending  in  sier,  as  crosier,  osier,  hosier;  also 
in  ambrosia,  ambrosial,  elysium,  elysian ;  also  in  the  words 
abscission,  scission,  and  rescission.  S  is  silent  in  the  words 
aisle,  isle,  island,  demesne,  puisne,  viscount,  and  generally  at 
the  end  of  French  words  adopted  into  English,  as  chamois, 
corps,  vis-a-vis,  etc. 

T,  when  it  comes  immediately  after  the  accent  and  is  followed 
by  the  vowels  ia,  ie  or  to,  takes  the  sound  in  these  cases  of  sh; 
as,  partial,  patient,  nation,  militia. 

Th.  The  h  is  silent  in  the  words  Thomas,  thyme, 
phthisic,  Thames.     The  th  is  silent  in  asthma  and  isthmus. 

W  is  always  silent  before  r;  as,  write,  wren,  wrist.  It  is 
also  silent  in  answer,  sword,  toward  and  two. 

X  at  the  beginning  of  words  has  the  sound  of  z;  as,  Xenophon, 
xylography. 

Z  is  silent  in  rendezvous. 


/ 


\| 


V 


i8 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Combinations  of  Vowels. 

The  powrr  of  a  letter  is  its  sound  in  a  given  word.  Some 
letters  stand  for  more  than  one  sound ;  as  a  in  ale,  are,  awl. 
Some  sounds  have  more  than  one  letter  to  stand  for  them  ;  thus 
in  her,  sir,  fur,  the  same  sound  is  represented  by  e,  i  and  u. 
Our  twenty-six  letters  represent  forty-one  sounds. 

A  Diphthong  is  two  vowels  formed  in  one  syllable;  as 
ea  in  beat,  ou  in  sound. 

A>proper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  the  vowels 
are  sounded  ;  as,  oi  in  voice. 

An  improper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  only  one 
of  the  vowels  is  sounded  ;  as,  oa  in  loaf. 

A  Triphthong  is  three  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable;  as, 
eau  in  beau,  tew  in  view. 

A  proper  triphthong  is  one  in  which  all  the  vowels 
are  sounded ;  as,  uoy  in  buoy. 

An  improper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  only  one 
or  two  of  the  vowels  are  sounded ;  as,  eau  in  beauty,  iou  in 
anxious. 

SYLLABLES. 

A  Syllable  is  one  or  more  letters  pronounced  in  one 
sound  and  is  either  a  word  or  a  part  of  a  word  ;  as,  a,  an,  ant. 

In  every  word  there  are  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  dis- 
tinct sounds ;  as,  gram-ma- ri-an. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable  ;  as, 
home.  A  word  of  two  syllables,  a  dissyllable  ;  as,  he-ro. 
A  word  of  three  syllables,  a  trisyllable  ;  as,  ke-ro-ic.  And 
a  word  of  four  or  more  syllables,  a  polysyllable;  as, 
im-per-a-tive,  dis-con-nect-cd-ly,  sex-a-ge-na-ri-an. 

In  dividing  words  into  syllables  we  are  to  be  directed  chiefly 
by  the  ear ;  it  may,  however,  be  proper  to  observe,  as  far  as 
practicable,  the  following  rules : 

Consonants  should  generally  be  joined  to  the  vowels  or  diph- 
thongs which  they  modify  in  utterance ;  as,  ap-os-tol-ic-al. 

Two  vowels  coming  together,  if  they  do  not  make  a  diphthong, 
must  be  parted  in  dividing  the  syllables ;  as,  a-e-ri-al. 

Derivative  and  grammatical  terminations  should  generally  be 
separated  from  the  radical  words  to  which  they  are  added  ;  as, 
harm-less,  great-ly,  eon-nect-ed. 

Prefixes  in  general  form  separate  syllables ;  as,  mis-place,  out- 
ride, up-lift;  but  if  their  own  primitive  meaning  be  disregard- 
ed, the  case  may  be  otherwise ;  thus,  re-create  and  rec-reate  are 
words  of  different  import. 

Compounds,  when  divided,  should  be  divided  into  the  simple 
words  which  compose  them ;  as,  no-where. 

At  the  end  of  a  line  a  word  may  be  divided  if  necessary ;  but 
a  syllable  must  never  be  broken. 

ACCENT. 

Accent  is  stress  of  voice  laid  on  a  certain  syllable  when  a 
word  is  uttered.  The  syllable  that  receives  the  stress  is  said  to 
be  accented.  It  may  be  denoted  by  a  mark  called  the  acute  ac- 
cent ('),  placed  above  it  to  the  right;  as,  lemon,  engrave". 

Accent  is  of  two  kinds:  primary,  as  in  in-tend",  where 
the  full  force  of  the  voice  is  on  the  last  syllable ;  and  second- 


ary, as  in  su'per-in-tend ,  where  the  first  syllable  is  distin- 
guished by  a  stress  greater  than  that  laid  on  the  second  and 
third  syllables,  though  less  than  that  laid  on  the  last.  In  some 
words  there  are  two  secondary  or  subordinate  accents ;  as,  in- 
com 'pre-hen 'si-bit 'i-ty . 

There  are  about  eighty  dissyllables  in  which  the  same  word 
is  used  for  a  verb  on  the  one  hand  and  a  noun  or  adjective  on 
the  other.  To  distinguish  them  we  accent  the  nouns  and  the 
adjectives  on  the  first  syllable,  and  the  verbs  on  the  last;  as,  a 
con'vert,  to  convert" ;  a  contract,  to  contract";  an  object,  to 
object";  an  o'verflow,  to  overflow';  a  perfume,  to  perfum/, 
etc. 

There  are  a  few  dissyllables  which  are  at  once  nouns  and  ad- 
jectives. These  are  distinguished  by  accenting  the  nouns  on 
the  first  syllable  and  the  adjectives  on  the  last. 


NOUNS. 
Au'gust,  the  month. 
Com'pact,  an  engagement. 
Kx'lle,  banishment. 
In'stfnct,  an  impulse. 
Minute,  of  time. 
Su'pine,  in  grammar. 


ADjacrivas. 
August',  noble. 
Compact',  close. 
Exile',  small,  slender. 
Instinct',  animated. 
Minute',  very  small. 
Supine',  indolent. 


The  word  gallant  departs  from  the  above  rule.  When  it  de- 
notes a  suitor  or  "attentive  to  ladies,"  it  is  accented  gallant", 
and  is  changed  into  gaflant  when  it  means  high-spirited  or 
daring. 

Simple  words  of  two  syllables  have  only  one  syllable  accent- 
ed, except  'he  word  amen,  which  Walker  says  "is  the  only  word 
in  the  language  which  has  necessarily  two  consecutive  accents." 

WORDS. 

A  Word  is  one  or  more  syllables  spoken  or  written  as  the 
sign  of  some  idea,  or  of  some  manner  of  thought. 

Words  are  distinguished  as  primitive  or  derivative, 
and  as  simple  or  compound.  The  former  division  is 
called  their  species  ;  the  latter,  their  figure. 

A  primitive  word  is  one  that  is  not  formed  from  any 
simpler  word  in  the  language  ;  as,  harm,  great. 

A  derivative  word  is  one  that  is  formed  from  some  sim- 
pler word  in  the  language ;  as,  harmless,  greatly,  disconnect, 
unconnected. 

A  simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  compounded,  not  com- 
posed of  other  words;  as,  watch,  man,  never,  the,  less. 

A  compound  word  is  one  that  is  composed  of  two  or 
more  simple  words;  as,  watchman,  nevertheless. 

Permanent  compounds  are  consolidated;  as,  bookseller, 
schoolmaster.  Others,  which  may  b«  called  temporary  com- 
pounds, are  formed  by  the  hyphen  ;  as,  glass-house,  negro-mer- 
chant. 

Words  regularly  or  analogically  united,  and  commonly  known 
as  forming  a  compound,  should  never  be  needlessly  broken 
apart. 

When  the  simple  words  would  only  form  a  regular  phrase  of 
the  same  meaning,  the  compounding  of  any  of  them  ought  to 
be  avoided. 

Words  otherwise  liable  to  be  misunderstood  must  be  joined 
together  or  written  separately  as  the  sense  and  construction 
may  happen  to  require. 


VL 


_M 


=7? 


&~ 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


19 


When  two  or  more  compounds  are  connected  in  one  sentence 
none  of  them  should  be  split  to  make  an  ellipsis  of  half  a  word. 

When  the  parts  of  a  compound  do  not  coalesce,  as,  to-mor- 
row, to-night,  to-day,  or  when  each  retains  its  original  accent, 
so  that  the  compound  has  more  than  one,  or  one  that  is  mova- 
ble, as,  first-born,  hanger-on,  laughter-loving,  the  hyphen 
should  be  inserted  between  them. 

When  a  compound  has  but  one  accented  syllable  in  pronun- 
ciation, as,  watchword,  statesman,  gentleman,  and  the  parts 
are  such  as  admit  of  a  complete  coalescence,  no  hyphen  should 
be  inserted  between  them. 

WORD-BUILDING. 

The  primitive  words  of  the  English  language  are  few  com- 
pared with  the  derivatives.  This  is  because  many  derivatives 
sometimes  come  from  a  single  primitive.  Thus  from  the  prim- 
itive part  are  formed  counter/a/-r,  depart,  impart,  party,  part- 
isan,  /article,  imparted,  copartner,  etc. 

A  Prefix  is  a  letter  or  letters  placed  before  a  primitive  or 
compound  to  modify  its  meaning ;  as,  de  in  depart,  un  in  ««- 
gentlemanly. 

A  Suffix  is  a  letter  or  letters  placed  after  a  primitive  or 
compound  to  modify  its  meaning;  as,  isan  in  partisan,  ly  in 
ungentlemanly. 

Some  derivatives  come  from  roots  not  separately  used  as 
words.  Thus  avert,  revert,  convertible,  etc.,  come  from  the 
root  vert,  meaning  to  turn. 

These  roots  are  mostly  from  Latin  words,  and  some  of  them 
enter  into  a  great  number  of  derivatives.  The  most  important 
of  these  inseparable  roots  are: 


cede,  ceed,  cess,  to  go. 
ceive,  cept,  to  take. 
elude,  clus,  to  shut. 
cur,  curs,  to  run. 
diet,  to  say  or  speak. 
duce,  duct,  to  lead. 
feet,  flci,  to  do,  make. 
fer,  to  bear,  to  carry, 
fuse,  to  pour. 
Ject,  to  cast. 
late,  bear,  carry. 
lect,  to  choose,  gather. 


lude,  lus,  to  play. 
mit,  miss,  to  send. 
pel,  puis,  to  drive. 
pend,  pens,  to  hang. 
pone,  pose,  to  place. 
port,  to  earn.-. 
scribe,  script,  to  write, 
sist,  to  stand. 
tain,  tent,  to  hold. 
tend,  tens,  to  shield. 
tract,  to  draw. 
vene,  vent,  to  come. 


A  derivative  may  be  formed  by  uniting  two  or  more  prefixes 
or  suffixes  with  a  primitive  or  inseparable  root;  as,  nr-«r-port, 
to  carry-OK l-again ;  just-ify-ing,  conlinuing-to-make-just;  re- 
col-\ed-ions,  more-lhan-one-acf-of-ga,thermg-together-again. 

A  derivative  may  be  formed  by  uniting  a  prefix  or  suffix  with 
a  compound ;  as,  good-humor-^*/. 

Compounds  may  be  formed  by  uniting  two  primitives  ;  as, 
moon-beam ;  a  primitive  and  derivative,  as,  bright-eyed ;  two  de- 
rivatives, as,  brightest-eyed ;  an  inseparable  root  and  a  primi- 
tive, as,  multiform  ;  two  inseparable  roots,  as,  geography. 

The  Prefixes. 

In  the  formation  of  words,  the  particles  which  are  employed 
as  prefixes  generally  have  some  peculiar  import,  which  may  be 
separately  explained.  A  few  of  them  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  ori- 
gin, and  the  greater  part  of  these  are  still  employed  as  separ- 
ate words  in  our  language.     The  rest  are  Latin,  Greek  and 


French  prepositions.  The  roots  to  which  they  are  affixed  are 
not  always  proper  English  words.  Those  which  are  such  are 
called  separable  radicals,  and  those  which  are  not  such, 
inseparable  radicals. 

English  or  Anglo-Saxon  Prefixes. 

A,  as  an  English  prefix,  signifies  on,  in,  at  or  to;  as  in 
a-broad,  a-shore,  a-sleep,  a-far,  a-field.  The  French  a  {to)  is 
probably  the  same  particle  ;  as  in  a-dieu.  This  prerix  is  some- 
times redundant ;  as  in  a-wake,  a-rise. 

Be  signifies  upon,  to,  by  or  for;  as  in  bespatter,  be-times, 
be-tide,  be-speak.  It  is  sometimes  redundant;  as  in  be-gird, 
be-deck,  be-loved. 

Counter  means  against  or  opposite;  as  in  counter-poise, 
counter-evidence,  counter-natural. 

For,  in  composition,  seems  to  signify  from.  It  is  found  in 
the  irregular  verbs  for-bear,  for-bid,  for-get,for-give,  forsake, 
forswear ;  and  in  for-do,  for-pass,  for-pine,  for-say,  for-thinh, 
for-waste,  which  last  are  now  seldom  used. 

Fore,  prefixed  to  verbs,  signifies  before;  as,  fore-know, 
fore-tell;  prefixed  to  nouns  it  is  an  adjective  and  signifies  an- 
terior; as,  fore-side,  fore-part. 

Half,  signifying  one  of  two  equal  parts,  is  much  used  in 
composition,  and  often  merely  to  denote  imperfection ;  as,  half- 
sighted,  seeing  imperfectly. 

Mis  signifies  wrong ;  as,  mis-do,  mis-place. 

Out,  prefixed  to  verbs,  generally  denotes  excess ;  as,  out-do, 
out-leap;  prefixed  to  nouns  it  is  an  adjective  and  signifies  ex- 
terior;  as,  outside,  out-parish. 

Over  usually  denotes  superiority  or  excess  ;  as,  over-power, 
over-strain,  over-large,  over-dose. 

Self  signifies  one's  own  person  or  belonging  to  one's  own 
person.  It  is  much  used  in  composition;  as,  self-love,  self- 
willed,  self -accusing.  Sometimes  self  means  very;  as,  self- 
same. 

Un  denotes  negation  or  contrariety;  as,  un-kind,  un- 
load. 

Under  denotes  inferiority ;  as,   undervalue,  under-cleri. 

Up  denotes  motion  upwards ;  as,  up-lift ;  sometimes  sub- 
version ;  as,  up-set. 

With,  as  a  prefix  (unlike  the  common  preposition  with), 
signifies  against,  from  or  back;  as,  withstand,  with-hold, 
with-draw. 

Latin  Prefixes. 

Not  many  of  the  primitives  to  which  these  ar^  prefixed  are 
employed  separately  in  English.  The  final  letter  of  the  prefix 
ad,  con,  ex,  in,  ob  or  sub  is  often  changed  before  certain  con- 
sonants. 

A,  ab,  abs,  means  from  or  away  ;  as,  a-vert,  to  turn 
from ;  ab-duce,  to  lead  from ;  abs-tract,  to  draw  away. 

Ad,  ac,  af,  al,  an,  ap,  as,  at,  mean  to  or  at;  as, 
ad-vert,  to  turn  to ;  ac-cede,  to  yield  to ;  af-flux,  a  flowing-to ; 
al-ly,  to  bind  to ;  an-nex,  to  link  to ;  ap-ply,  to  put  to ;  assume, 
to  take  to ;  at-test,  to  witness  to. 

Ante,  before;  as,  ante-cedent,  going  before;  ante-mun- 
dane, before  the  world ;  ante-date,  to  date  before. 


^ 


c 


K" 


A 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


(' i I'C'li ill,  around  or  about ;  as,  circum-volvc,  to  roll 
around. 

Con,  com,  CO,  COl,  Cor,  together;  as,  con-tract,  to 
draw  together;  corn-pel,  to  drive  together;  co-erce,  to  force  to- 
gether; col-lect,  to  gather  together;  cor-rade,  to  scrape  together; 
eon-Junction,  a  joining-together. 
'  Contra,  against ;  as,  contra-diet,  to  speak  against 

De,  of,  from  or  down  ;  as,  de-note,  to  be  a  sign  of;  de-tract, 
to  draw  from ;  de-pend,  to  hang  down ;  de-press,  to  press  down. 

Dis,  di,  away  ox  apart ;  as,  dis-pel,  to  drive  away;  </«- 
J«/,  to  cut  apart ;  di-vert,  to  turn  away.  Dis,  before  English 
words,  generally  reverses  their  meaning;  as, please,  dis-please. 

E  or  ex,  ec,  ef,  out;  as,  e-ject,  to  cast  out;  ex-tract,  to 
draw  out ;  ec-stacy,  a  raising-out ;  ef-face,  to  blot  out. 

Extra,  beyond ;  as,  extra-vagant,  wandering  beyond. 

In,  il,  ■  III,  ir,  in,  into,  against  or  upon;  as,  inspire, 
to  breathe  in  ;  il-lude,  to  draw  in  by  deceit ;  im-mure,  to  wall 
in ;  ir-ruption,  a  breaking-in ;  in-cur,  to  run  into ;  in-diet,  to 
declare  against ;  im-pute,  to  charge  upon.  These  syllables  pre- 
fixed to  nouns  or  adjectives  generally  reverse  their  meaning ; 
as,  ir-religion,  ir-rational,  in-secure,  in-sane. 

Inter,  between;  as,  intersperse,  to  scatter  between ;  inter- 
jection, something  thrown  in  between. 

Intro,  within  ;  as,  intro-vert,  to  turn  within 

Ob,  OC,  ©f,  op,  against ;  as,  ob-trude,  to  thrust  against; 
oc-cur,  to  run  against;  of-fer,  to  bring  against;  op-pose,  to  place 
against ;  ob-ject,  to  cast  against. 

Per,  through  or  by;  as,  per-vade,  to  go  through;  per- 
chance, by  chance ;  per-cent,  by  the  hundred. 

Post,  after;  as,  post-pone,  to  place  after. 

Prae  or  pre,  be/ore ;  as,  presume,  to  take  before ;  pre- 
position, a  placing-before  or  something  placed  before. 

Pro,  for,  forth  or  forwards;  as,  pro-vide,  to  take  care  for; 
pro-duce,  to  bring  forth ;  pro-trude,  to  thrust  forward. 

Preter,  past  or  beyond;  as,  preter-it,  gone  by ;  preter- 
natural, beyond  what  is  natural. 

He,  again  or  back ;  as,  re-view,  to  view  again ;  re-pel,  to 
drive  back. 

Retro,  backwards;  as,  retro-cession,  a  going  backwards. 

Sc,  aside  or  apart;  as,  se-duce,  to  lead  aside  ;  se-cede,  to  go 
apart. 

Semi,  /ia^r";  as,  semi-colon,  half  a  colon  ;  semi-circle,  half 
a  circle;  semi-vowel,  half  a  vowel. 

Sub,  sup,  sur,  under,  beneath  ;  as,  sub-terranean,  be- 
neath the  earth ;  subscribe,  to  write  under ;  sup-ply,  to  put 
under;  sur-reption,  a  creeping-undcr ;  sub-ject,  cast  under. 

Sllbter,  beneath;  as,  subter-fluous,  flowing  beneath. 

Super,  OT'^r  or  above;  as,  super-fluous,  flowing  over; 
super-lative,  carried  over. 

Trans,  beyond,  over,  to  another  state  or  place ;  ax,  trans- 
gress, to  pass  beyond  or  over;  trans-mit,  to  send  to  another 
place ;  trans-form,  to  change  to  another  shape. 

Greek  Prefixes. 

A,  an,  denote  privation;  as,  a-nomalous,  wanting  rule; 
an-onymous,  wanting  name;  an-archy,  want  of  government. 

A  in  phi,  both  or  two;  as,  amphi-bious,  living  in  two  ele- 
ments. 


Anti,  against;  as,  anti-acid,  against  acidity;  anti-febrilt, 
against  fever;  anti-thesis,  a  placing-against. 

Apo,  a  ph.  from;  as,  apostrophe,  a  turning-from ;  afh- 
aresis,  a  taking-from. 

Dia,  through ;  as,  dia-gonal,  through  the  corners ;  dia- 
meter, the  measure  through. 

Epi,  eph,  upon ;  as,  epi-demic,  upon  the  people ;  eph- 
emera, upon  a  day. 

Hemi,  half;  as,  hemisphere,  half  a  sphere. 

Hyper,  over ;  as,  hyper-critical,  over-critical. 

Hypo,  under;  as,  hypostasis,  substance  or  that  which 
stands  under;  hypo-thesis,  supposition  or  a  placing-under. 

IHeta,  beyond,  over,  to  another  state  or  place;  as,  meta- 
morphose, to  change  to  another  shape ;  meta-physics,  beyond 
physics. 

Para,  against;  para-dox,  something  contrary  to  common 
opinion. 

Peri,  around;  as,  peri-phery,  the  circumference  or  meas- 
ure around. 

Syn,  syni,  syl,  together;  &s,syn-tax,  a placing-together ; 
sym-pathy,  a  suffering-together;  syl-lable,  what  is  taken  to- 
gether. 

French  Prefixes. 

A  is  a  preposition  of  very  frequent  use  in  French  and  gener- 
ally means  to.  We  have  suggested  that  it  is  probably  the  same 
as  the  Anglo-Saxon  prefix  a.  It  is  found  in  a  few  English  com- 
pounds that  are  of  French  and  not  of  Saxon  origin ;  as,  a-dieu, 
to  God  ;  a-bout,  to  the  end  or  tum. 

I>e,  of  or  from;  as  in  de-mure,  of  manners;  de-liver,  to 
ease  from  or  of. 

Demi,  half;  as,  demi-man,  half-man;  demi-god,  half-god. 

En,  em,  in,  into  or  upon;  as,  en-chain,  to  hold  in 
chains ;  em-brace,  to  clasp  in  the  arms ;  en-tomb,  to  put  into  a 
tomb ;  em-boss,  to  stud  upon.  Many  words  have  wavered  be- 
tween the  French  and  the  Latin  orthography  of  this  prefix ;  as, 
embody  or  imbody,  ensurance  or  insurance,  ensnare  or  insnare, 
enquire  or  inquire. 

Sur,  upon,  over  or  after ;  as,  sur-name,  a  name  upon  a 
name;  sur-vey,  to  loo's  over;  sur-vive,  to  live  after,  to  over- 
live. 

Suffixes. 

Able,  ible,  blC,  denote  that  may  or  can  be,  worthy  to  be, 
worthy  of;  as,  attainaWe,  that  may  be  attained ;  \>\*mable,  that 
may  be  blamed,  worthy  of  blame ;  \auc\able,  worthy  of  praise. 

Ac  denotes  of,  pertaining  to;  as,  cardiac, pertaining  to  the 
heart ;  elegiac,  pertaining  to  elegy. 

AceoUS  denotes  resembling  or  having  the  nature  ef, 
consisting  of;  as,  arenaceous,  consisting  of  sand  ;  (oMaceeus, 
resembling  leaves,  consisting  of  leaves,  leafy. 

Acious  denotes  very  or  greatly;  accustomed  to  or  greatly 
addicted  to,  strongly ;  as,  audacious,  daring  much,  very  daring; 
capacious,  taking  or  containing  much;  tenacious,  holding 
strongly  or  firmly. 

Acy  denotes  — nets,  state  of  being,  quality  or  attribute  ef 
office;  as,  accurals  the  quality  of  being  accurate,  accurateness ; 
curacy,  the  office  of  a  curate  ;  celiba<-_y,  the  state  of  being  un- 
married. 


tv 


-" 1  v"1 


~7[ 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Age  denotes  act  of,  — ing,  state  or  condition  of  being,  allow- 
ance for ;  as,  marriage,  the  act  of  marrying,  the  state  of  being 
married  ;  bondag-e,  the  state  of  being  in  bonds ;  foliage,  a  col- 
lection of  leaves ;  peerage,  the  condition  or  rank  of  a  peer,  the 
peers  taken  collectively ;  wharfa^allowance  for  use  of  the  wharf. 

Al  denotes  of,  pertaining  to,  befitting,  done  or  made  by;  as, 
celestia/,  of  or  pertaining  to  heaven;  manual,  of  the  hand, 
done  by  hand;  maternal,  of  a  mother,  befitting  a  mother. 

An,  can,  tail,  in  nouns,  denote  one  who,  one  who  belongs 
to,  native,  inhabitant  of;  as,  artisan,  one  who  practices  some 
art ;  Christian,  one  who  belongs  to  Christ ;  European,  a  native 
or  inhabitant  of  Europe. 

Ance,  ancy,  ency,  denote  the  act  of,  — ing,  state  of  be- 
ing, quality  or  attribute  of;  as,  acceptanee,  the  act  of  taking  to 
or  of  receiving ;  assistant?,  a  standing  by,  aid ;  constancy,  a 
standing  together,  the  state  or  quality  of  being  constant ;  inno- 
cence,  the  state  or  quality  of  being  harmless. 

Ant,  ent,  in  adjectives,  denote  —ing;  as,  militant,  fight- 
ing ;  pendent,  hanging. 

Ar  denotes  in  the  form  of,  like,  of,  pertaining  to,  having; 
as,  angular,  having  angles,  in  the  form  of  an  angle  ;  annular,  in 
the  form  of  a  ring. 

Ar  denotes  also  one  who ;  as,  liar,  one  who  lies. 

Ard  denotes  one  who  has  an  habitual  fault ;  as,  drunkaro', 
one  who  gets  drunk  habitually ;  sluggard,  one  who  is  habitually 
sluggish. 

Arious  denotes  pertaining  to ;  as,  gregarious,  pertaining  to 
flocks. 

Ary  in  nouns  denotes  one  who,  the  thing  that  or  that  which ; 
as,  adversary,  one  who  is  against  or  opposed  to ;  boundary, 
that  which  bounds ;  vagary,  a  thing  or  thought  that  wanders,  a 
whim. 

Ary  in  adjectives  denotes  of  or  pertaining  to,  by;  as, 
epistolary,  pertaining  to  letters,  by  letters. 

Ate  denotes  office;  as,  consular,  the  office  of  consul;  also, 
one  who ;  as,  legate,  one  who  is  sent  as  ambassador. 

Ate  in  adjectives  denotes  having,  — ed  or  — d;  as,  for- 
tunate, having  fortune ;  illiterate,  unlettered. 

Ate  in  verbs  denotes  to  make,  to  give,  to  put,  to  take;  as, 
antiquate,  to  make  ancient ;  depopulate,  to  take  the  people 
from ;  incarcerate,  to  put  into  prison. 

Atic  denotes  one  who  ;  as,  lunatic,  one  who  is  afflicted  with 
lunacy. 

Cle,  Cule,  Ule,  denote  little,  minute;  as,  animalcule, a 

minute  animal ;  globa/e,  a  little  globe. 

Dom  denotes  the  place  in  which  dominion  or  jurisdiction 
is  exercised,  rank,  quality  or  state;  as  dukeaW,  the  place  or 
territory  in  which  a  duke  exercises  jurisdiction,  the  rank  or 
quality  of  a  duke ;  wisdom,  the  quality  or  attitude  of  being  wise. 

Ee  denotes  one  to  whom  something  is  done  or  given,  one 
who;  as,  absents,  one  who  is  absent;  trusts,  one  to  whom  a 
trust  is  given. 

Eer,  ier,  denotes  one  who  manages  or  has  charge  of,  one 
who  engages  in  or  passes  h  is  time  in ;  as,  charioteer,  one  who 
manages  or  drives  a  chariot ;  mountaineer,  one  who  passes  his 
time  or  lives  in  the  mountains ;  mutineer,  one  who  engages  in 
mutiny. 


En,  n,  in  adjectives  derived  from  nouns,  denote  made  of, 
like;  as,  brazew,  made  of  brass,  like  brass. 

En  in  verbs  mostly  derived  from  adjectives  denotes  to  make; 
as,  darken,  to  make  dark. 

EoiIS  denotes  consisting  of,  like,  pertaining  to,  — y;  as, 
igneous,  pertaining  to  fire,  consisting  of  fire,  like  fire,  fiery. 

Er  denotes  one  who;  as,  builder,  one  who  builds. 

Escence  denotes  state  of  growing  or  becoming,  period 
of  growing  or  becoming ;  as,  convalewence,  the  state  or  period 
of  growing  entirely  strong. 

Escent  denotes  growing  or  becoming,  somewhat;  as,  rub- 
escent,  growing  red,  somewhat  red. 

EtiC  denotes  having ;  as,  pathefiV,  having  feeling. 

Ey  denotes  consisting  of;  as,  claye_y,  consisting  of  clay. 

FiC  denotes  making  or  causing;  as,  horri/fe,  causing  hor- 
ror. 

Ful  denotes  full  of;  as,  norteful,  full  of  hope. 

Fy  denotes  to  make;  as,  forti//,  to  make  strong. 

Hood,  head,  denote  state  of  being,  the  nature  or  distin- 
guishing attitudes  of  being ;  as,  childhood,  state  of  being  a 
child ;  Godhead,  the  attitude  or  nature  of  God,  divinity. 

lac  denotes  one  who ;  as,  mani'ae,  one  who  is  mad. 

Ic  denotes  thing,  art,  science;  as,  fabr/e,  the  thing  made, 
logic,  the  science  of  words. 

IC  denotes  also  one  who ;  as,  critiV,  one  who  judges. 

Ic,  ical,  denote  of,  pertaining  to,  like;  as,  angelte,  oran- 
gelical,  of  or  pertaining  to  an  angel,  like  an  angel ;  heroi'e,  or 
heroical,  like  a  hero. 

Ice  denotes  quality  or  attitude  of  being ;  as,  avarz'ee,  the 
quality  of  being  avaricious;  justice,  the  quality  of  being  just 

Ician  denotes  one  versed  or  skilled  in ;  as,  arithmetician, 
one  versed  in  arithmetic ;  musician,  one  versed  or  skilled  in 
music. 

ICle  denotes  little ;  as,  parti'e/e,  a  little  part. 

ICS  denotes  the  science  or  art  of;  as,  tactics,  the  science  or 
art  of  military  arrangement ;  economies,  the  science  of  house- 
hold affairs. 

Id  denotes  — ing ;  as,  fervid,  burning,  glowing. 

He  denotes  of ,  pertaining  to,  like,  that  may  or  can  be  easily  ; 
as,  docile,  that  may  be  easily  taught ;  juvenite,  of  or  pertaining 
to  youth. 

I  lie  denotes  one  who ;  as,  marine,  one  who  serves  at  sea  ; 
also,  of  or  pertaining  to,  like ;  as,  canine,  pertaining  to  dogs, 
like  dogs ;  crystalline,  of  crystal,  like  crystal ;  divine,  pertaining 
to  God,  like  a  god. 

Ion  denotes  the  act  of,  state  of  being ;  as,  probation,  a  try- 
ing or  proving ;  salvation,  the  act  of  saving,  the  state  of  being 
safe  or  saved. 

Is  denotes  act  of,  state  of;  as,  synthesis,  act  of  putting  to- 
gether ;  crisiV,  state  or  point  of  judging. 

Ish  in  adjectives  denotes  somewhat,  of  or  belonging  to, 
like;  as  black/in,  somewhat  black ;  Spanish,  of  or  belonging  to 
Spain ;  childijn,  like  a  child. 

Ish  in  verbs  denotes  to  make ;  as,  finish,  to  make  an  end  of. 

Ism  denotes  state  or  quality  of  being,  an  idiom,  doctrine 
or  doctrines  of;  as,  barbarian,  the  state  of  being  barbarous ; 
Gallicism,  a  French  idiom  ;  Calvinum,  the  doctrines  of  Calvin. 

1st  denotes  one  who,  generally  one  who  is  engaged  in  some 
pursuit  or  study ;  as,  artist,  one  who  practices  an  art 


¥L 


7* 


22 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Ite  denotes  a  descendant  of,  a  follower  of,  a  sectarian  or 
party  leader;  as,  Amalek»7e,  a  descendant  of  Amalek;  Hussi'/e, 
a  follower  of  John  Huss. 

It*  also  denotes  having ;  as,  definite,  having  bounds;  op- 
posite, having  opposition. 

'*Fj  ^y>  denote  state  or  quality  of  being;  as,  amity, 
the  state  of  being  friends,  friendliness,  friendship ;  antiqui'/y, 
ancientness,  ancient  times. 

Ive  in  nouns  denotes  one  who,  that  which  ;  as,  captive,  one 
who  is  taken ;  motive,  that  which  moves  or  actuates. 

Ive  in  adjectives  denotes  having  the  power,  disposed  or 
having  the  disposition ;  as,  adhesive,  having  the  power  of  stick- 
ing to,  having  a  tendency  to  adhere. 

Ize,  or  ise,  denotes  to  mate,  to  give,  to  act  or  do  Hie;  as, 
fertilize,  to  make  fertile ;  authorize,  to  give  authority ;  criticise, 
to  act  the  judge  or  critic 

Kin  denotes  little;  as,  lamblin,  a  little  lamb. 

Less  denotes  free  from,  without;  as,  careless,  free  from 
care,  without  care. 

Lot,  et,  denote  little,  young ;  as,  cygnet,  a  young  swan; 
eyelet  (literally,  a  little  eye),  the  hole  or  eye  of  a  needle;  mail*/, 
a  little  mall. 

Like  denotes  resembling ;  as,  childlike,  resembling  a  child; 
Godlike,  like  or  resembling  God. 

Ling  denotes  little,  young ;  as,  found/i'»,f,  a  little  child 
found  without  parent  or  owner ;  gosling,  a  little  or  very  .young 
goijse. 

L.y  in  adjectives  denotes  like  ;  as,  beastly,  like  a  beast 

Ly  in  adverbs  denotes  in  a  manner  or  way;  as,  joyfully,  in 
a  joyful  manner. 

Ment  denotes  the  act  of,  state  of  being,  that  which  ;  as, 
accomplishment,  the  act  of  accomplishing,  the  state  of  being 
accomplished ;  payment,  the  act  of  paying,  that  which  is  paid. 

Mony  denotes  state  of  being,  quality  of  being,  that 
which;  as,  acrimony,  the  quality  of  being  sharp  or  acrid;  mat- 
rimony,  the  state  of  being  a  mother  or  wife,  marriage ;  patri- 
mony,  that  which  is  inherited  from  a  father. 

Oid,  or  oidal,  denotes  having  the  form  or  appearance  of, 
resembling  ;  as,  ovoid,  or  ovoidal,  having  the  form  of  an  egg ; 
varioloid,  a  disease  resembling  small-pox. 

Ness  denotes  state  of  being,  quality  or  attribute  of  being; 
as,  baldness,  the  state  of  being  bald ;  holiness,  the  quality  or 
attribute  of  being  bold. 

Or  denotes  one  who;  also,  the  act  of,  sensation  or  emotion, 
that  which  causes  or  brings  sensation ;  as,  auditor,  one  who 
hears,  a  hearer;  color,  a  peculiar  sensation  in  the  eye,  that 
which  causes  the  sensation  of  color ;  favor,  the  act  of  favoring, 
that  which  causes  or  brings  favor ;  splendor,  brightness. 

Ory  in  nouns  denotes  the  place  or  thing  where;  as,  armory, 
the  place  where  arms  are  kept. 

Ory  in  adjectives  denotes  giving,  making  or  causing,  per- 
taining to;  as,  adulatory,  giving  flattery,  flattering;  amatory, 
pertaining  to  love  or  lovers,  causing  love. 

Ose  denotes  full  of;  as,  jocose,  full  of  jokes. 

Ous  denotes  full  of,  consisting  of;  as,  cartilaginous,  con- 
sisting of  cartilage,  like  cartilage ;  timorous,  fearful,  fearing. 

Ry  denotes  state  or  qualify  of  being,  the  art  or  practice  of, 
the  place  where,  things  of  a  certain  kind  or  class  taken  collect- 


ively ;  as,  gallantry,  the  quality  or  attribute  of  being  gallant, 
gallantness,  nobleness,  bravery;  slavery,  the  state  of  a  slave; 
brewery,  the  place  where  beer  is  brewed ;  cutlery,  knives 
and  other  cutting  instruments  taken  collectively  ;  also,  the  art  or 
business  of  a  cutler. 

Ship  denotes  office  of,  state  or  relation  of;  as,  cltrVship, 
the  office  of  clerk ;  friendship,  the  state  or  relation  of  a  friend. 

Some  denotes  full  of,  making  or  causing  ;  as,  blithesome, 
full  of  gayety,  causing  gayety  or  blitheness ;  wearisome,  making 
weary. 

Ster  denotes  one  that;  as,  songster,  one  that  sings  songs. 

T  denotes  a  thing  done;  as,  gif/,  a  thing  given;  droit,  a 
drawing;  join/,  a  joining. 

Th  denotes  the  act  of,  state  of  being,  that  which;  as, 
breadM,  broadness ;  grow/A,  growing  or  the  act  of  growing, 
that  which  is  growing,  increase  ;  weal/A,  the  state  of  being  well 
off  or  rich,  that  which  makes  rich. 

Tilde,  or  ude,  denotes  — ness;  as,  altitude,  highness, 
height ;  solicitude,  anxiousness,  anxiety. 

I  lent,  olent  or  lent  denotes  full  of ;  as,  fraudulent, 
full  of  fraud,  deceitful,  dishonest ;  pesti/eu/,  full  of  plague  or 
pestilence,  corrupt,  troublesome ;  \iolent,  full  of  force  or  vio- 
lence. 

lire  denotes  the  act  of,  state  of  being,  that  which  ;  as,  creat- 
ure, that  which  is  created ;  curvature,  a  bending ;  rapture,  the 
state  of  being  carried  away  (with  joy);  seizure,  the  act  of  seiz- 
ing. 

Ward  denotes  towards ;  as,  homeward,  towards  home. 

Y  in  nouns  denotes  the  state  or  quality  of  being;  as,  anarchy, 
the  state  of  being  without  government ;  lithography,  engraving 
on  stone. 

If  in  adjectives  formed  by  adding  this  suffix  to  nouns  denotes 
full  of,  consisting  of,  like  ;  as,  rocky,  full  of  rocks,  like  a  rock ; 
sandy,  full  of  sand,  consisting  of  sand,  like  sand. 


i3-? 


SPELLING. 


iS-% 


Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  by 
their  proper  letters. 

Before  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing  lit- 
tle attention  was  paid  to  the  mode  of  spelling 
words  either  in  Anglo-Saxon  or  the  English 
language,  and,  the  orthography  of  most  of  the 
words  being  wholly  unsettled,  every  writer,  hav- 
ing no  guide  but  his  own  ear,  was  at  liberty  to 
follow  his  own  fancy  or  judgment.  In  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  the  early  English 
authors  almost  all  the  words  are  spelled  in  more 
than  one  way,  and  for  a  long  time  subsequent  to 
the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing  the  spelling 
of  the  English  language  remained  in  a  very  un- 


3<T 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


23 


4 


=7? 


settled  state.  As  an  illustration  of  this  unset- 
tled state,  nearly  a  century  after  this  invention, 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  the  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  by  Tindale,  who  was  dis- 
tinguished for  talents  and  learning,  the  pronoun 
it  is  spelled  in  no  less  than  eight  different  ways, 
as  follows  :  it,  itt,  yt,  ytt,  hit,  hitt,  kyt,  hytt ;  and  in 
some  cases  four  or  five  different  modes  are  to 
be  found  in  the  same  chapter. 

The  spelling  of  the  language  has  been  under- 
going continual  changes  from  the  time  of  its 
first  formation  to  the  present  day,  although  for 
a  century  or  upwards  it  may  be  regarded  as 
having  assumed  a  comparatively  settled  form. 

The  dictionary  of  Samuel  Johnson,  first  pub- 
lished in  1755,  has  contributed  more  than  any 
work  written  before  or  since  to  introduce  some- 
thing like  consistency  into  English  orthography, 
and  succeeding  lexicographers  have  followed  in 
his  footsteps. 

Rules  for  Spelling. 

Monosyllables  ending  in/,  /  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
double  the  final  consonant;  as,  staff,  mill,  pass;  except  three 
in/,  viz. :  clef,  if,  of;  four  in  /.•  bul,  nut,  sal,  sol;  and  eleven 
in  s;  as,  gas,  has,  was,  yes,  is,  his,  this,  us,  thus, pus. 

Words  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than  f  I  or  s  do  not 
double  the  final  letter ;  except  abb,  ebb,  add,  odd,  egg,  inn,  err, 
burr,  purr,  yarr,  butt,  buzz,  fuzz,  and  some  proper  names. 

Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  when 
they  end  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  or 
by  a  vowel  after  qu,  double  their  final  consonant  before  an  ad- 
ditional syllable  that  begins  with  a  vowel ;  as,  rob,  robber;  per- 
mit, permitting ;  acquit,  acquittal,  acquitting.  X,  being  equiv- 
alent to  is,  is  never  doubled. 

A  final  consonant,  when  it  is  not  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
or  when  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  should  remain 
single  before  an  additional  syllable;  as,  toil,  toiling ;  visit, 
visited ;  general,  generalize. 

Words  ending  with  any  double  letter  preserve  it  double  be- 
fore any  additional  termination  not  beginning  with  the  same 
letter ;  as  in  the  following  derivatives :  seeing,  blissful,  oddly, 
hilly,  stiffness,  agreeable.  The  irregular  words  fled,  sold,  told, 
dwelt,  spelt,  spilt,  shall,  wilt,  blest,  past,  and  the  derivatives  from 
the  word  pontiff,  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

The  final  e  mute  of  a  primitive  word  is  generally  omitted  be- 
fore an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a  vowel ;  as,  rate, 
ratable  ;  force,  forcible ;  rave,  raving  ;  eye,  eying.  Words  end- 
ing in  ce  or  ge  retain  the  e  before  able  or  ous,  to  preserve  the 
soft  sound  o{c  and^-;  as, peace, peaceable ;  change,  changeable; 
outrage,  outrageous. 


The  final  e  of  a  primitive  word  is  generally  retained  before 
an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a  consonant;  as, pale, 
paleness.  When  the  e  is  preceded  by  a  vowel  it  is  sometimes 
omitted;  as,  true,  truly;  awe,  awful;  and  sometimes  retained; 
as,  rue,  rueful ;  shoe,  shoeless. 

The  final  ^  of  a  primitive  word,  when  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant, is  changed  into  i  before  an  additional  termination ;  as, 
merry,  merrier,  merriest,  merrily,  merriment ;  pity,  pitied, 
pities,  pitiful.  Before  ing,  y  is  retained  to  prevent  the  doub- 
ling of  i ;  as,  pity,  pitying.  Words  ending  in  ie  drop  the  e  and 
change  the  i  into_y  for  the  same  reason ;  as,  die,  dying.  When 
a  vowel  precedes,  y  should  not  be  changed ;  as,  day,  days, 
money,  moneys. 

Compounds  generally  retain  the  orthography  of  the  simple 
words  which  compose  them;  as,  hereof,  horseman,  uphill.  In 
permanent  compounds  the  words  full  and  all  drop  one  / ;  as, 
handful,  careful,  always,  withal;  in  others  they  retain  both; 
as,  full-eyed,  all-wise. 

I  before  e,  except  after  c,  is  a  rule  worth  remembering  in  such 
words  as  believe,  conceive,  deceive. 

In  derivatives  formed  from  words  ending  in  c  by  adding  a 
termination  beginning  with  e,  i  or  y,  the  letter  k  is  inserted  after 
the  c ;  as,  zinc ,  zincky ;  colic,  colicky ;  traffic,  traffic ky. 

Verbs  of  one  syllable  ending  with  a  single  consonant  preceded 
by  a  single  vowel  (as,  plan),  and  verbs  of  two  or  more  syllables 
ending  in  the  same  manner  and  having  the  accent  on  the  last 
syllable  (as,  regret),  double  the  final  consonant  of  the  verb  on 
assuming  an  additional  syllable;  as, plan, planned;  regret,  re- 
gretted. But  if  a  dipthong  precedes  the  last  consonant,  or 
the  last  syllable  is  not  accented,  then  the  consonant  is  not 
doubled  ;  &s  join,  joined  ;  suffer,  suffered. 

REFORMED  SPELLING. 

Many  efforts  have  been  made  to  secure  a  re- 
form in  the  mode  of  spelling,  and  many  philo- 
logical associations  have  earnestly  advocated  a 
system  of  phonetic  orthography,  or  spelling  by 
sound.  The  English  language  contains  over 
100,000  words,  although  in  ordinary  conversation 
only  from  3,000  to  5,000  are  used.  Few  writers 
or  speakers  use  more  than  15,000.  Shakspere 
is  said  to  have  only  used  24,000,  Milton  17,000, 
and  in  the  Bible,  exclusive  of  the  proper  names, 
there  are  said  to  be  only  7,000  words.  The 
mixed  origin  of  the  English  language,  with  its 
constant  modifications,  will  in  some  degree  ac- 
count for  the  striking  anomalies  which  appear 
in  our  spelling.  Signs  representing  sounds 
were  multiplied  especially  by  the  introduction 
of  the  printer's  art,  and  thus  letters  or  combina- 
tions of  letters  for  a  single  sound  occur  fre- 
quently.    Many  plans  have  been  devised  at  dif- 


/ 


C 


24 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 


ferent  times,  especially  in  late  years,  for  reduc- 
ing the  spelling  of  words  to  absolute  uniformity 
and  the  greatest  simplicity  by  a  complete  re- 
form in  the  method  of  representing  the  sounds 
of  words  by  written  characters,  that  is,  by  em- 
ploying a  new  alphabet  in  which  each  sign 
stands  for  one,  and  only  one,  definite  sound,  and 
each  sound  is  represented  by  one  and  only  one 
character.  The  American  Philological  Associa- 
tion took  up  the  matter  in  1875,  and  in  the  suc- 
ceeding year  an  international  convention  was 
held  and  a  Spelling  Reform  Association  organiz- 
ed. Meetings  were  held  by  several  educational 
societies  both  in  England  and  this  country,  urg- 
ing on  the  work  of  reform,  but  after  all  there 
has  really  been  very  little  practical  result.  The 
Spelling  Reform  Association  adopted  a  phonetic 
alphabet  on  the  principles  enumerated  above. 
The  association  advocated  the  dropping  of  silent 
letters  on  the  score  of  economy,  etc.,  and  form- 
ulated the  following  five  rules : 

1.  Use  e  for  ea  when  equivalent  to  short  e. 

2.  Omit  silent  e  after  a  diphthong  or  a  short  vowel,  unless 
preceded  by  0  or  g. 

3.  Use/  for  ph. 

4.  Omit  one  letter  of  a  double  consonant,  unless  both  are 
pronounced. 

5.  Use  /  instead  of  ed  when  it  represents  the  sound. 
Some  of  the  newspapers  then  began  advocat- 
ing reform  in  spelling,  and  in  1879  the  Chicago 
Tribune  appeared  in  improved  orthography,  and 
was  followed  by  the  Home  Journal  of  New  York 
and  other  papers.  The  rules  adopted  by  these 
journals  for  their  amended  spelling  were  as  fol- 
lows: 

1.  Drop  ue  at  the  end  of  words  like  dialogue,  catalogue,  etc., 
where  the  preceding  vowel  is  short.  Thus  spell  demagog,  ped- 
ag°g>  'pHog,  etc.  Change  tongue  for  lung.  When  the  preced- 
ing vowel  is  long,  as  in  prorogue,  vogue,  rogue,  retain  final  let- 
ters as  at  present. 

2.  Drop  final  e  in  such  words  as  definite,  indefinite,  favorite, 
whore  the  preceding  vowel  is  short.  Thus  spell  opposit,  hypo- 
crit,  preterit.    When  the  preceding  vowel  is  long,  as  m  polite, 

finite,  unite,  write,  etc.,  retain  present  form  unchanged. 

3.  Drop  final  te  in  words  like  quartette,  coquette,  cigarette. 
Thus  spell  roset,  epaulet,  gazet,  vedet. 

4.  Drop  the  final  me  in  words  like  programme.  Thus  spell 
program,  orifiam,  gram,  etc 

5.  Change  pit  for/  in  works  like  phantom,  telegraph,  phase, 
Thus  spell  alfabet,  paragraf,filosofy,fonetic,fotograf,  etc 

P.S.  No  change  in  proper  names. 


The  newspapers,  however,  have  not  continued 
to  follow  these  rules,  and  in  most  cases  have 
lapsed  into  the  accustomed  form  of  spelling,  and 
the  present  outlook  is  not  very  nattering  for  the 
universal  introduction  of  phonetic  or  reformed 
spelling. 


A' 


FORMS  OF  LETTERS. 


Different  sorts  of  types  or  styles  of  letters  are  employed  in  the 
English  language.  Generally  'he  Roman  characters  are  used ; 
sometimes  the  Italic,  and  occasionally  the  Old  English.  In 
writing  we  use  the  Script- 


Roman. 


Italic. 


1»   CnrjttBl,,       <g&^/ 


The  letters  have  severally  two  forms,  by  which  they  are  dis- 
tinguished, as  capitals  and  small  letters. 

Small  letters  constitute  the  body  of  every  work ;  capitals 
are  used  for  the  sake  of  eminence  and  distinction. 

The  improper  use  of  capitals  or  their  omission  is  a  common 
fault  in  composition,  and  should  be  guarded  against  Sometimes 
more  capitals  are  used  than  are  necessary.  The  great  number 
of  words  begin  nearly  all  with  small  letters.  When  capitals  are 
to  be  used  is  explained  in  the  following  rules. 


+V 


•'•  -°*° 


•M- 


*H1jb  Use  of  Capital  Letted 


.-•    •:-'.- 


»-*■«•  3?&  ■©-♦•« 


Begin  with  a  capital : 

1.  Every  sentence  and  every  line  of  poetry. 

Examples. — Forget  others'  faults.  How  bright  the  day!  What  U 
fame?    Custom  forms  us  all. 

"Time  is  the  warp  of  life ;  oh !  tell 
The  young,  the  fair,  to  weave  it  well." 

2.  All  proper  nouns,  and  titles  of  office,  honor  and  respect. 
Examples. — Henry  the  Fowler,  Emperor  of  Germany  ;  Robert  Roe, 

Esquire;  His  Honor  the  Mayor;  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning;  the 
lied  River;  Union  Square;  the  Superior  Court  of  the  City  of  New 
York. 

3.  All  adjectives  formed  from  proper  names. 
Examples. — African,   Italian,  Welsh,  Ciceronian. 
Also  adjectives  denoting  a  sect  or  religion. 
Examples. — Methodist,  Puritan,  Catholic. 

4.  Common  nouns,  where  personified  in  a  direct  and  lively 
manner;  not  where  sex  is  merely  attributed  to  an  inanimate 
object. 

Examples.— Then  War  wave*  his  ensanguined  sword,  and  fair 
Peace  Ikes  sighing  to  some  happier  land.  Dot,  the  sum  pursues  his 
ticrv  course ;  the  moon  sheds  her  silvery  beams. 

5.  All  appellations  of  the  Deity.  The  personal  pronouns 
Thou  and  He  standing  for  His  name  are  sometimes  cap- 
italized. 

Examples.— The  Almighty ;  the  King  of  kings;  the  Eternal  Es- 
sence ;  Jehovah  ;  the  Supreme  Being;  our  Father. 


« 


-=^v~ 


JV2= 


**\ 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


25 


In  the  standard  editions  of  the  Bible,  the  pronouns,  when 
referring  to  God,  are  never  capitalized,  not  even  in  forms 
of  direct  address  to  the  Deity. 

6.  The  first  word  of  a  complete  quoted  sentence  not  intro- 
duced by  that,  if  ox  any  other  conjunction. 

Examples. — Thomson  says,  "Success  makes  villains  honest."  But, 
Thomson  says  that  success  makes  villains  honest. 

7.  Every  noun,  adjective  and  verb  in  the  title  of  books  and 
headings  of  chapters. 

Examples.— Butler's  "Treatise  on  the  History  of  Ancient  Philoso- 
phy;" Cousins'  "Lectures  on  the  True,  the  Beautiful  and  the  Good." 

8.  Words  that  denote  the  leading  subjects  of  chapters,  arti- 
cles or  paragraphs. 

A  word  defined,  for  instance,  may  commence  with  a  capital. 
Do  not  introduce  capitals  too  freely  under  this  rule.  When  in 
doubt  use  a  small  letter. 

9.  The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  0. 

10.  Words  denoting  great  events,  eras  of  history,  noted 
written  instruments,  extraordinary  physical  phenomena  and  the 
like. 

Examples.— The  Creation;  the  Confusion  of  Languages;  the  Res- 
toration; the  Dark  Ages;  the  Declaration  of  Independence;  the 
Aurora  Borealis. 

11.  Letters  standing  for  words  are  generally  written  as 
capitals. 

Example. — A.D.  for  Anno  Domini,  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

12.  The  months  of  the  year,  and  the  days  of  the  week.  The 
names  of  the  seasons,  however,  should  not  generally  be  cap- 
italized, although  it  is  customary  with  some  authors. 

13.  The  words  North,  South,  East  and  West,  and  their  com- 
pounds, as  Northwest,  when  they  signify  a  section  of  country. 
Also  adjectives  derived  therefrom.  This  class  of  words  should 
not  be  capitalized,  however,  when  merely  denoting  direction. 


-Tr~9i—j-^y^J>> 


PUNCTUATION. 


/&- 


-5-3  ^^-9- "~>* 


Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  compo- 
sition by  points  or  stops  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  more  clearly  the  sense  and  relation  of 
the  words,  and  of  noting  the  different  pauses 
and  inflections  required  in  reading. 

Although  a  knowledge  of  Punctuation  is  necessary  to  the 
clear  expression  of  thought  in  writing,  there  are  comparatively 
few  who  have  mastered  it,  even  among  educated  people.  That 
it  is  important  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  sentence : 

The  company  consisted  of  Mr.  Jones  a  lawyer  his  brother  a  soldier 
Mr.  Black  a  New  Yorker  his  sister  and  a  boy. 

Without  punctuation  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  many  were 
in  the  company,  or  what  their  relationship  was.  If  commas  are 
inserted  it  will  appear  that  the  company  comprised  eight 
people  : 

The  company  consisted  of  Mr.  Jones,  a  lawyer,  his  brother,  a  sol- 
dier, Mr.  Black,  a  New  Yorker,  his  sister  and  a  boy. 

By  inserting  semicolons  in  the  place  of  some  of  the  commas 
the  number  of  the  company  is  reduced  to  five,  as  follows : 


The  company  consisted  of  Mr.  Jones,  a  lawyer ;  his  brother,  a  soldier; 
Mr.  IUack,  a  New  Yorker;  his  sister  and  a  boy. 

By  otherwise  punctuating  it  various  changes  would  be  made. 
As  an  illustration  of  the  ludicrous   errors  which   might  occur 
from  incorrect  punctuation  the  following  will  serve : 
Woman,  without  her  man,  would  be  a  savage. 

The  proper  sense  and  punctuation  is : 

Woman — without  herj  man  would  be  a  savage. 

Such  instances  could  be  multiplied  indefinitely. 

Usage,  which  is  really  the  foundation  for  all  rules  of  punc- 
tuation as  well  as  of  grammar,  authorizes  the  three  following 
methods  of  punctuating  the  same  sentence.  In  the  present 
work  the  method  indicated  in  the  first  sentence  has  been 
followed : 

Rank,  fame  and  honor  are  often  undeserved. 

Rank,  fame,  and  honor  are  often  undeserved. 

Rank,  fame,  and  honor,  are  often  undeserved. 

Punctuation  Points. 

The  Punctuation  Points  are  as  follows : 


Period 

Paragraph 

V 

Colon 
Semicolon 

Comma 

* 

Brace 

Acute  Accent 

1 

Interrogation 
Kxclamation 
Dash 

Point 
Point 

t 

Grave  Accent 
Circumflex  Accent 
Tilde,  or  Circumflex 

A 

Parep*-V-^S. 
Brackets 

() 
[] 

The  Long,  or  Macron 
The  Short,  or  Breve 

- 

Hyphen 

Quotation  Marks 
Apostrophe 

Kllipsis    J 

*   *   *  * 

Diaeresis 

Cedilla 
Asterisk 

Dagger,  or  Obelisk 
Double  Dagger 

9 

* 

t 
t 

Caret 

A 

Section 

5 

Index 

*2- 

Parallel 

ii 

Rules  for  Punctuation. 

The  Period  must  be  placed  after  every  declarative  and 
imperative  sentence  and  every  abbreviated  word. 

Examples. — Obey  your  parents.  Virtue  is  the  only  nobility.  We 
write  Jas.  for  James,  N.  Y.  for  New  York,  No.  for  number,  George  I. 
for  George  the  First. 

A  period  after  an  abbreviation  does  not  take  the  place  of 
other  points.  Punctuate  just  as  if  the  word  were  not  abbrevi- 
ated. But  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  closing  with  an  abbreviation 
only  one  period  must  be  used. 

Example.— "Goto  the  P.  O.,  I  tell  you,  and  ask  for  a  letter  for  H. 
Rob,  Jr.,  M.  D." 

A  nickname  which  is  not  really  an  abbreviation  is  not  followed 
by  a  period. 

Examples. — Dave  Bidwell ;  Sam  Slick. 

The  Interrogation  Point  must  be  placed  after 
every  interrogative  sentence,  member  and  clause ;  also  after  the 
interjections  eh  and  hey  implying  a  question. 

Example. — Has  the  air  weight?  Air  has  weight;  do  you  not  believe 
it?    You  thought  it  would  rain,  eh? 

The  Exclamation  Point  should  be  placed  after 
every  exclamatory  sentence,  member,  clause  and  expression. 

Examples. — How  disgusting  is  vice  !  Life  is  short ;  how  careful  we 
should  be  to  use  it  aright !    For  shame ! 

An  exclamation  point  must  also  be  placed  after  every  inter- 


=^ 


26 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


A, 


jection  except  0,  eh    and  hey,  unless  very  closely  connected 
with  other  words. 
Example. — Ah  !  who  could  have  foreseen  it?     Pshaw  !  you  are  trifling. 

The  Colon  must  be  placed  between  the  great  divisions 
of  sentences,  when  minor  divisions  occur  that  are  separated  by 
semicoions. 

Example. — Man  has  effected  wonders ;  he  is  every  day  advancing  in 
knowledge  and  power:  yet,  surpassed  by  nature  in  even  her  hum- 
blest efforts,  he  can  not  so  much  as  make  a  blade  of  grass. 

A  colon  must  also  be  placed  before  a  formal  enumeration  of 
particulars,  or  a  direct  quotation,  referred  to  by  the  words  thus, 
following,  as  follows,  this,  these,  etc. 

Example, — There  is  much  justice  in  this  warning  of  Lavater:  "Be- 
ware of  him  who  hates  the  laugh  of  a  child." 

A  formal  enumeration  is  one  in  which  the  fiords  first,  second- 
ly, etc.,  or  similar  terms,  are  introduced.  These  words  are  set 
off  with  the  comma,  the  particulars  are  separated  by  the  semi- 
colon, and  before  the  whole  enumeration  a  colon  must  be  placed. 

Example. — There  were  fourgreat  empires  in  ancient  times:  first,  the 
Assyrian;  second,  the  Persian;  third,  the  Macedonian;  fourth,  the 
Roman. 

The  Semicolon  must  be  placed  between  the  members 
of  compound  sentences,  unless  the  connection  is  exceedingly 
close. 

Example. — The  wheel  of  fortune  is  ever  turning;  who  can  say,  "I 
shall  be  uppermost  to-morrow"? 

If  the  members  are  very  short  and  the  connection  is  close, 
the  comma  may  be  used  instead  of  the  semicolon. 

Example. — Man  proposes,  but  God  disposes. 

A  semicolon  must  be  placed  between  the  great  divisions  of 
sentences,  when  minor  divisions  occur  that  are  separated  by 
commas. 

Examples. — Plato  called  beauty  a  privilege  of  nature;  Theocritus,  a 
delightful  prejudice. 

A  semicolon  should  be  placed  before  as  when  it  introduces 
an  example. 

Example. — An  adjective  is  a  word  which  qualifies  a  noun;  as,  a 
■white  hat. 

The  Comma,  Adjuncts  and  clauses,  not  essential  to 
(he  meaning  of  a  sentence  or  modifying  the  whole  proposition, 
are  set  off  with  a  comma  on  each  side  when  introduced  between 
a  subject  and  its  verb,  or  other  parts  that  are  closely  connected. 
At  the  commencement  or  end  of  a  sentence,  such  adjuncts 
and  clauses  are  set  off  with  a  comma  after  or  before  them,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

Example.  — The  bones  of  birds,  in  a  word,  combine  strength  with 
lightness  in  a  remarkable  degree.  Blankets,  which  derived  their 
name  from  Thomas  Blanquct,  were  Introduced  into  England  in  1340. 
By  the  way,  gunpowder  was  first  known  to  the  Chinese.  No  man  can 
be  an  atheist,  if  he  will  only  examine  his  own  structure. 

Subjects  introduced  by  as  well  as,  and  not,  etc.,  fall  under  this 
rule. 

Example.— Toledo,  as  well  as  Damascus,  was  noted  for  its  sword 
blades. 

Single  words  relating  to  a  whole  proposition,  and  all  vocative 
expressions,  are  also  set  off  with  the  comma. 

Examples.— Galileo,  accordingly,  was  imprisoned.  Smile,  O  For- 
tune, smile  on  our  attempt. 

No  comma  must  be  placed  between  restrictive  adjuncts  or 
clauses  and  that  which  they  restrict. 

Examples.— All  must  pay  the  debt  of  nature.  All  lk.it  glitters  Is  not 
gold.    Tht  man  w/10  plants  the  f  eld  should  reap  the  harvest. 


A  noun  in  apposition,  modified  by  an  adjunct  or  adjective,  is 
generally,  with  its  modifiers,  set  off  by  the  comma. 

Example.— Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt,  was  defeated  by  Octavius. 

A  comma  should  be  placed  between  short  member*  of  com- 
pound sentences,  connected  by  and,  but,  or,  nor,  because, 
whereas  and  other  conjunctions. 

Example. — Beauty  dazzles,  but  amiability  charms. 

A  comma  must  also  be  placed  before  a  conjunction  connect- 
ing the  parts  of  a  compound  predicate,  unless  they  are  very 
short  and  so  closely  connected  that  no  point  is  admissible. 

Example.— The  sun  shines  on  all,  even  the  wicked  and  ungrateful. 

A  comma  must  be  placed  before  or  introducing  an  equiva- 
lent, or  a  clause  defining  the  writer's  meaning. 

Example. — Spelter,  or  zinc,  comes  chiefly  from  Germany. 

A  comma  is  required  by  some  authorities  on  the  subject  of 
Punctuation  before  and,  or  and  nor  preceding  the  last  of  a 
series  of  clauses,  or  words  that  are  the  same  part  of  speech  and 
in  the  same  construction. 

Example.— Sunshine,  cloud,  and  storm,  all  are  sent  for  some  wise 
purpose. 

When,  to  avoid  repetition,  and,  or,  nor,  or  a  verb  previously 
used,  is  omitted,  a  comma  takes  its  place. 

Examples. — Tin  is  found  in  England,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Malacca 
and  Banca.  [Instead  of  saying  England  and  Bohemia  and  Saxony 
and  Malacca,  to  avoid  repetition  we  omit  and,  and  a  comma  takes  its 
place.]  Methusaleh  was  the  oldest  man ;  Samson,  the  strongest. 
\Was  is  omitted  after  Samson,  and  a  comma  takes  its  place.] 

Words  used  in  pairs  take  a  comma  after  each  pair. 

Example.— Joy  and  sorrow,  cloud  and  sunshine,  are  alike  sent  for 
our  benefit. 

Words  repeated  for  the  sake  of  their  emphasis  must  be  set 
off  with  their  adjuncts,  if  they  have  any,  by  the  comma. 

Example.— Truth,  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth,  will  satisfy  the 
candid  enquirer. 

A  good  general  rule  for  the  use  of  commas,  as,  in  fact  of 
other  marks  for  punctuation,  is :  Use  them  when  the  meaning  is 
thereby  made  clearer. 

The  Dash  is  used  to  denote : 

1.  A  break  in  the  construction. 
Example.— Glory— what  is  it  ? 

2.  A  transition  in  the  sentiment  from  grave  to  humorous. 
Example. — London  is  noted  for  its  magnificent  buildings,  its  exten- 
sive shipping,  and— its  dexterous  pick-pockets. 

3.  A  sudden  interruption. 

Example.—"  You  know  my  feelings ;  you  know—"  "  Hold  !  "  inter- 
rupted my  friend. 

4.  Hesitation. 

Example.— Such  a  man  is  a— a— I  know  not  what  to  call  him. 

5.  An  abrupt  or  exclamatory  repetition. 

Example. — Such  was  the  testimony  of  Solomon — Solomon  who  had 
all  the  pleasures  of  the  world  at  his  command. 
A  dash  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  omission  of  letters, 

figures  or  words. 

Example.— In  the  year  iS— ,  I  stopped  over  night  at  the  village  of 
G . 

A  dash  after  other  points  makes  them  indicate  a  greater  de- 
gree of  separation  than  they  generally  denote. 

Parentheses.  Marks  of  Parentheses  are  used  to  enclose 
words  which  explain,  modify  or  add  to  the  main  proposition, 
when  so  introduced  as  to  break  the  connection  between  de- 
pendent parts  and  interfere  with  the  harmonious  flow. 

Example.— The  Saxons  (for  they  descended  from  the  ancient  Sac*) 
retained  for  centuries  the  energy  and  morality  of  their  ancestors! 


■*£ 


Al 


^ 


ps" 


T7 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


27 


If  no  point  would  be  required  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence 
in  case  there  were  no  parenthesis,  then  no  points  should  be 
used  at  that  place  in  addition  to  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 

Example. — He  (the  aforesaid  defendant)  was  ignorant  of  this  matter. 

If  a  point  would  be  required  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence, 
in  case  no  parenthesis  were  there,  then,  when  the  parenthesis  is 
inserted,  said  point  sho.:ld  be  also  inserted,  and  should  be 
placed  after  the  second  mark  of  parenthesis. 

Example. — Pride,  in  some  disguise  or  other  (often  a  secret  to  the 
proud  man  himself),  is  the  most  ordinary  spring  of  action. 

When  a  complete  sentence  or  complete  sentences  are  enclos- 
ed in  marks  of  parenthesis,  they  should  be  punctuated  the  same 
as  if  not  thus  enclosed,  and  the  last  point  of  punctuation  should 
come  before  the  last  mark  of  parenthesis. 

Brackets.  Brackets  are  used  principally  in  quoted  pas- 
sages, to  enclose  words  improperly  omitted  or  added  by  way 
of  correction,  observation  or  explanation. 

Example. — She  is  weary  with  [of]  life. 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  points  before  and  after  the  brackets, 
and  the  punctuation  of  any  sentence  or  clause  within  the  brack- 
ets, the  same  rules  apply  that  have  been  given  in  regard  to  the 
marks  of  parenthesis. 

The  Apostrophe  denotes  the  omission  of  a  letter  or 
letters,  and  the  possessive  case  of  nouns. 

Examples. — 'Tis  for  /'/  is;  e'en  for  even;  don't  for  do  not;  o'clock  for 
on  [the]  clock.  So  in  the  possessive:  hero's,  Charles',  men's,  heroes', 
children's. 

Pronouns  never  take  the  apostrophe  in  the  possessive  case. 

The  Hyphen  is  used  to  connect  the  elements  of  a  com- 
pound word,  when  each  retains  its  own  accent. 

Example. — Castle-builder,  father-in-law. 

The  hyphen  is  also  used  after  a  complete  syllable  at  the  end 
of  a  line,  to  connect  the  parts  of  a  divided  word ;  also  to  de- 
note that  the  final  vowel  of  a  prefix  does  not  form  a  diphthong 
with  the  first  vowel  of  a  primitive ;  but  in  this  latter  case  a  mark 
of  diaeresis  is  more  appropriate. 

Example.— Pre-engagement,  re-establish  [preengagement, reestab- 
lish.] 

Quotation  Points  are  used  to  enclose  words  quoted 
from  an  author  or  speaker,  or  represented  in  narrative  as  em- 
ployed in  dialogue. 

Example. — "Remember  now  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth." 

When  the  substance  merely  is  given,  and  not  the  exact  words, 
quotation  points  are  unnecessary. 

Matter  within  quotation  points  is  to  be  punctuated  just  as  if 
it  stood  in  any  other  position. 

When  quotation  points  are  needed  at  the  end  of  a  sentence, 
they  come  after  whatever  other  point  is  required  there  if  this 
point  applies  to  the  quotation  alone,  but  before  this  point  if  it 
applies  to  the  whole  sentence  and  not  exclusively  to  the  quo- 
tation. 

Example.— Pilate  asked, "What  is  truth?"  Where  now  is  the  "man 
of  destiny"? 

When  a  quotation  encloses  within  it  another  quotation,  the 
external  quotation  has  the  double  marks,  and  the  one  included 
has  only  the  single  marks. 

Example— It  has  been  well  said,  "The  command,  'Thou  shall  not 
kill,'  forbids  many  crimes  besides  that  of  murder." 

If  the  enclosed  or  secondary  quotation  ends  a  sentence,  three 
apostrophes  will  there  come  together,  of  which  the  first  will  be- 
long to  the  enclosed  quotation,  and  the  other  two  to  the  orig- 


inal. When  an  enclosed  quotation  itself  contains  words  or 
phrases  that  are  quoted,  those  words  or  phrases  have  the  double 
marks. 

Example. — "French  says.'What  a  lesson  the  word  "diligence"  con- 
tains!'" 

When  the  sentence  becomes  more  involved  than  this,  the  ad- 
ditional marks  of  quotation  would  create  confusion,  and  may 
therefore  be  omitted. 

In  some  publications  the  order  of  single  and  double  quota- 
tions is  inverted,  single  quotation  marks  being  used  where  cus- 
tom demands  double  marks,  and  quotations  within  quotations 
being  indicated  by  double  marks. 

The  Pauses. 

The  pauses  that  are  made  in  the  natural  flow  of  speech  have 
in  reality  no  definite  and  invariable  proportions.  Children  are 
often  told  to  pause  at  a  comma  while  they  count  one;  at  a  semi- 
colon, one,  two;  at  a  colon,  one,  two,  three;  at  a  period,  one, 
two,  three,  four.  This  may  be  of  some  use,  as  teaching  them 
to  observe  these  stops  that  they  may  catch  the  sense;  but  the 
standard  itself  is  variable,  and  so  are  the  times  which  good 
sense  gives  to  the  points.  As  a  final  stop,  the  period  is  im- 
measurable. The  following  general  directions  are  as  good  as 
any  that  can  be  given  : 

The  comma  denotes  the  shortest  pause;  the  semicolon,  a 
pause  double  that  of  the  comma ;  the  colon,  a  pause  double 
that  of  the  semi-colon ;  and  the  period,  or  full-stop,  a  pause 
double  that  of  the  colon.  The  pauses  required  by  the  other 
marks  vary  according  to  the  structure  of  the  sentence  and 
their  place  in  it. 

Other  Marks. 

The  Ellipsis,  or  Suppression,  denotes  the  omission 
of  some  letters  or  words. 

Examples.— ¥L — g,  for  king ;  G  *  *  *  *  m,  for  Graham ;  A  ....  s,  for 
Adams;  H — m — hr — y,  for  Humphrey. 

The   Caret,  used  only  in  writing,  shows  where  to  insert 
words  or  letters  that  have  been  accidentally  omitted, 
would 

Example. — James  said  he  a  be  home  to-night. 

The  Index,  or  Hand  [J®*],  points  out  something  re- 
markable, or  what  the  reader  should  particularly  observe. 

The  Brace  [. — ' — ,]  serves  to  unite  a  triplet,  or  to  connect 
several  terms  to  something  to  which  they  are  all  related. 

Examples. — 

1  Nominative.  f  W.  Brown. 

CHob]™'  Committee       £&. 

I  M.  Mills. 

The  Section  [J]  marks  the  smaller  divisions  of  a  book  or 
chapter,  and,  with  the  help  of  numbers,  serves  to  abridge  ref- 
erences. 

The  Paragraph  [1f]  denotes  the  commencement  of  a 
new  subject.  The  parts  of  discourse  which  are  called  paragraphs 
are  in  general  sufficiently  distinguished  by  beginning  a  new  line 
and  carrying  the  first  word  a  little  backwards. 

iLeaderS  [ ]  are  used  in  contents  and  indexes  of 

books  and  similar  matter  to  lead  the  eye  to  the  end  of  the  line 
for  the  completion  of  the  sense. 

Example. — Wharfage, 55°- 


/ 


V 


28 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Vr 


The  Asterisk,  or  Star  [*],  the  Obelisk,  or  Dagger 
[f],  the  Diesis,  or  Double  Dagger  [J],  and  the  Par- 
allels [||],  refer  to  marginal  notes  or  explanations  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  page.     They  are  marks  of  reference. 

The  Asterism,  or  Three  Stars  [*»*],  a  sign  not  very 
often  used,  is  placed  before  a  long  or  general  note  to  mark  t  as 
a  note  without  giving  it  a  particular  reference. 

Accent  Marks. 

The  accent  marks  are  used  to  denote  the  proper  pronunciation 
of  words.    They  are: 

The  Acute  [ '],  which  marks  the  syllable  which  requires  (he 
principal  stress  in  pronunciation  ;  or  to  denote  a  rising  inflection 
of  the  voice,  or  a  close  or  short  vowel. 

The  Grave  [v  ]  is  used  in  opposition  to  the  acute  to  distin- 
guish an  open  or  long  vowel,  or  to  denote  the  falling  inflection 
of  the  voice. 

The  Circumflex  ["]  generally  denotes  a  broad  sound  or 
a  combination  of  the  acute  and  grave. 

The  Breve  ["]  is  used  to  denote  either  a  close  vowel  or  a 
syllable  of  short  quantity. 


The  Macron  [-]  is  used  to  denote  either  an  open  vowel   • 

or  a  syllable  of  long  quantity. 

The  Diaeresis  ["]  is  placed  over  the  latter  of  two  vowels 
to  show  they  are  to  be  pronounced  in  separate  syllables ;  as, 
aerial.  In  German  this  character  is  called  the  Cnilaut,  and 
denotes  a  modification  of  the  sound  of  a  vowel  over  which  it  is 
placed,  peculiar  to  the  Germanic  languages. 

The  Cedilla  [,]  is  placed  under  the  letter  c  to  give  it  the 
sound  of  s  before  a  or  o ;  as  in  the  words  fecade,  Alencon. 

The  Tilde  [  "]  is  placed  over  the  letter  «  in  Spanish  words 
to  give  it  the  sound  of  ny ;  as,  sefior,  miiion. 

Emphasis. 

Emphasis,  or  prominence  to  certain  words  or  sentences,  should 
be  designated  by  the  writer  by  underscoring  the  words  or 
phrases  to  be  emphasized.  One  line  indicates  italics ;  two  lines, 
small  capitals;  three  lines,  large  capitals;  four  lines,  italic 
capitals. 

Example.— Strike!  strike  1  strike  I  strike!  strike!  for  freedom! 


This  would  appear  in  print  thus : 

Strike!  strike!  strike!  STRIKE!  STRIKE!  for  freedom! 


-*-  ETYMOLOGY. 


.<!'-- 
-^.,— 


Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of 
speech  with  their  classes  and  modifications. 
To  express  our  thoughts  we  use  nine  classes  of 
words,  called  the  Parts  of  Speech.  These 
nine  parts  of  speech  are  called  Article,  Noun, 
Adjective,  Pronoun,  Verb,  Adverb,  Conjunc- 
tion, Preposition  and  Interjection. 

The  Parts  of  Speech. 

The  Article  is  the  word  the,  a  or  an,  which  points  out,  de- 
fines or  limits  a  noun  ;  as,  the  air,  an  island,  a  ship. 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place  or  thing  that 
can  be  known  or  mentioned ;  as,  George,  York,  man,  apple, 
truth. 

An  Adlective  is  a  word  which  qualifies  a  noun ;  as,  a 
wise  man,  a  new  book. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun;  as,  the 
boy  loves  his  book;  he  has  long  lessons,  and  he  learns  them 
well. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act  or  to  be  acted 
upon  ;  as,  I  am,  I  rule,  I  am  ruled;  I  love,  thou  lovest,  he 
loves. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  which  modifies  a  verb,  adverb  or  ad- 
jective ;  as,  they  are  now  Here,  studying  very  diligently. 


A  Conjunction  is  a  word  which  joins  words  and  sen- 
tences together ;  as,  Thou  and  he  are  happy,  because  you  are 
good. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  relation  of 
different  things  or  thoughts  to  each  other ;  as,  The  paper  lies  be- 
fore me  on  the  desk. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  that  is  uttered  merely  to  in- 
dicate some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind;  as,  Oh! 
alas!  avaunt .' 

Some  Rules  of  Grammar. 

Parsing  is  the  revolving  or  explaining  of  a  sentence  or  of 
some  sckclcil  word  or  words,  according  to  the  definitions  and 
rules  of  grammar. 

A  Sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words  making  complete 
sense;  as,  Reward  '-urikns  labor. 

A  Definition  of  anything  or  class  of  things  is  such  a  de- 
scription of  it  as  distinguishes  that  entire  thing  or  class  from 
everything  else,  by  briefly  telling  what  it  is. 

A  Rule  of  Grammar  is  some  law,  more  or  less  gen- 
eral, by  which  OTtom  regulates  and  prescribes  the  right  use  of 
language. 

A  Praxis  is  a  method  of  exercise  showing  the  learner  how 
to  proceed. 

An  Example  is  a  particular  in*tance  or  model  serving  to 
prove  or  illustrate  some  given  proposition  or  truth. 


-7 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


29 


An  Exercise  is  some  technical  performance  required  of 
the  learner  in  order  to  test  his  knowledge  or  skill  by  use. 

The  article  an  is  used  instead  of  a  before  words  beginning 
with  a  vowel  or  a  silent  h. 

A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  that  may  be  applied  to 
all  objects  of  the  same  kind;  as,  boy,  nation,  country. 

A  Proper  Noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  object 
which  cannot  be  applied  to  all  others  of  the  same  kind;  as, 
Richard,  Peru. 

A  Collective  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  body  of  individual 
living  objects  ;  as,  nation,  mob,  herd. 

An  Abstract  >ouu  is  tne  name  of  a  quality  or  property; 
&B,obstinacy,  benevolence. 

A  Participial  Noun  is  the  name  of  an  action  or  state, 
ending  in  ing ;  as,  Seeing  is  believing. 

A  Diminutive  Noun  is  the  name  of  something  of  its 
kind,  derived  from  a  primitive  by  the  addition  of  a  suffix. 
Diminutives  are  formed  with  the  suffixes  kin,  let,  ling,  ock,  ule, 
cule,  cle,  icte,  et  or  aster,  meaning  a  little.  Streamlet,  a  little 
stream;  gosling,  a  young  goose;  animalcule,  a  little  animal, 
are  diminutives. 

In  the  gender  of  some  nouns  the  feminine  is  formed  by  ap- 
pending the  suffix  ess,  ine,  iua,  ix  or  a  to  the  masculine ;  as, 
abbot,  abbess;  hero,  heroine;  czar,  czarina:  testator,  testatrix; 
sultan,  sultana. 

Plural  of  Nouns. 

The  Plural  of  most  nouns  is  formed  by  adding  i  to  the 
singular;  as,  hat,  hats;  number,  numbers. 

Nouns  ending  in  s,  sh,  x,  z,  and  ch  soft,  form  their  plural  by 
adding  es;  as,  dish,  dishes;  gas,  gases;  waltz,  waltzes;  tax, 
taxes;  church,  churches. 

Nouns  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  the  / 
into  ies;  as, fly,  flies;  obloquy,  obloquies. 

Nouns  ending  in  i,  o  or  u,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  take  tt 
m  the  plural ;  as,  alkali,  alkalies ;  cargo,  cargoes ;  gnu,  gnues. 
Exceptions,  canto,  duodecimo,  grotto,  junto,  lasso,  major- 
domo,  memento,  octavo,  portico,  quarto,  sorocco,  solo  and  typo, 
which  form  the  plural  by  adding  s. 

The  following  nouns  ending  in  /  and  fe  form  the  plural  by 
changing/- or/*  \s\\aves:  Beef,  leaf,  sheaf,  thief,  loaf,  calf,  half, 
elf,  self,  shelf,  wolf,  life,  knife,  wife;  thus,  beeves,  leaves, 
wives,  etc  Wharf  makes  both  wharfs  and  wharves.  Staff, 
a  cane,  makes  staffs  and  staves. 

Some  nouns  are  irregular  in  the  plural;  as,  child,  children; 
tooth,  teeth  ;  mousv,  mice. 

The  following  nouns  have  both  a  regular  and  an  irregular 
plural,  with  different  meanings: 

Brother,      brothers  (of  a  family) ;  brethren  (01  a  society). 

Die,  dies  (stamps  for  coining);       dice  (cubes  for  gaming). 

Genius,        geniuses  (men  of  genius) ;      genii  (spirits). 
Index,  indexes  (tables  of  contents)  ;  indices  (algebraic  exponents) 

Pea,  peas  (distinct  grains)  ;  pease  (taken  in  bulk). 

Penny,         pennies  (distinct  coins) ;  pence  (an  amountot  money). 

Compound  nouns,  to  form  their  plural,  generally  vary  their 
principal  element;  as,  step-son,  step-sons;  sister-in-law,  sisters- 
in-law;  cousin-german  coustns-german ;  knight-errant, 
knights-errant. 


The  following  compounds  vary  both  elements ; 

Man-child,  men-children ;  man-servant,  men-servants ;  man- 
singer,  1'ien-singers  ;  woman-servant,  women-servants  ;  woman- 
singer,  women-singers;  knight-templar,  knights-templars; 
knighl-daronet,  knights-baronets;  knight-hospitaller,  knights- 
hospitallers. 

Rules  for  the  Plural  of  Foreign  Nouns. 

In  forming  foreign  plurals  the  following  rales  apply:  The  ter- 
mination 

A  becomes  jE,  sometimes  Ata  :  larva,  larva ;  miasma, 
miasmata. 

Is  becomes  Es,  sometimes  Ides :  asis,  axes;  apsis,  ap- 
sides. 

Us  becomes  I  :  magus,  magi;  but,  genus,  genera. 

Uin  and  On  become  A:  datum,  data;  phenomenon, 
phenomena. 

Ex  and  Ix  become  Ices  .  vortex,  vortices;  helix,  helices. 

O  becomes  1 :  virtuoso,  virtuosi. 

Errors  in  Speech. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  go  into  all  the  mmutise 
ar.d  details  of  grammatical  rules,  but  the  following  rules  and 
examples  will  show  the  reader  how  to  avoid  the  common  and 
most  glaring  errors  in  the  use  of  language.  These  rules 
come  under  four  divisions :  the  improper  arrangement  of  words ; 
improper  words  or  expressions ;  too  few  words,   and  too  many 

I   words.   A  careful  scrutiny  of  the  examples  quoted  below  will  be 

|   of  great  benefit  to  the  reader. 

These  rules  belong  mainly  to  that  division  of  Grammar  term- 

I  ed  Syntax,  which  means  putting  together,  and  which  is  that 
part  of  Grammar  which  treats  of  the  relations  and  arrangements 
of  words  put  together.  The  rules  that  bear  on  these  relations 
are  called  the  Rules  of  Syntax.  Violations  of  these 
rules  are  called  False  Syntax. 

AVOiD  THESE  ERRORS: 

I.  Do  not  say,  "They  said  they  could  run  faster  than  me;"  bat, 
"They  said  they  could  run  faster  than  I."  Me  must  be  changed  to  1, 
because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  could  run  understood. 

a.  Do  not  say,  "  Oh,  blissful  hour,  and  thrice  blessed  us  that  see 
ft;"  but,  "Oh,  blissful  hour,  and  thrice  blessed  we  that  see  it."  Us 
must  be  changed  to  -we,  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  used  inde- 
pendently. 

3.  When  there  are  several  modifying  substantives,  they  are  all  in  the 
possessive  case.  If  they  separately  modiiy  different  nouns,  each  has 
the  sign  of  the  possessive.  If  they  jointly  modify  the  same  noun,  the 
possessive  sign  is  annexed  only  to  the  last.  If  John,  George  and 
Henry  have  different  fathers,  I  say:  "John's,  George's  and  Henry's 
fathers  have  arrived;"  that  is,  John's  father,  George's  father  and 
Henry's  father.  If  they  are  brothers,  I  say.  "John,  George  and 
Henry's  father  has  arrived."  John  and  George  are  in  the  possessive 
case;  but  as  all  these  substantives  jointly  modify  the  same  noun, 
father  expressed,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  annexed  to  the  last  only. 

4.  A  succession  of  possessives  is  inelegant.  Do  not  say,  "Our 
minister's  son's  partner's  brother-in-law's  store;"  but,  "The  store 
belonging  to  the  brother- in  -law  of  the  partner  of  our  minister's  son." 

5.  The  possessive  case  and  of  witn  the  objective  are  not  always 
equivalent.  Thus,  "  Tin  Lord's  day  is  Sunday;  but  the  day  of  the  Lord 
is  the  day  of  judgment.'*  We  may  speak  of  the  flower  of  the  field,  but 
not  of  the  field's  flower. 


/ 


-tTV 


3° 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


; 


6.  Be  careful  not  to  use  too  many  words.  Do  not  say,  "  Consider 
of  my  offer; "  but,  "  Consider  my  offer."  Also,  not  "  He  will  soon  re- 
pent him  of  his  crime ;  "  but,  "  He  will  soon  repent  of  his  crime." 

7.  Do  not  use  too  few  words.  Do  not  say:  "  Beware  the  tempter;  " 
but,  "  Beware  of  the  tempter." 

8.  Avoid  making  the  same  word  the  object  of  a  verb  and  preposi- 
tion, or  of  two  prepositions,  separated  by  intervening  words.  "  They 
not  only  themselves  vigorously  prosecuted,  but  called  on  their  allies 
to  aid  them  in,  the  war."  Correct  thus :  "  They  not  only  themselves 
prosecuted  the  war,  but  called  on  their  allies  for  aid." 

9.  Some  verbs  arc  frequently  followed  by  two  objectives.  "We 
promised  the  best  speaker  a  prize."  "  Will  you  buy  me  a  telescope." 
If  the  objects  are  transposed  a  preposition  is  inserted.  "  Will  you  buy 
a  telescope/or  me."     "  We  promised  a  prize  to  the  best  speaker." 

10.  When  such  constructions  arc  thrown  into  the  passive  form,  the 
object  of  the  verb,  and  not  that  of  the  Deposition,  must  Be  made  the 
subject;  as,  "A  prize  was  promised  to  the  best  speaker."  Not,  "  The 
best  speaker  was  promised  a  prize." 

u.  To  is  omitted  before  home,  north,  south,  etc.,  when  not  modified 
by  other  words,  but  expressed  when  they  are  modified  ;  as,  "  He  went 
home,  north,  south."  But,  "  He  went  to  his  home,  to  the  north,  to 
the  south." 

11.  Be  careful  In  the  use  of  -who  and  whom.  Do  not  say,  "  Who 
should  I  trust?  "  but,  "  Whom  should  I  trust?" 

13.  Do  not  say,  "It  was  me;"  but,  "It  was  I."  After  the  verb  to 
be  the  pronoun  must  be  in  the  nominative.  Thus  again:  "Did  you 
suppose  it  was  I  ?  "  not,  "  Did  you  suppose  it  was  me."  "  It  is  he ; " 
not,  "  It  is  him." 

14.  Be  careful  to  use  the  correct  number  and  person  of  the  pronoun. 
Do  not  say,  "One  cannot  collect  their  thoughts;"  but,  "One  can- 
not  collect  his  thoughts."  Say:  "  I  have  lost  the  scissors  ;  have  you 
seen  them?  "     Not,  "  have  you  seen  it  ?" 

15.  After  a  superlative  use  that  instead  of  who;  as,  "  Hannibal  was 
the  deadliest  enemy  that  Rome  ever  had." 

16.  Never  use  which  to  apply  to  persons  except  as  an  interrogative. 
Thus,  "The  man  whom  I  met;"  not,  "The  man  which  I  met." 

17.  Do  not  use  the  pronoun  them  for  the  adjective  those.  "You 
might  have  saved  those  trees;"  not,  "You  might  have  saved  them 
trees." 

iS.  Say,  this  sort  of  men;  not,  these  sort,  because  sort  is  singular. 
These  tidings;  not,  this  tidings. 

19.  This  here  and  these  'ere,  that  there  and  those  'ere  are  gross  errors, 
Correct  by  omitting  the  adverbs.     This  boy;  not,  this  here  boy. 

20.  Say,  "By  this  means;"  not,  "  By  these  means."  Means  is 
singular. 

ii.  Adjectives  whose  meaning  precludes  the  idea  of  comparison 
must  not  be  compared.  Do  not  say,  the  chief  est  beauty,  a  truer  state- 
ment, so  faultless  a  character,  the  fartherest  house,  a  more  nearer 
view,  the  least  surest  course.  Correct  thus :  the  chief  beauty,  a  more 
correct  statement,  a  character  so  nearly  faultless,  the  farthest  house, 
a  nearer  view,  the  least  wise  course. 

it.  After  the  comparative  degree,  use  other  with  the  latter  of  the 
terms  compared  if  it  includes  the  former,  and  only  then.  "  The  Ama- 
zon is  longer  than  any  river."  Correct:  "  The  Amazon  is  longer  than 
any  other  river."  Otherwise  we  assert,  the  Amazon  being  a  river,  that 
it  is  longer  than  itself. 

33.  An  adjective  In  the  comparative  or  superlative  must  precede  an 
adjective  modified  by  more  or  most  relating  to  the  same  noun.  Do  not 
say:  "A  more  interesting  and  larger  volume;"  but,  "A  larger  and 
more  interesting  volume." 

34.  lie  sure  that  the  verb  agrees  with  the  right  word.  When  it  is  sep- 
aratcd  from  its  subject  by  an  intervening  substantive,  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  make  it  agree  with  the  latter.  "A  succession  of  excite- 
merits  are  sure  to  distract  the  mind  from  study."  Wrong,  because 
succession  Is  the  subject,  and  not  excitements,  which  is  the  object  of 
the  preposition  of.  "A  succession  of  excitements  is,"  etc.,  is  correct. 
So,  "  Your  vessel,  together  with  twelve  others,  have  arrived."  It 
.Oi.'uUI  be,  "  Your  vessel,  together  with  twelve  others,  has,"  etc.  So, 
"This  confusion  of  ideas  in  educated  minds  is  [not  are]  to  be  deplored."' 


YL 


25.  Do  not  use,  "  Says  I ;  ■  but,  "  Say  I." 

26.  Do  not  say  has  went  for  has  gone;  havingwrote  for  having  writ- 
ten;  I  seen  for  /saw;  I  done  for  /  did. 

27.  Avoid  corrupt  forms.  Among  the  most  common  of  these  are  had 
have  for  had;  hadn't  ought  for  ought  not;  Tm  a  mind  for  /  have  a 
mind;  arn't  for  are  not;  moughtn't  for  might  not,  etc. 

aS.  The  preposition  for  must  not  be  used  immediately  before  an  in- 
finitive. Do  not  say :  N  He  is  trying  hard /or  to  enter  college ; "  but, 
■  He  is  trying  hard  to  enter  college." 

29.  The  preposition  of  should  not  be  introduced  between  a  partici- 
ple and  its  object.  Do  not  say,  "by  erecting  of  statues;"  but,  "by 
erecting  statues."  Not,  "  for  controlling  of  elections;"  but,  control- 
ling elections."  It  is  sometimes  proper,  however,  to  use  of  when  the 
participle  is  preceded  by  the. 

30.  Do  not  use  how,  as  how,  or  how  that,  for  the  conjunction  that. 
"She  said  as  how  she  would  come."  "Have  a  care  how  you  listen  to 
the  tempter."  Correct  thus:  "She  said  that  she  would  come." 
"  Have  a  care  that  you  do  not  listen  to  the  tempter." 

31.  Do  not  use  two  negatives.  Do  not  say :  "  I  did  not  do  nothing;  " 
but,  "I  did  not  do  anything;'*  or,  "I  did  nothing."  Not,  "It  makes 
no  difference  to  you  nor  me;"  but,  "  It  makes  no  difference  to  you  or 
mi:." 

32.  Care  must  be  taken  to  place  only  and  not  only  next  to  the  word 
or  words  they  are  Intended  to  modify.  Otherwise  they  give  a  wrong 
impression  of  the  meaning.  If  I  say,  "  He  only  hires  the  store,"  only 
modifies  hire,  and  the  impression  conveyed  is  that  another  verb  will 
follow.  He  only  hires  the  store,  he  docs  not  own  it.  If  I  say:  "  He 
hires  only  the  store,"  only  modifies  store,  and  the  meaning  is,  he  hires 
the  store,  but  nothing  else — not  the  rest  of  the  house. 

33.  Do  not  use  an  adjective  for  an  adverb.  Donotsay:  "He  writes 
elegant;"  but,  "He  writes  elegantly." 

34.  After  certain  verbs  by  is  used  before  a  word  denoting  an  agent 
or  living  object,  with  before  a  word  denoting  an  instrument  or  inani- 
mate object.  We  say,  accompanied  by  his  friends,  accompanied  with 
illustrations;  attended  by  a  servant,  attended  with  evil  consequences; 
illustrated  by  an  artist,  illustrated  with  engravings;  killed  by  an  as- 
sassin, killed  with  a  dagger.     Followed  takes  by  only. 

35.  Do  not  use  if  for  whether— or  but,  but  that  or  test  for  that— after 
the  verbs  doubt,  fear,  deny,  or  their  equivalents.  "Do  you  know  if 
[correct  to  whether}  a  train  will  start  this  evening."  "  Pope  was  ap- 
prehensive lest  [say  that]  his  meaning  might  be  mistaken."  "Nobody 
can  deny  but  that  [say  that]  experience  is  the  best  teacher." 

36.  Ite  cartful  to  use  nor,  not  or,  as  the  correlative  of  neither. 
"Neither  youth  nor  [not  or]  innocence  availed  as  a  protection." 

37.  Re  careful  to  use  so.t..ast  not  as.,,.ast  after  a  negative  denying 
equality  of  degree.  "  Few  cities  were  so  [not  as]  magnificent  as  Bab- 
ylon." 

38.  Do  not  add  a  pronoun  to  Its  antecedent  when  the  antecedent 
alone  would  express  its  meaning.  Do  not  say,  "  J  ames  he  said ; "  but, 
"James  said." 

39.  Avoid  double  comparatives  and  superlatives.  "The  most  hap- 
f>ii-st  day  of  my  life."     Correct:   "The  happiest  day." 

40.  Avoid  tautology  or  the  recurrence  of  the  same  word  or  expres- 
sion. "  The  man  that  I  met  that  was  lame."  Say:  "  The  man  that  I 
met  who  was  lame. 

41.  Avoid  the  use  of  improper  words.  Do  not  say:  "He  is  laying 
down;"  but,  "  He  is  lying  down."  Not:  "We  **•/  up;"  hut,  "We 
Ml  up."  Not:  "Learn  me;"  but,  "  Tear h  me."  Not:  "I  k  mowed 
It;"  but,  "  I  inewit."  Not:  "The  coat  sets  well ;  "  hut,  "  The  coat 
.v;/.«wtl]."  Nut:  "Them  that  expect  nothing;"  but,  "  They  that  expect 
nothing." 

42.  Do  not  say,  "  The  Volga  is  the  longest  of  any  river  In  Europe." 
Omit  of  any  and  correct:  "The  Volga  is  the  longest  river  In 
Europe." 

43.  Apply  who  to  persons,  which  to  things,  and  that  to  both. 

44.  Do  not  say:  "Which  did  you  naymri  the  largest  lake  In  the 
world  ?  "  Say  is.  Present  facts  and  unchangeable  truths  must  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  present  tense. 


-fr. 


K" 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


31 


45.  Avoid  all  improper  modes  of  expressing-  comparison  or  the 
plural  of  nouns.  Do  not  say:  beaut ij 'idlest ;  but,  most  beautiful.  Not 
"  I  saw  three  deers ;  "  but,  "  I  saw  three  deer." 

46.  Avoid  clumsy  use  of  participles.  **Afy  being  sick  was  the  cause 
of  my  being  absent ."  Correct  thus:  "My  sickness  was  the  cause  of 
my  absence." 

47.  Do  not  needlessly  use  the  passive  form  in  verbs.  "  He  is  come ; M 
say,  "  He  lias  come." 

48.  Do  not  use  needless  compound  participles.  "  The  theatres  are 
now  being  open  on  Sundays;"  say,  M  The  theatres  are  now  open  Sun- 
days." 

49.  An  adverb  should  not'be  used  where  a  preposition  and  a  relative 
pronoun  would  better  express  the  relation  of  the  terms.  "A  cause 
where  [say  in  which]  justice  is  so  much  concerned." 

50.  When  verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction  they  must  either 
agree  in  mood,  tense  and  form,  or  have  separate  nominatives  expressed. 
"They  would  neither  g-o  in  themselves,  nor  suffered  [say,  would  suf- 
fer] others  to  enter."     "If  he  understands  his  business,  and  attend 

[say  attends]  to  it,  wherein  is  he  deficient?  " 


FIGURES. 

A  Figure  in  Grammar  is  an  intentional  deviation  from  the 
ordinary  spelling,  formation,  construction  or  application  of 
words. 

There  are,  accordingly,  figures  of  Orthography,  figures  of 
Etymology,  figures  of  Syntax  and  figures  of  Rhetoric. 

When  figures  are  judiciously  employed,  they  both  strengthen 
and  adorn  expression.  They  occur  more  frequently  in  poetry 
than  in  prose,  and  several  of  them  are  merely  poetic  licenses. 

Figures  of  Orthography. 

A  Figure  of  Orthography  is  an  intentional  devia- 
tion from  the  ordinary  or  true  spelling  of  a  word. 

The  principal  figures  of  Orthography  are  two,  namely : 

Mimesis,  or  Mimicry,  a  ludicrous  imitation  of  some 
mistake  or  mispronunciation  of  a  word,  in  which  the  error  is 
mimicked  by  a  false  spelling  or  the  taking  of  one  word  for  an- 
other. 

Example— "Ay,  he  was  pom  at  Monmouth,  Captain  Gower." — 
Shakspere. 

"Jfaisler,  says  he,  have  you  any  wery  good  weal  in  your  valletT" — 
Columbian  Orator. 

This  figure  includes  all  imitations  of  brogues  and  dialects. 

Archaism  is  a  word  or  phrase  expressed  according  to 
ancient  usage,  and  not  according  to  our  modern  orthography. 
Examples. — "  Unpleasing  sight,  I  -ween." 

"  Bow-bent  with  eld,  his  beard  of  snowy  hue." 

Figures  of  Etymology. 

A  Figure  of  Etymology  is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  formation  of  a  word.  The  principal  figures 
of  Etymology  are  eight 

Aphaeresis  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  initial  letters  of 
a  word ;  as,  'gainst,  'gan,  'neath,  for  against,  began,  beneath. 


Prothesis  is  the  prefixing  of  an  expletive  syllable  to  a 
word;  as,  adown,  a/paid,  ikstrown,  evanished,  _yclad,  for  down, 
paid,  strown,  vanished,  clad. 

Syncope  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  middle  letters  of  a 
word ;  as,  tried' cine  for  medicine ;  e'en  for  even  ;  o'er  for  over  ; 
conq'ring  for  conquering ;  se'nnight  for  sevennight. 

Apocope  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  final  letters  of  a 
word ;  as,  tho'  for  though ;  th'  for  the;  t'other  for  the  other. 

ParagOge  is  the  annexing  of  an  expletive  syllable  to  a 
word;  as,  wilhouten  for  without;  deary  for  dear;  Johnny 
for  John. 

Diaeresis  is  the  separating  of  two  vowels  that  might  form 
a  diphthong;  as,  cooperate,  not  cooperate;  aeronaut,  not  aero- 
naut; orthoepy,  not  orthapy. 

Synasresis  is  the  sinking  of  two  syllables  into  one ;  as, 
seest  for  seist;  tacked  for  tack-cd;  drowned  for  drown-ed. 

Tmesis  is  the  inserting  of  a  word  between  the  parts  of  a 
compound;  as,  "On  which  side  soever;"  "Toms  ward;"  "To 
God  ward." 

Figures  of  Syntax. 

A  Figure  of  Syntax  is  an  intentional  deviation  from 
the  ordinary  construction  of  words.  The  principal  figures  of 
Syntax  are  seven. 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  some  word  or  words  which  are 
necessary  to  complete  the  construction,  but  not  necessary  to 
convey  the  meaning.  Such  words  are  said  to  be  understood, 
because  they  are  received  as  belonging  to  the  sentence  though 
they  are  not  uttered ;  as,  "A  man  and  [a]  woman  ; "  "  The  com- 
mon [/aw]  and  the  statute  law;"  "I  love  [him]  and  [/]  fear 
him  ;  "  "  The  active  commonly  do  more  than  they  are  bound  to 
do;  the  indolent  [commonly  do]  less  [than  they  are  bound 
to  do]. 

ApOSCOpesiS  is  the  leaving  of  something  unsaid;  as, 
"  Whom  /—but  first  'tis  best  the  billows  to  restrain." 

Zeugma  is  the  referring  of  a  word  to  two  different  ones 
which  in  strict  syntax  can  agree  with  only  one  of  them  ;  as,  "  In 
him  who  is,  or  him  who  finds  a  friend." 

Pleonasm  is  the  introduction  of  superfluous  words ;  as, 
"He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear ; "  "I  know  thee  who 
thou  art;"  "All  ye  inhabitants  of  the  world,  and  dwellers  on 
the  earth." 

Syllepsis  is  agreement  formed  according  to  the  figurative 
sense  of  a  word,  or  the  mental  conception  of  the  thing  spoken 
of,  and  not  according  to  the  literal  or  common  use  of  the  term  ; 
it  is  therefore,  in  general,  connected  with  some  figure  of  Rhet- 
oric ;  as,  "The  IVordv/as  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us,  and 
we  beheld  his  glory."  "Then  Philip  went  down  to  the  city  of 
Samaria  and  preached  Christ  unto  them." 

Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  of  one  modi- 
fication, for  another ;  as,  "  You  know  that  you  are  Brutus  that 
speak  this ; "  "  Destruction's  gates  at  once  unlock." 

Hyperhaton  is  the  transposition  of  words;  as,  "He 
wanders  earth  around." 


IT 


32 


COMPOSITION. 


■^cyjyk- 


^Composition.  • 


low  to  Write  tr^e   Qnalisr}   Qanauaae  Oorrectl 


I^VERY  educated  person  desires  to  write 
f,  well,  and  with  some  elegance  of  diction. 
Accuracy  in  the  arrangement  of  words 
and  the  ready  and  ccrrect  expression  of 
them  in  written  language  is  not  only  a 
desirable  but  a  needful  attainment. 
This  is  taught  by  Composition. 
Style  is  the  particular  manner  in  which  a 
person  expresses  his  conceptions  by  means  of 
language.  It  is  different  from  mere  words,  and 
is  not  to  be  regulated  altogether  by  rules  of 
construction.  It  always  has  some  relation  to 
the  author's  peculiar  manner  of  thinking,  and, 
being  that  sort  of  expression  which  his  thoughts 
most  readily  assume,  sometimes  partakes  not 
only  of  what  is  characteristic  of  the  man,  but 
even  of  national  peculiarity.  The  words  which 
an  author  employs  may  be  proper  and  so  con- 
structed as  to  violate  no  rule  of  syntax,  and 
yet  his  style  may  have  great  faults. 

To  designate  the  general  characters  of  style, 
such  epithets  as  concise,  diffuse — neat,  negli- 
gent— nervous,  feeble — simple,  affected — easy, 
stiff — perspicuous,  obscure — elegant,  florid — 
are  employed.  A  considerable  diversity  of 
style  may  be  found  in  compositions  all  equally 
excellent  in  their  kind.  And,  indeed,  different 
subjects,  as  well  as  the  different  endowments  by 
which  genius  is  distinguished,  require  this  divers- 
ity. But  in  forming  his  style  the  learner  should 
remember  that  a  negligent,  feeble,  affected, 
stiff  or  obscure  style  is  always  faulty,  and  that 
perspicuity,  ease,  simplicity,  strength  and  neat- 
ness are  qualities  always  to  be  aimed  at. 


/' 


In  order  to  acquire  a  good  style,  the  frequent 
practice  of  composing  and  writing  something 
is  indispensably  necessary.  Without  exercise 
and  diligent  attention,  rules  or  precepts  for  the 
attainment  of  this  object  will  be  of  no  avail. 
When  the  learner  has  acquired  such  a  knowl- 
edge of  grammar  as  to  be  in  some  degree  qual- 
ified for  the  undertaking,  he  should  devote  a 
stated  portion  of  his  time  to  composition.  This 
exercise  will  bring  the  powers  of  his  mind  into 
requisition  in  a  way  that  is  well  calculated  to 
strengthen  them.  And  if  he  has  opportunity 
for  reading,  he  may,  by  a  diligent  perusal  of  the 
best  authors,  acquire  both  language  and  taste, 
as  well  as  sentiment;  and  these  three  are  the 
essential  qualifications  of  a  good  writer. 

In  regard  to  the  qualities  which  constitute  a 
good  style,  we  can  here  offer  no  more  than  a 
few  brief  hints.  With  respect  to  words  and 
phrases,  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to 
purity,  propriety  and  precision;  and  with 
respect  to  sentences,  to  perspicuity,  unity 
and  strength.  Under  each  of  these  heads  we 
shall  arrange,  in  the  form  of  short  precepts,  a 
few  of  the  most  important  directions  for  the 
forming  of  style. 

Of  Purity. 

Purity  of  style  consists  in  the  use  of  only  such  words  and 
phrases  as  belong  to  the  language  which  we  write  or  speak. 

I,  Avoid  the  unnecessary  use  of  (preign  words  or  idioms ; 
as,  fraichtur,  hauteur,  dclicattsst,  politesse ;  he  repented  him- 
self;  it  senes  to  an  excellent  purpose. 

a.  Avoid,  on  ordinary  occasions,  obsolete  or  antiquated 
words  ;  as,  whilom,  erewhile,  albeit,  aforetime,  methinkt, 

3.  Avoid  strange  or  unauthorized  words ;  as,  Jiutteration, 
unspectator,  judgematical,  electerixtd. 


l& 


' 


COMPOSITION. 


33 


"7f 


4.  Avoid  bombast,  or  affectation  of  fine  writing.  It  is 
ridiculous,  however  serious  the  subject ;  as,  "Personifications, 
however  rich  the  depictions,  and  unconstrained  their  latitude ; 
analysis,  however  imposing  the  objects  of  parallel  and  the 
media  of  comparison :  can  never  expose  the  consequences  of 
sin  to  the  extent  of  fact,  or  the  range  of  demonstration." 

Of  Propriety. 

Propriety  of  language  consists  in  the  selection  and  right  con- 
struction of  such  words  as  the  best  usage  has  appropriated  to 
those  ideas  which  we  intend  to  express. 

1.  Avoid  low  and  provincial  expressions ;  such  as,  "says 
I,"  "thinks  I  to  myself,"  "to  get  into  a  scrap"  "Stay  here 
while  I  return." 

2.  In  writing  prose,  avoid  words  or  phrases  that  are  nearly 
poetical;    such  as  morn,   eve,  plaint,  lone,  amid,  oft,  steepy. 

3.  Avoid  technical  terms,  except  where  they  are  necessary 
in  treating  of  a  particular  art  or  science.  In  technology  they 
are  proper. 

4.  Avoid  the  recurrence  of  words  in  the  different  senses,  or 
such  repetitionof  words  as  denotes  paucity  of  language;  as,"His 
own  reason  might  have  suggested  better  reasons"  "  Gregory 

favored  the  undertaking  for  no  other  reason  than  this :  the 
manager,  in  countenance,  favored  his  friend."  "  I  want  to  go 
and  see  what  he  wants." 

5.  Supply  words  that  are  wanting.  Thus,  instead  of  saying, 
"This  action  increased  his  former  success,"  say,  "This  action 
increased  the  merit  of  his  former  success." 

6.  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  expressions ;  as,  "  His  mem- 
ory shall  be  lost  on  the  earth."  "  I  long  since  learned  to  like 
nothing  but  what  you  do." 

7.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  expressions  ;  as,  "I 
have  observed  that  the  superiority  among  these  coffee-house 
politicians  proceeds  from  an  opinion  of  gallantry  and  fashion." 
"  These  words  do  not  convey  even  an  opaque  idea  of  the 
author's  meaning." 

8.  Observe  the  natural  order  of  things  and  events  and  do 
not  put  the  cart  before  the  horse ;  as,  "  The  scribes  taught  and 
studied  the  law  of  Moses."  "  They  can  neither  return  to  nor 
leave  their  houses."  "He  tumbled,  head  over  heels,  into  the 
water." 

Of  Precision. 

Precision  consists  of  avoiding  all  superfluous  words  and  adapt- 
ing the  expression  exactly  to  the  thought,  so  as  to  exhibit  neither 
more  nor  less  than  is  intended  by  the  author. 

1.  Avoid  a  useless  tautology,  either  of  expression  or  senti- 
ment; as,  "return  again;  return  back  again;  converse 
together  ;  rise  up  ;  fall  down  ;  enter  in  ;  a  mutual  likeness  to  each 
ether;  the  latter  end ;  liquid  streams  ;  grateful  thanks ;  the  last 
cf  all;  throughout  the  whole  book."  "  Wherever  I  go,  he  al- 
ways  meets  me  there."  "Where  is  he  at?"  "  In  there."  "Noth- 
ing else  but  that."  "It  is  odious  and  hateful"  "His  faith- 
fulness and  fidelity  should  be  rewarded." 

2.  Observe  the  exact  meaning  of  words  accounted  synonym- 
ous, and  employ  those  which  are  the  most  suitable ;  as,  "A 
diligent  scholar  may  acquire  knowledge,  gain  celebrity,  obtain 
rewards,  win  prizes  and  get  high  honor,  though  he  earn  no 


money."    These  six  verbs  have  nearly  the  same  meaning,  and 
yet  they  cannot  well  be  changed. 

Of  Perspicuity. 

Perspicuity  consists  in  freedom  from  obscurity  or  ambiguity. 
It  is  a  quality  so  essential  in  every  kind  of  writing  that  for  the 
want  of  it  no  mciit  can  atone.  "Without  it,"  says  Blair,  "the 
richest  ornaments  of  style  only  glimmer  through  the  dark,  and 
puzzle  instead  of  pleasing  the  reader."  Perspicuity,  being  the 
most  important  property  of  language,  and  an  exemption  from 
the  most  embarrassing  defects,  seems  even  to  rise  to  a  degree 
of  positive  beauty.  We  are  naturally  pleased  with  a  style  that 
frees  us  from  all  suspense  in  regard  to  the  meaning ;  that 
"carries  us  through  the  subject  without  embarrassment  or  con- 
fusion, and  that  always  flows  like  a  limpid  stream,  through 
which  we  can  see  to  the  very  bottom." 

1.  Place  adjectives,  relative  pronouns,  participles,  adverbs 
and  explanatory  phrases  as,  near  as  possible  to  the  words  to 
which  they  relate,  and  in  such  a  situation  as  the  sense  requires. 
The  following  sentences  are  deficient  in  perspicuity :  "  Rever- 
ence is  the  veneration  paid  to  superior  sanctity,  inter- 
mixed with  a  degree  of  awe."  "The  Romans  understood 
liberty,  at  least,  as  well  as  we."  "Taste  was  never  made  to 
cater  for  vanity." 

2.  In  prose  avoid  a  poetic  collocation  of  words. 

3.  Avoid  faulty  ellipsis,  and  repeat  all  words  necessary  to 
preserve  the  sense.  The  following  sentences  require  the  words 
inserted  in  brackets:  "Restlessness  of  mind  disqualifies  us  both 
for  the  enjoyment  of  peace  and  [for]  the  performance  of  our 
duty."  "The  Christian  religion  gives  a  more  lovely  character 
to  God  than  any  {other]  religion  ever  did." 

Of  Unity. 

Unity  consists  in  avoiding  useless  breaks  or  pauses  and  keep- 
ing one  object  predominant  throughout  a  sentence  or  paragraph. 
Every  sentence,  whether  its  parts  be  few  or  many,  requires 
strict  unity. 

1.  Avoid  brokenness  and  hitching.  The  following  para- 
graph lacks  the  very  quality  of  which  it  speaks:  "But  most  of 
all,  in  a  single  sentence,  is  required  the  strictest  unity.  It  may 
consist  of  parts,  indeed,  \>\sXthese  partsraxiL^tha  so  closely  bound 
together  as  to  make  the  impression  upon  the  mind  of  one  object, 
not  of  many." 

2.  Treat  different  topics  in  separate  paragraphs,  and  dis- 
tinct sentiments  in  separate  sentences.  Error:  "The  two  vol- 
umes are,  indeed,  intimately  connected  and  constitute  one  uni- 
form system  of  English  grammar." 

3.  In  the  process  of  a  sentence,  do  not  desert  the  principal 
subject  in  favor  of  adjuncts.  Error:  "To  substantives  belong 
gender,  number  and  case ;  and  they  are  alt  of  the  third  person 
when  spoken  of,  and  of  the  second  when  spoken  to." 

4.  Do  not  introduce  parentheses  except  where  a  lively  re- 
mark may  be  thrown  in  without  diverting  the  mind  too  long 
from  the  principal  subject 

Of  Strength. 

Strength  consists  in  giving  to  the  several  words  and  members 
of  a  sentence  such  an  arrangement  as  shall  bring  out  the 
sense  to  the  best  advantage  and  present  every  idea  in  its  due 


4k> 


« — «w 


34 


rr 


COMPOSITION. 


importance.      A  concise  style  is  the  most  favorable  to  strength. 

1.  Place  the  most  important  words  in  the  situation  in  which 
they  will  make  the  strongest  impression. 

2.  A  weaker  assertion  should  not  follow  a  stronger;  and 
when  the  sentence  consists  of  two  members,  the  longer  should 
be  the  concluding  one. 

3.  When  things  are  to  be  compared  or  contrasted,  their  re- 
semblance or  opposition  will  be  rendered  more  striking  if  some 
resemblance  in  the  language  and  construction  be  preserved. 

4.  It  is,  in  general,  ungraceful  to  end  a  sentence  with  an 
adverb,  a  preposition,  or  any  inconsiderable  word  or  phrase, 
which  may  either  be  omitted  or  introduced  earlier. 

A  Discourse  and  its  Paris. 

A  composition  in  which  a  proposition  is  laid  down  and  an 
p.ttempt  made  to  persuade  others  that  it  is  true  is  an  argumen- 
tative discourse.  If  it  is  on  religious  subjects,  it  is  a  sermon; 
on  other  subjects,  a  speech  or  oration. 

Orations  by  the  ancients  were  divided  into  six  parts,  to-wit: 

The  Exordium,  or  introduction,  in  which  the  speaker  strove 
to  make  his  hearers  attentive  and  disposed  to  receive  his  argu- 
ments. 

The  Division,  or  plan  the  speaker  intended  to  pursue  in  treat- 
ing the  subject. 

The  Statement,  in  which  the  subject  and  facts  connected 
therewith  were  laid  down. 

The  Reasoning,  in  which  the  arguments  were  set  forth. 

The  Appeal  to  the  feelings — a  most  important  division  of  a 
discourse. 

The  Peroration,  in  which  the  speaker  summed  up  all  he  had 
said  and  concluded  his  discourse. 

An  Essay. 
An  Essay  is  a  composition,  generally  on  some  abstract  sub- 
ject, devoted  rather  to  an  investigation  of  causes,  effects,  etc., 
than  to  an  examination  of  visible  and  material  peculiarities. 
Brief  descriptions  and  narrations  may  be  introduced  with  ad- 
vantage. 


Figures  of  Rhetoric. 


A  Figure  of    Rhetoric    is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  application  of  words.    Some  figures  of  this 
kind  are  commonly  called  Tropes,  i.e.,  turns. 
The  principal  figures  of  Rhetoric  are  twenty-two,  namely : 
A  Simile   is  a  simple  and  express  comparison  and   is 
generally  introduced  by  like,  as  or  so. 

Example. — "At  first,  tike  thunder's  distant  tone. 

The  rattling  din  came  rolling  on." — Hogg. 
"  Man,  like  the  generous  vine,  supported  lives. 
The  strength  he  gains  is  from  th'  embrace  he  gives. '• 

— Poft. 

A  Metaphor  is  a  figure  that  expresses  the  resemblance 
of  two  objects  by  applying  either  the  name  or  some  attribute, 
adjunct  or  action  of  the  one  directly  to  the  other. 

Example. — "  His  eye  was  morning's  brightest  ray." — Hogg. 
"  Beside  him  sleeps  the  warrior's  bow." 

— Longfellow. 
An  Allegory  is  a  continued  narration  of  fictitious  events, 
designed  to  represent  and  illustrate  important  realities.    Thus 
the  Psalmist  represents  the  Jewish  nation   under  the  symbol 


of  a  vine:  "Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt ;  thou 
hast  cast  out  the  heathen  and  planted  it,"  etc 

Note. — The  allegory  includes  most  of  those  similitudes  which 
in  the  Scriptures  are  called  parables ;  it  includes  also  the  better 
sort  of fables. 

Metonymy  is  a  change  of  names— calling  one  object 
by  the  name  of  another  that  sustains  some  relation  to  it.  The 
principal  relations  on  which  this  figure  is  founded  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

1.  Cause  and  effect ;  as,  "  Extravagance  is  the  ruin  of  many" 
— that  is,  the  cause  of  ruin. 

2.  Ancestor  and  descendants ;  as,  "  Then  shall  Judah 
triumph" — that  is,  the  descendants  of  Judah. 

3.  Attribute  and  that  to  which  it  belongs ;  as,  "  Pride  shall 
be  brought  low  " — that  is,  the  proud. 

4.  Container  and  the  thing  contained ;  as,  "  The  kettle 
boils  " — that  is,  jlhe  water  in  the  kettle. 

5.  Emblem  and  thing  represented  ;  as,  "This  was  offensive 
to  the  crown  "  — that  is,  the  king. 

6.  Material  and  thing  made  of  it;  as,  "Gold  is  all-power- 
ful " — that  is,  money. 

Synecdoche  is  the  meaning  of  the  whole  for  apart,  or 
of  a  part  for  the  whole;  as,  "This  roof  [i.e.,  house]  protects 
you."     "  Now  thenar  [/>.,  summer]  is  beautiful." 

Hyperbole  is  extravagant  exaggeration,  in  which  the 
imagination  is  indulged  beyond"the  sobriety  of  truth. 

Example. — "The  sky  shrunk  upward  with  unusual  dread. 

And  trembling  Tiber  div'd  beneath  his  bed." — Dryden. 

Vision,  or  Imagery,  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker 
represents  the  objects  of  his  imagination  as  actually  before  his 
eyes  and  present  to  his  senses. 

Example. — "I  sec  the  dagger-crest  of  Mar  ! 
I  see  the  Moray's  silver  star 
Wave  o'er  the  cloud  of  Saxon  war 
That  up  the  lake  comes  winding  far!  "'—Scott. 

Apostrophe  is  a  turning  from  the  regular  course  of  the 
subject  into  an  animated  address. 

Example. — "  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory.  O  Death  1  where  is 
thy  sling  r    O  grave  !  where  is  thy  victor)?"— /.   Cor.,  ij:  S4SS- 

Prosopopoeia,  or  Personification,  is  a  figure  by 

which  in  imagination  we  ascribe  intelligence  and  personality 
to  unintelligent  beings  or  abstract  qualities. 
Examples. — "The  H'orm,  aware  of  his  Intent, 

H.ir.:njrued  him  thus,  right  eloquent.".— Cowper. 
"Lo,  steel-clad  War  his  gorgeous  standard  rears  1  " — Roger*. 

Erotesis  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  adopts  the  form 
of  interrogation,  not  to  express  a  doubt,  but,  in  general,  con- 
fidently to  assert  the  reverse  of  what  is  asked. 

Example.—"  Hast  thou  an  arm  like  God?  or  canst  thou  thunder 
with  a  voice  like  him?  "—  Job ,  40:0. 

Kcphonesis  is  a  pathetic  exclamation,  denoting  some 
violent  emotion  of  the  mind. 

Example.—"  O  liberty  !  — O  sound  once  delightful  to  every  Roman 
ear! — O  sacred  privilege  of  Roman  citizenship  !— once  sacred — now 
trampled  upon." — Cicero. 

Antithesis  is  a  placing  of  things  in  opposition  to  heighten 
their  effect  by  contrast 


7; 

1 


Ll 


\9- 


sr 


*# 


COMPOSITION. 


35 


Example. — "Contrasted  faults  through  all  his  manners  reign  : 

Though/00/",  luxurious  ;  though  submissive,  vain  ; 
Though  grave,  yet  trifling  ;  zealous,  yet  untrue  ; 
And  e'en  in  penance,  planning  sins  anew."~Goldsmith. 

Climax  is  a  figure  in  which  the  sense  is  made  to  advance 
by  successive  steps,  to  rise  gradually  to  what  is  more  important 
and  interesting,  or  to  descend  to  what  is  more  and  more  min- 
ute and  particular. 

Examples. — "Then  Virtue  became  silent,  heartsick,  pined  azoay  and 
died.*' 

Irony  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  sneeringly  utters  the 
direct  reverse  of  what  he  intends  shall  be  understood;  as,  "Go 
on  ;  lime  is  worth  nothing  " — meaning  that  it  is  very  valuable. 

Apophasis  is  the  pretended  suppression  of  what  one  is 
all  the  time  actually  mentioning ;  as,  "I  shall  say  nothing  of  the 
immorality  prevalent  in  Paris — immorality  which  is  all  the  more 
dangerous  because  arrayed  in  the  most  attractive  garbs." 

The  Parallel  is  a  figure  used  to  show  the  resemblance 
between  two  characters  or  writings,  to  show  their  conformity  in 
essential  points ;  as,  the  parallel  between  the  Old  and  New 
Testament. 

Paralipsis  pretends  to  conceal  or  omit  what  is  really 
suggested  and  enforced. 

Example. — " I  will  not  call  him  a  villain  because  it  would  be  unpar- 
liamentary," 


Allusion  is  a  figure  by  which  some  word  or  phrase  in  a 
sentence  calls  to  mind,  as  if  accidentally,  another  similar  or 
analogous  subject. 

Example. — "I  was  surrounded  with  difficulties,  and  possessed  no 
clue  by  which  I  could  effect  my  escape." 

Repetition  seizes  some  emphatic  word  or  phrase,  and,  to 
mark  its  importance,  makes  it  occur  frequently  in  the  same 
sentence. 

Example. — "He  sang  Darius,  great  and  good, 
By  too  severe  a  fate, 
Fallen,  fallen,  fallen,  fallen, 

Fallen  from  his  high  estate  and  weltering  in  his  blood.*' 
Alliteration  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  letter  at  the  be- 
ginning of  two  or  more  words  immediately  succeeding  each 
other. 
Example. — "The  lordly  lion  leaves  his  lonely  lair." 
Euphemism  is  a  softened  mode  of  speech   for   what 
would  be  disagreeable  or  offensive  if  told  in  the  plainest  lan- 
guage. 

Example. — Cushi  did  not  say  to  David,  "Absalom  is  killed ;  "  but, 
''May  all  the  enemies  of  the  king  be  as  that  young  man." 

Onomatopoeia  is  the  formation  of  words  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  their  sound  will  suggest  the  sense;  as, buzz,  hiss,  roar. 
Example. — "On  the  ear 
Drops  the  light  drip  of  the  suspended  oar." 


^ 


PROSODY.     -*- 


f 


Dr.  Blair  says  that  the  best  definition  of 
Poetry  is  this :  "  Poetry  is  the  language  of  pas- 
sion, or  of  enlivened  imagination,  formed  most 
commonly  into  regular  numbers."  Poetry  is 
older  than  prose.  Poems  and-  songs  are  the 
first  objects  that  make  their  appearance  in  all 
nations.  During  the  infancy  of  Poetry  all  its 
different  kinds  were  mingled  in  the  same  com- 
position ;  but  in  the  progress  of  society  poems 
assumed  their  different  regular  forms. 

Prosody  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which 
treats  of  the  quantity  of  syllables,  of  feet,  and 
the  modes  in  which  they  are  combined  inverse. 

Versification. 

Versification  is  the  art  of  arranging  words  into  lines  of 
corresponding  length  so  as  to  produce  harmony  by  the  regular 
alternation  of  syllables  differing  in  quantity.  Verse  is  therefore 
language  so  arranged  in  lines  that  syllables  of  certain  length 
may  occur  at  certain  intervals. 

Verse  is  the  form  in  which  poetry  generally  appears.  Poetry 
is  distinguished  from  prose  not  only  by  this  form,  but  by  its 


containing  more   figures,  as  well   as  peculiar   words  and  ex- 
pressions. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  verse,  Rhyme  and  Blank  Verse. 
Rhyme  is  that  kind  of  verse  in  which  there  is  a  corre- 
spondence of  sound  in  the  last  syllables  of  two  or  more  lines ;  as : 
"True  wit  is  nature  to  advantage  dress 'd, 
What  oft  was  thought,  but  ne'er  so  well  express' d." 
It  lank  Verse  is  metrical  language  without  rhyme ;  as : 
"Shall  we  serve  Heaven 
With  less  respect  than  we  do  minister 
To  our  gross  selves?  " 


Quantity. 


By  the  Quantity  of  a  syllable  is  meant  the  time  required 
for  its  utterance.  According  to  this  time,  syllables  are  distin- 
guished as  Long  and  Short.  One  long  syllable  is  equivalent  to 
two  short  ones. 

A  long  syllable  may  be  denoted  by  a  short  horizontal  line 
placed  over  its  vowel ;  a  short  syllable,  by  a  curve. 

In  the  case  of  monosyllables,  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  ad- 
verbs and  interjections  are  for  the  most  part  long  ;  articles  are 
always  short;  prepositions  and  conjunctions  are  generally 
short;  pronouns  are  long  when  emphasized;  when  not,  short. 

Poetic  Feet. 

A  Poot  is  two  or  more  syllables  constituting  a  portion  of  a 
line. 

A  I.i  IM>  of  Poetry  consists  of  successive  combinations 
of  feet 


-ft 


/ 


Al 


IV 


36 


71 


COMPOSITION. 


The  most  important  feet  in  English  verse  are  as  follows  : 
The  Iambus,  a  short  syllabic  and  a  long      ...         *  *  severe. 
The  Trochee,  a  long  syllable  and  a  short  .        .        .        "  "  trembling. 
The  Spondee,  two  long  syllables  ....  "  "  cold  winds. 

The  Pyrrhic,  two  short  syllables  ....  '  "  wiljderness. 
The  Anapest,  two  short  and  a  long  .  .  .  .  "  "  "  barricade. 
The  Dactyl,  a  long  and  two  short  .  .  .  .  *  "  "  tenderly. 
The  Amphibrach,  a  short,  a  long  and  a  short  .  *  "  "  tremendous. 
The  Amphlmacer,  a  long,  a  short  and  a  long        "  "  "  saddle-bags. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  the  Molosse,  of  three  long  sylla- 
bles ;  the  Tribrach,  of  three  short ;  the  Bacchy,  a  short  syllable 
and  two  long  ones ;  the  Antibacchy,  or  Hypobacchy,  two  long 
syllables  and  a  short  one. 

The  four  principal  kinds  of  verse  or  poetic  measure  are  the 
Iambus,  Trochee,  Anapest  and  Dactyl. 

When  a  line  is  wholly  composed  of  any  of  these  four  feet,  it 
is  called  Pure.  The  remaining  feet  never  form  whole  lines 
by  themselves,  but  are  sometimes  interspersed  with  other  feet 
A  line  into  which  different  feet  enter  is  called  Mixed. 

Metre. 

By  Metres  are  meant  the  different  systems  according  to 
which  verses  or  lines  are  formed.  They  are  named  from  the 
feet  employed  and  their  number. 

Metres  in  which  the  iambus  prevails  are  called  Iambic ;  those 
in  which  the  trochee  prevails,  Trochaic;  the  anapest,  Anapestic  ; 
the  dactyl,  Dactylic. 

Distinguished  by  the  number  of  feet  in  a  line,  the  varieties  of 
metre  are  as  follows :  Manometer,  which  consists  of  one  foot ; 
Dimeter,  of  two  feet;  Trimeter,  of  three;  Tetrameter,  of  four; 
Pentameter,  of  five  ;  Hexameter,  of  six ;  Heptameter,  of  seven  ; 
Odometer,  of  eight. 

Some  metres,  besides  a  certain  number  of  complete  feet,  con- 
tain a  syllable  over  at  the  end  of  the  line.  Such  metres  are 
called  Hypercatalectic,  or  Hypermeter.  When  a  syllable  is  want- 
ing the  verse  is  said  to  be  catalectic ;  when  the  measure  is  ex- 
act the  line  is  acatalectic. 

Scanning,  or  Scansion,  is  the  process  of  dividing  a 
line  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is  composed. 

Stanza- Long,  Short  and  Common  Metre. 

A  Stanza  is  the  combination  of  several  lines  in  poetry, 
forming  a  distinct  division  of  the  poem  ;  as  : 

"The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
T'lc  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 
TK„  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me." 

A  Verse  is  but  a  single  line  of  a  stanza — a  certain  number 
of  long  and  short  syllables,  metrically  disposed. 

"The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day." 

Long  Metre. 

The  long,  short  and  common  metres  are  known  by  the  num- 
ber of  feet  or  syllables  found  in  them.  Long  metre  stanzas 
contain  in  each  line  four  iambic  feet ;  as : 

"Through  every  age,  eternal  God, 
Thou  art  our  rest,  our  safe  abode: 
High  was  thy  throne  ere  heaven  was  made, 
Or  earth,  thy  humble  footstool,  laid." 


Short  Metre. 
Short  metre  stanzas  contain  three  lines  of  six  syllables  and 
one  of  eight  syllables — the  third  line  being  the  longest  and  con- 
taining four  iambic  feet ;  as : 

"Sweet  is  the  time  of  Spring, 

When  nature's  charms  appear; 
The  birds  with  ceaseless  pleasure  sing 
And  hail  the  opening  year." 

Common  Metre. 

Iambic  verse  of  seven  feet,  divided  into  two  lines,  the  first 
containing  four  and  the  latter  three  feet,  makes  what  is  known 
as  common  metre ;  as  : 

"When  all  thy  mercies,  O  my  God! 

My  rising  soul  surveys, 
Transported  with  the  view,  I'm  lost 
In  wonder,  love  and  praise." 

Iambic  Verse. 

In  Iambic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  even  syllables,  and 
the  odd  ones  are  short.    .It  consists  of  the  following  measures  : 
Measure  1st.    Iambic  of  Eight  Feet,  or  Octometer. 
"O  all  |  ye  peo|ple,  clip  |  your  hinds,  |  and  with  |  tr!flm';phlnt 
vc-icl-es  sing; 
NO   force  |  the    mlght|-y    pow'r  |  withstands  |  of   God  |  the 
0|-nlvers|-il  King." 
Each  couplet  of  this  verse  is  now  commonly  reduced  to,  or 
exchanged  for,  a  simple  stanza  of  four  tetrameter  lines ;  thus  : 
"The  hour  |  is  come  |  —the  chcr,  -ish'd  hour, 
When,  from  |  the  busi  -y  world  |  set  free, 
I  seek  |  at  length  |  my  lone|  -ly  bower, 
And  muse  |  in  si.-lent  thought  1  on  thee." 
Measure  2nd.    Iambic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Heptameter. 
"The  Lord  |  descend  |  -ed  from  |  above  |  ind  bOw'd '  ths  heav  \  -ens  high." 
Modern  poets  have  divided  this  kind  of  verse  into  alternate 
lines  of  four  and  of  three  feet ;  thus : 

"O  blind  |  to  each  |  Indoll-gtnt  Sim 
Of  pflw'r  |  suprtme|-ly  wise, 
Who  fan;-cy  haplpiness  |    in  aughf 
The  hand  |  of  Heav'n  |  denies!  " 
Measure  3rd.    Iambic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter. 
"Thy  realm  |  fOrtv|  -er  lists,  |  thy  Own  |  Mfcss!|  -ah  reigns." 
This  is  the  Alexandrine ;  it  is  seldom  used  except  to  com- 
plete a  stanza  in  an  ode,  or  to  close  a  period  in  heroic  rhyme. 
Measure  4th.    Iambic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter. 
"For  prtise  |  tOo  d(ar|-ly  lOv'd  |  Or  w»rm|-ly  sought 
Enf eel- bits  ill  |  Inter,  -nil  strength  |  Of  thought." 

This  is  the  regular  English  heroic.  It  is  perhaps  the  only 
measure  suitable  for  blank  verse.  The  Elegiac  stanta  consists 
of  four  heroics  rhyming  alternately ;  thus : 

"Enough  |  has  Heav'n  |  indulg'd  |  of  Joy  |  below 
To  tempt  |  our  tar|  -riance  in  |  this  lov'd  |  retreat; 
Enough  |  has  Heav'n  |  ordain'd  |  of  us«|-ful  woe, 
To  make  |  us  lanlguish  for  |  a  hap |- pier  seat." 

Measure  «th.    Iambic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 

"The  joys  |  above  |  ire  on'  derstOod 
Ami  reli-Uh'd  on|-ly  by  1  the  good." 

Measure  flth.    Iambic  Of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 

"Blue  llghtl  -nlngs  singe  |  th*  wives, 
And  than  j  -der  rends  |  the  rock." 


4fe 


4 

— fc  V 


COMPOSITION. 


37 


/ 


4~ 


Measure  7th.    Iambic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter. 

"Their  love  |  and  awe 
Supply  |  the  law." 

Measure  8th.    Iambic  of  One  Feet,  or  Monometer. 

"H6w  bright 
The  light." 

In  iambic  verse,  the  first  foot  is  often  varied  by  introducing 
a  trochee ;  as : 

"Planets  |  and  suns  |  run  law|-less  through  |  the  sky." 
By  a  syndesis  of  the  two  short  syllables,  or  perhaps  by  mere 
substitution,  an  anapest  may  sometimes  be  employed  for  an  iam- 
bus, or  a  dactyl  for  a  trochee ;  as : 

"O'er  man\-y  a/r«|-en,  man|-_y  afi\-eify  Alp." 

Trochaic  Verse. 

In  Trochaic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  odd  syllables,  and 
the  even  ones  are  short.  Single-rhymed  Trochaic  omits  the 
final  short  syllable,  that  it  may  end  with  a  long  one.  This  kind 
of  verse  is  the  same  as  iambic  would  be  without  the  initial  short 
syllable.    Iambics  and  trochaics  often  occur  in  the  same  poem. 

Measure  1st.    Trochaic  of  Eight  Feet,  or  Octometer. 
"Once  up|  -on  a  |  midnight  |  dreary,  |  while  1  [  pondered,  |  weak  and  ) 
weary, 
Over  |  miny  &  |  quaint  and  |  carious  |  volume  |  of  fori  -gotten  |  lore, 
While  I  |  nodded,  J  nearly  |  napping,  J  sudden! -iy  there  |  came  a  | 
tapping. 
As  of  J  some  one  |  gently  |  rapping,  |  rapping  |  at  my  |  chamber  | 

door." 
Measure  !Sna.    Trochaic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Heptameter. 
"Hasten,  |  Lord ,  to  |  rescue  I  me,  and  J  set  me  |  safe  from  |  trouble ; 
Shame  thou  |  those  who  |  seek  my  |  soul ,  re  1  -ward  their  |  mischief  | 
double." 

SINGLE    RHYME. 

"Night  and  |  morning  |  were  at  |  meeting  |  over  |  Water! -loo: 
Cocks  had  |  sung  their  |  earliest  |  greeting;  |  faint  and  |  low 
they  |  crew." 

Measure  3rd.    Trochaic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter. 

"On  a  |  mountain  |  stretch'd  b6|  -neath  a  |  hoary  |  willow, 
Lay  a  |  shepherd  |  swain ,  and  |  view'd  the  |  rolling  |  billow." 

SINGLE    RHY5IE. 

"Lonely  J  in  the  |  forest,  |  subtle  ]  from  his  |  birth, 
Lived  a  |  necroj-manccr,  |  wondrous  |  son  of  |  earth." 

Measure  4th.    Trochaic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter. 

"Virtue's  |  bright'nlng  |  riy  shall  |  beam  for]  ever." 

SINGLE    RHYME. 

"Idle  I  after  |  dinner,  |  In  his  |  chair, 
Sat  a  |  farmer,  |  ruddy,  |  fat  and  |  fair." 

Measure  5th.    Trochaic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 

"Round  a  |  holy  |  calm  dlf[ -fusing, 
Love  of  |  peace  and  |  lonely  |  musing." 

SINGLE    RHYME. 

"Restless  |  mortals  I  toll  f3r  |  naught, 
Bliss  in  |  vain  from  [  earth  is  |  sought." 

Measure  6th.    Trochaic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 

"When  our  |  hearts  are  [  mourning." 

SINGLE    RHYME. 

"In  the  |  days  of  I  old 
Stories  I  plainly  J  told." 


Measure  7th.    Trochaic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter. 

"Fancy  |  viewing, 
Joys  enj-suing." 

SINGLE    RHYME. 

"Tumult  I  cease, 
Sink  to  |  peace." 

Measure  8th.    Trochaic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer. 

"Changing, 
Ranging." 


Anapestic  Verse. 


In  Anapestic  verse  the  stress  is  laid  on  every  third  syllable. 
The  first  foot  of  an  anapestic  line  may  be  an  iambus. 

Measure  1st,    Anapestic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 

"At  the  close  |  Of  the  day,  |  when  the  ham| -let  Is  still, 
And  mor~  \ tals  the  sweet  |  of  forgetl -fulness  prove." 

HYPERMETER  WITH  DOUBLE  RHYME. 

"In  a  word,  j  so  complete |-Iy  forestall'd  |  were  the  wishj-es, 
Even  har|-mony  struck  |  from  the  noise  |  of  the  dish|-es." 

HYPERMETER  WITH  TRIPLE   RHYME. 

"Lean  Tom,  |  when  I  saw  |  him,  last  week,  |  on  his  horse  \  awry, 
Threaten'd  loud|-ly  to  turn  |  me  to  stone  |  with  his  sor\-cery." 

Measure  2nd.    Anapestic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 

"I  am  mOnJ-arch  6f  all  |  I  survey; 
My  right  j  there  is  none  |  to  dispute." 

Measure  3rd*    Anapestic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter. 

"When  I  look  |  On  my  boys, 
They  renew  |  all  my  joys." 

Measure  4th.    Anapestic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer. 

"On  the  land 
Let  me  stand." 

Dactylic  Verse. 

In  the  pure  Dactylic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  first  sylla- 
ble of  each  successive  three ;  that  is,  on  the  first,  the  fourth, 
the  seventh,  the  tenth  syllable,  etc  Full  dactylic  generally 
forms  triple  rhyme.  When  one  of  the  final  short  syllables  is 
omitted  the  rhyme  is  double ;  when  both,  single.  Dactylic 
with  single  rhyme  is  the  same  as  anapestic  would  be  without 
its  initial  short  syllables.  Dactylic  measure  is  rather  uncom- 
mon, and,  when  employed,  is  seldom  perfectly  regular. 

Measure  1st.    Dactylic  of  Eight  Feet,  or  Octometer. 

"Nlmrad  the  |  hunter  was  |  mighty  In  |  hQntlng,  and  |  famed  as  the  | 
ruler  Sf  |  cities  6f  |  yore; 
Babel  and  |  Erech,  and  |  Accad,  and  [  Calneh,  from  |  Shinar*. 
fair  |  region  his  |  name  afar  j  bore." 

Measure  2nd.    Dactylic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Heptameter. 

"Out  of  the  |  kingdom  of  |  Christ  shall  be  |  gathered,  by  |  angels 
o'er  |  Satan  vicl-torious, 
All  that  of[-fendeth,  that  |  lieth,  that  |  faileth  to  |  honor  his  | 
name  ever  |  glorious." 

Measure  3rd.    Dactylic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter. 

"Time,  thou  art  |  ever  in  |  motion,  on  |  wheels  of  the  |  days,  years 
and  |  ages ; 
Restless  as  |  waves  of  the  |  ocean,  when  |  Eurui  or  |  Boreas  | 
rages." 


-71 


^ 


■m 


38 


COMPOSITION. 


EXAMPLE    WITHOUT   KHYME. 

"This  is  the  |  forest  pri  ]  .meval ;  but  |  where  are  the  |  hearts  that 
be|-neath  it 
Leap'd  like  the  |  roe,  when  he  |  hears  in  the  |  woodland  the  | 
voice  of  the  |  huntsman?" 

Measure  4th.     Dactylic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter. 

"Now  thou  dost  |  welcome  me,  |  welcome  me  |  from  the  dark  |  sea, 
Land  of  the  |  beautiful,  |  beautiful,  |  land  of  the  |  free." 

Measure  5th.    Dactylic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter. 

"Boys  will  anl-tlclpate,  |  lavish,  and  |  dissipate 
All  that  your  |  basy  pate  |  hoarded  with  I  care ; 
And,  in  their  |  foolishness,  |  passion  and  |  mulishness, 
Charge  you  with  [  churlishness,  |  spurning  your  |  pray'r." 

Measure  6th.    Dactylic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter. 

"Evfir  sing  |  merrily,  |  merrily." 
Measure  7th.    Dactylic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter. 

"Free  from  si|-tl*ty, 
Care  and  anx[-iety, 
Charms  in  va[-ricty 
Fall  to  his  |  share." 

Measure  8th.    Dactylic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer. 

"Fearfully, 
Tearfully." 

Caesural  Pause. 

A  slight  pause  should  be  made,  in  reading  poetry,  at  the  end 
of  every  line,  though  the  sense  may  not  require  it.  Often  a 
pause  is  made  in  or  near  the  middle  of  the  line,  especially  when 
it  is  a  long  one.  This  brings  out  the  meaning  and  improves 
the  rhythm  and  effect.  This  pause  is  called  the  ca-sural  pause 
(i.e.,  cutting).  The  final  pause  is  that  occurring  at  the  end  of 
a  line,  and  should  not  be  distinctly  marked  when  the  sense  does 
not  require  it. 


Varieties  of  Poetry. 


Poetry  is  of  various  kinds,  such  as  Epic,  Dramatic,  Lyric, 
Elegiac,  Pastoral  and  Didactic, 

Epic  Poetry  is  the  most  dignified.  An  epic  poem  is 
the  recital  of  some  illustrious  enterprise  in  a  poetical  form. 
The  action  or  subject  of  an  epic  poem  must  have  three  proper- 
ties: it  must  be  one;  it  must  be  great;  it  must  be  interesting. 
One  action  or  enterprise  must  constitute  its  subject.  Homer's 
Iliad,  Virgil's  AZncid  and  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  are  examples 
of  epic  poetry. 

Didactic  Poetry  is  written  with  the  express  intention 
to  convey  instruction  and  knowledge.  It  may  be  executed  in 
different  ways.  The  poet  may  treat  some  instructive  subject  in 
a  regular  form,  or  he  may  inveigh  against  particular  vices  or 
make  some  moral  observations  on  human  life  and  character. 

Descriptive  Poetry  is  indicated  by  its  name.  In 
general,  description  is  introduced  as  an  embellishment,  not  as 
the  subject  of  a  regular  work. 

Various  Kinds  of  Poems. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  poems,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  chief  designations : 

A  Song  is  a  short  poem  to  be  sung  or  uttered  with  musical 
modulations. 


A  Chant  is  a  song  or  words  suited  to  musical  tones  with- 
out musical  measure. 

A  Hymn  is  a  song  of  praise,  generally  of  a  religious  char- 
acter. 

An  Ode  is  similar  to  a  song  or  hymn.  There  are  four  de- 
nominations of  these.  I.  Odes  addressed  to  God  or  composed 
on  religious  subjects.  2.  Heroic  odes,  which  concern  the  cele- 
bration of  heroes  and  great  actions.  3.  Moral  or  philosophical 
odes,  which  refer  chiefly  to  virtue,  friendship  and  humanity.  4. 
Festive  and  amorous  odes,  which  are  calculated  merely  for 
amusement  or  pleasure. 

A  Pcean  is  a  loud  and  joyous  song,  a  song  of  triumph  or 
rejoicing. 

A  Ballad  is  a  popular  song,  narrative  or  sentimental,  in 
simple,  homely  verses. 

An  Epithalamillin  is  a  nuptial  song  or  poem  in  praise 
of  the  bride  or  bridegroom.  The  Song  of  Solomon  in  the  Bible 
is  a  specimen. 

An  Epigram  is  a  short  poem  treating  only  of  one  thing 
and  ending  with  some  lively,  ingenious  and  natural  thought. 

A  Sonnet  is  a  poem  of  fourteen  lines,  two  stanzas  of  four 
verses  each  and  two  of  three  each,  and  so  arranged  that  in  the 
first  part  the  first  line  is  made  to  rhyme  with  the  fourth,  fifth 
and  eighth,  the  second  rhyming  with  the  third,  sixth  and 
seventh,  while  in  the  second  part  the  fir>t,  third  and  fifth,  and 
the  second,  fourth  and  sixth,  also  rhyme  with  each  other. 

A  Cantata  is  a  poem  set  to  music,  comprising  choruses 
and  solos  and  recitations,  arranged  in  a  somewhat  dramatic 
manner. 

A  Canzonet  is  a  short  song  in  one,  two  or  three  parts. 

A  Charade  may  be  in  prose  as  well  as  poetry.  It  is  based 
upon  a  word,  the  parts  of  which  taken  separately  are  significant 
of  their  meaning  and  that  of  the  whole  word. 

An  Epitaph  is  a  brief  descriptive  sentence,  in  prose  or 
verse,  which  is  used  on  a  tombstone. 

A  Satire  is  a  composition,  generally  poetical,  holding  up 
vice  or  folly  to  reprobation  ;  a  keen  or  severe  exposure  of  what 
in  public  or  private  morals  deserves  rebuke;  an  invective 
poem. 

A  Parody  is  a  kind  of  poetical  pleasantry  in  which  what  is 
written  on  a  subject,  generally  serious,  is  altered  and  applied 
in  a  ludicrous  vein. 

A  Prologue  is  a  poem  introductory  to  a  play  or  discourse, 
generally  spoken  before  the  play  begins. 

An  Epilogue  is  a  short  poem  reviewing  the  main  inci- 
dents of  a  play,  spoken  by  the  actor  or  actors  at  the  termination 
of  a  performance. 

An  Impromptu  is  a  verse  or  poetical  composition  writ- 
ten off-hand  without  previous  study. 

An  Acrostic  is  a  composition,  usually  in  verse,  in  which 
the  first  or  last  letters  of  the  lines,  in  their  order,  or  of  words, 
one  in  each  line,  form  a  name  or  sentence. 

Poetical  Peculiarities  or  License. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  striking  peculiarities  in 
which  poets  indulge  and  are  indulged,  and  which  are  termed 
poetic  license,  which  is  a  deviation  from  the  strict  rules  of  gram- 
mar. 


4^ 


COMPOSITION. 


39 


~7[ 


1.  Tb,ey  very  often  omit  the  articles;  as: 

u  What  dreadful  pleasure  !  there  to  stand  sublime 
Like  shipwreck' d  mariner  oj.  desert  waste!  " 

2.  They  abbreviate  many  nouns ;  as,  amaze  for  amazement; 
corse  for  corpse;  fount  [or  fountain. 

3.  They  employ  several  nouns  that  are  not  used  in  prose  or 
are  used  but  rarely;  as,  benison,fane,  ten,  welkin. 

4.  They  introduce  the  noun  self  after  another  noun  in  the 
possessive  case ;  as  : 

"Affliction's  self  deplores  thy  youthful  doom." 

5.  They  often  place  adjectives  after  their  nouns ;  as  : 

"  Come,  nymph  demure,  with  mantle  blue." 

6.  They  place  before  the  verb  nouns  or  other  words  that 
usually  come  after  it ;  and  after  it,  those  that  usually  come  be- 
fore it ;  as : 

"  No  jealousy  their  dazon  of  love  o'ercast, 
Nor  blasted  were  their  wedded  days  with  strife." 

7.  They  ascribe  qualities  to  things  to  which  they  do  not  liter- 
ally belong ;  as : 

"  Or  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds." 

8.  They  use  concrete  terms  to  express  abstract  qualities  (i.e., 
adjectives  for  nouns) ;  as  : 

"  Meanwhile,  whate'er  of  beautiful  or  new, 
Sublime  or  dreadful,  on  earth,  sea  or  sky." 

9.  They  substitute  quality  for  manner  (i.e.,  adjectives  for  ad- 
verbs) ;  as : 

"  Thither  continual  pilgrims  crowded  still." 

10.  They  form  new  compound  epithets  ;  as : 

"  In  world-  rejoicing  state,  it  moves  sublime." 

1 1.  They  connect  the  comparative  degree  to  the  positive ;  as : 

u Near  and  more  near  the  billows  rise." 

12.  They  form  many  adjectives  in  y  which  are  not  in  common 
use;  as,  a  gleamy  ray;  towcry  height ;  vasty  deep. 

13.  They  employ  adjectives  of  an  abbreviated  form;  as, 
drear  for  dreary ' ;  scant  for  scanty  ;  ebon  for  ebony. 

14.  They  employ  several  adjectives  that  are  not  used  in  prose, 
or  are  used  but  seldom ;  as,  azu>  e,  darksome,  rapt,  sear. 

15.  They  employ  personal  pronouns  and  introduce  their  nouns 
afterwards ;  as : 

"//  curled  not  Tweed  alone,  that  breeze" 

16.  They  sometimes  omit  the  relative  of  the  nominative  case ; 
as: 

"  For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  can  charm  the  wise?  " 

17.  They  omit  the  antecedent,  or  introduce  it  after  the  rela- 
tive ;  as : 

"  Who  never  fasts,  no  banquet  e'er  enjoys." 

18.  They  remove  relative  pronouns  and  other  connections  in- 
to the  body  of  the  clauses ;  as : 

"  Parts  the  fine  locks,  her  graceful  head  that  deck." 

19.  They  make  intransitive  verbs  transitive ;  as : 

" A  while  he  stands, 

Gaziuglhe  inverted  landscape,  half  afraid 
To  meditate  the  blue  profound  below." 


20.  They  give  to  the  imperative  mood  the  first  and  the  third 
person ;  as  : 

"  Turn  we  a  moment  fancy's  rapid  flight." 
"  Be  man's  peculiar  work  his  sole  delight  " 

21.  They  employ  can,  could  and  would  as  principal  verbs 
transitive ;  as : 

"  What  for  ourselves  we  can,  is  always  ours." 

22.  They  place  the  infinitive  before  the  word  on  which  it 
depends;  as : 

"  When  first  thy  sire  to  send  on  earth 
Virtue,  his  darling  child,  designed." 

23.  They  place  the  auxiliary  after  its  principal ;  as : 

"No  longer  heed  the  sunbeam  bright 
That  plays  on  Carron's  breast  he  can." 

24.  Before  verbs  they  sometimes  arbitrarily  employ  or  omit 
prefixes;  as,  begird,  bedim,  for  gird,  dim;  lure,  wail,  for  al- 
lure, bewail. 

25.  They  abbreviate  verbs  ;  as,  list  for  listen  ;  ope  for  open. 

26.  They  employ  several  verbs  that  are  not  used  in  prose  or 
are  used  but  rarely  ;  as,  astound,  ween,  trow. 

27.  They  sometimes  imitate  a  Greek  construction  of  the  in- 
finitive ;  as : 

"  For  not  to  have  been  dipp'd'm  Lethe  lake 
Could  save  the  son  of  Thetis  from  to  die." 

28.  They  employ  the  participles  more  frequently  than  prose 
writers,  and  in  a  construction  somewhat  peculiar ;  as : 

"  He  came,  and,  standing  in  their  midst,  explained 
The  peace  rejected,  but  the  truce  obtained" 

29.  They  employ  several  adverbs  that  are  not  used  in  prose 
or  are  used  but  seldom ;  as,  haply,  felly,  rifely. 

30.  They  give  to  adverbs  a  peculiar  location  ;  as : 

"  Peeping  from  forth  their  alleys  green." 

31.  They  omit  the  introductory  adverb  there;  as  : 

"  Was  naught  around  but  images  of  rest." 

32.  They  employ  the  conjunctions  or  ....or  and  nor  .... 
nor ;  as: 

"  Or  by  the  lazy  Scheldt  or  wandering  Po." 

33.  They  often  place  prepositions  and  their  adjuncts  before 
the  words  on  which  they  depend  ;  as  : 

"Against  your  fame  with  fondness  hate  combines." 

34.  They  sometimes  place  the  preposition  after  its  object ; 
as: 

"When  beauty,  Eden's  bowers  within." 

35.  They  employ  interjections  more  frequently  than  prose 
writers;  as: 

"  Oh,  let  me  gaze — of  gazing  there's  no  end. 
Oh,  let  me  think — Thought  too  is  wilder'd  here." 

36.  They  employ  antiquated  words  and  modes  of  expression; 
as: 

"  Withouten  that  would  come  an  heavier  bale." 
"  He  was  to  weel,  a  little  roguish  page, 
Save  sleep  and  play,  who  minded  naught  at  all." 


*NW 


V 


4o 


"7! 


ELOCUTION. 


ELOCUTION. 


HOW  TO  READ  AND  SPEAK  CORRECTLY  AND  ELEGANTLY. 


§!||V;LOCUTION  does  not  consist,  as  many 
*T*r  suppose,  in   merely  learning  to  "  recite 
ffippy pieces."     It  is  the  art  of  reading  and 
?<&$*<■  speaking  in  the  most  correct  and  ele- 
I       gant   manner.     Before  this   can  be  at- 
tained it  is  necessary  to  articulate  dis- 
tinctly, to  pronounce  correctly,  and  to  cultivate 
and  strengthen  the  vocal  organs. 

The  study  of  Elocution  is  one  in  which 
none  can  be  pronounced  perfect.  As,  in  pen- 
manship, a  proficient  may  greatly  improve  by 
practice,  and  thousands  are  content  to  possess  a 
handwriting  next  to  illegible,  instead  of  the 
neat,  elegant  hand  of  which  they  could  easily 
become  master,  so  thousands  are  satisfied  with 
a  harsh,  disagreeable  voice,  a  careless  articula- 
tion, a  monotonous  expression  and  a  repulsive 
manner,  when  by  a  proper  training  they  might 
become  fluent  conversationalists,  expressive 
readers  and  easy,  if  not  eloquent,  speakers. 
How  many  are  content  to  work  with  one 
talent,  when  they  could  readily  possess  five! 
Among  well  educated  persons  of  taste  and 
refinement,  how  often  do  we  find  those  to 
whom  a  knowledge  of  Elocution  would  be  inval- 
uable, because  of  its  power  to  set  forth  their 
other  accomplishments !  The  first  tones  of  a 
speaker's  voice  always  convey  an  idea,  favorable 
or  unfavorable,  of  the  speaker  himself;  and,  if 
the  latter,  much  effort  will  be  required  of  him 
to  regain  the  estimation  so  unwittingly  lost. 
What  can  be  more  satisfactory  to  its  possessor 
than  a  rich,  clear,  melodious  tone,  a  distinct, 
clean-cut  articulation,  a  perfect  command  of  the 
modulations,  and  a  pleasing  style  both  in  voice 


and  manner?  All  this  is  possible  to  any  one 
who  does  not  possess  imperfect  vocal  organs 
and  who  will  assiduously  devote  himself  or  her- 
self to  the  study,  believing  :t  to  be  worthy  of 
all  efforts  required  to  obtain  a  mastery  of  the 
art. 

Elocution  consists  in  the  utterance  or  ex- 
pression of  thought. 

Thought  may  be  conveyed  by  voice  or  ges- 
ture ;  the  latter  reaching  the  hearer  through  the 
eye,  the  former  through  the  ear. 

Elocution  may  be  divided  into  four  branches, 
viz.:  Vocal  Culture,  Articulation,  Expression,  or 
Modulation,  and  Gesture. 

Vocal  Culture. 

Voice  is  produced  by  breath  passing  over  the  vocal  chords, 
which  are  situated  in  the  larynx,  or  upper  portion  of  the  wind- 
pipe. 

The  voice  is  the  principal  agent  by  which  thought  is  conveyed, 
and  Is  the  basis  of  elocution. 

Proper  Breathing  consists  in  taking  in  and  giving 
out  full  inspirations  of  pure  air  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  in- 
terfere with  speech.  Correct  breathing  is  an  important  factor 
in  elocution,  of  more  consequence  than  might  be  supposed.  It 
should  be  so  timed  as  not  to  interfere  with  speech.  Breath  should 
be  taken  only  at  pauses.  Study  at  first  never  to  destroy  the 
connection  of  the  thought  by  a  pause  for  breathing  purposes.  In 
long  sentences  we  should  economize  the  breath  as  much  at 
possible. 

The  culture  of  the  voice  should  be  a  matter  of  necessity  a* 
well  as  the  training  of  the  mind  or  the  development  of  the  body. 
Frequent  vigorous  practice  induces  healthy  activity ;  the  voice  U 
strengthened  and  rendered  pure  and  resonant. 

Articulation. 

Articulation  consists  of  a  distinct  and  correct  utterance 
of  the  elementary  sounds.  These  sounds,  forty-six  in  number, 
are  formed  by  the  organs  of  speech  and  are  divided  into  Vocal 
Sounds,  Aspirati  Sounds  and  Combined  Sounds. 


♦4 


YL 


: 


ELOCUTION. 


41 


The  Organs  of  Articulation  are  the  tongue,  lips, 
palate  and  teeth,  forming  the  Lingual,  Labial,  Palatal  and 
Dental  sounds,  respectively.  These  organs,  like  valves,  act 
either  singly  or  together  upon  the  stream  of  breath  issuing  from 
the  larynx,  and  mould  sound  into  speech.  The  mouth  cavity 
and  nasal  cavity  assist  in  modifying  the  tone  of  voice,  giving  it 
character  and  resonance. 

Vocal  Sounds  are  those  having  vocality. 

Aspirate  Sounds  are  those  produced  by  the  breath  only. 

Combined  Sounds  are  those  which  are  produced  by 
both  voice  and  breath.  ' 

Cognates  are  those  sounds  which  occur  in  pairs,  one  vo- 
calized and  the  other  not,  but  both  having  the  same  articulate 
modification. 

The  Trilled  "  R  "  often  adds  much  to  the  rendering  of 
a  passage ;  but,  like  the  flourish,  it  may  be  misplaced.  It 
should  be  used  sparingly,  seldom  or  never  in  the  most  serious 
discourse.  In  light  descriptions  and  imitative  modulations  it 
may  be  employed,  taking  care,  however,  that  it  is  never  used 
unless  immediately  followed  by  a  vowel  sound. 

Practice  in  articulation  should  be  directed  especially  to  those 
exercises  in  which  transitions  or  repetitions  of  the 
same  sound  occur,  as  those  will  be  quite  difficult  of  mastery. 
See  that  both  sounds  are  correctly  and  distinctly  given,  and  that 
the  organs  of  speech  pass  rapidly  from  one  to  the  other. 

Examples. — S,  s.    False  sounds. 

s/i,  s/j.     Hush,  Charlotte! 

z,  X.     As  zealous. 

*/,  st.    Severest  storms. 

Pronunciation. 

The  subject  of  Pronunciation  should  receive  special  attention 
by  the  learner,  as  a  good  voice  and  a  distinct  articulation  tend 
to  magnify  any  defect  in  utterance.  In  reading,  foreign  words 
are  often  found  which  are  utterly  unpronounceable  to  one  not 
having  at  least  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the  language  to 
which  they  belong.  To  pronounce  such  words  according  to 
English  rules  would  in  many  cases  be  allowable  ;  but  this  could 
not  apply  to  Goethe  and  similar  names.  Clearly  the  only  cor- 
rect way  is  to  approach  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  native  pro- 
nunciation, except  in  words  and  names  thoroughly  anglicized. 
To  pronounce  Paris  Paree  would  be  pedantry. 

Modulation. 

Modulation  consists  in  such  a  use  of  the  voice  as  will 
convey  the  thought  in  the  best  manner.  It  has  reference  to 
Quality,  Melody,  Form,  Force,  Time  and  Stress.  Modulation 
concerns  the  proper  management  of  the  voice  in  speech  and 
treats  of  those  changes  that  should  be  made  in  it  to  best  express 
the  sentiment. 

QUALITY  OF  THE  VOICE. 

The  Quality  or  kind  of  voice  may  be  Pure  or  Im- 
pure. In  ordinary  conversation,  reading  or  speaking,  we 
should  always  use  the  Pure ;  but  in  expressing  fear,  anger,  con- 
tempt, hatred,  loathing,  etc.,  we  should  employ  a  different  qual- 
ity of  tone.  When  we  feel  the  influence  of  these  passions,  we 
can  easily  make  use  of  the  proper  form,  but  we  should  so  con- 
trol the  voice  that,  in  reading  or  speaking  in  the  absence  of 


passion,  we  can  assume  the  tone  best  adapted  to  give  expression 
to  the  sentiment. 

The  Pure  quality  is  used  in  all  cases  when  there  is  not  a 
demand  for  the  Impure.  Great  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  conversational  voice,  until  a  habit  of  cor- 
rect speech  is  acquired.  This  tone  should  always  be  full,  rich 
and  resonant.  Of  it  there  are  two  varieties,  the  Simple  and 
Orotund. 

The  Simple  Pure  is  used  in  ordinary  conversation, 
reading  and  speaking. 

Example. — And  he  said,  A  certain  man  had  two  sons;  and  the 
younger  of  them  said  to  his  father,  Father,  give  me  the  portion  of 
goods  that  falleth  to  me.    And  he  divided  unto  them  his  living. 

The  Orotund  is  a  full,  round  tone  used  in  expressing 
grandeur,  awe,  sublimity,  courage,  reverence,  veneration  and 
other  holy  emotions. 

Example.— Thou  too,  sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State  ! 
SaiJ  on,  O  Union,  strong  and  great! 
The  Impure  quality  of  voice  is  used  to  express  the  action 
of  the  baser  passions.    It  is  also  used  in  mimicry.   The  Impure 
qualities  are  the  Aspirate,  Pectoral,  Guttural  and  Falsetto. 

The  Aspirate  is  the  intense  whisper,  with  little  or  no  vo- 
cality.   It  is  used  to  denote  fear,  secrecy,  great  caution,  etc. 

Example. — Soldiers,  you  are  now  within  a  few  steps  of  the  enemy's 
outposts. 

The  Pectoral  is  the  deep  tone  of  despair  and  anger.  It 
is  used  to  denote  great  solemnity  and  in  describing  the  super- 
natural. It  is  orotund,  very  low  in  pitch,  and  is  formed  wholly 
in  the  throat. 

Example. — Oh,  I  have  passed  a  miserable  night — 

So  full  of  dreadful  dreams  and  ugly  sights, 
That,  as  I  am  a  Christian,  faithful  man, 
I  would  not  spend  another  such  a  night, 
Though  'twere  to  buy  a  world  of  happy  days— 
So  full  of  dismal  terror  was  the  time. 
The  Guttural  is  a  harsh  throat-tone,  lacking  the  orotund 
quality  of  the  Pectoral — the  language  of  hatred,  intense  anger, 
loathing  and  contempt 

Example. — I  loathe  ye  in  my  bosom, 

I  scorn  ye  with  mine  eye, 
And  I'll  taunt  ye  with  my  latest  breath, 
And  fight  ye  till  I  die ! 
The  Falsetto  is  a  shrill,  high-pitched  tone  used  in  ex- 
pressing pain  or  terror.    It  is  also  employed  in  imitating  the 
female  voice. 

Example. — When  the  lorn  damsel,  with  a  frantic  screech 
And  cheeks  as  hueless  as  a  brandy  peach, 
Cries,  "Help,  kyitid  Heaven!"  and  drops  upon  her  knees 
On  the  green — baize,  beneath  the — canvas — trees. 

MELODY. 

Melody  in  elocution  is  the  effect  produced  upon  the  ear 
by  the  succession  of  vocal  notes.  It  has  reference  to  Pitch, 
Slides  and  Cadence. 

Pitch. 

Pitch  relates  to  the  elevation  or  depression  of  the  tone. 
It  may  be  Natural,  Low  or  High. 
Natural  Pitch  is  used  in  all  ordinary  discourse. 

Example. — 

England's  sun  was  slowly  setting  o'er  the  hills  so  far  away, 
Filling  all  the  land  with  beauty  at  the  close  of  one  sad  day. 


■»  V 


■VI- 


42 


ELOCUTION. 


Low  Pitch  is  used  in  language  serious,  grave,  sublime, 
grand,  solemn,  reverential  and  vehement 

Example.— Silence  how  dead,  and  darkness  how  profound; 
No  eye  nor  listening  ear  an  object  finds; 
Creation  sleeps. 
High  Pitch  is  used  to  express  sentiment  lively,  joyous 
or  impassioned.    It  is  also  characteristic  of  fear  and  grief. 
Example.—"  Oh,  spare  my  child,  my  joy,  my  pride; 
Oh,  give  me  back  my  child!"  she  cried. 

Slides. 

Slides  are  inflections  of  the  voice  used  to  prevent  monotony 
and  to  give  better  expression  to  the  idea.     They  are  Ascending 
and  Descending;  both  are  united  in  the  Circumflex.    In  music 
the  ascent  and  descent  is  made  by  distinct  steps  ;  but  in  speech 
the  voice  is  bent  more  or  less  up- 
ward   or    downward.      These 
changes  are  continually  taking 
place,  except  in  the  Monotone, 
and  they  give  expression  to  the 
voice. 

Ascending  Slides  de- 
mote uncertainty,  doubt,  interro- 
gation and  incompleteness  of 
idea. 

Example.— Hast  ^hou   ever  known 
the  feeling 
I  have  felt,  when  1  have 
seen, 
'Mid  the  tombs  of    aged 
heroes, 
Memories  of  what  hath 
been? 

Descending  Slides  in- 
dicate positiveness,  determina- 
tion or  a  completion  of  the 
thought. 

£rfl«//f.-Come  one,  come  all,  this 
rock  shall  fly 
From  its  firm  base    as 
soon  as  II 

The  Circumflex  is  used 

to  denote  surprise  or  to  express 

a  secondary  meaning  which  may 

be  in  harmony  with  or  directly 

opposite  to  that  conveyed  by  the 

worc]s<  SELF-POSSESSION  ON  THE  PLATFORM. 

Example. — Whalt  shear  a  wolf,  a  prowling  violft 

Cadence. 


Cadence  is  the  tone  with  which  a  sentence  terminates. 
According  to  the  sentiment,  it  may  have  the  ascending  or  the 
descending  slide,  the  rising  or  the  falling  circumflex,  or  it  may 
vanish  with  no  slide  whatever.  A  sentence  expressing  a  com- 
plete thought,  having  no  modifying  phrase  or  clause,  and  not 
affected  by  anything  preceding  or  following  it,  should  always 
terminate  with  a  downward  inflection ;  but  when  so  modified  it 
should  close  with  a  tone  adapted  to  the  connection  or  meaning. 
The  reader  should  study  variety  and  avoid  uniformity  in  closing 
sentences. 


FORM. 

Form  of  voice  may  be  Natural,  Effusive,  Expulsive  or 
Explosive. 
The  Natural  is  that  ordinarily  used  in  conversation. 

Example. — While  a  single  white  cloud  to  its  haven  of  rest. 

On  the  white  wing  of  peace  floated  off  in  the  west. 
The  Effusive  is  a  very  light,  gentle  form  usually  charac- 
terized by  a  swell.     It  is  -used  in  expressing  that  which  is  beau- 
tiful, tranquil  or  pathetic    It  is  characteristic  of  lofty  sentiment 
not  requiring  vigorous  expression. 

Example. — How  beautiful  she  Is!  how  fair 

She  lies  within  those  arms  that  press 
Her  form  with  many  a  soft  caress 
Of  tenderness  and  watchful  care. 
The  Expulsive  is  a  forcible  utterance  expressive  of  de- 
termination   and     intensity     ol 
feeling. 

Example. — Up,  all,  and  shout  for 
Rudiger — 
Defiance  unto  Death! 
The  Explosive    is    used 
in    vehement  language  and   in 
powerful  description.    It  usually 
manifests  itself  in  the  bursting  of 
the  voice  on  a  single  word. 

Example.— 
"Halt!"  —the    dust-brown     rank 

stood  fast ; 
"Kirc  !  "—out  blaied  the  rifle  blast. 

FORCE. 

Force  or  power  of  the  voice 
lsof  three  kinds.  Natural,  Heavy 
and  Gentle. 

Natural  Force  is  that 
most  commonly  used  in  speak- 
ing or  reading. 

Example.— 
We  are  two  travcllcrs.Roger  and  1. 
Roger's    my    dog — come   here, 
you  scamp ! 
Jump  for  the  gentleman— mind  your 
eye1 
Over  the  table— look  out  for  the 
lamp! 

Heavy  Force  is  used  in 
grand  description   and   in  con- 
veying any  idea  of  power. 

Example.— Bell  never  yet  was  hung 

Between  whose  lips  there  swung 
So  grand  a  tongue. 
Gentle  Force  is  used  in  tender  and  pathetic  descrip- 
tion, and  in  all  cases  where  a  subdued  form  is  necessary  to  cor- 
rectly express  the  sentiment. 

Example.—  Noiselessly  as  the  daylight 

Comes  when  the  night  is  done  , 
And  the  crimson  streak  on  ocean's  cheek 
Grows  into  the  great  sun. 

TIME. 

Time  in  Elocution  has  reference  to   Quantity,  Rate  and 
Pause. 


7i 


V- 


.2 


ELOCUTION. 


43 


Quantity. 

Quantity  is  the  amount  of  time  given  to  a  word.  It  may 
be  Natural,  Long  or  Short. 

Natural  Quantity   is  that  usually  given  to  words  in 

unemotional  language. 

Example.— There  is  on'  accomplishment,  in  particular,  which  I 
would  earnestly  recommc  cd  to  you.  Cultivate  assiduously  the  ability 
to  read  well.  * 

Long  Quantity  is  used  in   expressing  that  which  is 
grand,  sublime,  gloomy  or  humble. 
Example. — O  thou  Eternal  One!  whose  presence  bright 

All  space  doth  occupy,  all  motion  guide. 
Short  Quantity  is  used  to  express  sentiment  light, 
joyous,  gay  and  brisk.    It  also  expresses  haste,  fear,  command, 
indignation,  etc 

Example. — 
The  year  is  going,  let  him  go ; 
Ring  out  the  false,  ring  im  the  true. 

Rate. 

Rate  is  the  degree  of  rapid- 
ity or  slowness  with  which  sev- 
eral successive  words  are  utter- 
ed. It  may  be  Natural,  Slow 
or  Fast. 

Natural  Rate  is  that 
which  a  person  naturally  uses 
in  reading  or  speaking. 

Example. — 
O  good  painter,  tell  me  true, 
Has  your  hand  the  cunning  to  draw 
Shapes   of  things  that  you  never 
saw? 

Slow  Rate  may  denote 
horror  and  awe;  it  should  be 
used  in  language  serious,  sub- 
lime and  pathetic. 

Example. — 
Meanwhile  the  shapeless  iron  mass 

Came  moving  o'er  the  wave, 
As  gloomy  as  a  passing  hearse, 

As  silent  as  the  grave. 

Fast  Rate  is  used  to  ex- 
press sentiment  lively,  joyous, 
impassioned  and  vehement. 

Example. — 

Hurrah  !  the  foes  are  moving!    Hark  to  the  mingled  din 

Of  fife  and  steed,  and  trump  and  drum,  and  roaring  culverin ! 


Example.— Have  you  heard  the  tale  of  the  Aloe  plant. 
Away  in  the  sunny  clime  ? 
By  humble  growth  of  a  hundred  years 
It  reaches  its  blooming  time. 

Long  Pause  usually  accompanies  Slow  Rate  or  a  change 
of  sentiment,  and  marks  a  suspension  of  the  sense. 

Example.— Pause  a  moment.  I  heard  a  footstep.  Listen  now.  I 
heard  it  again.  But  it  is  going  from  us.  It  sounds  fainter — still 
fainter.     It  is  gone. 

Short  Pause  accompanies  Fast  Rate,  and  is  character- 
istic of  haste,  fear,  etc 

Example. — John,  be  quick!  Get  some  water!  Throw  the  powder 
overboard!  It  cannot  be  reached  !  Jump  into  the  boat,  then!  Shove 
off!    There  goes  the  powder — thank  Heaven,  we  are  safe! 


Pause. 


Pause  is  the  suspension  of  the  voice.  Poetic  and  Oratori- 
cal Pauses  express  emotion.  Rhetorical  Pauses  are  those  de- 
manded by  the  sense  and  structure  of  a  sentence.  Grammatical 
Pauses  are  those  indicated  by  the  usual  marks  of  punctuation, 
and  Prosodical  Pauses  are  those  used  only  in  verse.  But  in 
this  connection  it  is  best  to  make  three  divisions,  viz.:  Nat- 
ural Pause,  Long  Pause  and  Short  Pause. 

Natural  Pause  is  used  in  unimpassioned  language  and 
ordinary  description. 


STRESS. 

Stress  has  much  to  do  with 
the  power,  beauty  and  general 
effect  of  a  sentence.  It  is  that 
finishing,  polishing  touch  which 
causes  the  thought  to  stand  out 
in  relief — throwing  it  vividly 
upon  the  background,  with  its 
profile  welk  defined,  its  lights 
and  shadows  harmoniously 
blended — rendering  it  com- 
plete, beautiful  and  sym- 
metrical. 

There  are  six  distinct  kinds 
ot  Stress,  viz.:  Initial,  Final, 
Median,  Compound,  Thorough 
and  Tremulous. 

Initial  Stress  is  an  ex- 
plosive force  on  the  first  part  of 
a  syllable  or  word.  It  is  char- 
acteristic of  lively,  joyous  de- 
scription. 

Example. — 
I  come  from  haunts  of  coot  and 
hern ; 

I  make  a  sudden  sally, 
And  sparkle  out  among  the  fern, 

To  bicker  down  a  valley. 

The  Final  Stress  is  an 

explosive  force  on  the  latter  part 
It  is  used  in  expressing  defiance,  de- 


THE  AWKWARD  SPEAKER. 

of  a  syllable  or  word. 

termination,  or  intensity  of  feeling  or  purpose. 
Example.— A  breath  of  submission  we  breathe  not ; 

The  sword  we  have  drawn  we  will  sheathe  not. 
Median  Stress,  or  the  Swell,  .characteristic  of  the  Oro- 
tund Quality  and  Effusive  Form,  is  most  marked  in  the  sublime, 
but  it  is  found  in  all  classes  of  literature,  sometimes  occurring 
on  a  single  word  and  again  continually  through  an  entire  sen- 
tence. 

Example.— Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll! 
Compound  Stress  is  a  union  of  the  Initial  and  Final 
in  one  word.     It  is  indicative  of  surprise,  irony  and  determi- 
nation. 
Example.— Gone  to  be  married!     Gone  to  swear  a  peace! 

Shall  Lewis  have  Blanche,  and  Blanche  these  provinces  t 


VL 


K= 


44 


"7f 


ELOCUTION. 


-^ 


Thorough  Stress  is  an  abrupt,  heavy  force,  used  in 
command,  fearlessness  and  braggadocio. 

£xampfe.—Tl]iizct  with  your  serried  columns! 
I  will  not  bend  the  knee  ! 
The  shackles  ne'er  again  shall  bind 
The  arm  which  now  is  free. 

Tremulous  or  Intermittent  Stress  is  used  in 
fear,  joy  and  laughter,  in  the  broken  voice  of  sorrow,  and  in 
imitation  of  the  feeble  voice  of  age. 

Example. — Ho,  why  dost  thou  shiver  and  shake.  Gaffer  Gray, 
And  why  does  thy  nose  look  so  blue?     * 
"  'Tis  the  weather  Is  cold,  'tis  I've  grown  very  old, 
And  my  doublet  is  not  very  new,  wcll-a-day." 


Emphasis. 


"  Emphasis,"  it  has  been  said,  "  is  in  speech  what  coloring  is 
in  painting.  It  admits  of  all  possible  degrees,  and  must,  to  in- 
dicate a  particular  degree  of  distinction,  be  more  or  less  intense, 
according  to  the  groundwork  or  current  melody  of  the  dis- 
course." It  consists  of  any  peculiarity  of  utterance  which  will 
call  special  attention  to  a  particular  word  or  words  in  a  sentence. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  emphasis  may  be  of  force,  stress,  qual- 
ity, pitch  or  rate.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given  for  the  use  of 
emphasis.  It  is  so  subtile,  its  shadings  so  delicate,  that  it  can 
never  be  cabled  to  inflexible  rules.  But  in  general  we  should 
emphasize: 

1.  Words,  phrases  or  clauses  that  are  particularly  significant. 

2.  Words,  phrases  or  clauses  that  contrast. 

3.  Anything  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

4.  A  succession  of  objects  or  ideas. 


Word  Individuality. 


The  "royal  road"  to  success  in  reading  lies  in  a  true  concep- 
tion of  the  spirit  of  the  piece  and  a  faithful  delineation  of  the 
author's  meaning.  Endeavor  to  grasp  the  ideas,  make  them  a 
part  of  yourself  and  clothe  your  hearers  with  them.  Another 
element  of  power  lies  in  playing  upon  words  and  giving  them 
their  full  individual  expression.  For  instance,  the  word  firm 
should  usually  be  spoken  in  a  firm  tone  of  voice,  strong  in  a 
strong  tone,  light  in  a  light  tone,  grand  in  a  manner  conveying 
an  idea  of  grandeur. 

Word  Individuality.  Expressive  Intonation,  Imi- 
tative Modulation  and  Sound  to  Sense  are  the  terms  used  to 
express  the  act  of  playing  upon  words,  sounding  the  syllables 
or  intoning  the  vowels  in  such  a  way  as  to  more  fully  bring  out 
the  meaning  of  the  word  by  its  sound.  Old,  sweet,  long,  gay, 
cold,  deep,  roar,  whisper,  fierce,  wild,  growl,  titter,  gush,  burst, 
dash — these  and  similar  words  may  be  rendered  infinitely  more 
expressive  by  giving  each  word  its  own  peculiar  individual 
character. 

The  following  table  of  derivatives  indicates  the  peculiar  char- 
acter of  words  : 

St  denotes  firmness  or  strength ;  as,  stand,  stay,  stout,  stop, 
stamp,  etc. 

Sir  indicates  violent  force  or  energy;  as,  strive,  stress, 
strength,  strife,  etc. 

Thr  indicates  forcible  motion;  as,  throw,  throb,  thrust, 
threaten,  thrill,  etc. 


CI  indicates  smoothness  or  silent  motion  j  as,  glib,  glide, 
glow,  etc 

rVr  denotes  obliquity  or  distortion ;  as,  wry,  wrest,  wrestte, 
wring,  wrath,  wrangle,  etc. 

Sw  implies  silent  agitation  or  lateral  motion  ;  as,  sway,  sweep, 
swerve,  swing,  etc 

SI  denotes  gentle  fall  or  less  observable  motion ;  as,  sly,  slide, 
slip,  slit,  slack,  sling,  etc 

Sp  indicates  dissipation  or  expansion ;  as,  spread,  sprout, 
sprinkle,  split,  spoil,  spring,  etc 

— ash  indicates  something  actingnimbly  or  sharply ;  as,  crash, 
dash,  rash,  flash,  lash,  splash,  etc 

— ush  denotes  something  acting  more  obtusely  and  dully ;  as, 
crush,  brush,  hush,  gush,  blush,  etc 

Analysis  and  Grouping. 

In  reading  it  is  necessary  first  to  analyze  the  thought,  to  de- 
cide in  the  mind  what  portions  are  most  prominent,  and  these 
should  receive  greatest  emphasis.  The  subordinate  thoughts 
should  be  properly  grouped  together  and  expressed  in  such  a 
manner  as  will  clearly  show  them  to  be  subordinate.  To  use  a 
figure  of  speech,  let  the  more  important  parts  stand  in  the  fore- 
ground, giving  them  intensest  light ;  the  auxiliary  thoughts  may 
repose  in  the  shadows  of  the  background.  In  general  the  sub- 
ject, predicate,  object  and  connectives  of  a  sentence  should  re- 
ceive emphatic  force.  Give  the  same  degree  of  force  to  words 
having  a  close  grammatic  connection,  but  separated  from  each 
other  in  the  sentence.  The  intervening  portions  should  be  read 
parenthetically. 

Transition. 

Transition  is  the  art  of  changing  easily,  rapidly  and 
completely  from  one  modulation  or  form  of  voice  to  another.  It 
should  be  carefully  practiced. 

Climax. 

It  has  been  previously  stated  that  a  succession  of  objects  or 
ideas  should  receive  emphasis ;  that  is,  each  of  the  series  should 
be  made  more  emphatic  than  the  one  immediately  preceding. 
This  gives  a  constantly  increasing  emphatic  scale.  The  extreme 
point  of  the  scale  is  called  the  Climax.  There  the  vocal  ef- 
forts should  reach  their  culmination,  giving  great  strength  to  the 
sentence. 

Repose. 

Repose  is  the  sublime  emblem  of  infinite  power.  It  is 
reserve  force  that  is  immeasurable.  He  who  by  violent  exertion 
shows  that  he  has  reached  his  limit  loses  that  greater  concep- 
tion that  we  may  have  formed  regarding  his  powers.  Where 
I'lim.ix  is  employed  in  speech,  in  order  to  convey  the  greatest 
I  of  power  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  concluding 
11  of  the  sentence  with  that  repose  which  indicates  unlim- 
ited reserve  strength.  It  has  been  well  said,  "The  highest 
power  is  master)',  and  the  highest  mastery  is  self-master)',  and 
of  self-master)'  repose  is  the  emblem." 


J^ 


^L! 


"7[ 


ELOCUTION. 


45 


Impersonation. 

In  Impersonation  the  reader  or  speaker  puts  himself 
in  the  place  of  another,  using  the  tone  and  style  required  by  the 
assumed  character.  This,  however,  should  not  be  resorted  to 
when  the  beauty  or  sublimity  of  thought  contained  in  a  passage 
would  be  weakened  thereby,  as  an  assumed  form  always  de- 
tracts from  the  ideas  by  directing  our  attention  to  the  manner. 
But  there  are  many  times  when  personation  really  adds  to  the 
beauty  and  effectiveness  of  the  rendering.  The  judgment  of  the 
reader  must  decide  when  it  should  be  employed,  and  in  what 
particular  cases  it  may  be  omitted.  'When  impersonating  the 
voice  may  be  changed,  as  well  as  the  general  manner.  A  heavy 
or  light  voice,  fast  or  slow  rate,  low  or  high  pitch  will  often  be 
a  sufficient  change.  Old  age  requires  a  feeble  or  cracked  voice, 
higher  pitch,  slower  rate,  gentler  force,  a  greater  use  of  the  in- 
flections, and  an  apparent  toothlessness  easily  secured  by  re- 
tracting the  lower  jaw  and  drawing  the  underlip  as  far  as  possi- 
ble over  the  teeth.      Children's  voices  are  imitated  by  light 


force,  many  rising  and  falling  slides,  using  great  expression. 
Let  the  throat  be  contracted  that  the  voice  may  appear  to  be 
formed  in  the  front  part  of  the  mouth.  In  imitating  the  voices 
of  women  the  reader  should  employ  greater  or  heavier  force,  as 
required. 

Dialogue  Reading. 

In  dialogue  reading  several  impersonated  voices  may  occur, 
varying  one  from  another  by  changes  of  force,  pitch,  rate  or 
quality.  As  a  general  rule,  the  direction  of  the  eyes  and  head 
should  change  with  each  transition  of  character.  When  only  two 
speakers  are  represented,  the  whole  body  may  change  position, 
but  when  several  appear  a  slight  change  only  is  required.  In 
representing  two  characters  the  gaze  is  alternated  left  and  right, 
but  the  descriptive  portions  (those  not  spoken  by  either  of 
the  characters)  should  always  be  given  front.  Let  changes  of 
position  and  voice  be  sudden  and  decided,  especially  so  when 
one  speaker  is  interrupted  by  another. 


^C 


-S"—' 


-McG  B  S  T  U  R  B.3N- 


< — *-^vrt^- 


'Ik 


T- 


Elocution  maybe  divided  into  two  parts :  that  which  is  heard, 
and  that  which  is  seen.  The  former  is  called  Voice  ,  the  latter, 
Gesture.  Both  are  important  and  indispensable  to  its 
proper  study.  The  manner  may  be  so  out  of  harmony  that  it 
entirely  contradicts  the  words,  and  an  idea  is  conveyed  directly 
opposite  to  that  intended.  It  is  important,  then,  that  we  study 
manner  as  well  as  matter.  A  pleasing  style  of  delivery  adds 
much  to  the  effectiveness  of  a  production,  and  in  this  Gesture 
plays  an  important  part.  It  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  per- 
fect success  of  vocal  delivery  that  it  be  accompanied  by  a  man- 
ner that  will  not  provoke  criticism,  nor  in  any  way  draw  the 
hearer's  attention  from  the  thought  uttered.  It  should  rather 
aid  that  thought  by  conveying  to  the  eye  what  the  voice  sends 
to  the  ear.  Gesture  should  always  be  an  assistant,  never  a  hin- 
drance, as  it  certainly  is  when  not  properly  used.  Those  who 
naturally  employ  many  gestures  should  learn  how  to  correctly 
use  them  ;  those  who  use  few  should  cultivate  the  use  of  more 
by  making  themselves  familiar  with  the  laws  that  govern  intel- 
ligent gesticulation.  Double  Gestures  have  the  same  signifi- 
cance as  single  gestures.  They  are  used  for  variety  and  greater 
effect  and  force.  In  speaking,  do  not  employ  one  hand  exclu- 
sively, but  occasionally  use  the  other  to  avoid  sameness. 

Rules  Governing  Gesture. 

Gesture  is  that  part  of  elocution  which  appeals  to  the  eye. 
It  relates  to  Position  and  Movements. 


POSITION  OF  THE  BODY. 

The  position  of  the  body  should  be  in  harmony  with  the 
character  of  the  thought.  Vigorous  expression  requires  a  firm 
posture ;  beauty  of  sentiment,  a  graceful  attitude.  The  position 
should  be  changed,  not  too  often,  as  quietly  and  with  as  few 
movements  as  possible.  The  arms,  when  not  in  use,  should 
hang  easily  at  the  sides,  and  one  foot  should  be  slightly  in  ad- 
vance, the  head  being  held  naturally  erect  The  speaker  should 
always  take  his  position  near  the  front  of  the  stage,  to  be  better 
seen  and  heard.  In  reading,  always  stand  or  sit  erect,  with 
lungs  well  inflated. 

MOVEMENTS. 

Movements  of  the  body  are  necessary  to  give  character  to  the 
delivery,  but  they  must  be  natural,  graceful  and  appropriate. 

The  Head. 

The  Head  should  maintain  an  easy  position  and  allow  the 
eyes  to  move  deliberately  over  the  audience.  Do  not  stare  into 
vacancy  while  before  a  company,  but  fix  your  gaze  upon  the  in- 
dividuals composing  the  assemblage.  Avoid  an  excessive  use 
of  the  head,  both  in  reading  and  speaking.  In  reading,  the 
eyes  should  be  raised  from  the  book  as  much  as  possible.  Prac- 
tice will  give  facility  in  reading  long  sentences  with  a  single 
glance  at  the  book.  The  expression  of  the  face  should  reflect 
the  character  of  the  thought. 


UL 


UNIVERSITY    ) 


K" 


46 


ELOCUTION. 


The  Hands  in  gesture  should  be  used  easily  and  grace- 
fully. Frequent  practice  before  a  mirror  will  be  advantageous 
in  securing  freedom  and  grace  of  movement.  The  hands  may 
be  Supine,  Prone,  Vertical,  Pointing  and  Clenched. 

The  Supine  Hand  lies  easily  opened,  with  the  palm  upward. 
It  is  a  common  form  of 
gesture. 

The  Prone  Hand  is 
opened  with  the  palm 
downward.  It  is  used 
to  denote  negative  as- 
sertion, superposition, 
etc. 

The  Vertical  Hand 
is  opened,  with  the  palm 
outward  from  the 
speaker.  It  is  used  in 
warding  off  and  in  de- 
noting a  limit 

The  Pointing  Hand, 
forefinger  extended,  is 
used  in  designating  or 
pointing  out  any  partic- 
ular thing  or  place.  Or- 
dinarily, the  hand  is 
loosely  opened,  but, 
when  the  gesture  i  s 
emphatic,  it  is  tightly 
closed. 

The  Clenched  Hand 
denotes  intense  action 
of  the  will  or  passions. 

The  accompanying  il- 
lustration, with  explan- 
ations appended,  shows 
the  principal  forms  of 
hand  gestures. 

The  Arms. 

The  Arms  should 
be  used  naturally  and 
with  decision.  In  forci- 
ble utterance  they  move 
in  straight  lines;  in 
graceful  expression  they 
move  in  curves,  but 
even  in  the  curves  they 
should  show  that  they 
are  servants  sent  to  per- 
forin certain  duties,  and 
that  they  arc  guided  in 
every  motion  by  a 
power  beyond  them- 
selves. Sometimes,  in  familiar  gesture,  the  forearm  only  is  used, 
but  ordinarily  the  arm  moves  freely  from  the  shoulder. 

Hand  and  Arm  Gestures. 

Hand  and  Arm  <-«'s*ures  are  made  in  four  general 
directions,  viz.:  Front,  O/diaue,  Lateral  and  Backward, 
Each  of  these  is  subdivided  into  Horixontal,  Descending  and 

Ascending, 


POSITIONS  OF  THE  HANDS. 

1.  Simple  affirmation.  a.  Emphatic  declaration.  3.  Apathy  or  prostration. 
4.  Energetic  appeal.  5.  Negation  or  denial.  6.  Violent  repulsion.  7.  Indexing 
or  cautioning.  S.  Determination  or  anger.  9.  Supplication,  to.  Gentle  cn> 
treaty.  11.  Carelessness,  ia.  Argumentation.  13.  Earnest  entreaty.  14.  Resig- 
nation. 


Front  Gestures  are  used  to  designate  or  to  illustrate  that 

which  is  near  to  us,  whether  it  be  an  object,  a  thought  or 

a  feeling.     In  addressing  an  object,  real  or  ideal,  we  suppose  it 

to  be  placed  in  the  direction  of  the  Front  gesture. 

Oblique  Gestures  are  less  emphatic  and  more  general  in 

their  application  than 
the  Front  Gestures. 
They*  relate  to  things 
indefinitely. 

Lateral  Gestures 
denote  expansion,  ex- 
treme distance,  breadth, 
or  the  placing  of  per- 
sons, objects  or  ideas  in 
contrast  with  one  an- 
other. 

Backward  Gestures 
indicate  things  remote, 
obscure  or  hidden. 

Horizontal  G  e  s  - 
TURF.S  are  employed  in 
general  allusions ;  they 
indicate  a  level  or 
equality  and  belong  to 
the  realm  of  the  Intel- 
lect. 

Descending  Ges- 
tures denote  inferior- 
ity or  inequality,  and, 
when  emphatic,  they 
show  determination 
and  purpose.  They 
belong  to  the  WilL 

Ascending  Ges- 
tures denote  superior- 
ity, greatness,  an  un- 
folding or  lifting  up 
figuratively  or  literally. 
They  belong  to  the 
Imagination. 

Make  all  gestures 
with  decision.  When 
the  gesture  is  com- 
pleted, let  the  arm  fall 
slowly  to  the  side. 
Never  allow  the  arms 
to  swing. 


Ijl  THp  FO^g  OF  gpEEtln. 


Conversation.  This  is  the  simplest  form  of  speech,  and 
it  is  the  most  natural.  In  conversation  we  are  ourselves ;  we 
use  no  forced,  unnatural  style  of  utterance.  Always  endeavor  in 


*7^ 


conversation  to  express  the  best  thoughts  in  the  best  manner, 
avoiding  those  subjects  not  of  general  interest  to  the  listeners, 
using  the  best  language  at  command. 

Reading.  In  conversation  our  ideas  are  evolved  from 
oar  own  minds.  In  reading  the  thought  may  be  the  same  and 
the  manner  the  same,  though  the  phraseology  differ.  In  read- 
ing our  own  composition,  we  are  too  liable  to  fall  into  a  read- 
ing tone — air  'innatural  mode  of  expression.  This  droning 
process  causes  the  hearer  to  lose  a  large  portion  of  the  thought 
which  he  would  receive  were  the  reading  intelligent  instead  of 
mechanical.  In  emotional  reading,  he  receives  all  the  thought, 
and  it  is  intensified  in  its  conveyance  to  him.  When  you  desire 
to  read  well,  be  sure  to  previously  familiarize  yourself  with  the 
words,  arrangement  of  paragraphs  and  logical  connection  of 
all  the  thoughts  contained  in  the  piece  of  reading.  Always  hold 
your  book  or  paper  in  such  a  way  that  you  can  readily  take  in 
a  whole  line  at  once.  Allow  the  letters  to  be  about  fourteen 
inches  from  the  eye,  not  directly  below,  nor  horizontal  with  the 
eye,  but  half-way  between  these  two  positions.  Look  off  the 
book  as  much  as  possible. 

Public  Speaking.  This  is  conversation  magnified. 
The  same  forms  of  voice  are  employed  as  in  conversation  ;  the 
difference  lies  in  a  symmetrical  enlargement  of  the  sentences. 
In  this,  do  not  distort,  but  preserve  the  form  in  its  simplicity 
and  you  will  have  it  in  its  greatest  purity  and  power.  Apply 
all  rules  of  elocution  and  rhetoric  to  your  conversation,  and  you 
will  have  the  form  best  suited  to  public  address.  Always  make 
a  marked  distinction  between  the  conversational  (or  explana- 
tory) and  the  oratorical  and  dramatic  portions.  Studiously 
avoid  anything  like  an  oratorical  style  in  simple  descriptions  or 
narratives.  Never  appear  in  public  without  thorough  prepara- 
tion, and  be  sure  that  this  is  succeeded  by  a  period  of  rest,  that 
you  may  be  in  your  best  condition.  Tone  the  voice  just  before 
beginning  your  vocal  effort.  In  your  approach,  do  not  appear 
hurried ;  but  let  your  manner  be  graceful  and  your  bearing  dig- 
nified. This  will  insure  respect.  Put  yourself  at  ease  by  a 
strong  mental  effort  and  begin  deliberately,  gradually  warming 
up  with  your  subject.  Never  acquire  the  useless  habit  of  drinking 
water  during  a  vocal  performance.  Water  will  not  supply  the  nat- 
ural moisture  of  the  vocal  organs,  and  if  they  are  properly  used 
there  is  no  necessity  for  artificial  moistening.  Pay  special  at- 
tention to  the  articulation,  and  let  it  always  be  distinct.  Deliver 
she  sounds  sharply  and  correctly,  and  your  audience  will  ap- 
preciate your  efforts,  though  they  may  not  themselves  know 
wherein  lies  the  charm  of  the  voice  to  which  they  listen. 


DRAMATIC  ACTION. 


Dramatic  action  differs  from  oratory,  though  it  employs  the 
same  vocal  expression.  The  orator  is  always  himself,  in  his 
best  condition ;  the  actor  acts  an  assumed  character  which 
would  often  not  be  consistent  with  the  dignity  of  the  orator.  In 
oratory  we  may  borrow  certain  gestures  (termed  Special  Ges- 
tures) from  the  art  of  acting;  hence  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  be 
informed  as  to  the  significance  and  proper  method  of  using 
these  gestures. 


In  acting,  the  moderate  step  may  become  a  stride.  Actors 
are  permitted  to  move  in  a  lateral  direction,  while  the  oratof 
can  only  advance  and  recede  from  his  audience.  The  actor  may 
also  stamp,  start  or  kneel.  These  demonstrations  are  forbidden 
the  orator. 

An  erect  position  is  the  only  one  suitable  to  the  dignity  of  the 
orator.  In  acting,  grief  depresses,  and  pride  throws  the  body 
backward. 

The  head  is  raised  in  arrogance,  inclined  in  languor  or  indif- 
ference, and  hung  in  shame.  The  head  may  take  the  following 
positions:  Inclined,  Erect,  Assenting,  Denying,  Shaking, 
Tossing,  Aside, 

Considered  in  reference  to  the  direction  of  the  eyes,  it  may  be 
Averted,  Downward,  Upward,  Around  or  on  Vacancy. 

The  countenance  may  take  the  expression  of  anger,  shame, 
contempt,  pride,  despair,  terror  or  any  other  violent  passion. 
In  oratory  this  is  not  admissible. 

The  hand  may  take  the  following  positions  :  Hollow,  Hold- 
ing or  Grasping  (according  to  the  degree  of  energy),  Applied 
(palms  together),  Clasped,  Crossed  (upon  the  breast),  folded 
(fingers  of  right  hand  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the 
left),  Enclosed  (back  of  the  one  within  the  palm  of  the  other), 
Touching  (points  of  the  thumb  and  fingers  of  each  hand 
brought  into  contact),  Wringing  (clasped  hand,  lowered,  and 
separated  at  wrists,  but  without  fingers  disengaged),  Enumer- 
ating (first  finger  of  the  right  hand  laid  successively  upon  first 
and  other  fingers  of  the  left). 

The  arms  may  be  Folded  (crossed  and  enclosing  each  other), 
Akimbo  (one  or  both  hands  on  hips,  elbows  extended  at  one  or 
both  sides),  Reposed  (elbows  nearly  resting  on  the  hips,  one 
hand  holding  the  wrist  of  the  other — a  female  position). 

In  designating  the  manner  of  motion,  Gesture  may  be  con- 
sidered as  Noting  (the  hand  being  drawr  back  and  raised,  then 
advanced  and  by  gentle  stroke  depressed),  Projecting  (arm 
thrust  forward  in  the  direction  in  which  the  hand  may  be  point- 
ing), Retracting  (the  arm  drawn  back  preparatory  to  projecting 
or  to  avoid  an  object),  Waving  (fingers  pointing  downward, 
the  hand  flung  smartly  upward),  the  Flourish  (in  which  the 
hand  describes  a  circle  or  part  of  a  circle  above  the  head),  the 
Sweep  (the  hand  making  a  curved  movement,  descending  from 
the  opposite  shoulder  and  rising  high  above  the  head ;  or  the 
reverse,  changing  in  the  first  case  from  the  Supine  to  the  Ver- 
tical, and  in  the  second  from  Vertical  to  Supine ;  sometimes  a 
Double  Sweep  is  used,  combining  both  movements),  Beckoning 
(with  whole  hand  or  simply  the  forefinger),  Repressing  (the  op- 
posite of  Beckoning),  Advancing  (the  hand  moved  slowly  for- 
ward and  upward  to  the  horizontal,  the  whole  body  aiding  the 
action,  and  a  step  in  advance  being  taken),  Springing  (the 
hand,  having  nearly  arrived  at  the  limit  of  the  gesture,  spruigs 
suddenly  up  to  it  by  a  quick  movement  of  the  wrist),  Striking 
(hand  and  arm),  Bending  (preparation  for  Striking),  Recoiling 
(a  return  to  position  after  Striking),  Throwing  (arm  flung  out- 
ward in  the  direction  of  a  person  addressed),  Clinching  (clench- 
ed hand  raised  threateningly),  Collecting  (arm  sweeps  inward 
toward  the  body),  Shaking  (tremulous  motion  given  to  arm  and 
hand),  Pressing  (the  hand  being  laid  upon  any  part,  the  elbow 
is  raised  and  the  fingers  contracted),  Rejecting  (vertical  hand 
pushed  toward  the  object,  head  averted). 


£_ 


JM 


4» 


; 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


W^' 


BUSINESS^ 


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<K|^|>o 

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50CIAL^     f\ 


Correspondence.: 


e— E"1- 


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3—9 


Letter-Writing    in    All   Its    Korms. 

<-vg_      .  A, »      ■    -    ■     " ^      .  <?> 


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-^«*-Jt-(i-n-Ji-J»-JV-n--n--n-«-A^^ 


— M .J-a+o-J. 


ETTER-WRITING  in  its  true  ex- 
cellence can  scarcely  be  regarded 
as  an  art.  Instruction  may,  no 
doubt,  be  imparted  through  the 
medium  of  rules,  but  those  appli- 
cable to  the  subject  are  few  and,  at  the  same 
time,  of  the  simplest  character.  The  following 
observations  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  found  of  some 
practical  use  to  young  persons,  and  assist  them 
in  avoiding  errors  and  in  acquiring  a  degree  of 
proficiency  in  epistolary  composition. 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  letter- 
writing  is  but  "speaking  by  the  pen."  The 
first  endeavor  of  a  writer  should,  therefore,  be 
to  express  himself  as  easily  and  naturally  as  in 
conversation,  though  with  more  method  and 
conciseness. 

STYLE. 

The  style  should  be  determined  in  some  measure  by  the 
nature  of  the  subject,  but  in  a  still  greater  degree  by  the 
relative  positions  of  the  writer  and  the  person  addressed.  On 
important  subjects,  the  composition  is  expected  to  be  for- 
cible and  impressive ,  on  lighter  subjects,  easy  and  vivacious  ; 
in  condolence,  tender  and  sympathetic;  in  congratulation, 
lively  and  joyous.  To  superiors,  it  should  be  respectful ;  to 
inferiors,  courteous;  to  friends,  familiar;  and  to  relations, 
affectionate.  An  old  writer  justly  remarks:  "Much  has  been 
said  on   the   epistolary   style,  as  if  any  one  style  could  be 


appropriated  to  the  great  variety  of  subjects  which  are  treated 
of  in  letters.  Ease,  it  is  true,  should  distinguish  familiar 
letters,  written  on  the  common  affairs  of  life,  because  the 
mind  is  usually  at  ease  while  they  are  composed.  But  even 
in  these,  topics  incidentally  arise  which  require  elevated  ex- 
pression and  an  inverted  construction.  Not  to  raise  the  style 
on  these  occasions  is  to  write  unnaturally ;  for  nature  teaches 
us  to  express  animated  emotions  of  every  kind  in  animated 
language.  The  dependent  writes  unnaturally  to  a  superior 
in  the  style  of  familiarity ;  the  suppliant  writes  unnaturally  if 
he  rejects  the  figures  dictated  by  distress.  Conversation 
admits  of  every  style  but  the  poetic ;  and  what  are  letters  but 
written  conversations  ?" 

Arrangement  of  Ideas. 

The  purport  of  every  letter  should  be  well  considered 
before  its  commencement — not  only  with  a  view  to  the  attain- 
ment of  a  thorough  clearness  of  expression,  which  is  of  pri- 
mary importance,  but  likewise  that  the  principal  points  to  be 
discussed  may  be  prominently  brought  forward,  while  those 
of  a  trivial  nature  are  slightly  mentioned.  It  requires,  how- 
ever, not  only  a  certain  amount  of  tact,  but  some  quickness 
of  perception  to  avoid  the  stiffness  and  formality  which  are 
incident  to  the  arrangement  of  the  subject,  and  which  are 
great  defects  in  letter- writing. 

Ornamentation. 

A  redundancy  of  ideas  and  of  language  is  a  common  fault 
with  those  capable  of  writing  with  facility.  A»  a  rule,  there- 
fore, all  striving  after  effect  or  attempt  at  ornamentation  should 
be  avoided  ;  and  as  the  chief  charm  of  a  letter  is  its  origin- 
ality, writer*  should  not  avail  themselves  either  of  hackneyed 


K" 


~A 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


49 


expressions  or  of  ideas  borrowed  from  others.  An  exhibition 
of  epistolary  talent  is  far  less  likely  to  gratify  a  correspondent 
than  an  easy,  free  and  faithful  expression  of  the  sentiments 
of  the  writer;  and  by  thus  expressing  himself  he  will  also 
naturally  avoid  any  excess  of  flattery  or  exaggerated  profes- 
sions of  regard,  so  peculiarly  objectionable  in  a  letter,  and  at 
variance  with  all  delicacy  of  taste.  At  the  same  time,  a  strict 
adherence  to  the  natural  expression  of  the  thoughts  will  grad- 
ually introduce  a  degree  of  ease,  fluency  and  force  which 
may  be  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection. 

Long  Sentences. 

Unpracticed  persons  will  at  first  find  it  desirable  to  make 
their  sentences  as  short  as  possible,  that  they  may  have  them 
completely  under  control.  Long  sentences,  even  when  well 
constructed,  frequently  occasion  some  degree  of  obscurity, 
and  are  less  forcible  than  short  ones.  Parentheses,  though 
sometimes  necessary,  likewise  tend  to  obscure  the  meaning 
of  a  writer,  besides  weakening  the  effect  of  sentences ;  they 
should  therefore  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

COMPOSITION  OF  LETTERS. 

As  regards  the  composition  of  letters,  it  is  generally  desir- 
able to  commence  with  some  introductory  remarks,  not  as  a 
mere  formality,  but  for  the  purpose  of  conciliating  attention 
to  the  main  subject  of  communication,  which  may  otherwise 
strike  too  abruptly  upon  the  mind  of  the  reader.  The  intro- 
duction should  be  followed  by  the  development  of  the  topics 
for  discussion,  according  to  the  importance  attaching  to  each  ; 
and  the  conclusion  should,  when  occasion  requires,  be  de- 
voted to  the  confirmation  or  summing  up  of  what  has  been 
previously  stated,  and  to  expressions  of  regard  or  affection. 

Tautology. 

Tautology,  or  the  repetition  of  the  same  words,  should  be 
guarded  against,  as  forming  a  blemish  of  a  striking  character. 
In  this  effort,  the  continual  need  of  words  of  like  meaning 
will  soon  render  a  writer  familiar  with  a  variety  of  synonyms ; 
and  the  possession  of  a  copious  vocabulary  will  conduce 
greatly  to  the  general  freedom  of  the  composition. 

Postscripts. 

Postscripts  are  generally  indicative  of  thoughtlessness,  and 
should  be  avoided,  except  when  necessary  for  the  purpose  of 
mentioning  some  circumstance  that  has  occurred  after  a  letter 
has  been  written.  To  convey  any  assurance  of  regard  or 
affection  by  means  of  a  postscript  is  a  great  impropriety,  as 
appearing  to  imply  that  the  sentiments  are  so  slightly  im- 
pressed upon  the  mind  of  the  writer  as  to  be  almost  forgotten. 
There  are  special  circumstances,  however,  which  may  render 
an  expression  of  feeling  in  a  postscript  even  more  impressive 
than  in  the  body  of  the  letter;  but  such  cases  are  exceptional, 
and  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  practiced  writer. 


Quotations. 


Quotations  should  not  be  introduced  too  frequently,  for, 
though  a  short  and  appropriate  one,  occasionally  given,  is 
both  effective  and  elegant,  yet  to  give  them  prominence  in  a 
letter  appears  pedantic  and  affected.  The  common  use  of 
French  or  proverbial  phrases  also  offends  against  good  taste. 

Underlinings. 

Underlinings  and  interlineations  are  objectionable.  A  well 
constructed  sentence  will  seldom  require  the  emphasis  to  be 
marked  by  underlining  any  of  the  words,  and  a  frequent  re- 
petition of  the  practice  is  not  complimentary  to  the  under- 
standing of  a  correspondent.  Any  occasion  for  interlineations 
may  usually  be  superseded  by  the  exercise  of  care  in  writing 
and  by  a  little  forethought. 

Grammatical  Correctness. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe  that  correctness  in 
grammar  and  spelling  is  of  the  highest  importance,  and  that 
no  elegance  of  diction  compensates  for  imperfection  in  these 
respects,  but  rather  serves  to  render  more  glaring  errors  so 
essentially  indicative  of  a  defective  education.  When  the 
rules  of  grammar  are  understood,  the  constant  attention  to 
apply  them  will  soon  render  them  familiar,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  tend  to  promote  readiness  of  expression.  Abbreviations 
in  spelling,  even  though  warranted  by  general  practice,  have 
a  certain  appearance  of  laxity,  ana  detract  much  from  a  good 
style. 

Contractions  and  Abbreviations. 

Be  careful  and  do  not  use  the  character  $  except  in  the  title 
of  firms ;  as,  Brown  &  Cox,  A.  T.  Scott  &  Co.  As  a  general 
thing,  characters  are  to  be  avoided.  The  economy  of  time 
and  space  secured  by  their  use  hardly  compensates  for  the 
mutilated  appearance  of  the  words  and  the  liability  to  error 
involved.  Don't,  can't,  isn't,  and  other  contractions  of  the 
same  class,  are  allowable  in  familiar  letters,  and  where  familiar 
conversation  is  quoted,  but  not  in  any  graver  style. 

Figures  of  Arithmetic. 

Numbers,  except  dates  and  sums  of  money,  should  be 
spelled  in  full,  unless  exceeding  three  words  in  length.  Never 
write,  "I  saw  5  birds,"  "We  have  8  cats." 


Capitals. 


Capitals  should  be  cautiously  used  in  letter-writing.  We 
should  certainly  not  confine  the  writer  of  a  letteY  to  the 
rigid  rules  observed  in  printed  literature,  because  an  impor- 
tant word  may  sometimes  be  graced  with  a  capital  which  in  a 
printed  form  would  begin  with  a  small  letter.  But  an  indis- 
criminate, or  even  frequent,  use  of  capitals  may  be  taken  as  a 
proof  of  the  ignorance  of  the  writer. 


7- 


.M 


!*•" 


\ 


5° 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


. 


Punctuation. 

Proper  punctuation  is  essential  to  a 
correct  and  regular  mode  of  expression. 
The  best  general  rule  to  follow  is  to 
place  the  points  where  a  pause  would 
occur  in  speaking.  Dashes  should  only 
be  used  to  mark  a  sudden  change  in 
sentiment  or  in  place  of  parentheses. 
Correct  punctuation  not  only  gives  ele- 
gance to  a  composition,  but  it  makes  its 
meaning  clear,  enforces  attention  to  those 
words  or  passages  which  most  require  it, 
and,  to  a  great  extent,  prevents  a  mis- 
understanding or  wilful  misconstruction 
of  the  writer's  meaning. 


[Da,,.] 


Repetition. 


Avoid  repetitions.  They  always  offend 
the  judicious  ear,  and  are  seldom  proper, 
except  when  they  enforce  any  particular 
meaning  or  explain  it  more  fully. 

Form  of  a  Letter. 

A  letter  usually  consists  of  six  parts, 
viz.:  the  date,  complimentary  address, 
body  of  the  letter,  complimentary  closing, 
signature,  superscription. 


Position 


of  the  Parts 
Letter. 


of  a 


q^LuA+t**.,  <&.  <@.,$>«fy  //^  /<««. 


[  Complimentary  addrett.\ 


\Body  of  LctttT.\ 

(3f  fate*  €n*-  u-u*4fif   cf  i^cc^M^n^n^u^UT 


'.'' 


t/ut^wfUl  fed-  ttwtj-  t^CM-l  6e4wct4-  (/Ut€ 


T      f  7 


<y't.  a     i/f.  '•: 


}"■" 


[  Complimentary  dosing.  ] 


\Signaturf.\ 


The  Date  is  written  near  the  upper 
right-hand  corner  of  the  sheet. 

The  Complimentary  Address  is  be- 
gun on  the  line  next  beneath,  one  inch 
from  the  left  side  of  the  sheet. 

The  Body  of  the  Letter  is  com- 
menced nearly  under  the  last  letter  of  the   complimentary 
address. 

The  Complimentary  Closing  is  begun  on  the  line  next 
beneath  the  body  of  the  letter,  one-half  of  the  distance  from 
the  left  to  the  right  side  of  the  page. 

The  centre  of  the  Signature  should  be  under  the  last 
letter  of  the  complimentary  closing. 

The  Name  and  Address  of  the  person  written  to  should 
come  on  the  line  beneath  the  signature  at  the  left  of  the  sheet. 

The  Date. 

The  date  is  a  matter  of  great  importance,  particularly  in 
business  letters.  You  cannot  be  too  careful,  therefore,  to  state 
it  in  full  and  correctly.  Unless  you  write  from  a  large  city 
like  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Brooklyn,  New  Orleans,  Cin- 
cinnati, Boston,  Chicago  or  St.  Louis,  you  should  always 
mention   the  State,  and   generally   the   county,  as  there  are 


\N»m,.\ 

[AaVre,,.] 


>wvwwviAMV^vvw>vsnw 


many  post-offices  of  the  same  name  In  the  United  States.  If 
you  write  from  a  street,  mention  the  name  and  number  of  the 
street,  or  the  name  of  the  hotel.  With  English  writers,  it  is 
customary  to  put  the  day  before  the  month  in  dating  a  letter  j 
as,  1 8th  September,  instead  of  September  iSth.  Custom 
favors  the  latter  in  this  country. 

Proper  Modes  of  Address. 

The  styles  of  address  are  varied  to  suit  the  occasion,  and 
the  terms  of  compliment  at  the  close  of  a  letter  are  always 
considered  as  mere  courtesy  or  form  ;  they  should  not,  there- 
fore, on  any  occasion  be  avoided.  To  a  person  with  whom 
a  writer  is  not  well  acquainted  he  should  say  "  Sir,"  or 
"Madam,"  concluding  with  "Your  obedient  servant,"  or 
"Yours  respectfully;"  to  those  with  whom  he  is  tolerably 
well  acquainted,  "Dear  Sir."  or  "Dear  Madam,"  with 
"Yours  faithfully  ;"  and  to  those  with  whom  he  is  on  familiar 


VL 


■ 

a          -. 

.-      .    P 

■ 

fit 

s : 

7 

r 

1 

BUSINESS    AND 

SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE.                                                                   51 

\ 

terms,  "  My  dear  Sir,"  or  "  My  dear  Madam,"  with   " 

Yours 

My  dear  Cousin  : 

truly,"   "Yours  very  truly,"    "Yours  sincerely,"  or  ' 

Yours 

I  have  been  so  busy — 

very  sincerely."     To  two  or  more  ladies,  married  or  single, 
the  form   of  address   is   "Ladies."     To  a  young  unmarried 

My  dear  Son  : 

lady,  the  salutation  is  usually  omitted  to  avoid  the  repetition 

You  have  not  written — 

of  "Miss,"  the  address  alone  being  used  as  an  introduction. 

The  complimentary  address  is  generally  written  at  the 

top  of 

Materials. 

a  business  letter. 

The  names  of  the  different  kinds  of  papers,  and  when  used. 

Model  Headings. 

are  as  follows  : 

Mr.  William  C.  Jones, 

Legal-cap  is  used  in  writing  all  legal  documents,  articles 

Washington,  D.  C. 

of  agreement,  etc.     The  characteristic  of  legal-cap  is  a  red 
line  running  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  sheet. 

Dear  Sir: 

Bill-paper  is  used   for  bills,  etc.,  and  is  ruled  expressly 

Your  letter  of  the  12th — 

for  the  purpose,  and  usually  bears  the  name  and  business  of 
the  person  using  it  at  the  top. 

Mrs,  Maria  Jansen, 

Foolscap  is  used  in  writing  notes,  orders,  receipts,  com- 

Philadelphia. 

positions,  petitions,  subscription  headings,  etc. 

Dear  Madam : 

Letter-paper  is  used  for  the  ordinary  letter. 

I  send  you  herewith — 

Note  and  billet  paper  is   used   for  notes  of  invitation, 
parents'  excuses  for  children  to  teachers,  and  all  brief  com- 
munications.    It  is  the  smallest  sheet-paper  made. 

Commercial  note  is  used  for  business    letters,   and   is 

Miss  Edith  Blaine, 

Chicago  : 

You  will  receive  by  express — 

generally  narrower  than  ordinary  paper. 

Titles. 

Messrs.  Harper  Bros., 

Broadway, 

Titles  in  America  are  either  social,  scholastic  or  official. 

New  York. 

Social  titles  are  Mr.   (Mister,  formerly  Master),  Sir,  Esq. 

Dear  Sirs: 

(Esquire),  Gentlemen  (only  in  the  plural).  Master  (for  boys 

Yours  of  the  1st  inst.— 

only),   Mrs.  (Mistress),  Madam,  Miss,  and  Ladies.     Esq.  is 
properly  used  only  to  persons  of  some  prominence. 

Scholastic  titles  are  those  conferred  by  universities  or  other 

Messrs.  Harper  Bros., 

institutions  of  learning.     They  may  follow  or  precede  the 

Broadway, 

New  York . 

name,  as  Prof.  W.  M.  Jones;  W.  M.  Jones,  A.M. ;  Dr.  W. 
M.  Jones;  W.  M.  Jones,  M.D. 

Dear  Sirs:  Yours  of  the  26th  ult,  was — 

Official  titles  include  titles  applied  to  persons  in  the  civil, 
military  or  naval  service. 

The  following  list  illustrates  the  various  titles  used  for  the 

Messrs.  Smith,  Beggs  !r  Co., 
Chestnut  St., 

different  ranks  among  individuals  either  in  the  complimentary 

Philadelphia. 

address  or  superscription  on  the  envelope  : 

Gentlemen  : 

To  Royalty—  To  the  King's  Most  Excellent  Majesty. 

We  have  none  of  the  goods — 

To  the  Queen's  Most  Excellent  Majesty. 
To  His  Royal  Highness  the  Prince  of  Wales. 
To  Her  Royal  Highness  tiie  Princess  of  Wales. 
To  His  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of  Connaught. 
To  Her  Royal  Highness  the  Princess  Beatrice. 
To  Nobility — To  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Devonshire. 

Messrs.  Smith,  Beggs  Sf  Co., 
Chestnut  St., 

Philadelphia. 

To  Her  Grace  the  Duchess  of  Devonshire. 

Gentlemen  :  We  have  th 

e — 

To  the  Most  Noble  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury. 
To  the  Most  Noble  the  Marchioness  of  Salisbury. 
To  the  Right  Honorable  Earl  of  Carlisle. 

Miss  Lucy  Hooper, 

To  the  Right  Honorable  the  Countess  of  Carlisle. 

Paris,  III.  : 

To  the  Right  Honorable  Lord  Viscount  Palmerston. 

We  have  received  your— 

To  the  Right  Honorable  the  Viscountess  Palmerston. 
To  the  Honorable  Baron  Crandall. 

To  the  Honorable  the  Baroness  Crandall. 

1 

My  dear  James : 

The  younger  sons  of  noblemen  in  England  are  addressed 

, 

Your  note  of  the  10th — 

as  Honorable ;  also  members  of  Parliament  and  other  persons 

.  o) 

/          .. 

\ 

L 

H 

a         "■ 

v- 

AS= 


V 


52 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


holding  certain  positions  of  honor  and  trust.  The  elder  sons 
of  noblemen  take  by  courtesy  the  title  next  in  rank  below  that 
of  their  fathers. 

Baronets  are  addressed  thus  :  Sir  Waiter  Scott,  Bart. ;  and 
Knights  thus  :  Sir  Morton  Peto,  Kt 

Clerical  Titles. 
The  Pope— His.  Holiness  Tope  Leo  XIII. 
Cardinal— -His  Eminence,  John,  Cardinal  McCloskey. 
Archbishop—  Most  Rev.  Peter  R.  Kenrick,  D.D. 
Bishop— Rt.  Rev.  P.  J.  Ryan,  D.D. 
Vicar-General— -V 'try  Rev.  Henry  Muehlsiepen. 
Priest  or  Clergyman — Rev.  James  Farquhar. 
Rev.  Dr.  Amos  Foley. 

Titles  Used  in  the  United  States. 

His  Excellency— The  President  of  the  United  States, 
Governor  of  any  State,  Ministers  to  foreign  countries. 

Honorable — Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  members 
of  the  Cabinet,  members  of  Congress,  heads  of  Departments, 
Assistant-Secretaries,  Comptrollers  and  Auditors  of  the 
Treasury,  Clerks  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
State  Senators,  Judges,  Mayors  of  cities. 

Miscellaneous  Titles. 
His  Excellency  and  Mrs.  R.  B.  Hayes. 
Governor  and  Mrs.  Thos.  T.  Crittenden. 
Hon.  and  Mrs.  James  G.  Blaine. 
Rev.  Dr.  and  Mrs   T.  De  Witt  Talmage. 
Professor  and  Mrs  J.  F.  Crunden. 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Henry  Ames. 
Drs.  John  M.  and  Chester  H.  Thorn. 
Drs.  Walter  C.  and  Mary  C.  Williams. 
Mr.  W.  T.  and  Mrs.  Dr.  E.  C.  James. 
Rev.  H.  E.  and  Mrs.  Dr.  E.  C.  Howe. 
Rev.  Mrs.  William  Bass. 
Rev.  Mrs.  W.  H.  Crow. 
Rev.  Jane  H.  Moon. 
Rev.  Miss  Jane  H.  Moon. 


The  Envelope. 


The  superscription  on  the  envelope  should  be  written  very 
plainly.  It  is  fashionable  to  write  it  as  near  the  right-hand 
under  angle  or  corner  of  the  envelope  as  convenient  The 
full  name  and  title  of  the  person  addressed,  with  place  of  res- 
idence, written  out  fully,  including  town,  county,  State,  and 
country,  if  it  goes  abroad. 

The  number  of  the  post-office  box,  or  the  door  number  and 
the  name  of  the  street,  or  the  name  of  the  county,  may  stand 
at  the  lower  left-hand  corner. 


P.    ft  Sex  jtx). 


<<=%&».  ^i^uu.  &/c<A, 


»37S  Ckatnul  SI. 


9^ 


Or: 


92 


9 

f  >i  >i . 


In   writing   to   the  President  of  the  United  States,  he  is 
addressed  on  the  envelope  thus  : 


'VWW\NVWl> 


± 


I 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


S3 


^ 


The  Governor  of  a  State  is  thus  addressed : 


u  <a*>. 


^e^i^u^  (iT(ir<38UtMe*uJe*t, 


When  a  person's  official  designation  is  given  in  full  it  forms 
the  next  line  below  the  name. 


A  letter  of  introduction  should  be  addressed  in  this  manner : 


Qfy.c@£u&.®!Z4Jltft4 


•mct&yi. 


Introducing 

Mr,  Edward  Granger, 

0/  Charleston,  S.  C. 


When  a  letter  is  sent  by  a  friend  the  name  of  the  bearer  it 
written  on  the  lower  left-hand  corner. 


8^5 +- 


-  ■■/■'-•■'■ . 


o *° 5^9 


GENERAL  HINTS. 


J^wL 


-^ Z^ 


Be  sure  you  affix  the  propef  stamp  to  every  letter  before  you  send 
it.  Alerter  will  not  be  forwarded  unless  it  is  prepaid  at  least  one 
full  rate. 

In  writing'  a  letter  the  answer  to  which  is  of  more  benefit  to  your- 
self than  the  person  to  whom  you  write,  enclose  a  postage  stamp  for 
the  reply. 

A  letter  of  introduction  or  recommendation  should  never  be  sealed, 
as  the  bearer  to  whom  it  is  given  ought  to  know  the  contents. 

As  a  rule,  every  letter,  unless  insulting  in  its  character,  requires  an 
answer.  To  neglect  to  answer  a  letter  when  written  to  is  as  uncivil 
as  to  neglect  to  reply  when  spoken  to. 

In  the  reply,  acknowledge  first  the  receipt  of  the  letter,  mentioning 
its  date,  and  afterwards  consider  all  the  points  requiring  attention. 

In  business  and  ceremonious  letters  do  not  write  on  both  sides. 

A  person  in  -nourning  should  never  write  a  congratulatory  letter  on 
mourning  paper. 


Either  ruled  or  plain  paper  may  be  used,  but  unruled  or  plain  paper 
is  more  stylish,  and  is  to  be  preferred. 

Avoid  all  erasures  or  blots,  even  if  compelled  to  rewrite  your  letter. 

Letters  of  compliment  should  always  be  written  in  the  third  person. 

Avoid  writing  with  a  pencil.  Never  write  other  than  business 
letters  on  a  half  sheet  of  paper. 

Owing  to  the  almost  universal  use  of  gummed  envelopes,  the  use  of 
sealing-wax  has  become  nearly  obsolete,  though  it  adds  a  much  more 
refined  appearance  to  a  note  than  simply  closing  it  with  adhesive 
gum.  A  neat  little  seal  of  red  wax  for  a  gentleman,  and  of  gold, 
blue,  or  other  fancy  color,  for  a  lady,  is  elegant  and  appropriate. 

The  envelope  should  be  adapted  both  in  size  and  color  to  the  paper. 

The  stamp  should  be  placed  on  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the 
face  of  the  envelope.  The  stamp  should  be  right  end  up,  and  the 
edges  of  the  stamp  should  be  parallel  with  the  edges  of  the  envelope, 
as  putting  a  stamp  upside  down  or  awry  indicates  carelessness,  and 
is  disrespectful  to  the  person  to  whom  it  is  sent. 


y^- 


r-1 
V 


rv 


54 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


:.: 


JHE  characteristics  oi  the  commercial  style  are  concise- 
ness and  perspicuity.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
terms  of  compliment,  scarcely  a  superfluous  word  should 
be  used.  It  is,  however,  not  at  all  necessary  to  sacrifice 
correctness  of  style  or  language.  A  careful  simplicity  and 
the  clearness  of  expression  necessary  to  convey  the  ideas  to 
be  imparted,  combined  with  the  rejection  of  all  words  not 
absolutely  indispensable,  while  giving  rise  to  a  forcible  style, 
form  in  themselves  some  of  the  chief  essentials  of  true 
elegance. 

Persons  unpracticed  in  correspondence,  before  writing  a 
letter  of  any  length,  should  note  down  the  several  heads  of 
the  matter  forming  the  subject  of  communication,  so  that  the 
various  points  may  be  brought  forward  in  proper  consecutive 
order.  If  several  subjects  are  to'  be  alluded  to,  they  should 
be  kept  perfectly  distinct,  as  the  proper  division  of  a  letter 
into  paragraphs  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  A  confusion  of 
sentences  not  only  looks  extremely  ill,  but  is  very  likely  to 
lead  to  a  misapprehension  of  the  writer's  meaning,  and  to 
result  in  delay  or  injury,  or,  at  all  events,  to  necessitate  further 
correspondence. 

In  replying  to  a  letter,  each  point  should  be  taken  up  as  it 
arises,  and  be  discussed  in  a  separate  paragraph ;  and  each 
paragraph  should  be  so  clear  and  unambiguous  that  its  pur- 
port may  in  no  way  be  doubted.  All  business  letters  should 
be  answered  the  same  day  they  are  received.  In  all  letters 
of  business,  it  is  customary  to  write  the  name  and  address  on 
the  first  page,  as  otherwise,  if  the  superscription  were  lost, 
it  would  not  appear  to  whom  the  letter  had  been  written. 
Business  letters  should  always  be  written  upon  plain  paper. 
To  use  gilt-edged  or  any  other  fancy  paper  for  this  purpose 
is  accounted  the  extreme  of  vulgarity. 


From  a  Young  Man  Commencing'  Business  to  a  Whole- 
sale House,  irith  Order. 

Ckkenville,  III.,  July  j,  18S3. 

Mr  sirs.  Gray  Is*  Wardwtll,  Now  York. 

Gentlemen:  Having  commenced  business  here  on  my  own  ac- 
count, with  every  prospect  of  success,  I  shall  he  glad  to  open  an 
account  with  your  house,  doubting  not  it  will  be  to  our  mutual 
advantage.  With  this  view,  I  note  below  an  order,  which  I  shall 
thank  you  to  execute  with  the  least  possible  delay,  and  on  your  best 
terms  as  to  goods  and  prices.  I  beg  to  refer  you  to  my  late  employer, 
Henry  Weatherby,  of  Chicago,  who  will  satisfy  you  as  to  my  integrity 
and  trustworthiness;  but,  a*  this  is  a  first  transaction,  on  your  for- 
warding me  an  invoice  of  the  goods,  deducting  discount  for  cash,  I 


shall  remit  a  sight  draft  on  a  bank  In  your  city  for  the  amount  per 

return    mail.      Requesting    your    usual    prompt    attention,    I    am, 

gentlemen, 

Yours  respectfully, 

John  Hardaway. 


Reply  from  Wholesale  House,  vrlth  Invoice. 

New  York,  July  8th,  iSSj. 

Dear  Sir  :   Agreeably  to  your  esteemed  order  of  the  md  inst.,  we 

have  the  pleasure  to  enclose  invoice  of  goods  amounting  to  S , 

subject  to  five  per  cent  discount  for  prompt  cash. 

We  may  mention  that,  from  the  opinion  entertained  of  you  by  Mr. 
Weatherby,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  opening  the  account,  and  at 
once  placing  you  on  our  best  terms.  The  parcels  have  been  dis- 
patched this  day  per  Adams  Express,  and  we  trust  they  will  arrive 
safely  and  receive  your  approval.  We  believe  the  goods  will  bear  a 
favorable  comparison  with  those  of  any  house  in  the  trade,  and 
desire  that  you  should  satisfy  yourself  as  to  value  and  quantities 
before  remitting  settlement.  We  are,  dear  Sir, 
Yours  respectfully. 

Gray  *  Wardwell. 

To  Mr.  John  Hardaway,  GrttnvilU,  III. 


From   Country   Merchant  Complaining  of  Quality   of 
his  Goods. 

Waukesha,  Wis.,  Jan.  14,  *8,j. 
Dear  Sir  :  Since  I  entered  into  business  transactions  with  you,  It 
has  been  my  invariable  course  to  act  with  integrity  and  honor,  expect- 
ing the  same  conduct  in  return.  Until  lately,  indeed,  I  had  no  cause 
to  complain ;  but  the  goods  I  had  last  week  from  you,  as  well  as  the 
parcel  just  delivered,  are  so  inferior  in  quality  that  I  hesitate  to  offer 
them  to  any  of  my  customers.  As  I  can  have  much  better  value  else  - 
where,  and  I  do  not  sell  job  goods  on  any  account,  I  am  reluctantly 
obliged  to  advise  you  that,  unless  you  can  send  me  others  In  their 
stead,  I  must  withdraw  my  correspondence  altogether.  Meantime, 
both  parcels  are  laid  aside  awaiting  your  orders.    An  immediate 

answer  will  oblige 

Yours  respectfully, 

Abeam  Matthews. 
To  Mr.  Jamis  Santo,  Nrm  York. 


To  a  Publisher's  Firm,  Proposing  to  Open  an  Account. 

Cincinnati,  Jan.  1st,  iSSj. 
Gentlemen:  As  our  business  is  rapidly  on  the  Increase,  we  are 
desirous  of  opening  an  account  with  your  house,  and  shall  feci 
obliged  by  your  t-ansmitting  us  a  trade  list  of  your  publications,  as 
well  as  some  of  your  general  catalogues.  Our  usual  terms  of  settle- 
ment are  as  follows :  (here  state  them).  Should  they  be  agreeable  to 
your  house,  the  favor  of  an  early  attention  to  our  request  will  oblige, 
Gentlemen, 

Your  obedient  servants, 

Benson  A  Co. 
To  Mtitn.  Scriomrr  **  Co.,  Soto  York. 


7- 


V 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


55 


V 


tUR  examples  under  this  head  will  be  useful  as  afford- 
ing specimens  of  an  appropriate  style  to  be  adopted 
in  answering  advertisements  or  in  applying  for  situa- 
tions. On  such  occasions,  while  the  proper  deference  due  to 
an  employer  should  be  exhibited,  it  is  desirable  to  preserve 
that  tone  of  self-respect  which,  the  employes  should  bear  in 
mind,  has  a  much  better  effect  than  any  subservient  expres- 
sions. 


From  a  Youth  Applying  for  a  Junior  Clerkship. 

Albany,  Jan.  16th,  18S0. 

Gentlemen  :  Understanding  by  your  advertisement  in  the  Herald 
of  the  15th  inst.  that  you  are  requiring  the  services  of  a  junior  clerk, 
I  beg  respectfully  to  offer  myself  as  a  candidate  for  the  appointment. 
I  am  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  from  my  attainments  in  various  branches 
of  education,  I  believe  myself  qualified  for  the  duties  required. 

I  may  mention  that  I  am  not  altogether  unacquainted  with  book- 
keeping and  accounts,  having  for  some  months  past  assisted  my 
father,  Mr.  Phineas  Kincaid,  lumber  merchant,  in  the  counting* 
house  department  of  his  business. 

Should  you  entertain  my  application,  I  beg  to  refer  you  to  Mr. 
Willis  Bancker,  of  Walnut  St.,  Philadelphia,  and  Mr.  Paul  Parker, 
of  Chambers  St.,  New  York,  who  will  have  pleasure  in  testifying  to 
my  character  and  abilities.     I  am,  gentlemen, 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

Philip  Kincaid. 

To  Messrs.  Cole  &•  Taylor,  Trenton,  N.  Y. 


Reply  of  the  Firm. 

Trenton,  N.  J.,  July  19th,  1883. 
Sir:  Having  made  inquiries  of  Mr.  Parker,  one  of  the  references 
mentioned  in  your  letter  of  the  16th  inst,,  we  are  satisfied  with  his 
recommendation.  Before  making  an  arrangement,  however,  we 
should  desire  a  personal  interview,  and  should,  therefore,  be  glad  if 
you  could  make  it  convenient  to  call  at  our  counting-house  on  Satur- 
day forenoon  at  eleven  o'clock. 

Yours, 

Cole  &  Taylor. 
To.  Mr.  Philip  Kincaid,  Albany,  N.  Y. 


Application  for  Situation  as  Housekeeper. 

No.  20  Canal  St.,  New  York. 
Box  301,  Post-Office:  I  beg  respectfully  to  offer  myself  as  a  can- 
didate for  the  situation  advertised  as  above  in  to-day's  Herald.  I  am 
at  present,  and  have  been  for  five  years,  housekeeper  in  the  family  of 
Mr.  Hamilton,  2314  Madison  Avenue,  to  whom  I  can  confidently  refer 
you  as  to  my  character  and  qualifications  for  the  duties  required.  I 
am  also  permitted  to  refer  you  to  John  Houseman,  Esq.,  Troy,  N.  Y., 
with  whom  I  served  two  years  in  the  same  capacity  previous  to  my 
engagement  with  Mr.  Hamilton.  My  age  is  thirty-two  years,  and  I 
am  unmarried. 

I  am  your  most  obedient  servant, 

Elizabeth  Ellis. 


From  a  Nursery  Governess  in  Answer  to  an 
Advertisement. 

Germantown,  Pa.,  March  4th,  1883. 
Madam:  i  Understanding  that  you  have  a  vacancy  for  a  nursery 
governess  for  your  three  daughters,  I  beg  to  state  that  I  have  occu- 
pied that  position  for  three  years  in  the  house  of  Mr.  Anthony,  and 
only  left  in  consequence  of  the  family  going  to  reside  in  the  West,  I 
am  well  acquainted  with  the  usual  routine  of  an  English  education, 
and  have  sufficient  knowledge  of  French,  drawing  and  music  to  teach 
the  first  rudiments,  and  attend  to  the  practicing  in  the  absence  of  the 
teacher,  which,  I  presume,  is  all  you  would  require.  I  enclose  some 
testimonials  which,  I  venture  to  hope,  will  satisfy  you  as  to  my 
character  and  competency  for  the  office.  Should  you  honor  me  with 
your  confidence,  I  assure  you  that  neither  kindness  nor  exertion  shall 
be  wanting  to  do  justice  to  your  children,  without  exercising  undue 
severity  or  unkindness.  Awaiting  the  favor  of  your  reply, 
I  remain,  Madam, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Helen  Holmes. 
To  Mrs.  Jeremiah  Borie,  Philadelphia. 


Application  to  a  Clergyman  for  a  Testimonial. 

Beeker  St.,  Boston,  May  4,  '82. 
Reverend  Sir:  Being  a  candidate  for  the  appointment  of  matron 
in  the  New  York  Hospital,  I  beg  to  solicit  the  favor  of  a  testimonial 
from  you  as  to  my  general  conduct,  which  you  have  had  opportunities 
of  observing  in  your  capacity  of  director  and  visitor  of  the  institution 
where  I,  at  present,  fill  a  responsible  place.  And  should  you  deem 
me  worthy  of  the  more  important  situation  referred  to,  anything  you 
can  do  to  forward  my  interests  will  be  ever  gratefully  acknowledged 
by,  reverend  Sir, 

Your  dutiful  and  humble  servant, 

Eliza  Hazlbton. 
To  the  Rev.  John  Snowaen, 

Riitenhouse  Square,  Boston. 


Application  for  a  Situation  as  Gardener. 

No.  231  Canal  St.,  New  York,  June  3d,  '83. 

Sir  :  Understanding  that  you  want  a  gardener,  I  beg  to  offer  myself 
as  a  candidate  to  fill  the  vacancy.  I  have  had  constant  experience 
both  in  nursery  grounds  and  private  gardens,  and  am  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  management  of  the  green-house  and  hot  house. 

I  inclose  some  testimonials  from  gentlemen  with  whom  I  have  lived, 
which,  I  hope,  will  prove  satisfactory.  The  last  situation  I  filled  was 
with  Mr.  Ogden,  who  will,  I  believe,  speak  favorably  of  my  character 
and  fitness  for  the  office.  I  am  a  married  man,  with  a  family  of  three 
children,  and  my  age  is  thirty-five.  Should  you  entertain  my  appli- 
cation, a  letter  directed  to  the  above  address  will  meet  with  prompt 
attention  from. 

Sir,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

^    ,,         ...  James  O'Reillt. 

To  Henry  Houghton,  Esq.,  Troy,  M.  T. 


/ 


\ 


35- 


'lv 


56 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


,  N  old  writer  says:  "We  all  delight  to  talk  of  our- 
selves; and  it  is  only  in  letters,  in  writing  to  a  friend, 
that  we  can  enjoy  that  conversation,  not  only  without 
reproach  or  interruption,  but  with  the  highest  propriety  and 
mutual  satisfaction.  In  such  letters,  above  all  things,  a 
natural  and  lucid  expression  of  the  sentiments  of  the  writer  is 
necessary.  Friends  expect  our  thoughts  and  feelings,  not  a 
letter  filled  with  unmeaning  verbosity ;  and  though,  where 
excellence  is  aimed  at,  considerable  attention  must  be  paid 
to  the  disposition  of  the  words  and  sentences,  it  must  not  be 
at  the  sacrifice  of  the  energy  resulting  from  a  free  expression 
of  the  sentiments.  Let  the  thoughts  first  be  mastered,  and  the 
words  be  suggested  by  the  sentiments,  without  the  slightest 
affectation  of  manner.  The  ease  of  diction,  so  essential,  may, 
in  a  measure,  be  acquired  by  familiarity  with  the  best  English 
authors,  and  an  approach  thus  made  to  that  perfection  which 
may  be  said  to  be  attained  only  by  the  happy  union  of  ease 
and  freshness  with  the  dignity  of  true  friendship." 

It  is  a  common  saying  with  young  friends,  as  an  excuse  for 
remissness  in  their  correspondence,  that  they  have  nothing  to 
write  about;  but  surely,  between  friends,  there  must  be  a 
similarity  of  taste  on  some  subjects,  and  a  discussion  of  their 
sentiments  and  opinions  on  any  one  of  them,  in  a  course  of 
correspondence,  would  be  acceptable  and  also  valuable,  as 
tending  to  their  mutual  improvement.  But  this  division  of  our 
subject  comprises  also  the  letters  passing  between  relatives 
and  others  united  by  ties  of  affection — excepting  only  the 
correspondence  of  lovers,  and  of  parents  with  their  children, 
which  form  distinct  chapters.  In  such  letters,  the  heart 
speaks  and  the  imagination  is  most  eloquent.  Letters  of 
courtesy  should  be  written  on  the  best  paper.  For  those  to 
gentlemen  the  paper  should  be  neither  figured  nor  tinted. 


To  a  Lady  Friend,  with  a  Ring. 

Cincinnati,  October  4O1,  1SS1. ' 
My  Dear  Miss  Atkins:  As  a  ring  was  adopted  by  the  ancients 
as  ft  symbol  of  eternity,  I  venture  to  request  your  acceptance  of  the 
accompanying  little  circlet  as  an  emblem  of  esteem  and  affection  on 
my  p.irt,  which,  I  am  sure,  will  be  perpetual.  Please  receive  it  in  the 
spirit  in  which  it  Is  tendered.  Place  it  on  your  finder,  and  let  me  hope 
that  as  often  as  you  look  at  it  you  will  be  pleasantly  reminded  of  one 
win.  has  experienced  much  happiness  in  your  society,  and  who  Is  now, 
as  heretofore, 

Your  old  and  sincere  friend, 

Henry  Lewis. 


The  Reply,  Returning  the  Present. 

West  Thirtieth  St.,  New  York,  Oct.  loth,  iSSa. 

Dear  Sir  :  I  hope  you  will  not  be  offended  at  the  liberty  I  have 
taken  in  returning  your  kind  present,  as  I  make  it  ft  rule  never  to 
receive  anything  in  this  way  from  gentlemen.  I  assure  you  that, 
while  my  sentiments  of  respect  and  esteem  are  as  cordial  as  ever,  I 
cannot  allow  myself,  even  on  the  score  of  friendship,  to  infringe  on  a 
hitherto  inviolate  principle;  and  I,  therefore,  tru  t  the  rejection  of 
your  valuable  and  kindly-meant  gift  will  not  be  thought  unfeeling  or 
Impolite.  True  good-will  and  esteem,  indeed,  are  superior  to  such 
external  evidences,  and  I  am  satisfied  your  generous  mind  will  not  for 
a  moment  doubt  the  sincerity  of  those  feelings  I  continue  to  cherish 
toward  you. 

I  am,  dear  Sir,  your  faithful  well-wisher, 

Lizzie  Atkins. 

To  Mr.  Henry  Lewis,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 


k  Young  Lady  Congratulating  an  Aunt  on  Her 
Birthday. 

RlTTENHOUSE  SQUARE,  PHILADELPHIA, 

January  10th,  1SS2. 
My  Dear  Aunt:  To-morrow  will  be  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of 
your  natat  day,  and  I  should  dj  injustice  to  my  feelings  were  I  to 
permit  the  occasion  to  pass  without  expressing  my  sincere  congratu- 
lations and  wishing  you  many  happy  returns  of  the  day.  Aside  from 
the  near  tie  of  relationship  which  exists  between  us,  I  shall  ever  cherish 
with  ftft IlllHS  of  gratitude  and  affection  the  remembrance  of  the  very 
many  favors  and  kindnesses  I  have  received  at  your  hands.  Conse- 
quently it  is  only  natural  I  should  feel  a  gratelul  interest  In  each  return 
of  this  happy  anniversary.  Fortunate,  indeed,  shall  1  esteem  myself 
if,  at  your  age,  I  can  review  my  past  life  with  equal  satisfaction,  for, 
after  all,  there  is  no  happiness  so  complete  as  that  afforded  by  looking 
back  up:m  a  well-spent  life.  Birthdays  are  the  m.lcstones  which 
mark  the  progress  of  the  traveller  along  the  difficult  highway  of  life, 
and  happy  is  the  individual  who  can  pass  each  one  without  a  sigh  of 
regret  or  a  feeling  of  mistrust  in  the  future.  With  my  best  wishes 
for  your  future  happiness,  I  remain. 

Your  affectionate  niece, 

To  Mrl.  Mary  Page,  Fifth  Averne,  -V.   1 '. 


Kitty  Pine. 


To  a  Friend,  on  Being  Married. 

New  York,  Jan.  4th,  iSSa. 
My  Dear  Phil:  I  believe  there  are  certain  stereotyped  phrases  in 
which  it  Is  customary  to  congratulate  newly-married  folks;  but, 
utterly  disregarding  all  rules  and  regulations  in  such  cases  made  and 
provided,  I  wish  you  joy  in  the  familiar  words  which  our  friendship 
warrants  and  my  feelings  suggest.  If  your  married  lift  is  half  as 
happy  as  I  desire  it  to  be,  you  will  have  good  cause  to  be  satisfied 
with  your  lot.  Present  my  kind  regards  and  compliments  to  your 
bride.  Wishing  you  many  happy  returns  of  the  anniversary  of  your 
wedding-day,  I  remain. 

Your  friend, 

Walter  Cooper. 
To  Mr.  Philip  Brandon,  Chief,  III. 


4h^ 


pIHp  tffig 


Letters  of  ^ 

Friendly  Counsel  and  Remonstrance. 


-*5^»0 ■+- 


V5^, 


PERHAPS  no  class  of  letters  demand  more  delicate 
treatment  than  such  as  one  friend  sends  to  another 
with  words  of  counsel  or  remonstrance,  either  in  com- 
mon emergencies  or  on  subjects  of  general  importance.  We 
give  a  variety  of  examples.  One  is  from  the  correspondence 
of  Franklin,  and  is  worthy  ef  study  as  a  model  of  the  instruc- 
tive class,  when  the  writer  is  the  acknowledged  superior  of 
his  correspondent  in  knowledge  and  experience. 


From  Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin  to  a  Young  Lady. 

My  Dear  Friend:  I  send  you  the  books  I  mentioned  to  you  last 
night.  I  beg  you  to  accept  them  as  a  small  mark  of  my  esteem  and 
friendship.  They  are  written  in  the  familiar,  easy  manner  for  which 
the  French  are  so  remarkable,  and  afford  a  good  deal  of  philosophical 
and  practical  knowledge,  unembarrassed  with  the  dry  mathematics 
used  by  more  -,xact  reasoners*  but  which  are  apt  to  discourage  young 
beginners.  I  would  advise  you  to  read  with  a  pen  in  your  hand,  and 
enter  in  a  little  book  short  hints  of  what  you  find  that  is  curious  or 
that  -nay  be  useful,  for  this  will  be  the  best  method  of  imprinting  such 
particulars  on  your  memory,  where  they  will  be  ready  either  for  prac- 
tice on  some  future  occasion,  if  they  are  matters  of  utility,  or,  at  least, 
to  adorn  and  improve  your  conversation,  if  they  are  rather  points  of 
curiosity.  And  as  many  of  the  scientific  terms  are  such  as  you  can- 
not have  met  with  in  your  common  reading,  and  may,  therefore,  be 
unacquainted  with,  I  think  it  would  be  well  to  have  a  good  dictionary 
at  hand,  to  consult  immediately  when  you  meet  with  a  word  you  do 
not  comprehend  the  meaning  of.  This  may  at  first  seem  troublesome 
and  interrupting,  but  it  is  a  trouble  that  will  daily  diminish,  as  you 
will  daily  find  less  and  less  occasion  for  your  dictionary  as  you  become 
more  acquainted  with  the  terms  ;  and,  in  the  meantime,  you  will  read 
with  more  satisfaction,  because  with  more  understanding.  When  any 
point  occurs  on  which  you  would  be  glad  to  have  more  information 
than  your  book  affords  you,  I  beg  that  you  would  not  in  the  least 
apprehend  that  I  should  think  it  a  trouble  to  receive  and  answer  your 
questions.  It  will  be  a  pleasure  and  no  trouble.  For  though  I  may 
not  be  able,  out  of  my  own  little  stock  of  knowledge,  to  afford  you 
what  you  require,  I  can  easily  direct  you  to  the  book  where  it  may  be 
found.    Adieu,  and  believe  me  ever,  my  dear  friend, 

Yours  affectionately, 

B.  Franklin. 

To  a  Friend  who  has  Traduced  You. 

No.  21  Madison  Av.,  New  York, 
October  12th,  1882. 
Sir  :  I  have  it  from  good  authority  that  you  have  spoken  of  me  in 
most  unfriendly  terms  to  our  mutual  acquaintances.    At  first  I  could 
scarcely  believe  it,  and  hoped  that  there  was  some  mistake ;  but  the 
proofs  of  your  misstatements  and  misrepresentations  are  too  strong 
to  be  doubted.    What  could  have  been  your  motive  for  thus  slander- 
ing me,  I  cannot  conceive.    As  you  know  full  well  that  there  were  no 
grounds  for  the  disparaging  assertions  you  have  made,  the  least  you 
can  do  is  to  repair  the  evil  by  disabusing  the  minds  of  those  to  whom 
you  have  traduced  me.    This  I  shall  expect  of  you,  and  without  delay. 
Yours,  etc., 

Charles  Singleton. 
To  Sidney  Delaney,  Esq.,  Wall  St.,  N.  Y. 


Answer  to  the  Foregoing. 

Wall  St.,  Oct.  13th,  18S2. 
Dear  Sir:  I  think  the  remarks  to  wh*ch  vou  refer  have  been  taken 
more  seriously  than  they  should  have  been  by  the  parties  who  re- 
ported them  to  you.  Still,  I  do  not  deny  that,  under  the  influence  of 
vexation,  for  which  I  now  believe  there  was  not  sufficient  cause,  I  did 
speak  of  you  in  terms  of  which  I  am  now  ashamed.  I  therefore  owe 
you  an  apology,  and  make  it  freely.  Any  false  impressions  concern- 
ing your  character  and  conduct  which  may  have  been  derived  from 
my  words,  I  will  take  care  to  remove  by  a  full  explanation.  Hoping 
that  this  candid  acknowledgment  will  satisfy  you, 
I  remain,  Sir, 

Truly  yours, 

Sidney  Delaney. 
To  Charles  Singleton,  Esq.,  No.  21  Madison  Av. 


From  an  Aged  Lady  to  her  Niece. 

"  The  Highlands,"  Sept.  4th,  '82. 
Dear  Niece:  The  sincere  love  and  affection  which  I  have  for 
your  indulgent  father,  and  ever  had  for  your  virtuous  mother  when 
alive,  together  with  the  tender  regard  I  have  for  your  future  happi- 
ness and  welfare,  have  prevailed  on  me  to  inform  you  of  what  I  have 
heard  of  your  unguarded  conduct,  and  the  too  great  freedom  you  take 
with  Mr.  Martindale.  You  have  been  seen  with  him  at  the  theatres, 
in  the  Central  Park,  and  other  public  places.  Don't  imagine  that  I 
write  this  from  a  desire  to  find  fault,  but  believe  me,  your  familiarity 
with  him  gives  me  no  small  concern.  His  character  is  extremely  bad, 
and  he  has  acted  in  the  most  ungenerous  manner  to  two  or  three 
young  ladies  of  my  acquaintance  who  entertained  too  favorable  an 
opinion  of  his  honor.  It  is  possible,  as  he  has  an  uncle  of  consider- 
able fortune,  that  you  mi*.y  be  tempted  to  imagine  his  addresses  an 
offer  to  your  advantage;  but  that  is  greatly  to  be  questioned,  for  I 
have  heard  that  he  is  deeply  in  debt,  and  also  that  he  is  privately 
engaged  to  a  rich  old  wiJow  at  Flushing.  Let  me  prevail  on  you, 
dear  niece,  to  avoid  his  company;  for,  notwithstanding  your  purity 
of  heart,  your  good  name  may  be  compromised  by  such  open  acts  of 
imprudence.  I  have  no  other  motive  but  an  unaffected  zeal  for  your 
interest  and  welfare,  and  I  flatter  myself  you  will  not  be  offended 
with  the  liberty  here  taken  by  your  sincere  friend 
And  affectionate  aunt, 

Sarah  Glasgow. 

The  Young  Lady's  Answer. 

St.  Luke's  Place,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  5,  '8a. 

Dear  Aunt:  I  received  your  letter,  and  when  I  consider  your 
reasons  for  writing,  thankfully  acknowledge  you  my  friend.  It  is 
true  I  have  been  at  those  public  places  you  mention  with  Mr.  Martin- 
dale,  but  was  utterly  ignorantof  his  true  character.  He  did  make  me 
proposals  of  marriage,  bift  I  told  him  I  would  do  nothing  without  m^ 
father's  consent.  He  came  to  visit  me  this  morning,  when  I  told  him 
that  a  regard  for  my  reputation  obliged  me  never  to  see  him  any 
more,  nor  even  correspond  with  him  by  letter,  and  you  may  depend 
on  my  adhering  to  that  resolution.  In  the  meantime,  I  return  you  a 
thousand  thanks  for  your  friendly  advice.  I  shall  leave  New  York 
in  about  six  weeks,  and  will  call  to  see  you  alter  I  have  been  at  my 
father's. 

I  am,  dear  aunt,  your  affectionate  niece, 

To  Mrs.  Sarah  Glasgow.  Bella  Burns. 


VL 


58 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


(T-2 '♦'  — ^■*'*V3>),,''iSV>'"«'^  ♦  ,,-e> 


<^@ «^S'i 


>&-  Letters  Soliciting  Advice  or  Friendly  Favors. ^c 


e^ ♦ $Q^k±-&i> ■<- 


-*j 


«-^tS~ 


sF 


rj-^C  ETTERS  of  this  kind,  although  they  do  not  relate 
ijjjt^  to  transactions  which  bear  a  commercial  value,  are 
i»-  '  generally  connected  with  business  and  require  prompt 
attention.  Introductions,  for  example,  are  often  of  the 
highest  value,  and  as  such  favors  can  always  be  reciprocated, 
they  are  seldom  refused  or  neglected  by  men  acquainted  with 
the  usages  of  society.  Such  letters  may  be  written  by  persons 
having  only  a  business  acquaintance,  or  may  pass  between 
mutual  friends. 

Soliciting  a  Loan  from  an  Intimate  Friend. 

Broad  St.,  Philadelphia,  May  II,  '83. 
My  Dear  Sir:  A  disappointment  in  the  receipt  of  some  money 
due  has  exposed  me  to  a  temporary  embarrassment.  The  sum  which 
would  extricate  me  from  this  painful  difficulty  is  not  large,  as  $400 
would  be  amply  sufficient  to  release  me  from  my  present  pressure.  I 
have  so  great  an  aversion  to  borrowing;  money  from  a  professional 
lender  that  I  prefer  the  course  of  soliciting  the  aid  of  some  well- 
known  friend.  I  have  thought  of  several,  but  none  with  a  greater 
degree  of  confidence  than  yourself.  Can  you  grant  me,  then,  the  ac- 
commodation of  the  above  sum  without  in  any  way  intrenching  on 
your  own  convenience?  If  you  can,  I  believe  I  may  rely  on  your 
readiness  to  do  so;  and  you  may  in  turn  depend  upon  it  being  reim- 
bursed with  the  strictest  punctuality  by  the  5th  of  April.  A  speedy 
reply  to  this  request  will  extremely  oblige,  my  dear  Sir, 
Yours  most  sincerely, 

Howard  Thomas. 
To  Mr.  Let  Williams,  ai  Pint  St.,  Philadelphia. 


In  Answer  to  the  Above,  on  Account  of  Incapability. 

No.  ai  Pine  St.,  Philadelphia,  May  13,  '83. 
My  Dear  Sir  :  I  truly  regret  that  my  circumstances  will  not  per- 
mit me  to  oblige  a  friend  so  dear  to  me  as  yourself;  but  at  present  I 
am  in  great  need  of  money,  and  last  Friday  I  was  compelled  to  borrow 
to  meet  a  pressing  obligation.  I,  therefore,  do  not  have  it  within  my 
power  to  comply  with  your  request.  Trusting  that  you  may  be  more 
successful  in  some  other  quarter,  and  with  feelings  of  regret  at  my 
own  inability  to  render  you  a  service  which  you  might  otherwise 
readily  command,  believe  me  to  remain. 

Ever  your  sincere  friend, 

Lee  Williams. 
To  Howard  Thomas,  Esq.,  Broad  St.,  Philadelphia. 


Friendly  Letter  of  Introduction. 

Chicago,  Feb.  4th,  1S80. 
Mt  Dear  Sir  :  This  will  introduce  to  you  my  esteemed  friend  Mr. 
Henry  W.  Bonsall,  whom,  I  am  sure,  you  will  be  happy  to  know. 
Any  attention  you  may  have  it  in  your  power  to  bestow  during  his 
visit  to  Boston  will  be  gratefully  reciprocated  by 
Your  friend, 

Chauncey  Gardener. 
To  Raymond  llowtlls,  Esq.,  Boston, 


Soliciting  a  Subscription  for  the  Benefit  of  a  Widow. 

Logan  Square,  Philadelphia,  April  4,  *8a. 

Madam  :  I  venture  to  solicit  your  benevolent  aid  on  behalf  of  aa 
urgent  and  most  deserving  case.  The  widow  of  John  Wood,  a 
laborer  on  the  Hudson  River  Railroad,  who  was  killed  by  an  accident 
on  the  line,  has  been  left  by  his  untimely  end  with  a  family  of  six 
helpless  children.  The  two  youngest  are  at  present  afflicted  with  a 
dangerous  fever,  and  require  their  mother's  sole  care,  thus  preventing 
her  from  obtaining  employment  or  doing  anything  for  the  support  of 
those  depending  on  her. 

As  Mrs.  Wood  is  a  respectable  and  well-behaved  woman,  and  la 
very  much  averse  to  applying  for  ward  assistance,  a  very  moderate 
sum  is  being  raised  to  relieve  her  immediate  necessities,  and,  if 
possible,  to  establish  her  in  a  small  shop  as  a  means  of  future  sub- 
sistence. Trusting  you  will  excuse  this  intrusion,  and  that  I  may 
have  the  pleasure  of  adding  your  name  to  the  accompanying  sub- 
scription-list, 

I  am.  Madam, 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

Jane  Heaslxy. 
To  Mrt.  Kathtrine  Roosevelt, 

Fifth  Avenue,  N.  Y. 


Answer  to  the  Foregoing. 

Mrs.  Roosevelt  has  received  Mrs.  Headley's  letter,  and  is  happy  In 
being  able  to  assist  with  her  mite  so  worthy  an  object,  and  is  gratified 
in  placing  her  name  on  the  subscription-list  for  five  dollars,  which 
sum  is  herewith  enclosed.  Mrs.  Headley  will  oblige  by  a  note  of 
acknowledgment. 

Fipth  Avenue,  N.  Y.,  April  5th,  1S81. 


From  a  Gentleman  to  his  Friend,  Requesting  the 
Loan  of  a  Book. 

*  INI.LESIDB,"  Oct.  loth,  18S3. 

Sir:  When  last  at  your  house  you  called  my  attention  to  a  book 
entitled  "  The  Origin  of  Species,"  which  I  remember  as  a  work  of  so 
much  Interest  that  I  feel  much  inclined  to  peruse  it,  and  should  esteem 
it  a  great  favor  if  you  would  lend  it  to  me.  I  will  take  great  care  of 
it  and  return  it  in  a  few  days,  as  I  have  at  present  abundant  leisure 
for  reading. 

I  am,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

John  Carter. 
To  Nathan  Shrwtll,  Elf.,  "  Tho  Oaks." 


Affirmative  Answer  to  the  Foregoing. 

"  The  Oaks,"  Oct.  nth,  1SS3. 
Dear  Sir  :  You  are  quite  welcome  to  the  volume  you  express  a 
wish  to  see;  but  I  must  ask  you  to  let  me  have  it  by  the  middle  of 
next  month,  as  I  shall  then  have  occasion  to  use  it  for  some  literary 

purposes. 

Believe  me,  dear  Sir, 

Yours  very  truly, 

Nathan  Shbwbll. 
To  JUkm  CnrUr,  Esq.,  " Inghside,"  sV.  V. 


7i 


K 


^LJus. 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


59 


Vf" 


Letters  of  Sympathy  and  Condolence. 


■ofr  ij  p  lj  if  1}  if  tj  -jf.\ 


\if  fj  if.  tj  if  v1  t  T  t-4 


o^. 


I 


rr>(ETTERS  of  this  class  are  among  the  more  important 
mIlCj  °f  those  which  friendship  and  affection  dictate. 
<5^r~'  Their  composition  should  be  more  studied  than  ordi- 
nary letters  of  friendship.  The  most  important  rule  is  to 
avoid  mere  conventionalities.  In  the  composition  of  such 
there  must  be  no  high-flown  words  or  expressions,  no  strain- 
ing after  effect.  If  heart  speaks  not  to  heart  in  the  simplest, 
most  soothing  language  of  nature,  words  will  to  the  sufferer 
prove  cold  and  unimpressive — worse  than  useless.  Be  it  ever 
bome  in  mind  that,  to  the  afflicted,  the  mourner  in  spirit, 
"there  is  only  one  true  source  of  consolation,  that  we  shall 
meet  those  we  love  in  another  and  a  better  world,  where  the 
wicked  cease  from  troubling  and  the  weary  are  at  rest" 

Courtesy  requires  that  the  letters  of  condolence  to  a  friend, 
on  the  death  of  a  relative,  should  be  written  on  black-edged 
paper  and  sealed  with  black  wax,  even  though  you  should 
have  been  unacquainted  with  the  deceased. 


To  a  Lady  on  the  Death  of  Her  Child. 

Chicago,  Jan.  nth,  1880. 
My  Dear  Hester:  The  painful  news  of  the  removal  of  your  dear 
child  has  just  reached  me,  and  I  hasten  to  express  my  affectionate 
sympathy  with  you  under  so  severe  an  affliction. 

Aias  !  how  fresh  in  my  memory  is  the  recollection  of  the  liveliness 
and  innocence  of  the  lovely  departed  1  All  that  was  mortal  is  changed 
now,  and  clouded  forever;  but  how  great  is  your  comfort  in  the  well- 
grounded  assurance  that  the  Good  Shepherd,  who  "  careth  for  his 
flock,*'  has  taken  the  gentle  lamb  into  his  own  fold  !  Your  child  has 
gone  to  him  who  said,  "  Suffer  little  children  to  come  unto  me,"  and 
we  know  not  how  soon  our  hour  may  come.  Oh,  that  we  may  all 
meet  in  that  brighter  and  happier  world,  where  sorrow  and  sin  and 
suffering  are  alike  unknown  1 

That  a  higher  than-  human  power  may  console  and  support  you 
under  this  heavy  stroke  is  the  earnest  prayer  of, 
My  dear  Hester, 

Yours  sincerely, 

Arabella  Winters. 
To  Mrs.  Hester  Appleby,  Columbus,  O. 


Reply  to  the  Foregoing. 

Columbus,  O.,  Jan.  13th,  1880. 
My  Dear  Arabella:  It  is  indeed  true,  although  yet  "we  can 
scarcely  believe  it.  A  little  while  ago  our  darling  child  was  regarded 
as  the  strong  one  of  the  family,  overflowing  with  happy  animal 
spirits — the  fountain  of  joy  in  the  house.  Now  her  poor  earthly 
garment  is  laid  in  the  early  grave,  and  her  generous,  loving,  truthful 
spirit,  with  its  mine  of  unwrought  wealth,  can  be  with  us  only  by  the 
eye  of  faith.  Wonderful  is  this  dispensation  of  a  heavenly  Father's 
chastening  hand!  Yet  can  we  see  many  merciful  preparations  for 
it,  the  foremost  being  the  dear  child's  own  inner  life;  and  through 


the  trials  of  the  past  five  or  six  weeks  there  have  been  mercies  In. 
numerable,  tempering  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb.  Our  hope  and 
prayer  is  that,  though  seen  no  longer,  she  may  be  a  ministering  angel 
in  our  home.  "To  do  good  and  distribute"  was  her  element  when 
visibly  present.  It  may  be  that  her  desire  to  bless  those  she  so  fondly 
loved  may  only  have  received  a  deeper  and  more  inward  power. 
Believe  me  ever 

Most  truly  yours, 

Hester  Appleby. 
To  Mrs,  Arabella  Winters,  Chicago,  III. 


On  a  Sndden  Reverse  of  Fortune. 

Stamford,  Ct.,  July  6th,  18S0. 
My  Dear  Friend:  Hackneyed  phrases  of  condolence  never  yet 
comforted  a  man  in  the  hour  of  trouble,  and  I  am  not  going  to  try 
their  effect  in  your  case.  And  yet,  let  me  say,  in  heartfelt  earnest, 
that  I  was  deeply  pained  to  hear  of  your  sudden  and  unexpected 
reverse  of  fortune.  Misfortune  is  very  hard  to  bear  when  it  falls  upon 
one  like  a  flash  of  lightning  from  a  clear  sky,  without  any  warning. 
But  do  not  be  discouraged.  When  Senator  Benton  saw  the  work  of 
many  years  consumed  in  ten  minutes,  he  took  the  matter  coolly, 
went  to  work  again,  and  saw  the  damage  repaired  before  his  death. 
So,  I  hope,  will  you.  There  is  no  motto  like  "  Try  again  "  for  those 
whom  fate  has  stricken  down.  Besides,  there  are  better  things  than 
wealth,  even  in  this  world,  to  say  nothing  of  the  next,  where  we  shall 
neither  buy  nor  sell.    Cheer  up,  and  believe  me,  as  of  old, 

Your  friend, 

Willis  Goodhelp. 
To  Mr.  Harvey  Brown,  Boston,  Mass. 


To  a  Lady  on  the  Death  of  Her  Hnsband. 

New  York,  December  nth,  i8Sa. 
My  Dear  Mrs.  James:  Although  unwilling  to  intrude  on  the 
sacred  privacy  of  grief  until  its  first  pangs  have,  in  some  measure, 
subsided,  I  participate  so  sincerely  in  your  affliction  that  I  cannot 
longer  keep  myself  from  writing.  And  yet,  so  weak  and  ineffectual 
is  all  human  consolation,  that  I  scarcely  know  how  to  express  the 
deep  sense  I  have  of  the  heavy  stroke  under  which  you  are  prostrated. 
Yours  is,  indeed,  a  sad  bereavement;  but  I  doubt  not,  from  your  strong 
faith  in  Him  who  "doeth  all  things  well,"  you  will  be  sustained  and 
comforted  by  his  own  consolations,  which  are  "  neither  few  norsmall." 
The  recollections  of  him  who  has  so  lately  departed  must  be  so  full  of 
painful  regret,  that  I  will  not  dwell  on  this  dark  side  of  the  picture, 
but  rather  look  to  its  brighter  aspect,  in  the  hope  that  he  has  gone  to 
a  happier  sphere,  and  that  what  is  loss  to  you  is  to  him  "  unspeakable 
gain." 

1  add  no  more  but  my  fervent  prayer  that  you  may  be  divinely 
comforted  in  your  sore  trial,  and  be  roused  from  your  grief  by  claims 
of  duty  to  those  whose  welfare  demands  your  care  and  affection. 
Believe  me,  my  dear  Mrs.  James, 

Your  sympathizing  friend, 

Jane  Harvey. 

To  Mrs.  Henry  James,  Nantucket,  Mass. 


Al 


6o 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


Letters  Between  Parents  and  Children.         < 


I:*:      '*:• 


I!  lUULMI); JlILill  JIlOIIIUlilLX 


"^■"^fr  iifSfc^-jft  ^a 


jTp-^ETTERS  expressing  the  feelings  of  children  toward 
s|lfr7  their  parents,  and  the  anxious  affection  of  parents  for 
3  •  '  their  children,  afford  themes  of  the  most  interesting 
character,  and  examples  of  the  most  perfect  confidence.  In 
style,  they  have  the  widest  range  ;  4«  from  grave  to  gay,  from 
lively  to  severe." 

Children  away  from  home,  in  the  excitement  of  new  scenes 
and  new  acquaintances,  may  for  a  time  forget  and  neglect 
their  parents;  but  moments  must  recur  reminding  them  of 
their  affectionate  solicitude,  and  in  trouble  and  affliction  mak- 
ing them  yearn  for  a  sympathy  they  may  then,  only  in  its 
absence,  thoroughly  appreciate ;  and  it  is  at  such  times  that  a 
letter  reveals  the  heart  of  the  writer  and  moves  that  of  the 
parent  Children  should,  however,  accustom  themselves  to 
write  regularly  to  their  parents,  and  they  should  express  them- 
selves in  the  same  easy,  cheerful  way  that  they  would  do  in 
speaking  at  home.  The  only  rule  we  think  it  necessary  to 
lay  down  is  the  propriety  of  preserving  a  due  regard  to  the 
relationship  in  which  the  writers  are  placed  to  each  other. 
A  father,  when  writing  to  a  son,  should  preserve  his  superior- 
ity by  a  gentle  degree  of  authority,  and  a  son  should  never 
lose  sight  of  the  manner  in  which  he  can  best  express  his  sense 
of  filial  authority. 

From  a  Father  to  his  Son  at  School. 

Tremont  St.,  Boston,  Sept.  23rd,  1SS3. 

My  Dear  Son:  lam  delighted  to  hear  of  your  progress,  and  send 
you  a  little  remiUance  of  pocket  money  to  prove  to  you  that  I  am  ever 
ready  to  give  encouragement  when  it  is  deserved.  You  must  always 
bear  in  mind  that  upon  your  career  at  school  much  of  your  future  life 
depends.  To  waste  the  precious  hours  of  youth  is  to  make  prepara- 
tion for  a  useless  and  dishonorable  old  age;  whereas  by  steady 
Industry,  care  of  that  health  with  which  God  has  happily  blessed 
you,  and  submission  to  those  who  have  the  best  right,  as  well  as 
the  best  inclination,  to  advise  you  for  your  good,  you  may  hope  to 
ripen  into  a  respectable  and  useful  member  of  society,  and  to  render 
yourself  At  to  encounter  those  responsibilities  which  fall  to  every 
man's  lot.  Your  mother  unites  in  hearty  wishes  that  you  may  go  on 
as  you  have  begun,  and  that  your  whole  life  may  prove  a  credit  to 
yourself  and  a  comfort  to  us.  Give  our  best  respects  to  your  excellent 
preceptor,  and  believe  me 

Your  affectionate  father, 

Jamxs  McIIenry. 

To  Matter  William  McHenry, 

Nazareth  //all,  Naearetk,  Pa* 


From  a  Boy  at  School  to  Both  rarents. 

Nazareth,  Dec.  4th,  1SS3. 
Mr  Dear  Parents.  It  will  doubtless  give  you  much  pleasure  to 
learn  that,  owing  to  the  unremitting  attention  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Kluge, 


I  have  made  such  satisfactory  progress  that  I  have  not  only  been  re- 
moved one  class  higher  in  the  school,  but  have  carried  off  the  second 
prize  for  Latin  verse. 

I  sincerely  hope  that  I  may  continue  sufficiently  industrious  to  keep 
up  all  the  expectations  you  have  formed  of  me,  and  which  you  have 
spared  no  pains  or  expense  to  realize.  With  mingled  feelings  of 
regret  at  leaving  my  kind  preceptor  and  of  delight  at  the  prospect  ol 
our  speedy  meeting  for  the  holidays, 
I  remain,  my  dearest  parents, 

With  kindest  love  to  ail  at  home. 

Your  affectionate  son, 

William  McHevkY. 
To  Mr.  and  Mr t.  McHenry, 

Tremont  St.,  Botton. 


From  a  Young  Lady  to  her  Mother. 

Boston,  Mass.,  June  Sth,  *3i. 
My  Dear  Mamma:  From  what  you  know  of  Boston,  you  will  not 
be  surprised  to  hear  that  I  have  enjoyed  an  incessant  round  of  gaiety 
and  pleasure.  My  health,  too,  is  completely  recruited,  and  my 
friends  ar-:  so  kind  that  I  feel  almost  at  home.  But  I  have  another 
serious  matter  to  confess  to  you,  at  which,  I  hope,  you  will  not  feel 
angry.  It  seems  almost  ungrateful  to  think  of  loving  any  one  but 
you;  but  oh,  Mamma,  if  you  saw  Harry  Leaning,  you  would  forgive 
me,  I  am  sure.  He  is  so  h.indiome,  so  gentle  in  his  manners,  and 
yet  so  sensible  and  so  accomplished !  We  met  at  a  party  given  by 
your  old  friend,  Mrs.  Grayson,  and  he  scarcely  quitted  my  side  the 
whole  evening.  Mrs.  Grayson  has  so  high  an  opinion  of  him  that  she 
repeatedly  invited  him  to  her  house,  until  his  visits  have  become  of 
almost  daily  occurrence.  He  is  most  honorable  and  straightforward, 
and  only  waits  permission  to  write  to  y<>u,  in  order  to  give  you  full 
particulars  as  to  his  condition  and  prospects.  Forgive  me,  dear 
mamma,  when  I  tell  you  that  my  feelings  are  deeply  enlisted  in  his 
favor,  and  that  I  feel  as  if  much  of  my  future  happiness  depended  on 
o.ir  union.  I  wish  von  were  here  to  counsel  and  advise  me,  for  never 
before  did  I  so  much  feel  my  own  heart  master  of  my  reason .  I  hope 
you  will  write  directly  or  come  immediately  to  your  affectionate  but 
anxious  child, 

Minnie  Howson. 
To  Mrt.  Gertrude  Howton,  Fi/lk  Av.,  A".  K 


The  Mother's  Reply. 

Firm  Avenue,  June  10th,  •8*. 

Mr  Dear  Child:  Make  yourself  perfectly  at  ease  as  to  my  consent 
to  anything  that  will  promote  your  happiness.  If  Mr.  Lenning  prove 
to  be  what  you  represent,  my  fondest  wishes,  that  you  might  meet  a 
desirable  partner  in  life,  will  be  realized.  At  the  same  time,  do  not 
be  too  hasty  to  give  an  unqualified  assent  to  his  proposals,  but  take 
time  to  study  his  character  and  disposition  through  a  longer  acquaint* 
ance.  I  shall  be  in  Boston  on  the  15th,  and  I  shall  be  delighted,  not 
only  to  meet  my  dear  child  again,  but  to  be  Introduced  to  the  man 
whom  she  has  thought  *o  worthy  of  her  affections. 
Your  ever  loving  mother, 

Gertrude  Howson. 

Te  Mitt  Minnie  Hoveton,  /Jetton,  Matt. 


& 


_\ 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


^ 


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=*:•£  •£•{•  *:**>;•  *>.•»:««•«.«:*  •:••:••:•:•:••:••:••:•:•:-  -t  •:••:•  •:•  •:•  •:•  •:•  ♦  •:•  •:•  •:•  •:■  •:■  •?  *  ■:■  •:•  •:•  ■:•  •:■  •>  •:•  ■:■  J  •:•  •:•  *  *  •:•  •:•  •:•  -:•  ■:■  ••-  ■■• 


fHE  form  of  the  note  is  most  frequently  adopted  by 
ladies,  who  in  this  way  generally  issue  invitations  to 
•parties.  It  is,  however,  on  many  general  occasions 
extremely  useful,  as  in  returning  thanks  for  any  courtesy 
shown,  or  when  any  misunderstanding  has  arisen  between 
friends,  in  which  case  it  tends  to  guard  against  personalities. 
It  is  a  form  useful,  also,  as  being  intermediate  between  the 
distant  and  the  familiar  styles,  though  it  is  not  usually  em- 
ployed when  the  communication  is  of  any  length.  Notes 
must  be  written  in  the  third  person  throughout,  any  departure 
from  this  rule,  either  in  allusion  to  the  writer  or  to  his  corre- 
spondents, being  a  fault  of  the  most  glaring  kind.  It  is  neces- 
sary, also,  to  avoid  the  too  frequent  use  of  the  personal 
pronouns,  which  may  be  effected  by  occasionally  repeating 
the  names  of  writer  aud  correspondent  when  the  length  of  the 
note  requires  this  expedient.  The  date  and  the  address  of  the 
writer  should  always  be  at  the  foot  of  the  note.  The 
established  forms  for  notes  of  invitation  to  dinner,  to  evening 
parties,  etc.,  are  given  under  the  division  of  Etiquette.  A 
note  of  invitation  from  an  intimate  friend  may  be  appropri- 
ately written  in  whatever  style  the  degree  of  mutual  under- 
standing between  the  parties  may  justify.  The  chief  reason 
for  introducing  this  class  of  letters  is  to  point  out  that  they 
should  always  be  definite,  however  brief,  and  however  freely 
written.  The  best  guide  in  these  cases  is  to  consider  for  a 
moment  the  time  and  circumstances  under  which  the  letter 
will  be  received.  How  often  has  unnecessary  trouble  and 
doubt  been  caused  by  a  note  without  date  or  even  the  day  of 
the  week,  inviting  the  recipient  to  come  and  dine  with  the 
family  to-morrow !  Another  infallible  recipe  for  obscurity 
in  this  class  of  notes  is  to  write  on  a  Tuesday  afternoon,  for 
example,  and  write  your  friend  to  come  next  Wednesday. 


An  Inyitation  to  a  Bachelor  Party. 

Sept.  aoth,  1883. 
Mv  dear  Alf:  My  festive  self  and  half-a-dozen  other  good 
fellows  are  going  to  devote  a  few  hours  on  Thursday  evening  to  the 
enjoyment  of  a  few  glasses  of  wine,  a  game  of  euchre,  and  so  on.  I 
hope  you  will  make  one,  as  we  have  not  enjoyed  "  the  feast  of  reason 
and  flow  of  soul"  in  each  other's  company  f«r  some  time  past. 
Believe  me,  dear  Alfred, 

Yours  ever, 

Harry  Hunter. 
To  Alfred  Bcllville,  Esq., 

No.  ig  Madison  Av.,  N.  K 


A  Lady  to  Her  Friend  in  the  City,  Inviting  Her  to 
Spend  a  Month  in  the  Country. 

Eddington,  Bucks  Co.,  Pa.,  June  4th,  1SS3. 
My  dear  Friend:  I  need  scarcely  tell  you  that  I  always  feel  the 
greatest  pleasure  in  your  society,  and  am  selfish  enough  on  the 
present  occasion  to  covet  it  for  a  month,  or  for  a  longer  period,  should 
it  suit  your  convenience.  If,  therefore,  you  are  not  so  wedded  to  the 
attractions  of  a  city  life  as  to  be  loth  to  leave  them  for  a  short  time,  I 
think  you  would  gather  some  amusement,  and  aiso,  perhaps,  improve 
your  health,  by  a  sojourn  in  the  country.  Will  you,  then,  do  us  the 
favor  of  making  pur  rural  retreat  your  temporary  abode,  assuring 
yourself  that  your  presence  will  enliven  our  family  circle,  and  be  a 
source  of  real  enjoyment  to 

Your  sincere  friend, 

Eliza  Hooper. 
To  Mrs.  Letty  Davidson,  Fifth  Av.,  N.  Y. 


Answer  to  the  Same,  Affirmatively. 

Fifth  Avenue,  N.  Y.,  June  5th,  1S83. 
My  dear  Eliza:  I  have  just  received  your  kind  letter  inviting  me 
to  spend  a  short  time  at  your  pleasant  home.  Though  I  live  so  much 
in  New  York,  I  assure  }'ou  that  there  are  few  who  feel  more  delighted 
with  the  country  than  myself,  and  I  could  be  well  contented  to  make 
it  my  residence  during  a  larger  part  of  every  year,  and  should  cer- 
tainly do  so  did  the  pursuits  of  Mr.  Davidson  allow  us  to  live  out  of 
the  city.  However,  my  domestic  duties  are  not  at  present  of  so  press- 
ing a  nature  as  to  force  me  to  decline  your  friendly  invitation,  and 
Mr.  Davidson,  so  far  from  offering  any  obstacle  to  my  absence  from 
home  for  a  short  time,  has  urged  me  to  send  you  an  affirmative 
answer,  as  he  thinks  that,  in  addition  to  the  enjoyment  which  I  can  - 
not  fail  to  experience  in  the  society  of  yourself  and  family,  I  shall 
benefit  my  health  by  a  change  of  air  and  scene.  I  therefore  accept 
your  kind  invitation  most  cheerfully,  I  may  add  gratefully.  And  I  am. 
My  dear  Eliza, 

Your  ever  affectionate  friend, 

Letty  Davidson. 
To  Mrs.  Eliza  Hooper,  Eddington,  Pa. 


An  Invitation  to  a  Water-Party. 

August  10th,  1883. 
Dear  Charlie:  Jack  Halcoll,  myself  and  four  others  are  going 
down  the  bay  in  a  six-oared  boat  next  Wednesday.  Now,  you're  a 
jolly  fellow  and  a  good  steersman,  so  I  hope  you  will  give  us  your 
company  and  your  services ;  indeed,  we  will  take  no  excuse.  Wo 
shall  set  out  from  my  rooms  at  7:30  p.m.  without  fail.  Do  not  dis- 
appoint us. 

Yours  truly,  in  haste, 

Edward  Neville. 
To  Charles  Ellwood,  Esq.,  Pine  St.,  Philadelphia. 


-7T 


Ai 


V 


62 


BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CORRESPONDENCE. 


EfcrWM^M: 


Miscellaneous  Letters. 


,:  j.  ,._;,  .,,-._■,  _ ,.  j,  ,^„^,.,^,;.,_,,,_^ 


*HE  reader  will  find  arranged  under  this  heading  a 
variety  of  letters  for  a  variety  of  circumstances  and 
occasions.  With  the  examples  given  on  the  preceding 
pages,  they  make  the  department  of  "  Business  and  Social 
Correspondence  M  a  complete  and  comprehensive  guide  for  all 
classes  of  letter-writers. 


From  One  Young  Man  to  Another  in  Reference  to  an 
Attachment. 

Atlanta,  Ga.,  Feb.  4th,  18S3. 
My  Dear  Kenneth:  You  will  laugh  at  mu,  and  with  some  reason, 
when  I  tell  you  that  all  my  old  skepticism  about  matrimonial  happi- 
ness is  at  an  end.  I  have  met  with  a  young  lady  who,  I  believe, 
would  convert  even  you  to  a  belief  that  marriage  may  be  a  very 
happy  state  and  that  bachelors  are  only  miserable  wretches  after 
all.  In  brief,  I  am  the  engaged  and  accepted  suitor  of  Miss  P'ord, 
whose  visit  to  New  York  you  remember.  Words  cannot  suffice  to 
express  how  great  has  been  the  enjoyment  I  have  hitherto  derived 
from  her  society,  and  the  more  I  see  of  her  amiable  character  and 
high  accomplishments,  the  more  certain  do  I  feel  that  the  day  that 
first  made  known  to  me  her  consent  to  share  my  fortunes  will  prove 
one  *>t  the  happiest  in  my  whole  existence.  You  may  think  this  a 
very  wild  effusion  and  one  strangely  at  variance  with  my  former 
avowed  callousness  on  the  score  of  domestic  life;  but,  believe  me, 
you  willsoonbe  a  convert  when  you  see  my  dear  Lettie.  Wishing 
that  you  may  prove  as  fortunate  in  the  selection  of  a  partner  us  1 
have  been,  I  remain, 

My  dear  boy. 

Ever  affectionately  yours, 

John  Norton. 
To  yam**  CtukHl,  Wall  St. ,  N,  K. 


invitation  from  a  Familiar  Friend. 

Dkar  Mr.  Mitchell:  We  shall  look  for  you  on  Monday  evening 

(the  14th,  mind  !)  at  seven  o'clock,  and  if  Mrs.  Mitchell  can  leave  her 

baby  and  come  with  you,  1   need   not  say  that  we  shall   be  doubly 

glad  to  see  her.     In  great  haste,  which  1    know  you  will  excuse 

and  rather  admire  than  otherwise, 

I  am  sincerely  yours, 

Gertrude  Gibson. 
Cambridoe,  March  10th,  1833. 


Requesting  a  Friend  to  Forward  Letters. 

Norristown,  April  9th,  1883. 
Dear    Sir:    May  I  trespass  on  your  kindness  to  send  me  in  the 
enclosed  envelope  any  letter  that  may  come  through  you  to  me  up  to 
Wednesday,  aist  inst.  f    By  to  doing  you  will  add  to  the  many  kind- 
nesses experienced  by, 

Dear  Sir, 

Your  obliged  friend, 

Harriet  Hart. 
To  Htnry  CAa**t  Eso„  joj  Arch  St.t  PhtU. 


To  a  Daughter  on  Her  Birthday. 

Mv  dearest  Child:  Your  father,  brothers  and  sisters  all  unite  with 
me  in  sending  you  a  thousand  good  wishes  on  this  your  fifteenth  anni- 
versary. We  could  all  have  desired  that  circumstances  would  have  ad- 
mitted of  your  spending  it  with  us;  but  feeling  in  these  matters  must 
sometimes  be  sacrificed  for  our  good,  and  our  selfish  delights  must  not  be 
permitted  to  interfere  with  the  prospects  of  those  dear  to  us.  The  package 
which  accompanies  this  letter  contains  not  only  some  trifling  tokens  of 
affection  from  all  of  us,  but  the  materials  for  a  little  entertainment  which, 
1  have  no  doubt,  Mrs.  Boynton  wilt  allow  you  to  give  to  your  school-fellows, 
as  I  have  written  to  bog  a  half-holiday  on  the  occasion.  God  blest  you, 
my  dear  child!  and  that  every  succeeding  year  may  see  you  increase  in  all 
that  is  desirable  in  body  and  mind,  is  the  earnest  prayer  of  your  ever 
anxious  parents.  With  best  compliments  to  your  mistress  and  teachers. 
Believe  me. 

Your  ever  affectionate  mother, 

Margaret  Thomas, 
To  Mis*  Ltttit   Thomat, 

"Linden  Hall"  Seminary,  Lititx,  /It, 


A  Gentleman  to  His  Son,  on  the  Latter**  Marriage. 

Philadelphia.  Jan.  30th,  1883. 
Mv  dear  Son:  It  is  with  no  small  pleasure,  and  a  slight  feeling  of 
parental  pride,  that  I  now  congratulate  you  upon  your  recent  change  of 
state.  That  you  have  my  best  and  heartiest  wishes  for  your  future  happi- 
ness you  already  know  ;  but  I  feel  natural  pleasure  in  again  giving  them 
expression  ;  and  here  I  have  to  add  that  no  parent  could  join  in  those 
wishes  with  more  fervent  sincerity  than  your  dear  and  kind  mother,  who 
desires  to  unite  with  me  in  the  most  affectionate  regards  to  our  new  relation, 
our  daughter-in-law.  That  your  marriage  state  may  be  blessed  with  the 
same  domestic  happiness  that  has  fallen  to  my  lot.  is  the  sincere  wish  0/ 
Your  ever  affectionate  father, 

John  Paul  Jo 
ToIItnry  Paul  yon**,  PoUstown.  Pm. 


Requesting  a  Friend  to  Execute  a  Commission* 

Yonrers,  June  3d,  1SS3. 

My  dear  Jennie:  Will  you  kindly  execute  the  following  little 
commissions  for  me  as  soon  as  you  can  make  tt  convenient  ?  Purchase 
for  me  at  Stewart  A  Co.'s  the  following-  articles  there  state  muslin, 
lace,  etc.)  Will  you  also  call  at  Applcton's  and  inquire  when 
Bulwer't  new  novel  will  be  out,  as  I  am  all  anxiety  to  know? 

Please  give  them  my  address  at  Stewart's,  and  tell  them  to  pack  the 
parcel  carefully  and  tend  it  by  express. 

The  weather  up  here  is  delightful,  but  f  wish  I  had  the  pleasure  of 

your  company  to  render  it  more  to.     Pray  write  a  line,  and  let  me 

know  how  toon  you  can  make  me  a  visit,  and  thus  afford  me  an 

opportunity  to  thank  you  personally  for  your  kindness. 

Ella  Forester. 
To  Miss  7*nni*  Ifa/r, 

AV  40  Sixth  Avon**,  .V.  }'. 


lK 


Application  of  Servant  for  Testimonial. 

East  Fourth  St.,  N.  Ym  Jan.  i,  *Sa. 
Respected  Madam:  Being-  desirous  of  again  entering  service  in 
my  former  capacity  of  cook  and  laundress,  I  write  to  ask  the  favor  of 
a  testimonial  from  you  as  to  my  general  character  and  capability.  I 
am  sorry  to  have  to  trouble  you,  but  I  feel  that  you  will  do  anything 
you  can  to  further  me  in  obtaining  employment.  With  sincere  thanks 
for  your  past  kindness, 

I  am,  respected  Madam, 

Your  grateful  servant, 

Charlotte  Fields. 

To  Mrs,  Louise  Balmer, 

No,  24  West  Fifty-first  St.,  Nrw    York. 


Acknowledging  Receipt  of  Testimonial,  with  Thanks* 

Beaker  St.,  Boston,  May  15,  '82. 
Reverend  Sir;  I  have  received  your  most  obliging  and  con- 
siderate communication,  and  I  beg  that  you  will  accept  my  warmest 
thanks  for  the  handsome,  if  not  too  flattering,  testimonial  you  have 
been  pleased  to  hand  me.  I  sincerely  trust  that  my  future  career  may 
continue  to  be  marked  by  conduct  worthy  of  your  approbation,  and 
assuring  you  of  my  deep  sense  of  the  obligation  under  which  you  have 
placed  me, 

I  am,  reverend  Sir, 

Your  obedient  and  grateful  servant, 

Eliza  Hazleton. 
To  the  Rev.  John  Snowden, 

Rittenhouse  Square,  Boston. 


Inquiry  Regarding  a  Servant's  Character. 

No.  1428  Pine  St.,  St.  Louis,  May  4,  '83. 
Madam:  Susan  Macy,  who  is  applying  for  the  place  of  cook  in  my 
house,  refers  me  to  you  for  her  character  and  qualifications.  I  shall, 
therefore,  feel  obliged  by  your  informing  me  if  she  is  honest,  cleanly, 
industrious  and  obliging;  also  if  she  is  well  acquainted  with  plain 
cookery. 

1  am,  Madam,  yours  respectfully, 

Mary  Martin. 
To  Mrs.  Ann  Cooler,  24J  Arch  St.,  Phila. 


A  Merchant  Urging  Payment  of  Account. 

Warren  St.,  New  York,  May  3,  '82. 
Sir:  I  must  solicit  your  prompt  attention  to  the  enclosed  account, 
which  has*  already  been  due  over  two  months.  On  the  10th  I  have  a 
heavy  obligation  to  meet,  which  will  require  all  the  funds  I  can  pro- 
cure; and,  as  you  have  not  remitted  me  any  cash  for  some  time  past, 
I  trust  you  will  comply  with  my  request,  and  forward  a  draft  for  the 
whole  or  a  considerable  part  of  the  balance  due  me.  Please  reply  by 
return  mail,  and  let  me  know  whether  I  may  depend  upon  you. 
Your  obedient  servant, 

Jjlmbs  Parsons. 
To  Henry  P.  Jones,  Brooklyn, 


A  Letter  of  Introduction. 

New  Orleans,  June  3d,  *8i. 
Dear  Sir:  The  present  will  be  handed  you  by  Mr.  Smith,  partner 
of  Mr.  Stillwell,  who  was  himself  an  associate  of  the  house  of  Cross 
&  Black,  Memphis.  Mr.  Smith  intending  to  visit  your  city  on  business 
of  his  house,  we  take  the  liberty  of  recommending  him  to  you,  and  of 
begging  you  to  render  him  all  the  services  in  your  power,  and  to 
furnish  him  oil  thu  information  of  which  he  may  have  need,  or  which 
may  appear  likely  to  you  to  insure  the  success  of  his  trip.  Should 
Mr.  Smith  have  need  of  ;my  money  for  his  expenses,  you  will  be  good 
enough  to  let  him  have  what  he  may  ask  for,  and  charge  the  same  to 
our  account. 

^ery  respectfully, 

Yours,  etc., 

Lord  &  Taylcr. 

To  Julius  Sichel,  Esq.,  Wall  Street,  N.  V. 


From  a  Lady  to  Another,  an  Invalid. 

Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia,  May  1,  1S83. 
My  Dear  Miss  Hartman:  I  am  truly  grieved  to  hear  of  your 
continued  indisposition,  but  trust  that  you  may  speedily  enjoy  the 
return  of  your  wonted  health  and  energy.  There  is  much  consolation 
in  the  fact  that  your  spirits  are  good,  and  that  the  illness  does  not 
affect  any  vital  part.  Considering  which,  I  have  every  confidence 
that,  with  God's  blessing,  the  careful  attentions  of  your  friends  will 
soon  make  your  complete  recovery  a  matter  of  certain  and  cordial 
congratulation.  With  kindest  wishes  and  sympathy,  I  am,  dear  Mis* 
Hartman, 

Yours  ever  sincerely, 

Amanda  Merrill* 
To  Miss  Ella  Hartman,  Columbus,  Ohio. 


An  Invitation  to  a  Picnic  Party. 

Newark,  June  15th,  1883. 
My  dear  Sir  :  We  are  endeavoring  to  get  up  a  small  excursion  to 
visit  High  Bridge  on  the  iSth  of  this  month.  Will  you  do  us  the  favor 
of  making  one  of  our  number?  Mrs.  Shaw  and  my  family  desire 
their  compliments,  and  request  me  to  mention  that  they  have  taken 
upon  themselves  the  task  of  providing  the  "creature  comforts"  for 
that  occasion,  and  trust  that  their  exertions  will  meet  with  unanimous 
approval.  Should  you  have  no  previous  engagement  for  that  day, 
and  feel  disposed  to  join  our  party,  a  carriage  will  be  at  your  door  by 
seven  o'clock  on  Wednesday  morning.  And  believe  me  to  be, 
My  dear  Sir, 

Yours  most  sincerely, 

Charles  Shaw 
P.  5.— The  favor  of  an  early  answer  will  oblige. 
To  Stephen  Wainwright,  Esq.,  Yonkers,  N.  K 


V 


JM 


^2= 


K" 


64 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


# 


.-   .-   .-     ■■■   .- 


SYNONYMS 


«-*§-^- 


Antonyms. 


Containing  over  Twenty  Thousand  Words  of  both  Similar  and  Contrary  Meaning. 


OTHING    can    be  more 
embarrassing   than  that 
deplorable     poverty     of 
speech   which  makes  a 
man   iterate  and  reiter- 
ate his  one  word,  when 
but  a  slight  knowledge 
of  Synonyms  would  permit  him 
to  express  his  ideas  in  an  ele- 
gant and  faultless  manner. 

Every  one  has  felt  the  neces- 
sity, in  writing  or  speaking,  of 
having    at    command   a    ready 
vocabulary  from  which  to  select 
words  that  will  clearly  and  forci- 
bly convey  the  intended  meaning 
and   at   the   same   time   save  the 
inelegance  of  frequent  repetitions. 

In  fact,  some  writers  have  made  the  number 
of  Synonyms  in  a  language  the  test  of  its  civil- 
ization and  fitness  for  literature.  Thus  the 
ancient  Greek  fairly  teems  with  words  having  a 
like  signification,  so  that  every  delicate  shade  of 
meaning  might  be  clearly  and  forcibly  put; 
the  same  may  be  said  of  Latin  and  of  Hebrew. 
On  the  other  hand,  while  the  English  language 


contains  about  forty  thousand  words,  Latham 
and  other  scholars  have  decided  that  the  vocab- 
ulary of  the  English  peasant  does  not  contain 
more  than  five  or  six  hundred  words.  Conse- 
quently it  seems  clear  that  a  knowledge  of 
words  is  the  most  direct  possible  test  of  culture 
and  civilization. 

The  rhetorical  fault  known  as  tautology  is 
best  overcome  by  an  acquaintance  with  Syno- 
nyms. On  the  other  hand  a  knowledge  of  An- 
tonyms stands  next  in  importance  to  Synonyms, 
for  one  of  the  strongest  figures  of  speech  is 
"Antithesis,"  or  the  putting  of  matters  in  start- 
ling contrast  and  opposition — a  method  known 
of  old  as  one  of  the  most  effective  weapons  in 
the  armory  of  the  rhetorician.  The  Dictionary 
of  Antonyms  following  will  be  found  one  of  the 
most  complete  ever  published.  The  student 
will,  upon  finding  the  antonym  he  wishes,  turn 
to  its  peculiar  synonyms,  and  thus  find  the  very- 
word  for  which  he  may  be  seeking.  To  illustrate 
the  use  and  necessity  of  synonyms  to  the  writer 
and  speaker  we  append  a  sentence  which  clearly 
shows  the  value  of  a  dictionary  of  this  char- 
acter. 


4^= 


—Jt, 


SYNONYMS   AND   ANTONYMS. 


65 


Example. 

He  was  a  man  of  acute  perception,  acute 
judgment,  acute  intellect  and  acute  observation. 

The  Same  Sentence  Improved. 

{acute  } 
keen    >  perception, 
quick  j 

{shrewd       1  ( bright  1 

piercing      >judgment,<  sharp   >  intellect  and 
discerning  J  (subtle  J 

( intelligent      *| 
<  penetrating    V  observation. 
(  clear-sighted  J 


On  the  other  hand  there  are  cases  when  the 
reiteration  of  the  same  word  gives  strength  and 
consistency  to  a  sentence ;  when  the  same  word 
used  again  and  again  comes  at  last  to  be  like 
the  blows  of  a  hammer,  riveting  attention  to  the 
subject. 

Of  this  character  is  Webster's  celebrated  sen- 
tence in  his  speech  on  "American  Institutions." 

Webster's  Celebrated  Sentence. 

"  Our  Government  can  stand  trial,  it  can  stand 
assault,  it  can  stand  adversity,  it  can  stand  per- 
secution ;  it  can  stand  everything  but  the  weak- 
ness of  our  owrtstrength,  it  can  stand  everything 
but  disorganization,  disunion  and  nullification." 


Abandon,  v.  i.  Leave,  quit,  forsake, 
drop,  relinquish,  evacuate,  give  over,  cast  off. 
2.  Surrender,  cede,  resign,  waive,  vacate. 
Anto.,  keep,  hold,  retain. 

Abandoned,    adj.    i.  Deserted,  forsaken. 

2.  Depraved,  corrupt,  profligate,  shameless, 
incorrigible.  Anto.,  I.  Kept,  cared  for.  a. 
Virtuous,  holy. 

Abase,  v.  I,  Reduce,  lower,  a.  Degrade, 
humble,  disgrace.  Anto.,  i.  Increase,  raise, 
a.  Honor,  praise. 

Abash,  v.  Shame,  confuse,  humiliate. 
Anto.y  embolden,  reassure. 

Abate,  v.  1.  Lessen,  reduce,  diminish. 
a.  Moderate,  allay.  3.  Suppress,  remove, 
terminate.    Anto.,  1.  Augment.    2.  Infuriate, 

3.  Empower,  permit. 

Abbreviate,  v.  Curtail,  shorten.  Ante, 
enlarge,  lengthen. 

Abduct,    v.    Kidnap.    Anto.t  rescue. 

Abet.  v.  Aid,  assist,  help.  a.  Favor, 
sanction.  3.  Instigate,  incite.  Anto.,  1.  Re- 
sist,   a.  Oppose.    3.  Forbid. 

Abhor,  v.  Hate,  loathe,  detest.  Anto., 
love,  admire. 

Abide,  v.  Sojourn,  live,  dwell.  Anto., 
depart,  leave. 

Ability,  n.  1.  Power,  force,  might.  2. 
Competency.  3.  Capacity,  genius,  turn. 
Anto.t  Inability.  1.  Feebleness,  a.  Insuffi- 
ciency.   3.  Incapability. 

Abject,  adj.  Base,  vile,  mean,  low. 
Anto.,  lofty,  good,  noble. 

Able.  adj.  1.  Clever,  accomplished,  tal- 
ented. 2.  Qualified.  3.  Gifted,  strong,  mighty. 
Anto.,  1.  Stupid,    a.  Unfit.    3.  Weak,  feeble. 

Abolish,  v.  1.  Repeal,  revoke,  annul, 
cancel.  2.  Overthrow.  Anto.,  1.  Enforce, 
hold.    2.  Establish. 

Abominable,  adj.  1.  Hateful,  odious. 
2.  Loathsome,  nauseous.  3.  Vile,  wretched. 
Anto.,  1.  Lovable.  2.  Pleasant.  3.  Happy, 
good. 

Abridge,  v.  Contract,  compress.  Anto., 
expand.     See  Abbreviate. 

Abrupt,  adj.  1.  Broken,  rugged.  2. 
Steep.  3.  Sudden,  unexpected.  4.  Short, 
curt.    Anto.,  1.  Smooth.    2.  Level.    3.  Slow. 

4.  Long,  courteous. 

Absolute,  adj.  1.  Real,  positive,  a. 
Arbitrary,  despotic.  3.  Independent.  Anto., 
1.  Shadowy.    2.  Limited.    3.  Dependent. 

Abstinence.  «.  Temperance,  fast.  Anto., 
feast,  plenty,  orgies. 

Abstruse,  adj.  Profound,  recondite,  hid- 
den.   Anto.,  simple,  clear. 

Absurd,  adj.  Silly,  foolish,  laughable. 
Anto.,  wise,  solemn. 


Abundance.  n.  Plenty,  profuseness, 
richness.    Anto.,  famine,  want,  poverty. 

Abuse,  v.  1.  Pervert,  misuse.  2.  Harm, 
injure.  3.  Revile,  reproach,  malign.  Anto., 
1.  Use.    a.  Protect.    3.  Praise. 

Accept,  v.  Receive,  take.  Anto.,  refuse, 
reject. 

Acceptable.  adj\  Pleasing,  welcome. 
Anto.,  displeasing. 

Accidental,  adj.  Casual.  Anto.,  pre- 
concerted. 

Accommodate,  v.  1.  Oblige,  serve,  assist. 
a.  Fit,  suit,  adapt.  3.  Reconcile,  adjust. 
Anto.,  1.  Disoblige,  impede,  a.  Spoil.  3. 
Embitter. 

Accomplish,  v.  Complete,  perform, 
execute.    Anto.,  fail. 

Accomplished,  adj.  1.  Educated,  ex- 
perienced, practiced,  adroit,  talented,  a. 
Polished,  refined,  polite.  Anto.,  1.  Ignorant, 
awkward.    2.  Boorish,  ill-bred. 

Account,  n.  Narrative,  recital,  history. 
Anto.,  rebuttal,  negation. 

Accrue,  v.  Result,  issue,  ensue.  Anto., 
stop,  delay,  bar. 

Accumulate,  v.  1.  Collect,  gather,  a. 
Store,  garner,  hoard.  3.  Increase,  grow. 
Anto.,  1.  Dissipate,  scatter,  a.  Spend.  3. 
Lessen,  diminish. 

Accurate,  adj.  Correct,  exact,  precise. 
Anto.,  wrong,  loose,  erroneous. 

Accuse,  v.  Charge,  criminate,  arraign. 
Anto.,  exonerate. 

Accustom,  v.  Habituate,  familiarize, 
addict.    Anto.,  unused,  undrilled. 

Achieve,    v.    See  Accomplish. 

Acknowledge,  v.  Admit,  concede,  avow. 
Anto.,  deny. 

Acquaint,  v.  Tell,  inform,  notify.  Anto., 
deceive. 

Acquire,  v.  Get,  gain,  secure,  win,  ob- 
tain.   Ante.,  lose. 

Acquit,  v.  Clear,  absolve,  exonerate. 
Anto.,  convict,  indict. 

Act.  v.  I.  Work,  move,  execute.  2.  Be- 
have, demean.  3.  Operate.  4.  Do,  perform. 
e,.  Personate,  play,  enact.  Anto.,  1.  Idle, 
loaf.  2.  Misbehave.  3.  To  be  inert.  4.  Re- 
fuse.   5.  Verify. 

Act*  n.  1.  Deed,  performance.  2.  Statute, 
law.    3.  Part  of  a  play. 

Active,  adj.  1.  Brisk,  alert,  nimble, 
smart,  a.  Busy,  diligent,  enterprising.  3. 
Powerful,  drastic.  Anto.,  1.  Lazy.  a.  Lack- 
ing energy.    3.  Weak. 

Actually,  adv.  Really,  truly,  verily. 
Anto.t  falsely,  deceptively. 


Acute,  adj.  1.  Keen,  shrewd,  sharp, 
discerning,  knowing,  quick,  smart,  bright, 
intelligent,  ingenious,  subtle,  penetrating, 
piercing,  clear-sighted,  sharp-witted,  long, 
headed.  2  Severe,  violent,  intense,  exquis- 
ite,  pungent.    Anto.,  1.   Dull.  a.   Stupid. 

Add.  v.  1.  Join,  annex,  append,  tag.  a. 
Sum,  cast  up.  Anto.,  1.  Disconnect,  separate. 
2.  Subtract,  take  away. 

Address,  n.  1.  Appeal,  petition,  en- 
treaty. 2.  Speech,  discourse,  oration.  3. 
Skill,  art,  tact.  4.  Superscription,  direction. 
5.  Manner.  Anto.,  3.  Clumsiness,  awkward- 
ness. 

Adhere,  v.  Cling,  cleave,  cohere.  Anto., 
loosen. 

Adjacent,  adj.  Near,  bordering,  con- 
tiguous.   Anto.,  far,  asunder. 

Adjust,  v.  Arrange,  trim,  regulate,  adapt, 
accommodate.  Anto.,  disarrange,  disorder, 
confuse. 

Admirable,  adj.  Excellent,  fine,  praise- 
worthy.   Anto.,  blamable,  execrable. 

Admire,  v.  Wonder,  like,  esteem,  love. 
Anto.,  hate,  despise,  dislike. 

Admit,  v.  1.  Grant,  concede,  confess. 
2.  Let  in.  Anto.,  1.  Deny.  2.  Keep  out,  ex- 
clude. 

Admonish,  v.  Advise,  warn,  reprove. 
Anto.,  recommend. 

Adulation,  n.  Flattery.  Anto.,  blame, 
scolding. 

Advancement.  «.  Preferment,  progres- 
sion. Anto.,  displacement,  retrogression, 
receding. 

Adventure,  n.  1.  Stake,  risk,  chance. 
2,  Accident,  danger,  event.  Anto.,  1.  Cer- 
tainty.   2.  Quiet,  safety. 

Adversity,  n.  Trouble,  misfortune,  sor- 
row, distress.    Anto.,  prosperity,  wealth,  joy. 

Advertise,  v.  Announce,  publish,  pro- 
claim.   Anto.,  conceal. 

Advice,  «.  1.  Counsel,  caution.  2.  In- 
formation. 

Affable,  adj.  Civil,  sociable,  easy.  Anto., 
surly,  discourteous. 

Affection.  «.  Partiality,  fondness.  Anto., 
dislike. 

Afflict,  v.  Trouble,  annoy,  torment, 
harass.    Anto.,  please. 

Affront,  v.  Insult,  abuse,  condemn.  Anto., 
respect. 

Agent,  n.  Factor,  substitute.  Anto., 
principal. 

Aggregate,  n.  Total,  whole,  lump,  sum, 
mass.    Anto.,  part. 

Agile,    adj.     See  Active. 

Agitation,  n.  1.  Excitement,  commo- 
tion, tumult.  2.  Debate,  discussion.  Anto., 
tranquility. 


f  7=^ 


t 


66 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


Agree,    v.   I.  Concur,  acquiesce,  unite.  2. 
Engage,  contract.    ^«/*>.,  I,  Differ,  disagree, 
a.  it c fuse. 
Aid.    v.    Assist,  help.     Anto.,  resist. 
Alarm.   K,   Fright,  dismay,  apprehension, 
Anto.,  confidence,  courage. 
Alert,    adj.     See  Active. 
Ailment.     «.     Food,  sustinence,  nourish- 
moot* 

Allay,      v.      Soften,    lessen,    quiet,    ease. 
Aula.,  excite. 
Alleviate,    v.     See  Allay. 
Alliance,  n.   League,  confederacy,  union. 
Anto. t  disunion,  discord. 

Allowance.    .«.     i.    Salary,    wages,    pay. 
a.  Permission.     Anto.,  2.  Prohibition. 
Allure,    v.    Tempt,  decoy,    Anto.,  repel. 
Amass,    v.    See  Accumulate. 
Amatory,     adj.    Tender,  amorous,  erotic. 
Anto.,  hateful. 

Amazement,  «.  Wonder,  astonishment. 
Anto.,  anticipation. 

Ambiguous,  adj.  Doubtful,  dubious. 
Anto.,  clear. 

Amicable,  adj.  Kind,  friendly,  pleasant. 
Anto.,  hostile. 

Ample,  adj.  1.  Spacious.  2.  Plentiful, 
abundant.  Anto.,  1.  Confined,  narrow.  2. 
Scarce. 

Amuse,  v.  Divert,  entertain.  Anto., 
weary,  tire. 

Analogy,  v.  Similarity.  Anto.,  diver- 
sity, difference. 

Ancestors,  n.  Forefathers.  Anto.,  pos- 
terity. 

Ancient,  ad/.  Old  antique.  Anto.,  modern. 
Anecdote.     ».     Tale,  story. 
Anger.    n.     Resentment,  wrath,  ire,  fury, 
rage,  choler.  Anto.,  peacefulness,  amiability, 
calm, 

Anguish,  n.  Pain,  distress,  agony.  Anto., 
bliss. 

Animal,  n.  Creature,  beast,  brute.  Anto., 
things  inanimate. 

Animate,  v.  Inspire,  enliven,  cheer,  in- 
cite, urge.     Anto.,  depress. 

Animation.  «.  Life,  spirit,  vivacity. 
Anto..  apathy. 

Animosity,  w.  Enmity,  hostility,  malig- 
nancy.    Anto.,  Irking,  friendliness. 

Annex,    v.    Attach,  append,  join.    Anto., 
detach,  separate. 
Announce,    v.     See  Advertise. 
Annoy,      v.      Disturb,    molest,    trouble. 
Anto.,  convenience,  please,  accommodate. 

Annul,  v.  Rescind,  abolish.  Auto.,  af- 
firm. 

Answer.  ».  Reply,  rejoinder.  Anto., 
question. 

Anterior,  adj.  Prior,  before,  previous. 
Auto.,  posterior,  subsequent. 

Anticipate,  v.  Foresee,  forestall,  pre- 
vent.   Anto.,  surprise. 

Antipathy.  ».  Aversion,  dislike,  hatred. 
See  Animosity. 

Antique,  adj.  Old,  ancient,  obsolete. 
Anto.,  modem,  new,  fresh. 

Anxiety.  «.  Care,  solicitude,  worry. 
Anto.,  certainty,  repose. 

Any.    adj.    pron.     I.  Anyone.     2.  Some. 
Anto.,  none. 
Apartment.  ».  Lodging,  room,  chamber. 
Apathy.    ».    Coldness,  torpor,  unconcern. 
Anto.,  animation,  which  see. 
Ape.     v.     Imitate. 

Apologize,  v.  Excuse,  exculpate.  Ante. 
in  .ult,  justify. 

Appal,  .-.  Scare,  shock,  frighten.  Anto.. 
embolden,  encourage.     See  Alarm. 

Apparel.  n.  Dress,  clothing,  attire. 
Anto.,  nudity. 

Apparent,  adj.  Visible,  plain,  obvious, 
evident.  Anto.,  concealed,  >mnhrn0lli  wkjtM 
see. 

Apparition.  «.  An  appearance,  ghost, 
spirit,  phantom. 

Appear,  v.  1.  Emerge,  come  into  view. 
a.  Seem,  look.     Anto.,  disappear. 

Appearance,  n.  1.  Coming,  arriv.il.  2. 
Air,  figure.  »,  Scmblcncc.  Anto.,  1,  Depart- 
im  .      \.   Unlikeuess. 

Appease,  v.  Calm,  pacify.  Anto.,  In- 
flam*. 


Appellation.    «;    Name,  title. 

Applaud,  v.  Cheer,  praise,  extol.  Anto., 
hiss,  blame,  belittle. 

Application,  n.  Industry,  persistency. 
Anto.,  idleness,  fickleness. 

Apply,  v.  Use,  appropriate,  devote. 
Auto.,  misapply. 

Appoint,  -v.  1.  Fix, establish.  2.  Name, 
constitute.    Anto.,  1.  Change, 

Appraise,    v.    Value,  estimate,  rate. 

Appreciate,  v.  Estimate,  value,  appraise. 

Apprehend,   v.    1.  Catch,  capture,  arrest. 

2.  Understand,  comprehend.    3.  Fear,  dread, 
alarm.     Auto.,  1.  Escape.    2.  Misunderstand. 

3,  Embolden. 

Apprise,    v.     See  Admonish. 

Approach,  v.  Approximate,  come  near. 
Anto.,  depart. 

Approbation.  n.  Approval,  sanction, 
consent.    Auto.,  disapproval. 

Approximate,    v.    See  Approach. 

Apt.  adj.  1.  Fit,  meet,  suitable,  qualified. 
2.  Ready,  quick,  prompt.  Anto.,  \ .  Inn:.  2, 
Slow. 

Arbitrary,  adj.  Irresponsible,  tyrannous. 
Anto.,  normal,  regular,  constitutional. 

Arbitrator.    «,    Judge,  umpire,  referee. 

Archives.    «.     Records,  chronicles. 

.Ardent,  adj.  Zealous,  fervid,  hot,  in- 
tense.   Anto.,  calm,  cool. 

Arduous,  adj.  Difficult,  trying,  labori- 
ous.   Anto.,  easy,  facile. 

Argue,  v.  1.  Evince,  prove.  2.  Reason, 
discuss,  debate.    Anto.,  disprove. 

Argument,  n.  Reason,  proof,  discussion, 
dispute.     Anto.,  folly,  mistake. 

Arise,  v.  Mount,  ascend,  get  up.  2.  Be- 
gin, originate.    Anto.,  descend7go  down. 

Aristocratic,  adj.  Haughty t  proud,  ar- 
rogant.   Anto.,  democratic,  plebeian. 

A  this.     «,     Weapons. 

Army.     n.    Force,  troops.    Anto.t  mob. 

Arraign,    v.    See  Accuse.    Anto.,  acquit. 

Arrange.  :■.  1.  Distribute,  rank,  classify. 
2.  Plan,  devise,  organize.    Anto.,  disarrange. 

Arrogance.  «,  Pride,  haughtiness,  su- 
perciliousness.   Anto.;  humility. 

Artful,  adj.  1.  Skilful.  2.  Subtle,  shrewd, 
crafty.     Anto.,  simple,  unaffected. 

Artifice.  «.  Cunning,  trick,  stratagem, 
Anto.t  honesty,  simplicity. 

Artist*  n.  1.  Designer.  2.  Painter, 
sketcher.  3.  Sculptor,  modeller,  Anto., 
dauber. 

Assay,  n.  Test,  examination,  chemical 
analysis  of  metals. 

Association,  n.  Society,  guild,  combin- 
ation.    Anto.,  separation. 

Attic,  adj.  Classic,  elegant,  pure.  Anto., 
stupid,  modern,  unclassicai. 

Attitude,     n.     Posture,  phase,  situation. 

Attorney.  n.  Lawyer,  counsellor,  agent. 
Anto.,  client. 

Attract,  v.  Allure,  fascinate,  captivate. 
Anto.,  repel. 

Attraction.  ».  Charm,  fascination. 
Anto.,  repulsion. 

Audacity.  n.  Daring,  hardihood,  pre- 
sumption, insolence.  Auto.,  timidity,  meek- 
ness. 

Augment,  v.  Increase,  enlarge,  mag- 
nify.   Anto.y  decrease,  diminish. 

Author,    n.    Writer,  composer,  maker. 
Authority,     n.     Liberty f    permit,    order, 
warrant.    Anto.,  prohibition. 

Avarice,    n.    CJ  IpkUty,  covet- 

ousness.    Anto.,  liberality,  prodigality. 

Avow.  v.  Affirm,  confess,  declare.  Anto., 
deny. 

Awake,  adj.  Watchful,  vigilant  Anto., 
sleepy,  drowsy. 

V  v  •  .     n.    Dread. 

Awkward.  adj.  Unskilful,  unhandy, 
boorish,  rough.  Anto.,  accomplished,  subtle, 
graceful. 

B 

Bubble,    v.    Prate,  chatter.    Anto.,  to  be 

Baffle,    v.     Circumvent,  foil.    Anio.,  suc- 
cor, aid,  nbct. 
Baggage.    «.    Luggage. 


Balance,  v.  Equalize,  counteract,  poise. 
Anto.,  preponderate. 

Band.  «.  1.  Company,  crew,  gang.  2. 
Chain,  fetter,  shackle.  3.  Fillet,  bandage.  4. 
Orchestra,  company  of  musicians.  Anto.,  in- 
dividual, one. 

Bunifth.  v.  Exile,  send  away,  exclude. 
Anto.,  recall. 

Banter,    v.     Rally,  twit,  taunt. 

Bare.  adj.  Unclothed,  naked.  Anio., 
c'ad. 

Bargain,     n.    Agreement,  contract,  sale. 

Barter,  v.  Exchange,  sell,  commute. 
Anto.,  retain. 

Base.     adj.     See  Abject. 

Bear.  -v.  1.  Uphold.  2.  Undergo,  suffer. 
3.  Generate,  bring  forth. 

Beastly,  adj.  Brutal,  sensual,  bestial. 
Anto.,  humane,  polite. 

Beat.  v.  1.  Knock,  hit,  strike.  2.  Defeat, 
conquer,  subdue. 

Beau.  ».  1.  Admirer,  suitor.  2.  Fop, 
dandy.     Anto.,  betle. 

Beauty.  ».  Comeliness,  grace,  symmetry. 
Anto.,  ugliness. 

Becoming,  adj.  Appropriate,  seemly, 
fit.    Anto.,  unsuitable. 

Beg.  v.  Beseech,  solicit,  entreat  Anto., 
grant. 

Beguile,  v.  Amuse,  divert,  delude. 

Behavior.  ».  Conduct,  bearing,  deport- 
ment    Anto.,  misbehavior. 

Behold,     inter/.     See,  look. 

Believe,  v.  Credit,  assume,  deem.  Anto., 
doubt. 

Beloved,  adj.  Dear,  darling.  Anto,, 
hated. 

Below,  prep.  Under,  beneath,  Anto., 
over*,  above. 

Benefaction,     n.     Gift,  gratuity. 

Bequeath,  v.  Leave,  devise,  will.  Anto., 
inherit. 

Bereave,  v.  Deprive,  take  away,  strip. 
Anto.,  enrich. 

Beseech,     v.     See  Beg. 

Botow.  v.  Confer,  give,  grant  Anto., 
withhold. 

Hetler.  v.  Improve,  amend,  correct 
Anto.,  confuse,  deteriorate. 

Bill.  n.  1.  Reckoning,  statement,  account. 
2.  Draft    3.  Beak.    4.  Pickaxe. 

Blame,  n.  Censure,  reproof,  reproach, 
Anto.,  praise. 

Blemish,  n.  Stain,  spot,  speck,  flaw. 
A>:to.,  immaculate. 

Blind,  adj.  1.  Sightless.  2.  Heedless. 
Anto.,  far-sighted. 

Bloody,     adj.     Sanguinary,  gory. 

Boast,     v.    Brag,  vaunt,  glory. 

Boldness,  n.  1.  Courage,  braverv,  valor. 
2.  Effrontery,  impudence.  Anto.,  I.  Coward- 
ice.   2.  Bsshfalneoa,  mod* 

llnmhnstic.  adj.  Inflated,  pompous, 
grandiloquent.     Anto.,  cor 

Border,  n.  Verge,  brim,  edge,  frontier. 
Anto.,  middle,  interior. 

Bore.  n.  1.  Nuisance,  a  prosy  talker,  a. 
Hole,  calibre. 

Boundless,  adj.  Unlimited,  immeasura- 
ble, infinite.     Anto..  Limited, 

Bountiful,  adj.  Liberal,  generous,  boun- 
teous.    Anto.,  niggardly,  miserable. 

Bravery,     w.     See  Boldness. 

Breeding,  n.  Nurture,  training,  manners. 
Ant^.,  impoliteness. 

Brief,  adj.  Short,  concise.  Anto.,  pro- 
tracted. 

Bright,  adj.  Shining,  radiant  Anto., 
dull. 

Brilliancy,  n.  Luster,  radiance.  Anto., 
dullness. 

Brittle,  ad/.  Fragile,  frail,  crumbling. 
Anto.,  tough. 

Broil,  m.  Quarrel,  brawl,  fight,  affray. 
Anto.,  quiet,  peace. 

Hrtital.  adj.  Cnicl.  unfeeling,  savage, 
ferocious.    Anto.,  humane. 

Bud.     v.    Sprout,  shoot,  germinate. 

Buffoon.  *.  Harlequin,  fool,  idiot  Anto., 

Build,  r.  Raise,  erect  Anto.,  destroy, 
pull  down. 


^ 


K~ 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


"71 


& 


Bulk.  n.  Size,  magnitude,  body,  gross. 
Anto.,  tenuity. 

Burial,  n.  Interment,  sepulture.  Anto., 
resurrection. 

Burst,     v.     Explode,  break  open. 

Business,  n.  Calling,  employment,  voca- 
tion.   Auto.,  leisure. 

Bustle,  n.  Stir,  tumult,  fuss.  Anto., 
quiet. 

Butt.     k.    i.  Mark,  object,  target.   2.  Cask. 

Buxom,  adj.  Healthy,  brisk,  cheerful, 
lively.    Anto.,  spiritless. 

Buy.  v.  Purchase,  cheapen,  bargain  for. 
Anto.,  sell. 


Cabal.  n,  1.  Clique,  set,  league.  2.  Plot, 
intrigue,  conspiracy. 

Cajole,  v.  Coax,  flatter,  wheedle.  Anto., 
compel. 

Calamity,  n.  Mishap,  misfortune,  disas- 
ter.   Anto.,  good  fortune,  luck. 

Calculate,  v.  Reckon,  count,  compute, 
rate,  estimate. 

Call,  v.  1.  Cry,  shout.  2.  Invite,  bid, 
summon.  Anto.,  I,  Whisper.  2.  Order  away, 
send. 

Calling.     n.     See  Business. 

Callous,  adj.  Hard,  unfeeling,  dead. 
Anto.,  sensitive,  nervous. 

Calm.  adj.  1.  Composed,  collected.  2. 
Quiet,  tranquil,  placid.  Anto.,  1-  Stormy.  2. 
Agitated. 

Candid,  adj.  Open,  honest,  sincere. 
Anto.,  deceitful,  treacherous. 

Capacity.  «.  1.  Volume,  amplitude.  2. 
Ability,  competency,  faculty,  talent.  3.  Char- 
acter, office.  Anto. ,2.  Incapacity, incompeten- 
cy, stupidity,  inability. 

Caprice,  n.  Whim,  freak,  fancy,  vagary. 
Anto,,  settled  purpose,  conviction. 

Captious,  adj.  Peevish,  petulant,  fretful, 
cross.     Anto.,  good-humored,  facile,  easy. 

Captivate,  v.  Fascinate,  charm,  enchant. 
Anto.,  disgust,  displease. 

Careful,  adj.  1,  Heedful,  attentive.  2. 
Watchful,  cautious,  circumspect,  Anto., 
heedless,  careless,  rash. 

Caress,  n.  Kiss,  embrace.  Anto.,  buffet, 
spurn. 

Carousal.  ».  Feast,  banquet,  orgie. 
Anto.,  fast. 

Cash.    n.    Money,  coin,  specie. 

Casualty,  n.  Accident,  mischance,  con- 
tinge  ncy. 

Cause.     z».     Produce,    create,    occasion. 

Cause.  «.  Reason,  motive,  inducement, 
incitement.     Anto.,  effect. 

Cavity.    ».    Aperture,  opening,  hollow. 

Cautious,  adj.  Prudent,  careful,  watch- 
ful. See  Careful.  Anto.,  rash,  headlong, 
heedless. 

Celebrate,  v.  r.  Commemorate,  keep, 
observe,  honor,  solemnize.  2.  Praise,  extol, 
glorify.  Anto.,  1.  Forget,  ignore.  2.  Execrate! 

Censure,  v.  Blame,  approve,  chide,  scold, 
berate.  Anto.t  praise,  honor,  congratulate, 
aj)  prove. 

Certain,  adj.  1.  Sure,  assured,  confident. 
2.  Infallible,  unfailing.  3.  Plain,  positive, 
absolute,  indubitable.  Anto.,  uncertain.  1. 
Dubious,  doubtful.  2.  Fallacious.  3.  Dark, 
disputed,  challenged. 

Chance.  ».  1,  Accident,  fortune,  fortuity, 
casualty.  2.  Hazard,  risk,  peril,  jeopardy. 
Anto.,1.  Design.  2.  Safety,  certainty.security. 

Change,     v.    Alter,  vary,  turn. 

Character.  «.  Repute,  reputation,  stand- 
ing. 

,  Charm,    n.    Grace,  attraction.  Anto.,  re- 
pulsion. 

Chastity.  ».  Purity,  modesty,  virtue, 
continence.  Anto.,  impurity,  lewdness,  in- 
continence. 

Chattels.  «.,//.  Goods,  effects,  personal 
property.     Anto.,  real  estate. 

Chatter,    v.    See  Babble. 

Cheat.  v.  Deceive,  trick,  defraud, 
swindle. 

Cheer,  -v.  1.  Applaud.  2.  Comfort,  con- 
sole, gladden,  encourage.  Anto.,  1.  Hiss.  2. 
Distress. 


Cheerful,  adj.  Lively,  merry,  sprightly, 
gay.    Anto.,  sad,  weary,  downcast,  mournful. 

Cherish,  v.  I.  Nourish,  nurse,  nurture. 
2.  Encourage.  3.  Harbor,  protect,  love. 
Anto.,  1.  Starve,  famish.  2.  Dishearten.  3. 
Expose,  detest. 

Chief.  «.  Leader,  commander.  Anto., 
subordinate,  subaltern. 

Chiefly,  adv.  Principally,  mainly,  mostly, 
eminently.     Anto.,  secondarily,  subsequently. 

Childhood,  h.  Minority,  infancy.  Anto., 
majority,  manhood. 

Childish,  adj.  1.  Young,  juvenile,  in- 
fantile. 2.  Weak,  trifling,  silly.  Anto.,  1. 
Manful,  experienced.  2.  Strong,  earnest, 
wise,  sapient. 

Choice,  n.  Selection,  election,  option, 
preference. 

Choke,  v.  1,  Suffocate,  strangle,  throttle. 
2.  Stop,  block,  obstruct.  Anto.,  1.  Breathe, 
animate.     2.  Assist,  help. 

Choose,    v.    Prefer,  pick,  select,  elect. 

Circulate..  v.  Propagate,  disseminate, 
diffuse,  spread.  Anto.,  confine,  stop,  bound, 
retard. 

Circumspect,  adj.  Judicious,  discreet, 
prudent,  cautious,  wary.  Anto.,  imprudent, 
rash,  foolish. 

Circumstance,    n.    Incident,  accident. 

Cite.  v.  1.  Quote,  adduce.  2.  Summon. 
Anto.,  2.  Discharge,  release. 

Civil,  adj.  1.  Civic,  municipal.  2.  Ur- 
bane, obliging,  courteous,  polite,  refined. 
Anto.,  1.  Rural,  countrified.  2.  Rude,  boor, 
ish,  impolite. 

Civility,  n.  1.  Courtesy,  politeness, 
suavity.    2.  Benefit,  favor,  kindness.    Anto., 

1.  Discourtesy,  asperity.  2.  Unkindness,  in- 
civility. 

Civilization,  n.  Culture,  cultivation,  re- 
finement. Anto.,  barbarism,  savagery,  ignor- 
ance. 

Clad,  v., p.  p.  Dressed,  clothed,  attired. 
Anto.,  naked,  bare. 

Clandestine,  adj.  Concealed,  hidden, 
sly,  private.  Anto.,  open,  prominent,  con- 
spicuous, advertised. 

Clasp,  v.  Grasp,  clutch,  gripe.  Anto., 
loosen,  open,  unclasp. 

Clean,  adj.  Unsoiled,  spotless,  pure,  im- 
maculate. Anto.,  impure,  dirty,  filthy,  soiled, 
nasty. 

Clear,  adj.  1.  Transparent,  bright,  limpid. 

2.  Fair,  cloudless,  serene.  3.  Plain,  lucid, 
perspicuous.  4.  Patent,  obvious,  visible,  evi- 
dent.    Anto.,    1.    Opaque,   dark.     2.  Gloomy. 

3.  Ambiguous,  dubious.  4.  Occult,  hidden, 
obscure. 

Clear,  -v.  Acquit,  exonerate.  A nto.,  con- 
vict. 

Clever,  adj.  I.  Skillful,  apt,  smart,  quick, 
able.  2.  Kind.  Anto,,  stupid,  clumsy,  awk- 
ward, rgnorant. 

Climb,  v.  Ascend,  clamber,  scramble. 
Anto.,  descend,  go  down,  fall. 

Cling,     v.    Adhere,  stick.      Anto.,  loosen. 

Close,  v,  1.  Shut.  2.  End,  finish.  Anto., 
1.  Open.     2.  Begin,  commence. 

Clothes.  «.  Raiment,  dress,  attire,  garb, 
costume,  habiliments.     Anto.,  nudity. 

Cloy.  v.  Surfeit,  sate,  satiate,  glut.  Anto., 
famish. 

Clumsy,    adj.    See  Awkward. 

Coarse,  adj.  1.  Gross,  vulgar.  2.  Rude, 
uncivil,  gruff.  Anto.,  I,  Nice,  polite.  2.  Re- 
fined. 

Coax,  v  Flatter,  wheedle,  cajole.  Anto., 
command,  compel,  force. 

Cogent,  adj.  Forcible,  powerful,  potent, 
convincing.     Anto.,  weak. 

Cold.  adj.  1.  Cool,  frigid,  wintry.  2.  Un- 
feeling, stoical.  Anto.,  u  Warm,  tropical, 
fervid,  hot.      2.  Sensitive. 

Cold.     ».     Catarrh,  cough. 

Collect,  v.  1.  Gather.  2.  Accumulate, 
amass.    Anto.,  scatter,  disperse. 

Collection,  n.  1.  Crowd,  gathering.  2. 
Accumulation,  store,  aggregation.  3.  Con- 
tribution. 

Color,  n.  1.  Shade,  tinge,  tint,  hue.  2. 
Pigment,  paint. 


Combination,  n.  1.  Union,  conjunction, 
2.  Alliance.  3.  Mixture.  Anto.,  disunion, 
disconnection. 

Come.    v.    1.  Approach.  2.  Arrive.  Anto., 

1.  Go.     2.  Depart. 

Comely,  adj.  Handsome,  pretty,  sym- 
metrical. Anto ,  ugly,  homely,  dispropor- 
tionate. 

Comfert.  v.  Solace,  cheer,  console. 
Anto.,  discomfort,  disease. 

Comical,  adj.  Droll,  funny,  humorous, 
ludicrous.     Anto.,  solemn,  serious. 

Commanding,  adj.  Imperative,  authori- 
tative. 

Commence,  v.  Begin,  originate.  Anto., 
end,  finish. 

Commend,  v.  1.  Intrust,  commit.  2. 
Praise,  extol,  laud,  eulogize.  Anto.,  1.  Take 
from,  withdraw.  2.  Blame,  censure,  disap- 
prove. 

Comment,    n.     I.   Remark,  observation. 

2.  Note,  explanation. 

Commercial,    adj.    Trading,  mercantile. 
Commission,    v.     1.    Empower,  author- 
ize.   2.  Depute,  delegate. 

Commodious,  adj.  Fit,  suitable,  con- 
venient.   Anto.,  unfit,  inconvenient. 

Commodities.  «.,  //,  Wares,  goods, 
merchandise,  produce. 

Common,  adj.  1.  General.  2.  Usual, 
habitual,  customary,  3.  Trite,  stale.  4.  Or- 
dinary, low.  Anto.,  1.  Occasional, exceptional. 
2.  Unusual.  3.  Fresh.  4.  Peculiar,  extraor- 
dinary. 

Communication.  «.  Conference,  con- 
versation, letter. 

Community,  n.  I.  Society,  public,  peo- 
ple.    2.  Association,  brotherhood. 

Companion.  «.  1.  Mate,  comrade.  2. 
Partaker,  sharer. 

Company,  n.  1.  Assembly,  group, gather- 
ing.  2.  Party.  3.  Visitors.  4.  Fellowship, 
society.  5.  Corporation,  firm.  Anto,,  indi- 
vidual, personality. 

Compassion,  n.  Pity,  tenderness,  clem- 
ency.    Anto  ,  severity,  harshness,  cruelty. 

Compatible,  adj.  Consistent,  consonant. 
Anto.,  incompatible,  inconsistent. 

Compel,  v.  Force,  coerce,  drive.  Anto.. 
cajole,  coax,  lead. 

Compendium.  ».  Compend,  abridg- 
ment. Anto.,  discourse,  enlargement,  aug- 
mentation. 

Compensation,  n.  Reward,  recompense, 
satisfaction.  Anto.,  loss,  punishment,  correc- 
tion. 

Competent,  adj.  I.  Able,  qualified.  2. 
Adequate,  fit.  Anto.,  I.  Incompetent,  feeble. 
2.  Inadequate. 

Competition,  n.  Rivalry,  contest,  emu- 
lation.    Anto.,  monopoly,  combination. 

Complain,  v.  Murmur,  grumble,  lament. 
Anto.,  rejoice,  jubilate. 

Compliment.   ;/.    Praise,  commendation, 
encomium.     Ante,,  insult,  blame,  detraction. 
Comply,  v.  Confirm, yield,  submit.  Anto., 
disobey,  rebel. 

Compound,  adj.  Composite,  complex. 
Anto.,  simple,  uniform,  plain. 

Compound,  v.  Mix,  combine,  intermin- 
gle.   Anto.,  simplify,  analyze,  separate. 

Comprehend,    v.     1.  Comprise,  include, 

embrace.  2.  Grasp,  see,  understand,  perceive. 

Anto.,  1.  Exclude.  2.  Mistake,  misapprehend. 

Comprise,    v.    Include,  contain,  embody, 

comprehend.     Anto.,  exclude. 

Compulsion.  «.  Constraint,  coercion. 
Anto.,  freedom,  liberty. 

Compunction.  «.  Remorse,  regret,  sor> 
row,  penitence.  Anto.,  joy,  gratulation,  glad- 
ness, buoyancy. 

Compute,  v.  Reckon,  calculate,  estimate, 
count. 

Conceal,  v.  1.  Hide,  secrete,  cover,  screen. 
2.  Disguise,  dissemble.  Anto.,  1.  Reveal,  un- 
cover, display. 

Concede,  v.  1.  Yield,  surrender.  2. 
Grant,  admit  Anto.,  1.  Rebel,  repel.  2. 
Denv. 

Conceit,  n.  Vanity,  egotism.  Ante., 
humility,  meekness. 

Concert,  n.  1.  Concord,  harmony,  2. 
Musical  entertainment.    Anto.,  1.  Discord. 


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68 


SYNONYMS   AND    ANTONYMS. 


4 


Concise,  adj.  Short,  brief,  curt,  laconic, 
terse.     Auto.,  verbose,  discursive,  lengthy. 

Conclude.  >.  i.  Decide,  determine,  a. 
End,  finish,  terminate.  Anto.,  I.  Differ,  dis- 
agree,    a.  Begin,  commence. 

Concur,  v.  Agree,  coincide,  join.  Anto., 
disagree. 

Concussion,     n.    Clash,  shock. 

Condemu,  v.  Blame,  censure,  reprove, 
disapprove.  Anto.,  acquit,  exonerate,  excul- 
pate, clear,  justify. 

Conduct,  n.  i.  Management,  a.  Behavior, 
deportment,  demeanor. 

Confess,  v.  i.  Admit,  grant,  concede,  a. 
Acknowledge,  avow.     Anto.,  deny,  traverse. 

Confidence,  n.  i.  Faith,  trust,  belief.^  at 
Assurance,  courage.  Auto.,  i.  Distrust,  in- 
credulity,   a.   Timidity. 

Conflict,  n.  Contest,  struggle,  fight, 
battle. 

Confonnd.  v.  Amaze,  perplex,  bewilder, 
stupefy,  dumbfound. 

Confusion,  n.  i.  Jumble,  disarray,  dis- 
order. 2.  Tumult,  commotion.  3.  Shame, 
abashment.  Auto.,  1.  Order,  array.  2.  Quiet. 
3.  Pride,  hauteur,  self-possession. 

Congenial,  adj.  Suited,  adapted,  agree- 
able.    Anto.,  unstated,  uncongenial. 

Conjecture,  n.  Guess,  supposition,  sur- 
mise.    Ant.).,  demonstration,  proof. 

Conjugal,  adj.  Matrimonial,  nuptial, 
bridal,  connubial.    Anto..  celibate. 

Connoisseur,  n.  Critic,  judge.  Anto., 
Ignoramus. 

Connubial,    adj.    See  Conjugal. 

Conquer,  v.  Overcome,  vanquish,  sub- 
slue,  checkmate,  master,  subject,  crush.  Anto., 
fail,  yield,  give  up,  surrender. 

Consanguinity,  n.  Kindred,  relation- 
ship. 

Consideration,  n.  1.  Cause,  reason, 
ground,  motive.  3.  Attention,  deliberation. 
Anto.,  2.  Inattention. 

Consistent,  adj.  Accordant,  compatible. 
Anto.,  inconsistent,  discordant. 

Conspicuous,  adj.  1.  Prominent,  emi- 
nent. 3.  Visible,  apparent.  Ante,  1.  Un- 
known, lowly.     3.  Obscure,  hidden. 

Constrain,  v.  1.  Compel,  coerce,  force, 
s.  Curb,  restrain.  Anto.,  1.  Cajole,  coax.  2. 
Loosen,  liberate. 

Construct,  v*  1.  Fabricate,  erect,  build, 
raise,  a.  Make,  form,  frame,  institute.  Anto., 

1.  Overturn,     a.  Destroy. 

Consume,  v.  Devour,  expend,  waste, 
destroy.     Anto.,  build  up,  save,  Keep. 

Contagious,  adj.  1.  Catching,  infectious. 
a.    Poisonous,    deadly,    pestilential.      Anto., 

2.  Healthy,  wholesome. 
Contaminate.     v.    Defile,  sully,  pollute. 

Anto.,  clean,  whiten,  clear. 

Contempt.  ».  Scorn,  disregard,  disdain. 
Anto.,  regard,  liking,  admiration. 

Contemptible,  adj.  Mean,  base,  despica- 
ble, abject.     Anto.,  lofty,  noble,  honorable. 

Contentment.  n.  Ease,  satisfaction. 
Anto.,  discontent,  sorrow,  melancholy. 

Contest,    n.     See  Conflict. 

Contingent,  adj.  Uncertain,  conditional. 
Anto.,  sure,  certain,  fixed. 

Continual,  adj.  Endless,  unceasing, 
perpetual,  eternal.  Anto.,  intermittent, 
broken. 

Contract,  n.  Bargain,  compact,  agree- 
ment, stipulation. 

Contrary,  adj.  1.  Opposite,  counter,  ad- 
verse, a.  Conflicting,  repugnant.  3.  Per- 
verse, stubborn,  obstinate.  Anto.,i.  Similar. 
a.  Unanimous.    3.  Agreeable. 

Control,  v.  Direct,  regulate,  manage, 
govern. 

Convenient,  adj.  Suitable,  appropriate, 
useful.     Anto.,  unsuitable,  wrong. 

Conversation.  n.  Talk,  dialogue,  collo- 
quy.    Anto. ,  silence. 

Convertible.  adj.  Interchangeable. 
Anto.,  unchangeable,  immovable. 

Conveyance,  n.  t.  Transfer,  alienation, 
deed.    3.  Carriage. 

Convict,  r.  Condemn,  find  guilty.  Anto., 
acquit,  exculpate,  exonerate. 

Convince,  v.  Satisfy,  persuade.  Anto., 
dissuade. 


Convivial,     adj.     Jovial,   jolly,   festive. 

Anto.,  gloomy,  sad,  thoughtful. 

Cool.  adj.  1.  Not  warm.  2.  Collected, 
calm,  dispassionate.  Anto.,  1.  Warm.  2. 
Excited,  enthused. 

Copy.  v.  1.  Transcribe.  2.  Imitate.  Anto., 
originate. 

Cordial*  adj.  Sincere,  warm,  hearty, 
heartfelt,  ardent.  Anto.,  heartless,  cold,  de- 
ceitful. 

Correct,  adj.  Ryght,  true,  accurate,  fault- 
less.    Anto.,  wrong,  erroneous,  faulty. 

Correspondent,  adj.  Answerable,  suit- 
able.    Anto.,  unsuitable,  unfit. 

Cost.     n.     Expense,  charge,  price. 

Counsel*  n.  1.  Counsellor,  attorney,  ad- 
vocate, barrister,  lawyer.  3.  Opinion,  advice, 
admonition,  recommendation. 

Counterfeit,    adj.    1.   Forged,  spurious. 

2.  Sham,  feigned,  simulated.  Anto.,  1.  Gen- 
uine, real.    2.  Sincere,  actual. 

Couple,     n.    Pair,  brace. 

Courage,  n.  Bravery,  spirit,  valor,  hero- 
ism, fearlessness.  Anto.,  cowardice,  timidity, 
fear. 

Courtesy,  n.  Civility,  urbanity,  polite- 
ness.   Anto.,  rudeness,  boorishness. 

Covenant,    n.    See  Contract. 

Covert,  adj.  Secret,  disguised,  hidden, 
concealed.     Anto.,  open,  displayed,  shown. 

Covetousness.      n.     Stinginess,    avarice, 

f>arsimony,  penunousness.  Anto., generosity, 
iberality. 

Cowardice*  n.  Fear,  timidity,  poltroon- 
ery, pusillanimity.  Anto.,  courage,  bravery, 
valor. 

Coy.  adj.  Shy,  bashful,  reserved,  demure, 
modest.     Anto.,  bold,  brazen,  shameless. 

Crack,  n.  1.  Crevice,  chink,  cranny, 
opening,  breach,  fissure,  a.  Explosion,  re- 
port. 

Crafty,  adj.  Shrewd,  cunning,  artful, 
astute,  subtle,  tricky.  Anto.,  simple,  artless, 
ingenuous. 

Cravat,  n.  Necktie,  neck-cloth,  necker- 
chief. 

Crave,  v.  1.  Beg,  beseech,  solicit,  en- 
treat, implore.  2.  Desire.  Anto.,  1.  Give,  of- 
fer, confer.     3.  Disdain. 

Crazy,  adj.  I*  Insane,  mad,  lunatic.  2. 
Ricketty,  tottering.  Anto.,  1.  Sane.  2.  Strong, 
stalwart. 

Create,    v.     1.  Cause,  produce,  originate. 

3.  Make,  constitute.     Anto.,  destroy. 
Credit,    n.     1.  Trust,  belief,  faith,  confi- 
dence.   2.  Esteem,  reputableness,  regard.    3. 
Honor,  merit.    Anto.,  discredit,  incredulity. 

Creditable*  adj.  Reputable,  honorable. 
Anto.,  dishonorable,  shameful. 

Credulous,  adj.  Unsuspecting,  super- 
stitious,gullible.  Anto.,  knowing,  disbeliev- 
ing, doubtful. 

Creed,  n.  Belief,  doctrines,  dogmas. 
Anto.,  skepticism,  heterodoxy. 

Crestfallen.  adj.  Discouraged,  dis- 
heartened, depressed,  dejected.  Anto.,  en- 
couraged, emboldened,  determined. 

Crisis,  n.  1.  Height,  acme.  2.  Emer- 
gency, exigency,  strait,  pinch* 

Criterion,    n.    Measure,  test,  standard. 

Croak,  v.  Murmur,  grumble,  complain. 
Anto.,  rejoice,  congratulate. 

Crooked,  adj.  1.  Bent,  curved,  awry, 
distorted.  2.  Dishonest,  knavish,  unfair,  un- 
scrupulous. Anto.,  i.  Straight.  2.  Honest, 
fair,  honorable. 

Cross,  adj.  Captious,  peevish,  petulant, 
fretful,  snappish.  Anto.,  agreeable,  good- 
humored. 

Cruel,  adj.  Pitiless,  unmerciful,  Inhuman, 
barbarous,  brutal,  savage.  Anto.,  Wind,  piti- 
ful, merciful,  human. 

Cube.  n.  Die,  a  regular  solid  with  six 
equal  square  sides. 

Cultivation,  n.  I.  Culture,  civilisation, 
refinement,  a.  Tillage.  Anto.,  desolation, 
desert. 

Cure.  *>.  1.  Rcmrdv,  restorative,  correc- 
tive. 2.  Healing,  restoration.  Anto.,  1. 
Poison,    a.  Relapse. 

Curious.  oJf.  1.  Prying,  inquisitive,  a. 
Rare,  unique,  queer.  Anto.,\.  Uninterested, 
careless,     a.  Common,  ordinary,  usual. 


Cnrrent.  adj.  1.  Present,  existing,  a. 
Common,  general,  rife.  Anto.,  1.  Past.  a. 
Rare,  unique,  singular. 

Curse,  n.  Imprecation,  execration,  male- 
diction.    Anto.,  blessing,  benison. 

Cursory,  adj.  Superficial,  hasty,  careless, 
desultory.    Anto.,  thorough,  careful,  exact. 

Curtail*  v.  Retrench,  reduce,  shorten, 
abridge,  decrease.  Anto.,  increase,  augment, 
lengthen. 

Custody,  n.  Care,  keeping,  watch,  pro- 
tection. 

Custom,  m.  1.  Usage,  practice,  habit.  2. 
Tax,  impost,  duty,  tribute. 

Cynical,  adj.  Morose,  carping,  sarcastic, 
snarling,  satirical.  Anto.,  agreeable,  jovial, 
companionable. 


Dally,  adj.  Diurnal,  quotidian.  Anto., 
irregular,  disordered. 

Dainty,  adj.  1.  Nice,  delicate,  savory, 
delicious.  2.  Squeamish,  fastidious.  3.  Ele- 
gant, fine.    Anto.,  1.  Nasty,  tasteless,  bitter. 

2.  Careless,  slovenly.    3.  Coarse. 
Dalliance,    n.    Fondling,  caressing,  en- 
dearment. 

Damage,  v.  Mar,  harm,  hurt,  impair. 
Injure.     Anto.,  help,  strengthen,  defend. 

Dampness,  n.  Moisture,  humidity,  damp. 
Anto.,  dryness,  aridity. 

Damsel,  n.  Lass,  miss,  maid,  maiden, 
girl.     Anto.,  lad,  boy,  youth,  young  man. 

Danger,  n.  Risk,  venture,  hazard,  peril, 
jeopardy.     Anto.,  safety,  security. 

Daring,  adj.  Courage,  btavery.  valor, 
Intrepidity.     Anto.,  cowardice,  fear,  timidity. 

Dark.  adj.  1.  Cloudy,  ray  I  ess,  murky, 
shady,  unlltuminated.  2.  Gloomv,  dismal.  3. 
Wicked,  foul,  atrocious,  4.  Obscure,  mys- 
tical, mysterious.  Anto.,  bright,  light.  3. 
Honest,  fair.    4.  Open,  intelligible. 

Date.     n.    Time,  period,  age,  era,  epoch. 

Dead.  adj.  1.  Inanimate,  lifeless,  breath- 
less, defunct.    2.  Dull,  frigid,  obtuse,  callous. 

3.  Useless,  unprofitable.  Anto.,  1.  Live, 
breathing.  2.  Attentive,  active,  sharp.  3. 
Useful. 

Deadly,  adj.  I.  Deleterious,  destructive, 
noxious,  fatal,  mortal.  2.  Rancorous,  im- 
placable. Anto.,  wholesome,  healthy. 
Dear.  adj.  1.  Beloved,  darling,  precious. 
Anto.,  1. 
"ow, 


3.  Costly,  high-priced,  expensive.  Anto. 
Hated,  despised,  loathed.  2.  Cheap,  1 
common. 

Debase*     v.     See  Abase. 

Debate,  v.  Discuss,  canvass,  argue,  dis- 
pute, contest. 

Deceitful,  adj.  Deceptive,  illusive,  de- 
lusive, fallacious.  Anto.,  truthful,  platr, 
open,  honest,  correct. 

Deceive.  v.  Delude,  over-reach,  fool, 
trick,  cheat,  gull,  dupe. 

Decide,  v.  Determine,  conclude.  Anto., 
differ,  disagree. 

Declaration,  n.  Assertion,  averment, 
avowal,  affirmation,  asseveration.  Anto.,  de- 
nial, negative. 

Decorate,  v.  Deck,  adorn,  ornament, 
embellish,  beautify.     Anto.,  spoil,  spot. 

Decorum,  n.  "Propriety,  decency.  Anto., 
impropriety,  misbehavior. 

Decoy,  v.  Tempt,  allure,  entice,  inveigle, 
•educe.     Anto.,  repel,  warn,  ad\  isc. 

Decrease,  r.  Diminish,  lessen.  Anto., 
Increase,  augment,  replenish. 

Decree,     m.    Order,  mandate,  nat,  edict. 

Deduct.  Separate,    subtract,    take 

twav.     Ante,  add.  increase,  augment. 

Drfnme.  r.  Asperse,  calumniate,  slan- 
tWr.vOtfy.  Anto.,  praise,  glorify,  celebrate, 
defend. 

Defeat,  r.  I.  Beat,  conquer,  overcome, 
rout.    a.  Balk,  disappoint,  baffle,  foil,  frus- 

Defect,  n.  1.  Flaw,  blemish,  imperfec- 
tion, a.  Fault,  failing.  Anto.,  perfection, 
improvement,  heautv. 

Defend .  :•.  1 .  G*  srd ,  shield ,  protect.  3. 
Uphold,  maintain,  vindicate.  Anto.,  I.  Ka- 
ft.  Asperse,  slander,  defame. 

Defer,  r.  Adjourn,  delay,  postpone 
Anto.,  push,  force,  expedite. 


/ 


-te 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


Deference.  n.  Regard,  respect,  rever- 
ence, homage.  Anto.,  disrespect,  irreverence, 
contumely. 

Definite,  adj.  Certain,  determined,  exact, 
precise.     Anto.,  uncertain,  indefinite,  vague. 
Defraud,    v.    Cheat,  gull,  over-reach. 
Defy.    v.    Brave,  dare,  disregard,  despise. 
Anto.t  submit,  humiliate,  concede. 

Deity.  n.  Divinity,  Godhead,  God.  Anto., 
Devil. 

Dejected,    adj.    Depressed,  disheartened, 
despondent.     Anto.,  joyous,  mercurial,  glad. 
Delay,    -v.    Linger,    stop,    procrastinate. 
Anto.t  hasten,  expedite. 

Delectable,  adj.  Pleasant,  agreeable,  de- 
lightful. Anto.t  abominable,  despicable, 
nasty. 

Delegate.  n.  Commissioner,  represen- 
tative, deputy. 

Delicious,  adj.  Delicate,  palatable,  lus- 
cious.   Ante,  bitter,  nauseous. 

Delightful,  adj.  Charming,  enchanting, 
ravishing.    Anto.t  displeasing. 

Delinquent.  «.  Offender,  wrong-doer, 
culprit,  criminal. 

Delirium,    n.  Wandering, hallucination, 
derangement. 
Delude,    v.     See  Deceive. 
Demand,  v.  Require,  claim, exact.  Anto.t 
give,  offer,  relinquish. 

Demolish,  v.  Destroy,  overthrow,  level, 
ruin.     Anto.t  build,  construct,  raise. 

Demonstrate.  v.  Show,  establish, 
prove. 

Demonstration.  «.  Proof,  manifesta- 
tion. 

Demoralize,  -v.  Corrupt,  deprave,  vitiate. 
Anto^  reform,  rescue. 

Denote,  v.  Imply,  signify,  indicate, 
mark,  designate. 

Deny.  v.  i.  Contradict,  gainsay.  2.  Dis- 
own, disavow,  abjure.  3,  Withhold.  Anto.t 
avow,  admit,  concede. 

Depart,  v.  1.  Go,  start,  leave,  set  out. 
3.  Vanish,  disappear.  Auto.,  I.  Come,  re- 
turn.   3.  Emerge,  appear. 

Dependence.  n.  Reliance,  trust,  confi- 
dence.   Anto.t  independence. 

Depict,  v.  1.  Describe.  2.  Delineate, 
portray,  pencil,  paint. 

Deplore,  v.  Lament,  mourn,  bewail, 
bemoan.  Anto.,  rejoice,  congratulate,  cele- 
brate. 

Deportment.  «.  Demeanor,  behavior, 
carriage,  conduct. 

Deprecate,  v.  Regret,  Anto.,  desire, 
commend. 

Depreciate,  v.  1.  Underrate,  undervalue, 
lessen  the  price  of.  2.  Censure,  degrade,  tra- 
duce, malign.  Anto.,  1.  Overrate.  2.  Praise, 
vindicate. 

Depress,  v.  1.  Lower,  drop,  sink.  2. 
Deject,  dispirit,  chill.  3.  Debase,  humiliate. 
Anto.,  1.  Elevate,  raise.  2.  Encourage,  x. 
Exalt.  ^        * 

Derange,  v.  Confuse,  displace,  unsettle, 
disorder.    Anto.,  arrange. 

Descend,  v.  1.  Fall,  drop,  sink,  go  down. 
3.  Dismount.    Anto.,  ascena. 

Design.  «.  1.  Sketch,  outline,  plan, 
draught.  2.  Intent,  aim,  purpose,  object, 
scheme. 

Designate,  v.  1.  Name,  call,  style,  de- 
nominate. 2.  Denote,  indicate,  show,  specify. 
3.  Appoint. 

Desire,  -v.  1.  Ask,  request.  2.  Wish, 
want,  fancy,  covet,  crave. 

Desolation.  «.  1.  Gloom,  sadness, 
wretchedness,  misery.  2.  Ruin,  destruction. 
Anta.,  joy,  pleasure,  happiness. 

Despair.  ».  Desperation,  despondency, 
hopelessness.    Anto.t  hope,  cheerfulness. 

Despicable,  adj.  Mean,  pitiful,  con- 
temptible, abject.  Anto.,  elevated, generous, 
praiseworthy. 

Despotic,  adj.  Absolute,  arbitrary,  im- 
perious, tyrannical.  Anto.,  free,  democratic, 
constitutional. 

Destiny,  n.  1.  Fate,  necessity.  2.  Lot, 
doom,  fortune,  fate. 

Destroy,  v.  1.  Consume,  waste,  devour, 
desolate,    a.   Demolish,  overthrow,  subvert. 


3.  Annihilate, extirpate,  eradicate,  kill.  Anto., 
create,  build,  call  together,  construct. 

Detach,  v.  Separate,  sever,  disjoin. 
Anto.t  join. 

Detain,    v.    Restrain,  confine,  delay,  re- 
tain.    Anto.,  hasten,  expedite,  send  away. 
Detect,    v.    Descry,  discover,  expose. 

Determine,  v.  1.  Settle^  end,  decide, 
conclude.  2.  Lead,  influence,  induce.  3.  As- 
certain, verify.  Anto.,  1.  Begin,  commence, 
unsettle.    2.  Follow.    3.  Falsify,  negative. 

Detraction.  ».  Censure, slander,  calumny, 
defamation.    Anto.,  praise,  commendation. 

Develop,  v.  Untold,  open,  evolve,  grow. 
Anto.,  close,  end,  wither,  wilt,  droop. 

DeviL  n.  1.  Satan,  Belial,  Lucifer,  arch- 
enemy, the  tempter,  the  adversary,  the  prince 
of  darkness.    2.  Demon.    Anto.,  God,  Deity. 

Devoid,  adj.  Empty,  destitute,  vacant, 
void.    Anto.,  full,  complete,  overflowing. 

Dexterous*  ad/.  Adroit,  skillful,  handy, 
apt,  clever.  Anto.,  awkward,  unskillful, 
boorish,  rough. 

Diction.  «.  Expression,  phraseology, 
language,  style. 

Dictionary.  n.  I.  Lexicon,  glossary, 
vocabulary.    2.  Encyclopaedia. 

Die.  v.  Expire,  decease,  wither,  perish. 
Anto.,  live,  breathe,  flourish,  grow. 

Different,  adj.  I.  Various,  manifold, 
unlike,  diverse.  2.  Separate,  distinct.  Anto.t 
similar,  alike,  homogeneous. 

Difficult,  adj.  Arduous,  hard,  herculean. 
Anto.f  easy,  facile. 

Digest,  n.  Compend,  abstract,  brief,  epi- 
tome. 

Dilemma,  n.  Strait,  predicament,  quan- 
dary. 

Diligence.  «.  Activity,  industry,  perse- 
verance,  assiduity.  Anto.,  idleness,  laziness, 
lassitude,  languor. 

Diminish,    v.    See  Decrease, 

Direction,  n.  1.  Order.  2.  Address,  su- 
perscription.   3.  Course,  bearing. 

Disaffection,  n.  Breach,  disagreement, 
dissatisfaction,  estrangement,  alienation. 

Disagree,  v.  1.  Quarrel,  wrangle,  bicker. 
3.  Dissent,  differ,  vary.  Anto.,  1.  Conciliate, 
pacify.    2.  Agree,  equate. 

Disappear,  v.  Vanish,  pass,  fade,  dis- 
solve. Anto.t  appear,  emerge,  come  into 
view. 

Disapproval,  n.  Disapprobation,  dis- 
like, displeasure.  Anto.t  approbation,  liking, 
pleasure. 

Disarrange.  v.  Unsettle,  derange. 
Anto..  order,  marshal,  fix. 

Disbelief,  n.  Incredulity,  distrust,  doubt, 
skepticism,  infidelity.     Anto.,  faith,    belief, 

trust-  ..      ,.       j. 

Discomfort,    v.    Annoy,  trouble,  disturb, 

molest.    Ant:,  comfort,  ease,  quiet,  pacify, 

calm. 

Discontent,  n.  Uneasiness,  disquietude, 
dissatisfaction.  Anto.,  comfort,  ease,  quiet, 
peace,  contentment. 

Discourtesy,  n.  Incivility,  impoliteness, 
rudeness.  Anto.,  courtesy,  breeding,  good 
manners,  behavior. 

Discredit.  ».  1.  Distrust.  2.  Disrepute, 
obloquy.  Anto.,  I.  Credit.  2.  Reputation, 
standing. 

Discuss,  v.  Canvass,  sift,  argue,  ventilate, 
debate. 

Disease,  n.  Ailment,  complaint,  illness, 
sickness,  malady.    Anto.,  health. 

Disgrace,  v.  Degrade,  debase,  sully, 
stain,  dishonor.  Anto.,  exonerate,  exculpate, 
clear,  release,  justify,  vindicate. 

Dishonest,  adj.  Unfair,  false,  knavish, 
fraudulent.  Anto.,  honest,  reputable,  right, 
proper,  trusty,  sincere,  candid. 

Dislike.  «.  Aversion,  antipathy,  repug- 
nance, disgust.  Anto.,  1  liking,  admiration, 
love,  regard. 

Dismiss,  v.  Discharge,  discard,  turn  off. 
Anto.,  receive,  take  back. 

Disoblige,  v.  Discommode,  offend,  dis- 
please.   Anto.,  oblige,  favor. 

Dispassionate,  adj.  Sober,  calm,  tem- 
perate, composed,  imperturbable.  Anto.,  pas* 
sionate,  stormy,  disturbed. 


Display,  v.  1.  Exhibit,  show.  3.  Un- 
fold,  open,  spread.  Anto.,  hide,  conceal, 
cover,  close. 

Displease,  v.  1.  Dissatisfv,  offend,  dis- 
gust. 2.  Anger,  irritate,  affront.  Anto., 
please,  comfort,  ease,  quiet. 

Disregard,    v.    Overlook,  slight,  neglect, 
contemn,  Anto.,  regard,  favor,  notice, watch, 
oversee. 
Dissembler,    n.    Feigner,  hypocrite. 
Dissipate,     v.      1.      Lavish,     squander, 
waste.     2.    Dispel,  scatter.     Anto.,   1.  Save, 
economize.    2.  Gather. 
Dissolute,    adj.     See  Abandoned. 
Distant,      adj.      1.  Remote,  far.      2.  Re- 
served, coy,  shy,  cold.    Anto.,  t.  Near,  close. 
2.  Bold,  shameless,  impudent. 

Distress,  n.  1.  Suffering,  pain,  anguish, 
agony.  2.  Adversity,  trouble.  3.  Want,  in- 
digence, poverty.  Anto.,  x.  Pleasure,  ease, 
contentment.  2.  Happiness.  3.  Wealth,  af- 
fluence. . 

Distrust,  n.  Mistrust,  suspicion,  dis- 
credit, disbelief.  Anto.t  trust,  confidence,  re- 
liance. ,„ 

Diversity,  n.  1.  Variation,  unlikeness, 
difference.  2.  Variety.  Anto.,  sameness, 
likeness,  homogeneity. 

Docile,  aay.  Apt,  tractable,  teachable. 
Anto.,  intractable,  savage,  untamable. 

Doleful,  adj.  1.  Melancholy,  woeful, 
sad,  sorrowful.  2.  Dolorous,  gloomy.  Anto., 
joyous,  bright,  happy. 

Domestic,  adj.  Homely,  tame.  Anto., 
exoteric,  extraneous,  foreign,  wild. 

Doubt.  ».  1.  Suspense,  irresolution,  un- 
certainty. 2.  Suspicion,  mistrust.  #  Anto., 
1.  Foreknowledge,  resolution,  certainty.  3. 
Confidence. 
Drag.  z>.  Draw,  pull,  haul,  tug. 
Dread,  w.  Fear,  awe,  apprehension. 
Anto.,  courage,  boldness,  valor. 

Dreadful,  adj.  Awful,  frightful,  fearful, 
direful,  horrible,  terrible. 

Droll,  adj.  I.  Odd,  queer.  3.  Comic, 
funny,  farcical.  Anto.,  1.  Usual,  ordinary. 
3.  Solemn,  funereal. 

Droop,  v.  1.  Decline,  fail,  languish.  3. 
Fade,  wilt,  wither.  Anto.,  1.  Rise,  succeed. 
3.  Bloom,  blossom,  grow,  wax. 

Dull.  adj.  i.  Stupid,  shallow.  3.  Inert, 
sluggish.  3.  Blunt,  obtuse.  4.  Gloomy.  Anto., 
1.  Knowing,  deep.  3.  Active.  3.  Sharp, 
shrewd.    4,  Bright. 

Dunce,  n.  Simpleton,  fool,  ninny,  idiot, 
dolt,  oaf,  dullard.    Anto.,  sage. 


Eager,  adj.  1.  Zealous,  ardent,  Irapetuout. 

2.  Impatient,  longing,  yearning.      Anto.,  1. 
Lukewarm.    3.  Patient. 

Earn.  v.  1.  Gain,  obtain,  get,  acquire, 
win.    2.  Merit,  deserve.    Anto.,  squander. 

Easy.  adj.  Light,  not  difficult.  2.  Quiet, 
comfortable.  3.  Unconstrained.  Anto.,  1. 
Difficult.     2.  Uneasy.    3.  Confined. 

Eccentric,  adj.  Odd,  peculiar,  erratic, 
anomalous,  aberrant.  Anto.,  usual,  ordinary, 
commonplace. 

Ecstacy.  ».  1.  Delight,  rapture,  trans, 
port.  2.  Enthusiasm.  Anto.,  despair,  sorrow, 
torture.  .....        .     .. 

Educate,  v.  Train,  discipline,  instruct, 
school,  teach.    Anto.,  ignore. 

Efface,  v.  Cancel,  blot,  erase,  expunge, 
obliterate.     Anto..  rewrite,  strengthen. 

Effective,  adj.  1.  Active,  effectual.  3. 
Sufficient,  cogent,  energetic,  forcible,  potent. 
Anto.,  ineffectual,  idle,  slow,  weak. 

Effectual,    adj.     See  Effective. 

Egotistical,  adj.  Conceited,  self-impor- 
tant, selfish.  Anto.,  humble,  lowly,  gener. 
ous.  _    . 

Elevate,  v.  1.  Exalt,  promote.  2.  Raise, 
lift  3.  Improve,  refine,  ennoble.  4.  Animate, 
cHeer,  elate.  Anto.,  depress,  lower,  vulgarize, 
deaden, sadden.  _ 

Embarrass,  v.  1.  Disconcert,  confuse, 
confound.       2.      Distress,      hamper,      clog. 

3.  Perplex.     Anto.,  assist,  help,  explain. 
Embolden,  v.  Inspirit,  reassure,  animate 

encourage.    Anto.,  abash,  confuse. 


N" 


70 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


~A 


■¥ 


Emergency,  n.  Strait,  difficulty,  exi- 
gency, necessity,  crisis. 

Eminent.  adj.  Kxalted,  remarkable, 
prominent,  conspicuous,  distinguished.  Anto., 
obscure,  lowly,  meek,  humble. 

Emotion.  «.  Keeling,  excitement,  agita- 
tion, passion.     Anto.,  calm,  quiet,  ease.- 

Employment,  n.  Engagement,  occu. 
nation,  pursuit,  avocation,  business.  Auto., 
idleness,  leisure. 

Encourage.     Set  Embolden. 

Endless,  adj.  1.  Unlimited,  boundless, 
illimitable,  infinite.  2.  Eternal.  Anto.,  lim- 
ited, ephemeral,    2.  Finite,  mortal. 

Energetic,  adj.  Active,  forcible,  strong, 
vigorous,  powerful.  Anto.,  feeble,  weak,  en- 
ervated. 

Enervate,  v.  Weaken,  enfeeble,  break, 
debilitate,  paralyze.  Anto., invigorate,  nerve, 
strengthen. 

Engagement.  ».  1.  Employment.  2. 
Encounter,  battle.  3.  Promise,  pledge,  assur- 
ance, contract. 

Engross,  v.  Occupy,  absorb,  engage, 
monopolize,  forestall.     Auto.,  vacate,  empty* 

Enhance,  v.  1.  Raise,  heighten,  swell, 
advance.  2.  Augment,  increase.  Anto., 
lower,  recede,  reduce. 

Enjoyment,  n.  Gratification,  delight, 
pleasure,  happiness.  Anto.,  sorrow,  sadness, 
grief. 

Enlarge.     See  Augment. 

Enmity,  n.  Animosity,  aversion,  hostil- 
ity, hatred,  malevolence.  Anto.,  friendship, 
kindliness,  love,  admiration. 

Ennoble,    v.     See  Elevate. 

Ennni.  n.  Listlessncss.  irksomeness, 
tedium,  languor,  lassitude.  Anto.,  liveliness, 
vigor,  enjoyment,  buoyancy. 

Enterprise,  n.  1.  Attempt,  undertaking, 
endeavor,  venture.     2.  Energy. 

Entertain.  v.  Divert,  amuse,  please. 
Anto.,  sadden,  make  gloomy. 

Enthusiasm.  ».  Earnestness,  devotion, 
teal,  ardor,  Anto.,  frivolity,  ennui,  luke- 
warmness. 

Entice,    v.     See  Allure* 

Entreat,  v.  Petition,  ask,  beseech,  im- 
plore, pray,  supplicate. 

Enumerate.  v.  Number,  count,  reckon, 
numerate. 

Ephemeral,  adj.  Short-lived,  transitory, 
living  hut  a  day.     Anto.,  eternal,  endless. 

Kpieure.  n.  Gourmand,  sybarite,  sensu- 
alist, voluptuary.     Anto.,  ascetic,  stoic. 

Epithet.  «.  Name,  designation,  appel* 
latiou. 

Equable.  adj.  Even,  regular,  steady, 
equal,  uniform.  Anto.,  eccentric,  unequal, 
rugged. 

Equestrian.  *.  1.  Rider,  horseman.  2. 
Chevalier,  chaSMUr,  knight,  cavalier.  Auto., 
pedestrian,  infantry,  footman. 

Equitable,  adj.  1.  Fair,  reasonable, 
justifiable,  right.  2.  Just,  honest,  impartial. 
Anto.,    unjust,    unreasonable,    wrong,     dis- 

Equivocate.        v 
quibble,  prevaricat. . 

Kiror.  n.  1.  Oversight, mistake, blunder. 
3.  Transgression,  fault,  offence,  sin. 

Erudition.  ,,.  Learning,  knowledge, 
lore,  science,  scholarship.     Anto.,  ignorance. 

EtOhew.     v.     Avoid,  shun.     Anto.,  seek. 

Espouse,  v.  I.  Marry,  wed.  2.  llctroth. 
Anto.,  divorce. 

EstahlUh.  v.  1.  Organize,  found,  instt- 
tute.  fix,  plant,  settle.  2.  Prove.  3.  Confirm, 
ratify.  Anto.,  i.  Overthrow, destroy, unsettle. 
J.  Disprove.    3,  Deny,  refuse. 

Esteem.  //.  1.  Honor,  respect,  reverence. 
2.     Valuation,   opinion.        Anto.,  contempt. 

Btern  il.    Set  Endlrxx. 

Ev;wii>u.  n.  Quibble,  shift,  subterfuge, 
touivocation, 

Evening.  n.  Dusk,  twilight,  eve,  even, 
nightfall,     Anto.,  morning,  dawn,  aurora. 

Event.    ».     1,  Occurrence,  Incident,  acd* 

d' int,     .-.  t  oil'  In   ion,  result,  cooaequa. 

B*er«  adj.  1.  Evermore,  always,  sve, 
perpetually, eternally.  2.  At  any  time.  Anto., 
never. 


Lie,  shuffle,   dodge, 


Evident,  adj.  Apparent,  obvious,  clear, 
palpable,  manifest.    Ante,  obscure,  hidden. 

Exalt,  v.  1.  Glorify,  bless,  praise,  extol, 
magnify.  2.  Raise,  erect,  elevate.  3.  Dignify, 
ennoble.  Anto.,  1.  Execrate.  2.  Lower.  3. 
Abase. 

Exasperate,  v.  Irritate,  vex,  offend,  pro- 
voke, incense,  anger,  enrage.  Anto.,  soothe, 
mollify,  pacify,  please. 

Excellent,  adj.  1.  Choice,  prime,  ster- 
ling, matchless,  superior.  2.  Good,  virtuous, 
worthy.  Anto.,  bad,  low.  2.  Villainous, 
worthless. 

Excel,  v.  Surpass,  beat,  outdo,  exceed. 
Anto.,  fail,  fall  behind. 

Excerpt.     «.     Citation,  extract,  quotation. 

Exculpate,  v.  Excuse,  justify,  pardon, 
clear,  exonerate.  Anto.,  convict,  indict,  ar- 
raign, blame. 

Excursion,  n.  Ramble,  jaunt,  trip,  tour, 
journey. 

Excuse,  n.  1.  Plea,  justification,  apology. 
2.  Guise,  color,  pretext,  pretence. 

Execute.     See  Accomplish. 

Exegesis,  n.  1.  Kxegetics,  explanation, 
exposition,  interpretation. 

Exercise.  v.  Practice,  pursue.  -2.  Drill, 
train,  discipline.  3.  Exert,  use,  apply.  Anto., 
rust,  decay,  degenerate,  become  sluggish, 

Exhale.  v.  Breathe,  evaporate,  emit. 
Anto.,  inhale,  inspire. 

Exhilarate,  -v.  Animate,  gladden,  cheer, 
elate,  inspirit.  Anto.,  depress,  discourage, 
deject,  dampen,  chill. 

Exigency.     See  Emergency . 

Exonerate.     See  Acquit  and  Exculpate. 

Expectation,  n.  Prospect,  anticipation, 
confidence,  hope,  trust,  reliance.  Anto.,  sud- 
denness, abruptness,  fear,  dismay. 

Expedite,  v.  Quicken,  hurry,  hasten, 
accelerate,  speed.  Anto.,  delay,  retard,  clog, 
bar. 

Expense,  n.  Outlay,  charge,  expenditure, 
cost. 

Experience,  n.  I.  Knowledge,  wisdom. 
2.  Practice.  Anto.,  1.  Ignorance.  2.  Inexper- 
ience. 

Experiment,  v.  Proof,  test,  trial,  ex- 
amination, assay. 

Explain,  v.  Expound,  Illustrate,  unfold, 
interpret,  elucidate.  Auto.,  confuse,  muddle, 
darken. 

Expound.     See  Explain. 

Expression,  n.  r.  Phrase,  term,  utter- 
ance, declaration.  2.  Look,  appearance,  as- 
pect. 

Extend,  v.  I.  Expand,  augment,  dilate, 
enlarge,  protract,  prolong,.  2.  Yield,  offer. 
Anto.,  1,  Abridge,  shorten,  lessen.  2.  Take, 
receive. 

Extraordinary,  adj.  Uncommon,  sig 
nal,  rare,  unusual,  remarkable.  Anto.,  com- 
mon, usual,  customar\ . 


Extravagant.    Adj.    t.  Wasteful, lavish, 

prodigal.     2.  V 
reasonable,  inordinate,  preposterous.     Anto. 


profuse,  prodigal.     2.  Wild,  absurd.      3.  Un- 


1.  Stingy,  miserable,  close.  2.  Probable, 
credible.     3.  Common,  ordinarv,  customary. 

Extricate,  v.  Relieve,  elear,  disentan- 
gle.    Anto.,  involve,  entangle. 

Exuberate.  ,nij.  Full,  copious,  liberal, 
lavish.     Anto.,  empty,  vacant,  scarce. 


Fable,  n.  1.  Talc,  novel,  romance,  myth. 
2.  Falsehood]  fiction,  fabrication,  lie.  Anto., 
history.     2.  Truth,  verity,  fact. 

Facetious,  adj.  Sportive,  waggish,  }o- 
COSS,  [ocular.  Anto.,  serious,  gloomy,  sat- 
urnine. 

Fail.  v.  1.  Miss,  misenrrv.  2.  Omit,  neg- 
lect. 3.  Decay,  wane,  decline.  4.  Rrcak. 
Anto.,  accomplish,  succeed*  2.  Perform.  3. 
Grow,  strengthen.     4.  Mend. 

Faithful,  adj.  1.  Constant,  loyal,  true. 
1.  Reliable,  truthful.  3.  ClOSe,  stru  l.  Auto., 
faithless,  deceitful. 

Faithless,  adj.  Perfidious,  treacherous, 
fai-e.     Anto.,  faithful. 

False,  adf.  t.  Untrw.  2.  Deceptive, 
fallacious,  spurious,  countrrfnt.  3.  Incor- 
I,  True.  s.  Ileal,  genuine,  act- 
ual.   3.  Correct. 


Family,     n.    1.  Class,  race,  lineage,  tribe. 
2.  Household.    3.  Order.      Anto.,  individual. 
Fascinate,      v.    Charm,  catch,  captivate, 
bewitch,  an  amor.     Anto.,  alarm,  dismay,  dis- 
enchant, intimidate. 

Fast.     n.     I.  Abstinence,  fasting.      Anto., 

•orge. 
Fate.      n.     1.  Fatality,  destiny,  lot,  doom. 
Anto.,  chance. 

Feast,  m.  1.  Festival,  holiday,  a.  Enter- 
tainment, banquet,  carousal.  Anto.,  fast, 
abstinence. 

Feeble,  adj.  1.  Weak.  a.  Languid, 
sickly,  frail,  debilitated.  Anto.,  strong,  ener- 
getic, stalwart. 

Feeling,  n.  1.  Affectation,  sensibility, 
emotion.  2.  Sensation,  touch.  Anto.,  cal- 
lousness, hard-hcartedness. 

Feminine.  adj.  \.  Delicate,  soft, 
we-manly.  2.  Effeminate.  Anto.,  1.  Coarse, 
hard.    2.  Masculine. 

Fervor,  n.  i.  Eagerness,  ardor,  seal,  a. 
W.tmth.     Anto.,  laziness,  apathy. 

Festival,     n.     See  lea \t. 

I  .  oilal.  adj.  Feodal,  military  (tenure.) 
Anto.,  allodial,  democratic. 

Fickle,     adj.    Changeable,  unstable,  vari- 
able ,  1  apricious,  inconstant.    Anto.,  faithful, 
nit,  immutable. 

final,  adj.  1.  Conclusive,  decisive,  a. 
Ultimate,  la  t.     Anto.,  opening,  beginning. 

Fitie.  adj.  1.  Nice,  refined.  2.  Little, 
small,  minute.  3.  Excellent.  4.  Handsome, 
beautiful,  elegant.  5.  Delicate.  6.  Light. 
Anto.,  coarse,  large,  mean,  ugly. 

Finish,  v.  1.  Conclude,  end,  terminate. 
2.  I'ertorm,  accomplish,  complete,  t.  Per- 
fect. Anto.,  1.  Begin,  open.  2  an  03.  De- 
stroy, tear  down. 

Firmness,      n.     1.  Strength,  stability,    a. 
Solidity,  hardness.     Auto.,    1.  Weakness.     2. 
is,  penetrability. 

Flag.  h.  Standard,  colors,  ensign,  ban- 
ner. 

Flashy,  adj.  Gay,  airy,  jauntv,  showy, 
tawdry,  ostentatious,  Haunting.  Anto.,  som- 
bre, solemn. 

Flattery,  n.  1.  Adulation,  fawning,  ser- 
vilitv,  sycophancy,  obsequiousness.  2.  Com* 
plum  nt.  Anto.,  blame,  objection,  disap- 
proval, detraction. 

Flavor/  n.  1.  Taste,  smack,  savor,  a. 
Smell,  odor,  fragrance.    Anto.,  taste lessness. 

Flaw.  n.  1.  I  racture,  crack,  a.  Speck, 
spot,  fault.  Imperfection,  defect,  bkmuh. 
Anto.,\.  \>  hole, solid.  2.  Perfect,  immacu- 
late, clear. 

Flimsy,  adj.  1.  Thin,  slight,  a.  Trivial, 
feeble,  weak,  frivolous,  shallow.  Anto.,  1. 
Strong,  stalwart.  2.  Worthy,  good,  earnest, 
deep. 

Fluctuate,  v.  1.  Waver,  vacillate,  a. 
Oscillate. 

Fluency,  n.  Flo%\ ,  glibness,  volubility. 
Anto.,  silence,  taciturnity. 

Koih1iic*>h.  n.  1.  Liking,  partiality,  a. 
Love,  tenderness.    Anto.,  hate,  dislike. 

Food.  w.  Victual-.,  viands,  fare,  subsist- 
ence, aliment,  nutriment. 

Fool.     Set  Dunce. 

Foppish,  adj  Dandified,  coxcombical, 
dandyish.     Anto.,  slovenly,  untidy. 

Forcible,    adj.     1.  Vigorous,     a.  Strong, 

fiotent,  cogent,  powerful.     3.  Violent.     Anto., 
eeble,  art  ak,  puny. 

Forego,  r.  Resign,  yield,  surrender,  re- 
linquish, abandon.  Anto.,  lake,  receive,  do 
mand. 

Foresight.       a.      Prudence,    precaution, 
anticipation,    forecast,    prescience. 
imprudence,  rashness. 

>  M  •'thitiight.     m.     See  Forcxignt. 

Forgive.  Excuse,    al*s< 

acquit     Anto.,  avenge,  charge,  indict,  impli- 
cate, n< 

Formirinhle.  adj.  Dreadful,  tremen- 
dona,  terrible,  shocking.  Anto.,  small,  ri- 
diculous, puny. 

Forsake.  r.  Abandon,  quit,  desert,  re- 
nounce, forswear.     Anto.   cleave. 

For»w*»nr.  t\  i.  Renounce,  forsake,  de- 
sert.   2.  Recant,  abjure.    Ante,  subscribe. 


^ 


K~ 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


tt 


71 


Fortitude.  «.  Resolution, firmness,  en- 
durance.   Anto.,  weakness. 

Fortune.  «.  1.  Chance,  luck,  fortuity. 
2.  Property,  estate,  riches,  wealth.  3.  Des- 
tiny, lot.  late,  doom.    Anto.,  2.  Poverty. 

Fragile.  adj.  Weak,  feeble,  frail,  frag- 
iblc.    Anto.,  strong. 

Fragrance.  «.  Aroma,  perfume,  balmt- 
ncss,  incense.     Anto.,  stench,  effluvia. 

F  ra  i  1 .    adj.    See  Fragile. 

Frank,  adj.  Open,  sincere,  artless,  can- 
did.   Auto.,  artful. 

Fraud.  «.  Cheat,  deception,  collusion, 
guile.    Anto.,  honesty. 

Freak.  «.  Fancy,  humor,  crotchet,  va- 
gary, whim,  caprice.  Anto.,  purpose,  res- 
olution. 

Free.  adj.  1.  Unrestrained,  unobstruct- 
ed, a.  Gratuitous,  willing.  3.  Frank,  sin- 
cere, artless.  4.  Generous,  liberal.  Anto., 
i.  Slavish.    2.  Costly.    3.  Artful.    4.  Stingy. 

Free.  v.  I.  Clear,  rid.  2.  Release,  lib- 
crate,  emancipate.     Anto.,  bind,  enslave. 

Freeze*  v.  I.  Congeal.  2.  Chill,  be- 
numb.   Anto.,  melt. 

Fretful,  adj.  Captious,  waspish,  splen- 
etic, snappish,  petulant.  Anto.t  equable, 
good-humored. 

Frivolous,    adj.     See  Flimsy. 

Frugality.  n.  Carefulness,  economy, 
thrift.    Anlo.%  extravagance,  wastefulness. 

Fruitful,  adj.  1.  Fecund,  prolific,  pro- 
ductive. 2.  Plenteous.  Anto.,  sterile,  fruit- 
less, unproductive. 

Fruitless,  adj.  Barren,  sterile,  unpro- 
ductive.   2.  Futile,  useless.     Anto.,  fruitful. 

Frustrate,  v.  Balk,  baffle,  defeat,  foil, 
disappoint*    Anto.,  expedite. 

Fully,  adj.  Wholly,  entirely,  completely. 
Anto.,  partly. 

Furniture,  n.  I.  Effects,  goods,  mov- 
ables, chattels.  2.  Apparatus.  3.  Decorations, 
ornaments. 

Futile,  adj.  1.  Useless,  fruitless,  vain, 
idle.  2.  Frivolous,  trifling.  Anto.,  1.  Fruit- 
ful.   2.  Earnest. 


Gage.  n.  1.  Challenge.  2.  Pawn,  secur- 
ity, pledge. 

Gain.  n.  Advantage,  benefit,  profit, 
emolument.    Anto.,  loss. 

Gain.  v.  Get,secure,w!n,  earn,  achieve, 
obtain,  procure.    Anto.,  lose. 

Gang.  n.  Band,  party,  set,  company, 
coterie.    Anto.,  individual. 

Garb.  «.  Dress,  habit,  attire,  apparel. 
Anto.,  nudity,  nakedness. 

Garble,  v.  Falsify,  misquote,  mutilate. 
Anto.t  restore,  verifv. 

Garrulity,  n.  Babble,  talkativeness,  lo- 
quacity.   Anto.f  taciturnity. 

Gathering,  n.  Meeting,  company,  as- 
sembly, concourse.  2.  Earning,  acquisition. 
3.  Abscess. 

Gaudy,    adj.     See  Flashy. 

Gawky,    adj.     See  Awkward. 

Generous,  adj.  Liberal  bountiful, mag- 
nificent, noble.    Anto.t  l.  Stingy.    2.  Mean. 

Gentle.  adj.  I.  Bland,  lenient,  kind, 
mild,  humane.  2.  Docile,  tame,  quiet,  tract- 
able.   Affto.t  rough. 

Genuine,  atfj.  1.  True,  authentic,  un- 
alloyed.   2.  Unaffected, sincere.    Anto.,  false. 

Giddiness,     n.     Dizziness,  vertigo. 

Giddy,  adj.  1.  Dizzy.  2.  Fickle,  unsta- 
ble 3.  Flighty,  careless,  heedless.  Anto,, 
sedate,  balanced. 

Gift.  n.  1.  Endowment,  talent,  faculty, 
genius.  2.  Present,  donation,  offering,  grat- 
u  ty,  contribution,  subscription,  douceur. 

Gigantic.  adj.  Huge,  v^st,  colossal. 
Anto.,  small,  mean,  little. 

Gingerly,  adv.  Dainty,  careful,  cau- 
tious, fastidious.    Anto.,  rash,  careless. 

Girdle.  n.  Band,  cincture,  belt,  cestus, 
zone. 

Glad.  adj.  1.  Pleased, gratified,  rejoiced. 
2.  Cheerful,  joyous.  3.  Gratifying.  Anto., 
sad,  sombre. 

Gloomy,  adj.  j.  Dull,  obscure,  dismal, 
dusky,  lowering.  2.  Depressed,  dejected, 
sad.    Anto.,  bright,  joyful. 


Go.  v,  1.  Move,  advance,  proceed.  3. 
Depart.  3.  Extend.  4.  Fare.  5.  Lend,  con- 
tribute.   Anto.t  come. 

Go.    inter/.    Avaunt,  begone. 

God.  «.  Lord,  Creator,  Almighty, Omni- 
potence, Providence,  Jehovah. 

Good  Nature.  «.  Kindness,  amiability, 
benevolence,  benignity.  Anto.,  malevolence, 
rudeness. 

Goods.  «.,  //.  1,  Wares,  merchandise. 
2.  Chattels,  furniture. 

Grandeur,  n.  Greatness,  sublimity.  2. 
Dignity,  st  ...e,  magnincenr  -.  majesty.  Anto., 
humility. 

Grant,  v.  1.  Concede,  admit.  2.  Give, 
bestow,  vouchsafe.  3.  Transfer,  convey, 
Anto.,  take. 

Grateful.  adj.  I-  Obliged,  beholden, 
thankful.  2.  Palatable,  cordial,  delicious, 
refreshing.  3.  Pleasaia,  agreeable,  delightful. 
Anto.,  ungrateful. 

Gratify,  v.  Indu.y^humorjdelight.sat- 
isfv,  please.    Anto.,  displease. 

Great,  adj.  1.  Bulky,  big,  large,  huge, 
vast.  2.  Noted,  distinguished,  eminent,  ex- 
alted, illustrious.  3.  Noble,  magnanimous. 
4.  Numerous.    Anto.,  small. 

Greedy,  adj.  Gluttonous,  rapacious,  in- 
satiate, ravenous,  voracious.  Anto.,  gener- 
ous, unselfish. 

Grief,  n.  Distress,  sorrow,  regret,  afflic- 
tion, tribulation,  woe,  anguish,    Anto.,  joy. 

Gruff,  adj.  Blunt,  harsh,  rough,  rude, 
churlish.     Auto.,  polite. 

Grumble,  v.  Croak,  murmur,  complain, 
growl.    Anto.,  rejoice. 

Guard.  7.  Protect, watch, shelter, shield, 
defend.    Anto.,  attack,  harass. 

Guarded,  adj.  Caieful,  watchful,  cau- 
tious,  wary.    Auto.,  unguarded. 

Guidance.  ft.  Lead,  conduct,  direction, 
government.    Anto.,  following. 

Guile.  «.  Artifice,  duplicity,  deceit,  sub- 
tlety, cunning,  craft,  fraud.  Auto.,  honesty  j 
simplicity. 

Guiltless,  adj.  Innocent,  blameless,  spot- 
less, pure,  immaculate.    Anto.,  guilty. 

Guilty,  adj.  Culpable,  sinful,  criminal, 
Anto.,  guiltless. 

Gyrate,    f .    Whirl,  rotate,  revolve. 


Hail.    v.    Greet,  welcome,  salute. 

Hale.  adj.  Sound,  strong,  healthy,  hardy, 
hearty,  robust.    Anto.,  feeble. 

Handsome*  adj.  1.  Comely,  fair,  pretty, 
beautiful.  2.  Ample,  plentiful.  3.  Generous, 
magnanimous,  noble.     Anto.,  ugly. 

Happiness,  n.  Enjoyment,  bliss,  beat- 
itude, felicity.    Anto.,  sorrow. 

Harass,  v.  1.  Worry,  vex,  plague,  tease, 
trouble,  distress.  2.  Fag,  exhaust,  jade. 
Anto.,  please,  comfort,  protect. 

Hard.  ad;'.  1.  Compact,  solid,  impene- 
trable. 2,  Knotty,  difficult.  3.  Arduous, 
laborious.  4.  Unfavorable.  5.  Callous,  cruel. 
Anto.,  soft.  . 

Hasten,  t>.  Accelerate,  dispatch,  speed, 
quicken,  expedite.    Anto.,  hinder,  delay. 

Hate.  v.  Detest,  abominate,  loathe,  ab- 
hor.   Anto.,  love. 

Hate.  n.  Enmity,  antipathy,  hostility, 
detestation,  hatred.    Anto.,  love. 

Haughty,  adj.  Lofty,  proud  supercil- 
ious, arrogant.    Anto.,  modest. 

Head-strong,  adj.  Unruly.doggcd, stub- 
born, obstinate.    Anto.,  reasonable*",  judicious. 

Heal.  v.  I.  Remedy,  cure,  restore.  2. 
Settle,  reconcile.  Anto.,  i.  Hurt,  wound.  2. 
Unsettle,  disrupt. 

Healthy,  adj.  Well,  sound,  hale,  vigor- 
ous.   Anto.,  sickly. 

Hearken,    v.    Attend,  listen,  hear. 

Hearty,    adj.    See  Hale. 

Heart-broken,  adj.  Desolate, wretched, 
disconsolate,  inconsolable.  Anto.,  joyous, 
happy. 

Heartless,  adj.  Unkind,  cruel,  coU,  piti- 
less.   Anto.,  cordial,  kind. 

Heavenly,  adj.  1.  Angelic,  divine,  god- 
like.    2.     Celestial.     Anto.,  Mundane. 

Heedless,  adj.  Careless,  thoughtless, inat- 
tentive, negligent.    Anto.,  careful. 


Heighten,  p.  1.  Raise,  elevate,  exalt.  3. 
Increase,  enhance.  3.  Intensify.  Anto., 
lower,  decrease. 

Hell.  «.  Hades,  purgatory,  Gehenna. 
Anto.t  heaven. 

Helpful,  adj.  Useful,  bencfc.nt,  con- 
venient.    Anto.,  helpless. 

Helpless,  adj.  Weak,  feeble,  infir  n,  power- 
less, impotent,  imbecile.  Anto.,  strong,  help 
ful. 

Herculean,    adj.    See  Strong,  Difficult. 

Heroic,  adj.  1.  Bold,  valiant,  brave,  cour- 
ageous, noble,  dauntless.     2.  Epic.      Anto., 

1.  Cowardly. 

Hesitation,  n.  Doubt,  suspense,  uncer- 
tainty, vacillation.    Anto.,  determination. 

Hideous,  adj.  Dreadful,  frightful,  horrible, 
appalling,  ghastly.    Anto.,  beautiful. 

Highwayman,  n.  Robber,  bandit,  bri- 
gand, road-agent,  marauder. 

Hinder,  v.  Stop,  impede,  retard,  check, 
thwart.    Anto.,  hasten. 

Hint.  «.  Allusion,  suggestion,  intimation, 
insinuation. 

Holiday,  n.  Festival,  anniversary,  cele- 
bration.   Anto.,  fast-day. 

Holy.  adj.  1.  Good,  pious,  religious,  de- 
vout, pure,  saintly,  godly.  *.  Hallowed, 
sacred.    Anto.,  wicked,  bad. 

Home.  w.  Abode,  domicile,  residence, 
dwelling. 

Homely,  ad/.    1.  Plain, coarse,  uncomely. 

2.  Domestic,   homelike,      3.   Ugly.      Anto., 
beautiful,  handsome. 

Honest,  adj.  1.  Equitable,  right,  proper, 
honorable.  2.  True,  faithful,  just,  upright, 
trustworthy.  3.  Candid,  sincere.  Anto.,  dis- 
honest, inequitable. 

Honor,  n.  Credit,  esteem.  2.  Respect, 
homage.  3.  Distinction,  dignity.  4.  Integ- 
rity, nobility,  probity.    Anto.,  dishonor. 

Honor,  v.  Dignify,  exalt.  2.  Observe, 
celebrate.  3.  Respect,  reverence,  venerate. 
Anto.,  abase. 

Hope.  v.  Believe,  trust,  desire,  expect. 
Anto.,  despair. 

Hostile,  adj.  1.  Adverse,  opposite,  con- 
trary, repugnant.  2.  Unfriendly.  Anto., 
amicable,  friendly. 

Hostility.    n.    See  Hate. 

Hot,  adj.  1.  Fiery'-  a-  Pungent,  biting, 
acrid.  3.  Glowing,  ardent,  fervid.  4.  Pas- 
sionate, irascible,  impetuous.  Anto.t  cold, 
cool. 

Hue.    h.    Tint,  tinge,  shade,  color. 

Huge.  adj.  See  Gigantic. 

Humane,  m.  Kind,  charitable,  benevo- 
lent, gentle,  tender.    Anto.,  cruel. 

Humility,  n.  Modesty,  meekness,  lowli- 
ness, humbleness.    Anto.,  grandeur. 

Humorous,  adj.  Funny,  witty,  jocular, 
jocose,  facetious.      Anto.,  serious. 

Hurry,    v.  See  Hasten. 

Hurry,  n.  1.  Haste,  dispatch,  promp*'- 
tude,  celerity.  2.  Bustle,  flutter,  precipita- 
tion.   Anto",  hinder,  delay. 

Hypocrisy,  n.  1.  Deceit,  dissimulation, 
imposture.  2.  Cant,  pharisaism,  sanctimo- 
niousness.   Anto.,  openness,  truth,  candor. 

Hypocrite,  n.  1.  Cheat,  pretender,  im- 
postor, dissembler.    2.  Pharisee,  canter. 

Hypothesis.    «.    Theory,  supposition. 


Ideal,  adj.  Fancied,  unreal,  shadowy,  im- 
aginary.   Anto.,  real. 

idleness,  n.  Inactivity,  inertness,  lazl* 
ness,  sloth.    Anto.,  labor. 

Ignorance,  n.  Darkness,  blindness, 
nescience,  illiteracy.    Anto.,  knowledge. 

Ill-bred.  adj.  Uncourtly,  uncouth,  un- 
polished, impolite,  rude.    Anto.,  polite. 

Illustrious,  adj.  1.  Bright,  glorious.  2. 
Famous,  celebrated,  eminent,  renowned. 
Anto..  1.  Dim.     2.  Unknown,  infamous. 

Immoderate,  a.  Unreasonable,  extrava- 
gant, inordinate,  excessive.  Anto.,  moder- 
ate. 

Imperious,  adj.  See  Despotic. 

Impetuous,  adj.  Hasty,  precipitate,  pas- 
sionate, violent,  vehement,  furious.  Anto., 
calm. 


3* 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


/ 


Moment,  weight,    con* 
consequence.      Ante, 


Importance,    n 

cern,      signiiicance. 
frivolity. 

Impression,  n.  i.  Stamp,  impress.  a. 
Idea,  notion.  3.  Effect,  sensation,  in* 
flue  nee. 

Improve,  v.  1.  Mend.  a.  Progress.  3. 
Rise,  increase.     Ante,  deteriorate,  lessen. 

Imprudent,     adj.    Incautious,  indiscreet, 
injudicious,  careless,  rash.     Ante,  cautious. 
Impure,  adj.    I.  Unclean, dirty, foui, filthy. 
a.  Coarse,     gross,   immodest,    indecent,   ob- 
scene, vulgar,  lewd,     Anto.,  pure. 

Inability,  n.  1.  Incompetency,  inca- 
pacity, inefficiency,  impotence.  2.  Disabil  • 
Sty.  disqualification.     Anto.,  ability. 

Inaccurate,  adj.  Inexact,  incorrect,  erro- 
neous.    Anto.,  accurate. 

Inapt,    adj.    Unfit,  unsuitable,  inappropri- 
ate, inapposite.     Anto.,  suitable,  meet. 
Incapacity.     n.  See  Inability. 
Incompatible,    adj.    Unadapted,  incon- 
gruous,      inconsistent,      unsuitable.      Anto.% 
compatible. 

Incompetent,  adj.  1.  Unable,  incapable. 
a.  Disqualified,  incapacitated,  unfit.  3.  In- 
sufficient.    Anto.,  able,  fit,  sufficient. 

Inconsistent,  adj.  1.  Contrary.  See  In- 
compatible. 

Incontinence,  n.  Unchasttty,  wanton- 
ness, lechery,  lewdness,  lasciviousness.  Anto., 
chastity. 

Inconvertible,  adj.  Unchangeable,  un- 
alterable, not  convertible.  Anto.,  change- 
able. 

Incorrect,  adj.  1.  Faulty,  a.  Inaccurate, 
inexact,  erroneous,  false,  untrue.  Anto., 
correct. 

Indefinite,  adj.  Undefined,  indistinct, 
unsettled,  doubtful,  uncertain,  loose.  Anto., 
definite. 

Independence.  ».  Liberty,  freedom, 
self-direction.     Ante,  dependence. 

Individual,  n.  Being,  person,  character. 
Anto.,  band,  community. 

Ineffectual,  adj.  1.  Feeble,  weak,  power* 
less.  a.  Inoperative,  unavailing,  useless, 
abortive.     Anto.,  effectual. 

Inequitable,  adj.  Unfair,  unjust,  dis- 
honorable.    Anto.,  equitable. 

Inexperience.  «.  Ignorance,  greenness, 
rawness.     Anto.,  experience. 

Ingenuous,  adj.  Honest,  frank,  candid, 
trtlcss,  guileless.     Anto.,  crafty. 

Inharmony.  n.  Discord,  harshness,  dis- 
sonance, discordance.     Anto.,  concert. 

Innocent,  adj.  1.  Harmless,  innocuous,  a. 
Clean,  guiltless,  spotless,  immaculate.  Anto., 
Guilty. 
Insanity,  n.  See  Lunacy. 
Inspire,  v.  t.  Inhale,  a.  Infuse,  instil. 
3.  Cheer,  animate,  Inspirit.  Anto.,  1.  Respire. 
3.  Discourage. 

Instruction,  n.  1.  Direction,  mandate. 
a.  Discipline,  teaching,  training,  education. 
3.  Counsel,  precept. 

Insult,  n.  Affront,  indignity,  offence, 
outrage.     Anto.,  apology,  favor. 

Integrity.  n.  Honesty,  honor,  rectitude, 
probity,  virtue,  a.  Completeness,  entirety, 
Anto.,  dishonesty. 

Intellect,  n.  Mind,  sense,  brains,  reason, 
understanding.    Anto.,  body. 

Intemperance,  h.  Excess,  dissipation. 
Anto.,  temperance. 

Intense,  adj.  1.  Extreme,  excessive,  a. 
Severe,  close,  strained.  3.  Ardent,  earnest. 
Anto., flight,  frivolous. 

Intercede,  v.  Mediate,  plead,  arbitrate, 
interpose.     Anto.,  »l. unand,  require. 

Intermission.    »,     Pause,    rest,  suspen- 
sion, stop,  interruption.    Anto.,  continuation. 
Intermit,  v.  Subside,  abate, cease.  Anto., 
continue,  persist. 

Interpose,  v.  1.  Remark,  a.  Mediate, 
arbitrate,  intercede. 

Interpret,  v.  Construe,  reader,  a.  De- 
fine, explain,  elucidate,   decipher. 

Interrogate,  v.  Ask,  examine,  question, 
catechize.    Anto.,  answer. 

Interval,  u.  Season,  term  ^pace,  spell, 
period.     Anto.,  continuation. 


Intervening,  adj.  Interjacent,  interme- 
diate, interposed. 

Intimidate,  v.  Daunt,  frighten,  alarm, 
scare,  terrify.     Anto.,   embolden,   encourage. 

Intoxication,  n.  Drunkenness,  inebriety, 
inebriation.     Anto.,  temperance,  sobriety. 

Intrepid,  adj.  Brave,  daring,  valorous, 
bold,  dauntless.     Anto.,  cowardly. 

Intrinsic,  adj.  1.  True,  genuine,  essential, 
real.  a.  Inherent,  inborn,  native.  Anto.  1. 
Counterfeit,    a.  Alien,  foreign. 

Introductory,  adj.  Preliminary,  prefa- 
tory. 

Intrude,  v.  1.  Obtrude,  a.  Trespass, 
infringe,  encroach.  Anto.,  eject,  expel,  pro- 
trude. 

Intrust,  v.  Consign,  deliver,  commit, 
confide.     Anto.,  distrust. 

Invade,  v.  1.  Assault,  attack,  assail,  a. 
Infringe.     Anto.,  repel. 

Invalid,  adj.  1.  Weak.  a.  Null,  void. 
Anto.,  valid. 

Invalid,     n.    Valetudinarian,  sick  person. 

Invective,  n.  1.  Abuse,  contumely,  a. 
Satire,  sarcasm,  lampoon.    Anto.,  panegyric. 

Invent,  z:  1.  Devise,  a.  Fabricate.  3/Im* 
agine,  originate,  concoct.  Anto.,  copy,  fol- 
low. 

Invest,  v.  1.  Put  at  interest,  a.  Array, 
clothe,  dress. 

Investigation,  n.  Scrutiny,  examination, 
inquisition,  inquiry. 

Invigorate,  v.  Animate,  fortify,  strength- 
en.    Anto.,  weaken. 

Invincible,  adj.  Unconquerable,  a.  In- 
surmountable,  insuperable.    Anto.,  vincible. 

Invite,  v.  1.  Bid,  summon,  ask,  request. 
2.  Attract,  entice  allure.  Anto.,  reject, 
delay,  provoke. 

Involve,  v.  Include,  embrace,  a.  En- 
tangle, implicate.  3.  Entwine,  interweave. 
Anto.,  simplify,  analyze. 

Irksome,  adj.  Wean*,  tiresome,  tedious, 
wearisome.     Anto.,  pleasant. 

Irony,  n.  Banter,  mockery,  raillery,  ridi- 
cule.    Anto.,  praise. 

Irrational,  adj.  1.  Brutish,  a.  Unwise, 
silly,  unreasonable,  absurd.     Anto.,  rational. 

Irrefragable,  adj.  L'ndeniaMc,  irrefut- 
able, indubitable,  incontestable.  Anto., 
dubious. 

Irritate,  -v.  Fret,  nettle,  incense,  pro- 
voke, exasperate.    Anto.,  soothe. 

Irruption,  n.  Inroad,  foray,  raid,  in  • 
cursion. 

Issue,  n.  1.  Offspring,  children,  prog- 
eny, a.  Conclusion,  outcome,  result.  3. 
Outlet,  exit.     Anto.,  return,  inlet. 

Itinerant,  adj.  Wandering,  nomadic,  rov- 
ing, travelling.     Anto.,  homely,  settled. 


Jade.  v.  Fatigue,  weary,  tire,  fag,  ex- 
haust.    Anto.,  invigorate. 

Jealousy,  n.  Suspicion,  apprehension. 
Anto.,  confidence. 

Jest.  «.  Quip,  crank,  joke,  sally,  witti- 
cism. 

Jocose,  adj.  Droll,  witty,  comical,  spor- 
tive, facetious.     Anto.,  sajfjoua, 

Jocund,  adj.  Joyful,  blithe,  jolly,  gay, 
buxom.    Anto.,  sad,  gloom  v. 

Join.  v.  1.  Combine,  unite,  couple,  a. 
Annex,  add,  attach.     Anto.,  separate. 

Joke.     n.     See  Jest. 

Jollity,  n.  Merriment,  gayety,  fun,  frolic, 
hilarity. 

Journey,  n.  Excursion,  trip,  expedition, 
travel,  tour. 

Joy,  n.  Happiness,  bliss,  a.  Delight, 
gladness,  glee,  ccstacy,  transport.  Anto., 
sorrow. 

Joyous,  adj.  Glad, happy,  gleeful,  joyful, 
jolly.      Anto.,s:u\. 

Judgment,  n.  1.  Opinion,  decision,  esti- 
mate, a.  Sense,  discernment,  sagacity,  wis- 
dom. 

Just.  adj.  1,  Exact,  correct,  true.  3. 
Merited,  deserved.  3.  Equitfthle.  4.  Honest, 
fair,  upright.  Anto.,  Unjust,  unfair,  fraud- 
ulent. 


Justice,  n.  1.  Right,  fairness,  equity,  s. 
Judge.     Anto.,  iniu^t.c. 

Justify,  v.  Warrant,  defend,  exculpate, 
vindicate.     Anto.,  criminate. 

Justness,  n.  1.  Fairness,  right,  equity. 
2.  Accuracy,  propriety.  Anto.,  1.  Criminality. 
2.  Impropriety. 

Juvenile,  adj.  Childish,  puerile,  young, 
youthful.    Anto.,  manly. 


Keen.    adj.    1.  Shrewd,  sagacious,  astute. 

2.  Earnest,  zealous.  3.  Severe,  poignant, 
caustic.    4.  Sharp.     Anto.,  dull. 

Keep.      v.    1.   Retain.     2.  Fulfil,  observe. 

3.  Support,  maintain.  4.  Preserve,  con- 
tinue. 5.  Celebrate.  Anto.,  dispense,  dis- 
tribute. 

Kind.  adj.  Good,  clement, humane, gentle, 
sympathetic,  tender,  affectionate.  Ante, 
cruel,   unkind. 

Kingly,  adj.  Royal,  august,  imperial,  re- 
gal.    Anto.,  plebeian. 

Knowledge,  n.  1.  Learning,  lore, 
scholarship,  erudition,  a.  Notice.  3.  Per- 
ception, judgment.    Anto.,  ignorance. 


Labor,     n.     1.  Toil,  work,  effort,  drud- 

fery.  a.  Child-birth,  parturition.  Ant: 
dlencss. 

Lack.  «.  Need,  deficiency,  scarcity,  in- 
suflficiencv.     Anto.,  plenty. 

Lament,  v.  Mourn,  grieve,  weep.  Anto., 
rejoice. 

Lanclnate.  v.  Sever,  mangle,  tear,  lacer- 
ate.    Anto.,  heal,  join. 

Land.  u.  Soil,  ground,  earth,  real  prop- 
erty. 

Landscape,  n.  Prospect,  view,  rural 
scene. 

Language,  n.  Speech,  expression,  ver- 
nacular, dialect,  tongue. 

Languish,  r.  1.  Faint,  wither,  fade, 
droop,  a.  Look  tender.  Anto.,  invigorate, 
strengthen. 

Larceny,  n.  Theft,  pilfering,  thievery, 
stealing. 

Large,  adj.  1.  Bulky,  big,  great,  a.  Broad, 
extensive       3.  Full,  abundant.    Anto.,  small. 

Lascivious,  a.  Loose,  unchaste,  lustful, 
lewd,  lecherous.     Anto.,  cha:  u.  pure. 

Last.  adj.  1.  Latent.  2.  Ultimate,  final. 
3.  Hindmost.     4.  Extreme.     Auto.,  first. 

Last.    adv.     The  Ian  time 

Last.  v.  Remain,  continue,  endure.  Anto., 
perish,  dissolve. 

Latent,  adj.  Secret,  unseen,  veiled,  con- 
cealed.    Anto.,  patent. 

Laugh.  «.  Laughter,  cachinnation,  roar, 
guffaw.     Auto.,  sign. 

Lnughnble.  adj.  Droll,  ridiculous,  farci- 
cal, comical.     Auto.,  solemn. 

Lavish,  adj  Extravagant,  wasteful,  pro- 
fuse.    Anto.,  niggardly. 

Lavish.      I-.     Dissipate,  waste,  squander. 

Law.  n.  1.  Rule,  regulation,  statute,  enact- 
ment, ordinance.  2.  Formula.  3.  Code.  4. 
Jurisprudence.     Auto.,  lawlessness. 

Lawful,  adj  Legal,  legitimate,  constitu- 
tional.    Auto.,  unlawful. 

Lawyer,  u.  Attorney,  counsellor,  advo- 
cate, counsel.  . 

Laxy.  adj.  Idle,  dronish,  sluggish,  inac- 
tive, slothful     Auto.j  active,  mmblc 

Lead.  u.  Direction,  guidance,  leader- 
ship.    Anto.,  following. 

League.  *.  Combination,  alliance,  con- 
federacy, union.  Ante,  disunion,  separa- 
tion- -. 

Lean.     r.     Incline,    a.  Bear,  recline,  rest. 

3-  Tend.  ,     . 

Leave,  u.  Allowance,  permission,  license, 
libertv.      Auto.,  prohibition. 

Lecture,  u.  Lesson,  discourse,  prelec- 
tion. ,     , 

Legacy,  u.  Gift,  bequest,  devise. 

Legal,     adj.    See  Lenrfnl. 

Legible,  adj.  Fair, readable,  plain.  Ante, 
Illegible. 


K_ 


AL 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


73 


Leisure,  n.  Spare  time.  Anto.%  occupa- 
tion 

Lengthen,  v.  I.  Extend,  protract,  pro- 
long, continue.  a.  Stretch,  elongate.  Anto., 
shorten. 

Leniency,  n.  Tenderness,  mercy,  mild- 
ness, clemency.     Anto.,  cruelty. 

Letter.  n.  Note,  epistle,  a.  Alphabets 
cal  character.  . 

Levity.  n.  Frivolity,  giddiness,  flighti- 
ness.     Anto.,  sobriety. 

Liberality.  n.  I.  Bownty,  generosity, 
beneficence,  charity,  a.  Toleration,  candor. 
Ante.,  closeness,  meanness. 

Liberate,  v.  Discharge,  emancipate,  re- 
lease.    Anto..  arrest. 

Lie.  ».  Fib,  untruth,  falsehood.  Anto., 
truth. 

Lie.  v.  I.  Falsify.  2.  Recline.  3.  Rest, 
remain.  Anto.,  I.  Verify. 

Life.  n.  1.  Vitality.  a.  Existence.  3. 
Memoir,  biography.     Anto.,  death. 

Light,  n.  I.  Daylight,  sunrise.  3.  Illum- 
ination. 3.  Instruction.  4.  Window,  Anto., 
darkness. 

Light,  adj.  1.  Buoyant.  2.  Easy.  3.  Por- 
ous.  4.  Unburdened.  5.  Trifling,  small.  6. 
Flimsy,    7    Airy,  gay.     Anto.,  heavy. 

Like.  adj.  Resembling,  same,  similar. 
Anto.,  unlike. 

Like,  v.  Choose,  prefer,  list,  elect.  Anto., 
dislike. 

Liking,  n.  Choice,  preference,  par- 
tiality.   Anto.,  impartiality. 

Limited,  adj.  Confined, bounded, restrain- 
ed, defined,  restricted,  circumscribed.  Anto., 
unlimited. 

Lineage,  n.  Race,  house,  family,  ances- 
try, line. 

Link.  v.  Conjoin,  tie,  bind,  connect, 
unite.    Anto.,  loosen. 

Liquidation,  n.  Adjustment,  discharge, 
settlement,  payment. 

Little,  adj.  1.  Small,  diminutive,  minute, 
tiny.  2.  Scanty,  inconsiderable.  Anto., 
noble,  large. 

Live.  adj.  1.  Existing,  alive,  living,  a. 
Alert,  enterprising.    Anto.,  dead. 

Live.  v.  1.  Exist.  2.  Endure,  con- 
tinue. 3.  Abide,  dwell,  reside.  4.  Subsist. 
Anto.,  die. 

Lively,  adj.  1.  Agile,  quick,  nimble.  2. 
Sprightly,  blithe,  joyous.  3.  Vigorous,  pi- 
quant, strong-.  4.  Vivid.  Anto.,  slow,  slug- 
gish, languid. 

Loathsome,  adj.  Offensive,  disgusting, 
appalling,  revolting.  Anto.,  delectable,  pleas- 
ant. 

Lofty.  1.  High.  a.  Dignified,  sublime. 
3.  Haughty,  proud,  arrogant.  Anto.,  humble, 
modest. 

Lonely,  adj.  1.  Companion  less,  lone, 
solitary,  a.  Secluded,  lonesome,  isolated. 
Anto.,  crowded. 

Loosen,  v.  1.  Relax,  a.  Loose,  release. 
Anto.,  tighten,  tie,  bind. 

Lordly,  adj.  Dignified,  majestic,  lofty* 
a.  Proud,  haughty.  Anto.,  meek,  lowly* 
humble. 

Lose.  v.  x.  Miss,  forfeit.  2.  Waste, squan- 
der.   Anto.,  1.  Find.    2.  Gain,  earn. 

Loss.    ».     Deprivation,     privation,     for- 
feiture, waste,  damage,  detriment,  destruction. 
Anto.,%2.\T\,  profit. 
Love.    v.    Like.    Anto., hate. 
Love.    n.    Affection,    attachment,     fond- 
ness, liking.     Anto.,  hate. 

Low.  adj.  1.  Depressed.  2.  Mean,  ab- 
ject,  disreputable.  3.  Cheap.  Anto.,  1.  High. 
2.  Proud,  worthy.    3.  Dear. 

Loyal,  adj.  Faithful,  true.  Anto.,  dis- 
loyal,  traitorous. 

Lucid,     adj.      1.   Clear,  transparent,  pel- 
lucid, distinct,  plain,  bright,  shining.    Anto., 
ambiguous,  opaque,  sombre. 
Lnck.    ».    Chance,  hap,  fortune,  fate. 
Lunacy,     n.    Derangement,  madness,  in- 
sanity, craziness.     Anto.,  sanity. 

Luxuriate,  v.  1.  Revel,  wanton,  a.  Flour- 
ish.   Anto.,   1.  Chasten,    a-  Wither. 


Maceration,  n.  Soaking,  softening, 
stt  £ping.    Anto.,  drying. 

Machination,  n.  Plot,  stratagem,  in- 
trigue, conspiracy.     Anto.,  artlessness. 

Mad.  adj.  1.  Crazy,  delirious,  insane. 
a.  Enraged,  frantic,  violent.  Anto.,  1.  Sane. 
a.  Pacified. 

Magic,  n.  Enchantment,  sorcery,  necro- 
mancy. 

Magnanimous,  adj.      See  Noble,  Lofty. 

Magnificence,     n.      Grandeur,  splendor, 


eclat.     Anto.,  squalor,  poverty. 

Main.     adj.      Principal,  1c 

Anto.,  subordinate,  secondary. 


Main.     adj.      Principal,  leading,     chief. 


Majority,  n.  1.  Manhood,  full  age.  a. 
Greater  number.    Anto.,  minority. 

Malefactor,  n.  Culprit,  criminal,  felon, 
convict. 

Malice,  n.  Spite,  rancor,  hate,  venom, 
malignity.  Anto.,  love,  benevolence,  benig- 
nity. 

Mammoth,  adj.    SeeLarge. 

Manly,  adj.  Manful,  brave,  stout,  strong, 
bold,  noble,  heroic.    Anto.,  effeminate. 

Manifest,  adj.  Clear,  apparent,  patient, 
obvious,  plain,  glaring.  Anto.,  hidden,  ob- 
scure, occult. 

Manners,     n.      Breeding,    behavior,    de- 

Sortment,    habits,    morals.      Anto.,     misbe* 
avior,  vulgarism. 

Marry,  v.  Espouse,  wed,  take  for  hus- 
band or  wife.    Anto.,  divorce. 

Mask.  v.  Disguise,  shroud,  screen,  veil, 
hide,  cliak.    Anto.,  display. 

Matchless,  adj.  Excellent,  inimitable,  un- 
rivaled, peerless,  incomparable.  Anto.,  com- 
mon, ordinary. 

Matrimony.  n.  Wedlock,  marriage, 
nuptial  state.  Anto.,  spinsterhood,  bachelor- 
hood. 

Mean.  v.  1.  Purpose,  intend,  design,  a. 
Denote,  imply,  signify. 

Mean.  adj.  1.  Average,  middle,  medium. 
a.  Miserly,  stingy,  base,  surly,  jjrumbling, 
poor,  petty,  wretched.  Anto.,  1.  Extreme,  a. 
Noble,  lofty. 

Meek.  adj.  Modest,  humble,  mild,  gentle, 
submissive.    Anto.,  bold. 

Meekness,  n.  Modesty,  humility,  gentle- 
ness, mildness,  submissive  ness.  Anto., 
boldness,  hardihood. 

Melancholy.  «.  Depression,  gloom,  sad- 
ness, dejection,  despondency.  Anto.,  joy, 
buoyancy. 

Memory.  «.  1.  Remembrance,  recol- 
lection, a.  Reputation,  renown,  fame.  Anto., 
forgetful  ness,  oblivion. 

Mental,  adj.  Ideal,  rational,  intellect- 
ual, metaphysical.    Anto.,  physical. 

Mercy,  n.  Mildness,  compassion,  clem- 
ency, lenity.  Anto.,  harshness,  implaca- 
bility. 

Meritorious,  adj.  Good,  worthy,  deserv- 
ing, excellent.    AnCo.,  unworthy. 

Merry,  adj.  Gay,  gleeful,  mirthful, 
joyful,  hilarious.  Ant*.,  sad,  sorrowful. 

Mighty,  adj.  1.  Able,  strong,  puissant. 
a.  Effective,  forcible.  3.  Immense,  vast, 
stupendous.    Anto.,  feeble,  small. 

Mind.  «.  1.  Reason,  intellect,  under- 
standing,   a.  Inclination,  desire. 

Minority.  ».  1.  Nonage,  infancy,  pupil- 
age, childhood,  a.  Smaller  number.  Anto., 
majority. 

Misadventure,  n.  Misfortune,  mishap, 
reverse,  mischance.    Anto.,  adventure. 

Mischief.  ».  1.  Trouble,  a.  Detriment, 
harm,  hurt,  evil,  injury.  Anto.,  benefit,  ad- 
vantage, utility. 

Miserable,  adj.  1.  Depressed,  unhappy, 
affected,  forlorn.  2.  Abject,  mean,  value- 
less. Anto.,  happy,  lucky,  lofty. 

Moderate,  adj.  1.  Mild,  judicious,  rea- 
sonable, a.  Frugal,  sparing.  Anto.,  im- 
moderate, extravagrant. 

Modern,  adj.  Late,  new,  novel,  recent. 
Anto.,  ancient,  old. 

Modest,  adj.  1.  Humble,  unpretend< 
1 


a.  Moderate.     3.  Chaste,  pure.    Anto., 


ng. 
bold,  lofty,  immodest. 


Morality.  n.  1.  Goodness,  virtue,  a. 
Ethics,  morals.    Anto.,  immorality. 

Morbid,  adj.  Unsound,  sickly, unhealthy, 
vitiated.     Anto.,  sound,  healthy. 

Mornlag.  «.  Daybreak,  dawn,  forenoon. 
Anto..  evening. 

Mortal,  adj.  Deadly,  fatal,  a.  Human, 
Anto.,  immortal. 

Mortal.  ».  Human,  man.  Anto.,  immor- 
tal. 

Mundane,  adj.  Worldly,  earthly,  ter- 
restrial.    Anto.,  heavenly. 

Murmur,  n.  1.  Whisper,  muttering,  a. 
complaint.  Anto.  1.  Shout.  2.  Commen- 
dation. 

Muse.  v.  Think,  contemplate,  reflect, 
ponder,  meditate,  brood. 

Music,  m.  Harmony,  symphony,  melody, 
science  of  harmonics. 

Mutual,  adj.  Interchanged,  reciprocal, 
correlative.    Anto  ,  sole,  solitary. 

Mystify,  v.  Puzzle,  perplex,  baffle,  be- 
wilder, pose.    Anto.,  clear,  explain. 

N 

Naked,  adj.  1.  Nude,  bare,  undressed, 
a.  Defenceless,  unprotected.  3.  Sheer,  sim- 
ple.   Anto.,  clad,  covered. 

Natural.  1.  Regular  normal.  2.  Native, 
original,  characteristic.    Anto.,  unnatural. 

Near.  adj.  Close  nigh,  adjacent  a. 
Familiar,  aliicd,  intimate.  3.  Impending, 
imminent.    Anto. ,  far. 

Nerve,  v.  Biace,  fortify,  strengthen, 
invigorate.    Anto.,  weaken. 

Never,  adv.  Net  ever.  Anto.,  ever,  always. 

New.  adj.  Fresh,  novel,  a.  Modern, 
recent.    Anto.,  old,  ancient. 

Nice.  adj.  1.  Precise,  exact,  critical,  a. 
Subtle,  fine.  3  Delicate,  dainty,  delicious. 
Anto.,  1.  Careless,  a.  Coarse    3.  Unpleasant. 

Niggardly,  adj.  Mean,  mercenary,  stingy, 
miserly,  illiberal,  avaricious.  Anto., gener- 
ous, open. 

Nimble,  adj.  Quick,  agile,  alert,  spright- 
ly. Anto.,  slow,  lazy. 

Noble,  adj.  1.  Dignified. worthy, superior, 
exalted,  a.  Grand,  magnificent.  Anto.,  ig- 
noble. 

Noise,  n.  Sound,  din,  clatter,  uproar, 
clamor.    Anto.,  silence. 

Nominate,    a    Name,  propose, designate. 

Note.  «.  1.  Minute,  memorandum.  2.  Com- 
ment, remark.  3.  Celebrity,  renown.  4.  Bill, 
promissory  note. 

Note.  v.  1.  Record,  a.  Notice,  observe, 
heed.    3.  Denote,  designate. 

Noted,    adj.    See  liluttrious. 

Notion,    n.    See  Idea. 

Notorious,  adj.  \.  Conspicuous,  a.  Open, 
obvious,  well-known.  Anto.,  unknown. 

Novel,    adj.     See  New. 

Novel.    ».    Tale,  story,  romance,  fiction. 

Noxious,  adj.  Harmful,  hurtful,  dele- 
terious, baleful,  deadly.     Anto.,    wholesome. 

Number,  n.  1.  Numeral,  figure,  digit. 
2.  Multitude,  many. 

Nuptials.  ».  Wedding,  marriage.  Anto., 
divorce. 

Nurture.  «.  Discipline,  training,  breed- 
ing, schooling,  education. 

Nutriment.  «.  Food,  diet,  provision, 
sustenance,  nutrition,  nourishment.  Anto., 
poison. 

Nutritious,    adj.  Sustaining. 

Nourishing:,  adj.  Wholesome,  strengthen- 
ing.   Anto.,    noxious. 


Obdurate,  adj.  Obstinate,  stubborn,  cal- 
lous,  unfeeling.    Anto.,  flexible. 

Object.  w.TEnd,  purpose,  aim,  design,  a. 
Mark.     Anto.,  subject. 

Oblige.  1.  Please,  favor,  accommodate, 
serve.  2.  Obligate.  3.  Compel,  coerce.  Anto., 
disoblige. 

Oblivion.  «.  Forgetfulness,  amnesty. 
Anto.,  remembrance. 

Obscure,  adj.  Dark,  dim,  vague,  indis- 
tinct, a.  Humble,  unknown.  Anto.,  1.  Light, 
plain,  clear,    a.  Noted. 


A 


*fe 


74 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


Obscure,  v.  Cloud, darken, shade, eclipse. 
Auto. ,  clear,  illuminate. 

Ob#eqoiMi     n.    Funeral  rites,  exequies. 

Obsolete,  adj.  Disused,  antiquated, 
neglected.     Ante,  new,  fashionable. 

Obvious,  adj.  liain,  clear,  manifest, 
visible,  apparent.     Anto.,  hidden. 

Occasional,  adj.  Casual,  irregular,  inci- 
dental.     Auto.,  regular. 

Occupation,  n.  i.  Calling,  business, 
pursuit,  profession.  2.  Use,  possession.  Anto.t 

1.  Idleness.     2.  Forfeiture. 

Occupy,  v.  Hold,  possess,  use.  Anto., 
vacate. 

Occurrence,  n.  Adventure,  incident,  con- 
tingency. 

Odor.     ».     Scent,  perfume,  fragrance. 

Offend,  v.  Displease,  annoy,  vex.  Anto., 
please. 

Offence,  n.  Crime,  indignity,  injury,  in 
suit,  misdeed,  transgression,  trespass,  out- 
rage.   Anto,,  favor,  obligation. 

Offensive,  adj.  Abusive,  impertinent,  in- 
jurious, insulting,  insolent,  obnoxious,  oppro- 
brious, rude,  scurrilous.      Anto.,  pleasant. 

Offering,  n.  1.  Oblation,  presentation, 
gift.    2.  Sacrifice. 

Office,   n.    1.  Charge,  trust,  duty,  service. 

2.  Situation,  berth,  station. 

Officious,  adj.  Active,  busy,  forward,  in- 
trusive, obtrusive.     Anto.,  modest. 

Offspring,  n.  Children,  issue,  descend- 
ants, posterity.     Anto.,  ancestry. 

Only.  adj.  Alone,  adv.  Barely,  merely, 
simply,  singly,  solely. 

Opaque,  adj.  I.  Dark,  obscure.  2.  Not 
transparent,  impervious  to  light.  Anto., 
transparent. 

Open.  a.   1.  Unclosed,  extended.   2.  Clear, 

Lublic.  3.  Fair,  candid,  unreserved.  4. 
liberal.     5.  Unsettled.     Anto.,  closed. 

Opening.  w.  Aperture, cavity,  hole,  fissure. 
Anto.,  solid. 

Operation.  n.  Action,  agency,  surgical 
act,  process. 

Opinion,  n.  Notion,  view,  judgment, 
belief.    2.  Estimate. 

Opinionated,  adj.  Conceited,  egotistical, 
obstinate.     Anto.,  modest. 

Opponent.  ».  Adversary,  antagonist, 
enemy,  foe.     Anto.,  friend,  ally. 

Opposite,  adj.  Adverse,  contrary,  inimi- 
cal, repugnant.    Anto.,  alike,  congenial. 

Opprobrious,  adj.  Abusive,  insulting,  in- 
solent, offensive,  scurrilous.  Anto.,  eulogis- 
tic. 

Opprobrium,  n.  Disgrace,  ignominy, 
infamy.     Anto.,  eminence. 

Option,     n.    Choice,  election. 

Oration.  ».  Address,  speech,  discourse, 
harangue. 

Ordain,  v.  Appoint,  order,  prescribe, 
invest. 

Order,  n.  1.  Class,  degree,  fraternity, 
method,  rank,  series,  succession.  2.  Com- 
mand, injunction,  mandate,  precept.  Anto., 
disorder. 

Orderly,  adj.  1.  Methodical,  systematic, 
regular,  quiet,  a.  n.  Soldier.  Anto.,  irregu- 
lar. 

Ordinary,  adj.  1.  Usual,  common,  habit- 
ual. 2.  Homely,  plain,  ugly.  3.  Inferior, 
vulgar.     Anto.,  extraordinary. 

Origin,  n.  1.  Cause,  occasion.  -a.  Spring, 
beginning,  source.    Anto.,  end. 

Original,  adj.  First,  primary,  primitive, 
pristinei    Anto.,  copied, 

Ornament,  v.  Adorn, embellish,  beauti- 
fy, decorate.     Anto.,     spoil,   wreck,  destroy. 

Ornate,  adj.  Adorned,  bedecked,  decorat- 

d,  embellished,  garnished.  Anto.,  unadorn- 
ed. 

Ostensible,  adj.  Colorable,  feasible,  pro. 
fessed,  plausible,  specious,  apparent,  de- 
clared, manifest.     Anto.,  real. 

Ostentation.  n.  Show,  display,  flourish, 
pomposity.    Anto.,  plainness. 

Outlive,    v.    Srr  Sm 

Outrage,  v.  Abuse,  maltreat,  offend,  in- 
sult, shock.     Anto.,  honor,  praise. 

Outrage.  ».  Affront,  offence,  abuse,  in- 
dignity, insult.    Anto.,  favor,  obligation. 


Outvrarc!.  adj.  Extraneous^  exterior,  ex- 
ternal, extrinsic,  outer.    Anto.,  inward. 

OvoL     adj.     Egg-shaped,  elliptical. 

Overbearing,  adj.  Haughty,  arrogant, 
lordly,  imperious,  domineering,  dictatorial. 
Anto.,  gentle. 

Overcome,  v.  Conquer,  subdue,  sur- 
mount, vanquish.     Anto.,  burrender. 

Overflow,  v.  1.  Mow,  deluge,  inundate. 
2.  Overrun,  overspread. 

Oversight.  «.  1.  Blunder,  mistake,  er- 
ror, inadvertency.  2.  Management,  super- 
vision, control.     Anto.,  correction. 

Overthrow,  v.  1.  Defeat,  overcome, 
conquer,  vanquish,  a.  Upset,  overturn,  sub- 
vert. 3.  Ruin,  molest.  Anto.,  surrender,  yield. 

Overwhelm,  v.  1.  Overflow.  2.  Defeat, 
conquer,  vanquish,  subdue. 

Owner.    ».   Holder,  possessor,  proprietor. 


Pacify,  v.  1.  Appease,  conciliate.  2. 
Calm,  still,  compose,  tranquilize,  quiet, quell. 
Anto.,  excite. 

Pain.  «.  1.  Ache,  distress,  suffering, 
pang,  anguish,  agony.  2.  Penalty.  3.  Un- 
easiness, sorrow,  grief,  woe.   Anto.,  pleasure. 

Paint,  v.  1.  Depict,  delineate,  portray, 
pencil,  sketch.    2.  Color.    3.  Represent. 

Pair.    n.     Brace,  couple.    Anto.,  single. 

Pale.  adj.  1.  Colorless,  wan,  whitish, 
ashy,  pallid.    2.  Dim,  sombre.     Anto.,  florid. 

Palliate,  v.  Cover,  extenuate,  gloss, 
varnish.    Anto.,  accuse,  charge. 

Palpable,  adj.  Obvious,  evident,  mani- 
fest, plain,  glaring.  2.  Tangible.  Anto.,  occult. 

Palpitate,  v.  Pulsate,  throb,  flutter,  go 
pit-a-pat.     Anto.,  QuSgL 

Paltry,  adj.  1.  Little,  small,  unimportant, 
petty,  miserable,  trivial.  2.  Abject,  base, 
mean,  pitiful,  contemptible.  Anto.,  worthy, 
great,  noble. 

Panegyric,  n.  Encomium,  praise,  eulogy. 
Anto.,  condemnation. 

Pang.    n.     See  Pain. 

Parasite.  «.  Flatterer,  sycophant,  han- 
ger-on. 

Pardon,  n.  Grace,  forgiveness,  remis- 
sion, absolution,  mercy,  amnesty.  Anto.,  im- 
placability. 

Parentage,  n.  Birth,  lineage,  pedigree, 
stock. 

Parody,  n.  Burlesque,  travesty,  carica- 
ture. 

Parsimonious,  adj.  Close,  mean,  stin- 
gy, miserly,  penurious,  covetous,  sordid. 
Anto.,  generous. 

Partial,  adj.  1.  Incomplete,  imperfect. 
2.  Unfair,  warped,  biased,  prejudiced,  un- 
just.    Anto.,  complt  r<  . 

Part.  n.  1.  Piece,  portion,  fraction.  2. 
Element,  ingredient.  3.  Lot.  4.  Charge, 
function. 

Particle.  n.  Grain,  jot,  tittle,  iota,  bit, 
atom,  molecule.     Anto.,  mass. 

Particular,  adj.  Appropriate,  circum- 
stantial, distinct,  exact, exclusive,  nice,  pecu- 
liar, punctual,  specific.  Anto.,  careless,  in- 
appropriate. 

Particularly,  adv.  Chiefly,  distinctly, 
especially,  specifically,  principally.  Anto., 
generally. 

Partisan,  n.  Supporter,  adherent,  fol- 
lower, disciple,  champion,  votary.  Anto.,  op- 
ponent. 

Partly,     adv.    In  part.     Anto.,  wholly. 

Partner.  ».  1.  Colleague,  associate 
sharer,  participator,  partaker.  2.  Member  of 
a  firm. 

Passion,     n.     1.    Ardor,   emotion,  fervor, 
seal.     2.   Love,  affection,  fondness,  attach- 
ment,  devotion.      3.  Anger,  wrath,   f 
Pathos.     Anto.,  quietude,  placidity,  languor. 

Passive,     adj.     Calm,  patient,    n 
submissive,  unresisting.     Anto.,  rebclli 

Patent,  adj.  Open,  plain,  apparent,  ob- 
vious.   Anto.,  latent. 

Pnthetir.  adj.  Touching,  affecting, 
mnvinv,   tender,   melting,   plaintive.      Anto., 

Pntlenec.  n.  Resignation,  endurance, 
fortitude,  sufferance.    Anto.,  impatience. 


Patient,  adj.  Composed,  calm,  enduring, 
.     n.    An  invalid.    Anto.,  fretful. 

l'utrician.  n.  Nobleman,  aristocrat. 
Anto.,  plebeian. 

Patronize,  v.  Aid,  favor,  support,  help, 
befriend.     Anto.,  abuse,  condemn. 

Pause,  v.  1.  Stop  cease,  desist,  delay, 
rest,  stay.  2.  Waver,  hesitate.  Anto.,  con- 
tinue. 

Pay.  n.  Compensation,  reward,  requital, 
wages,  salary,  hire. 

Peaceable,  adj.  Calm,  gentle,  pacific, 
mild,  quiet,  serene,  tranquil,  undisturbed. 
Anto.,  turbulent. 

Peaceful,  adj.  1.  Still,  quiet,  undisturb- 
ed, calm,  placid,  tranquil,  serene.  2.  Mild, 
friendly.     Auto.,  disturbed. 

Peculiar,  adj.  Particular,  singular,  spe- 
cial, characteristic,  rare,  exceptional. 

Peevish,  adj.  Captious,  cross,  fretful, 
irritable,  petulant.     Anto.,  patient. 

Penalty,  n.  Chastisement,  fine,  forfeiture, 
mulct,  punishment.     Anto.,  reward. 

Penetrating,      adj.     Discerning,  intclli- 

§ent,  sagacious,  acute,  keen,  shrewd.  Anto., 
ull. 

Penitence,  n.  Compunction,  remorse, 
contrition,  repentance.     Anto.,  impenitence. 

Penniless,  adj.  Poor,  destitute  needy, 
indigent,  reduced,  pinched,  distressed.  Anto., 
rich,  moneyed. 

Penurious,  adj.  Beggarly,  miserly,  nig- 
gardly,  parsimonious,  sparing'.  Anto.,  gener- 
ous. 

Penary,  n.  Indigence,  need,  poverty, 
want.     Anto.,  affluence. 

lVreeive.  v.  1.  Notice,  see,  discover, 
discern.  2.  Feel.  3.  Understand,  know. 
Anto.,  miss. 

Perception,  n.  Conception,  sensation, 
Idea,  notion,  sentiment. 

Peremptory,  adj.  Absolute,  arbitrary, 
despotic,  dogmatical,  positive.  Anto.,  vacil- 
lating. 

Perfect.  adj.  1.  Finished,  complete, 
elaborate.  2.  Blameless,  pure,  holy.  Anto., 
imperfect. 

Perfidious,  adj.  Faithless,  treacherous. 
Anto.,  faithful. 

Perforate,  v.  Bore,  pierce,  penetrate. 
Anto.^plug,  fill. 

Perform,  r.  Accomplish,  achieve,  ef- 
fect, execute,  fulfil,  produce.     Anto.,  fail. 

Perfume,  «.  Aroma,  fragrance,  balmi* 
ness,  incense.    Anto.,  stench. 

Peril,  n.  Venture,  risk,  danger,  hazard, 
jeopardy.     Anto.,  safety. 

Period,     n.   Circuit,' date,  age,  epoch,  era. 

Perjure,     v.     Sr*  Forr&tar. 

IVrmanent.  adj.  Fixed,  abiding,  last- 
ing, stable,  enduring,  steadfast,  immutable. 
Anto.,  unstable. 

Permit,  v.  Allow,  suffer,  consent,  ad- 
mit, tolerate,  yield.     Anto.,  refuse. 

Pernicious,  adj.  Destructive,  hurtful, 
mischievous,  noisome,  noxious.  Anto., 
healthful. 

lVrprtunl.  adj.  Continuous,  constant, 
incessant,  unceasing,  uninterrupted.  Anto., 
transient. 

Perplex,  r.  1.  Puzzle,  embarrass,  be- 
wilder, confound.  2.  Involve,  entangle,  com- 
plicate.    Anto.,  explain. 

Persevere.  7.  Continue,  in«i«t,  persist, 
prosecute,  pursue.     Anto.,  unstable. 

Perspicuity,  n.  Transparency,  clear- 
ness, transluccncy.     Anto.,  obscurit\ . 

Persuade.  7."  1.  Convince.  2.  Infucnce, 
induce,  lead,  incite,  impel.     Anto.,  dissuade. 

Pertinent,  adj.  Apposite,  appropriate. 
Anto.,  improper. 

Perverse,  adj.  Cross,  crooked,  forward, 
stubborn,  untractablc.     Antou,  yielding. 

Pestilential,  adj.  Contagious,  epidem- 
ical, infectious,  mischievous.  Anto.,  whole- 
some. 

IVHtlon.  n.  Application,  appeal,  prayer, 
suit,  entreaty,  supplication. 

Picture.  ».  Eftigy,  likeness,  representa- 
tion. 

Pious,  adj.  Religion*,  devout,  holy, 
saintly, godly.    Anto.,  impious. 


YL 


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SYNONYMS  AND  ANTONYMS. 


75 


ik- 


~A 


Pique.  ».  Offence,  resentment,  umbrage, 
grudge.    Anto.,  pleasure,  friendliness. 

Pique,  v.  i.  Urge,  spur,  incite,  instigate. 
2  Displease,  offend,  irritate,  nettle,  exasper- 
ate.    Anto.,  please. 

Pitiless.  adj.  Unmerciful,  relentless, 
ruthless,  cruel,  unfeeling,  inexorable.  Anio., 
merciful. 

Pity.  n.  Sympathy,  corrpassion,  fellow- 
feeling.     Anio.,  cruelty. 

Place,  i.  «.  Ground,  post,  position,  seat, 
site,  situation,  space.  2.  adj.  Dispose,  lay 
order,  put,  set.     Anto.,   2.  Displace. 

Placid,     adj.     See  Peaceful. 

Plague,  v.  Tease,  vex,  trouble,  fret, 
bother.    Anio.,  please. 

Pleasant,  adj.  1.  Agreeable,  pleasing, 
delightful.  2.  Witty,  sportive,  amusing.  3. 
Cheerful,  lively,  vivacious.  Ante,  disagree- 
able. 

Please,  v.  Delight,  gratify,  humor,  sat- 
isfy.   Anto.,  displease. 

Pleasure.  «.  1.  Comfort,  enjoyment, 
gratification,  joy.  2.  Luxury,  voluptuous- 
ness. 3.  Choice,  will,  preference,  Anto., 
pain. 

Plebeian,  adj.  Mean,  base,  vulgar,  ig- 
noble.    Anto.,  patrician. 

Pledge,  n.  Deposit,  earnest,  hostage, 
security,  pawn. 

Plentiful,  adj.  Abundant,  ample,  copi- 
ous, exuberant,  plenteous.     Anto.,  scarcity. 

Pliable,  adj.  1.  Limber,  flexible,  supple, 
lithe.  2.  Compliant,  tractable.  Anto.,  inflex- 
ible. 

Pliant,  adj.  Bending,  flexible,  pliable, 
lithe|  limber,  supple,  yielding.     Anto.,  stiff. 

Plight,  v.  Case,  condition,  predicament, 
situation,  state. 

Plot.  v.  Scheme,  concoct,  project,  devise, 
brew,  hatch. 

Pluck.  «.  Resolution,  courage,  spirit, 
mettle,  nerve,  fortitude.    Anto.,  cowardice. 

Polished,  adj.  1.  Refined,  accomplished, 
polite,  cultivated,  elegant.  2.  Burnished.  3. 
Attic,  classic.     Anto.,  rough,  coarse. 

Polite,  adj.  Refined,  accomplished,  gen- 
teel, courteous,  courtly,  polished,  urbane. 
Anto.,  impolite. 

Politeness.  n.  Affability,  civility,  cour- 
teousness,  courtesy,  good  manners.  Anto., 
impoliteness. 

Politic,  adj.  Artful,  civil,  cunning,  pru- 
dent.   Anto.,  impolitic. 

Pollute,  n.  Contaminate,  corrupt,  defile, 
infect,  vitiate.     Anto.,  purify. 

Pomp.  «.  Display,  parade,  skow,  pa- 
geantry, state,  ostentation. 

Pompous,  adj.  Dignified,  lofty,  magis- 
terial, magnificent,  stately,  showy,  ostenta- 
tious.     Anto.,  modest. 

Ponder,  v.  Consider,  muse,  reflect, 
think. 

Portion.  «.  Division,  dower,  fortune, 
part,  quantity,  share.     Anto.,  whole. 

Position,  n.  Place,  post,  situation,  sta- 
tion. 

Positive,  adj.  Certain,  confident,  dog- 
matical, real.    Anto.,  doubtful. 

Possess,  v.  Have,  hold,  occupy.  Anto., 
dispossess,  distrain. 

Posterior,  adj.  1.  Hind,  rear,  back.  2. 
Following,  succeeding,  subsequent,  ensuing. 
Anto.,  anterior. 

Postpone,  v.  Adjourn,  defer,  delay,  pro- 
crastinate.   Anto.,  expedite. 

Posture.  «.  Action,  attitude,  gesture, 
position. 

Potent,  adj.  Strong,  influential,  cogent, 
powerful,  mighty,  puissant.    Anto.,  weak. 

Poverty,  n.  Indigence,  need,  penurv, 
want.    Auto.,  wealth. 

Powerful,  adj.  Mighty,  influential,  po- 
tent, strong,  vigorous.    Anto.,  weak. 

Practicable,  adj.  Feasible,  possible, 
practical.    Anto.,  impracticable. 

Practice,  n.  Custom,  habit,  manner,  use. 
Anto.,  prodigy. 

Praise.  «,  1,  Worship,  homage.  2.  Ap- 
proval, commendation,  laudation,  applause, 
encomium.  3.  Eulogy,  panegyric.  Anto., 
blame. 


Praise,  v.  1.  Exalt,  glorify.  2.  Approve, 
applaud, commend.  3.  Eulogize, extol.  Ante., 
Censure. 

Prayer.  «.  Entreaty,  petition,  suit,  re- 
quest, supplication.     Anto.,  anathema. 

Precarious,  adj.  Doubtful,  equivocal, 
dubious,  uncertain.     Anto.,  certain. 

Precedence,  n.  Pre-eminence,  prefer- 
ence, priority.    Anto.,  subsequence 

Precedent.  1 .  n.  Example.  2.  Adj. 
Former,  antecedent.    Anto.,  2.  Subsequent. 

Preceding,  adj.  Antecedent,  anterior, 
foregoing,  former,  previous,  prior.  Anto., 
following. 

Precept,  n.  Doctrine,  law,  rule,  injunc- 
tion, mandate,  maxim,  principle. 

Precious,  adj.  Costly,  uncommon,  val- 
uable.    Anto.,  common. 

Precise,  adj.  1.  Accurate,  correct,  exact. 
2.  Nice.    3.  Stiff,  strict.    Anto.,  not  exact. 

Preclude,  v.  Hinder,  obviate,  prevent. 
Anto.,  assist. 

Preconcerted,  adj.  Premeditated,  pre- 
determined, considered  beforehand.  Anto., 
unconsidered. 

Precursor,  n.  Forerunner,  harbinger, 
messenger.     Anto.,  follower,  disciple 

Predicament.  «.  1.  Condition,  plight, 
situation.    2.  Class,  state. 

Predict,  v.  Foretell,  prophesy,  prognos- 
ticate. 

Predominate,  adj.  Overruling,  supreme, 
prevalent,  prevailing. 

Preface.  ».  Introduction,  prelude, proem. 
Anto.,  conclusion,  peroration. 

Prefer,  v.  Advance,  choose,  forward, 
encourage,  promote.     2.  Offer,  present. 

Preference.  «.  Choice,  precedence, 
priority. 

Preferment.  «.  Advancement,  prefer* 
encc,  promotion.     Anto.,  abasement. 

Prejudice.  «.  1.  Bias,  detriment,  disad- 
vantage, hurt,  injury.  2.  Prepossession.  Anto., 
justice. 

Preliminary,  adj.  1.  Antecedent,  intro- 
ductory, preparatory,  previous.  2.  A  first 
step. 

Prepare,  v.  Equip,  make  ready,  fit, 
qualify,     Anto.,  retard. 

Preponderate,  v.  ».  Outweigh,  over- 
balance.    2.  Prevail. 

Proficiency,  n.  Advancement,  progress, 
improvement.    Anto.,  deficiency. 

Profit.  «.  Advantage,  benefit,  emolument, 
gain.    Anto.,  loss. 

Profligate,    adj.     Set  Abandoned. 

Profuse,  adj.  Extravagant,  lavish,  prod- 
igal.   Anto.,  niggardly. 

Progeny,    n.    Issue,  offspring,  race. 

Progress.  «,  Advancement,  gradation , 
motion,  proficiency.     Anto.,  retrogression. 

Project,    n.    Design,  plan,  scheme. 

Prolific,  adj.  Fertile,  fruitful,  produc- 
tive.   Anto.,  barren,  sterile. 

Prolix,  adj.  Diffuse,  long,  tedious.  Anio., 
brief,  laconic. 

Prolong,  v.  Belay,  extend,  postpone, 
procrastinate, protract, retard.  Anto., shorten. 

Prominent,  adj.  Conspicuous,  protuber- 
ant, eminent,  projecting.  Anto.,  unnotice- 
able. 

Promiscuous,  adj.  Mingled^  indiscrim- 
inate, common,  confused.    Anto.,  select. 

Promise.  ».  Word,  assurance,  engage- 
ment, pledge. 

Promote,  v.  Advance,  encourage,  for- 
ward, prefer.    Anto.,  discourage. 

Prompt,  adj.  1.  Early,  punctual,  timely. 
2.  Apt,  rcadv,  quick.  Anto.,  unready,  dilatory. 

Pronounce,  v.  Affirm,  articulate,  declare, 
speak,  utter. 

Proof.  «.*  1.  Argument.  2.  Demonstra- 
tion, evidence,  testimony. 

Propagate,  v.  Circulate,  diffuse,  dis- 
seminate, increase, multiply.  Anto., diminish, 
prune. 

Propensity.  «.  Inclination,  proneness, 
bias,  tendency. 

Proper,  adj.  1.  Fitting,  appropriate, 
suitable,  becoming,  seemly,  right.  2.  Partic- 
ular, specific,  not  common.     Anto.,  wrong. 

Propitiate,  v.  Appease,  reconcile,  atone, 
conciliate.    Anto.,  provoke. 


Propitious,  adj.  1.  Auspicious,  favor- 
able.     2.  Kind,  merciful.    Anto.,  unfavorable. 

Proportion,  n.  Form,  rate,  relation, 
ratio,  size,  symmetry. 

Proportionate,  adj.  Adequate,  equal, 
commensurate.     Anto.,  unequal. 

Propose,  v.  Bid,  intend,  offer,  purpose, 
tender. 

Prosecute,  v.  1.  Arraign,  accuse.  2. 
Continue,  pursue.     Anto.,  exculpate,  pardon. 

Prospect,    n.    Landscape,  survey,  view. 

Prospective,  adj.  Foreseeing,  forward, 
future. 

Prosperity,  n.  Welfare,  success,  thrift, 
luck,  happiness.     Anto.,  loss,  poverty. 

Prosperous,  adj.  Flourishing,  fortunate, 
lucky,  successful.     Anto.,  unsuccessful. 

Protect.  v.  Cherish,  defend,  foster, 
guard,  patronize,  shelter,  shield.  Anto., 
abandon. 

Protract,  v.  Defer,  delay,  postpone, 
prolong,  retard.     Anto.,  contract. 

Protracted,  adj.  Continued,  extended, 
prolonged,  drawn  out.     Anto.,  shortened. 

Proud,  adj.  Arrogant,  assuming,  con- 
ceited, haughty,  vain.     Anto.,  unassuming. 

Proverb,  n.  Adage,  aphorism,  maxim, 
apothegm,  by-word,  saw,  saying. 

Provide,  v.  Furnish,  prepare,  procure, 
supply. 

Provident,  adj.  Careful,  economical, 
cautious,  frugal,  far-sighted,  prudent.  Anto., 
prodigal. 

Provisions.  «.  Subsistence;  food,  vict- 
uals, viands,  bread,  provender. 

Proviso,    k.    Condition,  stipulation. 

Provoke,  v.  1.  Irritate,  anger,  offend, 
affront,  enrage,  exasperate,  infuriate.  2. 
Awaken,  arouse,  excite,  stimulate,  inflame. 
Anto.,  propitiate. 

Proxy.  «.  Deputy,  representative,  agent, 
substitute. 

Prudence,  n.  Carefulness,  discretion, 
forethought,  judgment,  wisdom.  Anto.,  in- 
discretion. 

Prudish,  adj.  Coy,  demure,  reserved, 
over-modest.    Anto.,  brazen,  immodest. 

Publish,  v.  1.  Announce,  declare,  pro- 
claim, herald,  advertise.  2.  Issue,  emit. 
Anto.,  suppress. 

Puerile,  adj.  Boyish,  childish,  juvenile. 
Anto.,  manly. 

Pull.  v.  Drag,  draw,  gather,  hale,  haul, 
pluck,  lug.    Anto.,  push. 

Pulsation.  »,  Beat,  beating,  throb,  throb- 
bing. 

Pulverize,  v.  Bruise,  grind,  comminute, 
triturate. 

Punctual,     adj.     See  Promft. 

Punish,  v.  Correct,  discipline,  chastise, 
castigate,  whip,  scourge.    Anto.,  reward. 

Pure.  adj.  1.  Clear,  clean,  unsullied,  un- 
defined, spotless,  untarnished,  immaculate.  2. 
True,  innocent,  sinless.  3.  Chaste,  modest.  4. 
Unmixed,  genuine.     Anto.,  impure. 

Purpose.  ».  Object,  aim,  intent,  end, 
design. 

Pursue,  v.  Chase,  continue,  follow,  pros- 
ecute, persist.    Anto.,  escape. 

Puzzle,    -v.    See  Perplex. 

Puzzle,  n.  1.  Mystery,  riddle,  enigma. 
2.  Embarrassment,  perplexity,  nonplus. 


Quack.  ».  Impostor,  pretender,  humbug, 
charlatan.    Anto.,  savant. 

Quail,  v.  Shrink,  blanch,  quake,  cower, 
tremble.    Anto.,  brave. 

Qualified,  adj.  Adapted,  competent, 
fitted,     Anto.,  incompetent. 

Qualify,  v.  Adapt,  equip,  furnish,  fit, 
modify,  prepare,  temper. 

Quality,  n.  Rank,  property,  distinction, 
accomplishment,  attribute. 

Quandary,  v..  Puzzle,  difficulty,  per- 
plexity, strait,  nonplus,  dilemma. 

Quarrel.  n.  Disagreement,  wrangle, 
squabble,  contention,  dissension,  strife,  alter- 
cation, brawl.    Anto.,  agreement. 

Queer,  adj.  Odd,  singular,  droll,  strange, 
whimsical,  unique,  quaint.  Anto.,  usual,  or- 
dinary, customary. 


* 


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76 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


~A 


Query,  n.  Inquiry,  question,  interroga- 
tory.   Ante.,  answer. 

Question,    n.     See  Query. 

Question,  v.  1.  Ask,  enquire,  examine, 
Interrogate,  catechize.  2.  Doubt,  dispute, 
controvert.     Auto.,  reply. 

Questionable,  adj.  Doubtful,  suspici- 
ous.   Auto.,  authentic. 

Quick.  adj.  1.  Brisk,  active,  prompt, 
agile.  2.  Rapid,  swift.  3.  Clever,  sharp, 
shrewd,  acute,  keen,  discerning.  Anto.,  dull, 
slow. 

Quiet,  adj.  Still,  renting,  dormant,  mo- 
tionless, quiescent.    Anto.,  turbulent. 

Quit.  v.  1.  Leave,  withdraw,  vacate.  2. 
Resign,  abandon,  forsake.  3.  Clear,  acquit, 
absolve. 

Quiver,  v.  Shake,  tremble,  shudder, 
shiver,  quake. 

Quota,  n.  Share,  portion,  allotment, 
contingent,  proportion. 

Quotation,  n.  Extract,  excerpt,  selection, 
citation. 

Quote,  v.   Adduce,  cite.  Anto.,  originate. 


Babble,    n*    Mob,  rout,  herd. 
Race.    n.    Breed,  course,  family,  genera- 
tion, lineage,  progress.    Anto..  mongrel. 

Radiance,  n.  Brightness,  brilliancy,  lus- 
tre, splendor,  effulgence.     Anto.,  gloom. 

Radical,  adj.  1.  Entire,  complete,  thor- 
ough, perfect.  2.  Fundamental,  original, 
organic.  3.  Simple,  primitive,  underived. 
Anto.,  superficial. 

Rage.  n.  Anger,  choler,  fury,  violence. 
Anto..  calm. 

Raise.  v.  Advance,  collect,  elevate, 
heighten,  erect,  exalt,  propagate.  Anto., 
lower. 

Rally,    v.     1.   Banter,  deride,  mock,  ridi- 
cule,  a.  Collect.    Anto.,  1.  Praise.  3.  Scatter. 
Random,      adj.     Casual,  chance,  fortui- 
tous.   Anto.,  chosen,  destined. 
Rank.     n.    Class,  degree,  position. 
Ransom.      ».      Free,  redeem,   manumit. 
Anto.,  imprison. 

Rapacious,  adj.  Greedy,  ravenous,  vo- 
racious.    Anto.,  generous. 

Rapidity,  n.  Agility,  celerity,  fleetness, 
speed,  swiftness,  velocity.    Ante,  sloth. 

Rapt.  adj.  Charmed,  delighted,  enrapt- 
ured, fascinated,  entranced,  transported,  rav- 
ished.    Anto.,  dejected. 

Rapture,  n.  Ecstacy,  transport.  Anto., 
dejection. 

Rare.  adf.  1.  Excellent,  incomparable, 
a.  Raw.  3.  Thin.  4.  Scarce,  singular,  uncom- 
mon.   Anto.,  1,4.  Common.    3.  Dense. 

Rash.  adj.  Impulsive,  hasty,  heedless, 
headlong,  reckless,  precipitate.  Anto.,  cal- 
culating. 

Rate.  n.  Assessment,  degree,  proportion, 
price,  quota,  ratio,  value. 

Rational,   adj.   1.  Sane.  3.  Sensible,  wise, 
intelligent.  3.  Reasonable.    Anto.,  irrational. 
Ravenous,      adj.     Greedy,  rapacious,  vo« 
racious.    Anto.,  generous. 

Refer,  v.  1.  Allude,  suggest,  hint,  inti- 
mate.    3.  Appeal.     3.  Bear,  Dring. 

Refined,  adj.  1.  Accomplished,  cultur- 
ed, polite,  polished,  elegant,  courtly.  3.  Puri- 
fied. 3.  Pure,  chaste,  classic,  exquisite, Attic. 
Anto.,  coarse. 

Reflect,  v.  Consider,  censure,  muse,  pon- 
der, reproach,  think. 

Reform,  v.  Amend,  better,  correct,  im- 
prove, rectify.     Anto.,  injure,  mar. 

Refractory,      adj.      Contumacious,   per. 
verse,    ungovernable,    unruly.     Anto.,    obe- 
dient. 
Refrain,  v.  Abstain,  forbear,  spare. 
Refresh,     v.     Cool,    renew,    invigorate, 
revive.     Anto.,  tire. 

Refute,  v.  Disprove,  oppugn.  Anto., 
accept. 

Regale,  v.  Entertain,  feast,  gratify,  re- 
fresh. 

Regard,  n.  1.  Concern,  esteem,  respect, 
liking,  affection,  a.  Relation,  reference.  3. 
Consideration,  heed.    Ante,  contempt. 


Regardless,  adj.  Heedless,  indifferent, 
negligent,  unconcerned,  unobservant.  Anto., 
Observant. 

Region,  n.  1.  District,  clime,  territory. 
3.  Portion,  part. 

Regre t .  v.  Complain,  grieve,  lament,  re  • 
pent.    Anto.,  rejoice. 

Regulate,  v.  Adjust,  direct,  rule,  dis- 
pose, govern,  plan.     Anto.,  disorder. 

Reiterate,  v.  Repeat  again,  quote,  re- 
cite.    Anto.,  retract. 

Rehearse,  v.  1.  Recapitulate.  2.  Recite, 
repeat. 

Reject,  v.  Refuse,  repel,  decline.  2. 
Discard.      Anto.,  accept. 

Rejoice,  v.  Triumph,  exult,  glory.  Anto., 
lament. 

Rejoinder.  ».  Answer,  reply,  replica- 
tion, response. 

Relevant,  adj.  Apposite,  fit,  pertinent, 
proper,  suitable  to  the  purpose.  Anto.,  ir- 
relevant. 

Reliance,  n.  Confidence,  dependence, 
repose,  trust.    Anto.,  suspicion. 

Relieve,  v.  Aid,  alleviate,  assist,  help, 
mitigate,  succor.    Anto.,  injure,  despoil. 

Religious,  adj.  Devout,  holy,  pious.  An- 
to.,  profane. 

Reluctant,  adj.  Disinclined,  unwilling, 
indisposed,  loth,  averse.    Anto.,  willing. 

Remain,  v.  Abide,  await,  continue,  so- 
journ, stay,  tarry.    Anto.,  depart. 

Remainder,  n.  Remnant,  residue,  rest. 

Remains.     «.     Leavings,  relics,  manes. 

Remark,  n.  Annotation,  observation, 
note,  comment. 

Reminiscence,  n.  Remembrance,  recol- 
lection, memoir. 

Remiss,  adj.  1.  Careless,  negligent,  in- 
attentive. 2.  Slow,  slack,  dilatory.  Anto., 
careful. 

Remit,  v.  1.  Abate,  relax.  2.  Absolve, 
forgive,  liberate,  pardon.    3.  Transmit. 

Remorse,  n.  Compunction,  sorrow, 
penitence,  conviction.    Anto.,  callousness. 

Renegade,    n.    1.  Turncoat,  apostate. 

Renew,  v.  Refresh,  renovate,  revive. 
Anto.,  wear  out. 

Renounce,  v.  Abandon,  abdicate,  fore- 
go, quit,  relinquish,  resign.    Anto.,  keep. 

Renovate,  v.  Restore,  renew,  revive, 
resuscitate. 

Renown,  n.  Celebrity,  fame,  reputation, 
distinction.    Anto.,  infamy. 

Renunciation,  n.  1.  Abandonment, 
surrender.  2.  Abnegation,  rejection,  repu- 
diation. 

Repair,  v.  Recover,  restore,  retrieve. 
Anto.,  destroy. 

Reparation,  n.  Anv.nds,  restoration, 
restitution.     Anto.,  injury. 

Repartee,     n.    Reply,  retort. 

Repeal,  v.  Abolish,  abrogate,  annul, 
cancel,  destroy,  revoke.     Anto.,  reenact. 

Repel,  v.  Repulse,  drive  back.  2.  With- 
stand, resist,  confront,  oppose,  check.  Anto., 
attract. 

Repetition,    adj.    Recital,  tautology. 

Replenish,  v.  Fill,  refill,  supply.  Anto., 
empty. 

Repose,  n.  Ease,  quiet,  rest,  sleep.  Anto.% 
disquiet. 

Reprehensible,  adj.  Blamable,  censur- 
able, culpable,  rcprovable.  iin/o.,  commend- 
able. 

Reproach,  v.  Blame,  condemn,  censure, 
reprove,  upbraid.    Anto.,  commend. 

Reproof,  v.  Blame,  censure,  reprehen- 
sion.   Anto.,  praise. 

Reprove,  v*  Chide,  rebuke,  reprimand. 
Anto.,  praise. 

Repugnance,  n.  Antipathy,  aversion, 
dislike,  hatred.     Anto.,  liking. 

Repugnant,  adj.  Adverse,  contrary, 
li 0 itw ■,  inimical,  opposite, distasteful.  Anto., 
similar,  homogeneous. 

Repulsion,  n.  Power  of  repelling,  resist- 
ance.    Anto.,  attraction. 

Reputation,  n.  Character,  renown,  cred- 
it, fame,  honor,  repute.    Anto.,  notoriety. 

Request,  v.  Ask, beg, beseech,  demand, 
entreat,  implore,  solicit.    Anto.,  grant. 


Requisite.  adj.  Essential,  expedient, 
necessary.    Anto.,  unnecessary. 

Requite,  v.  1.  Compensate,  reward,  re- 
ciprocate.   2.     Avenge. 

Research,  n.  Examination,  enquiry,  in- 
vestigation, careful  scrutiny. 

Resemblance.  11.  Likeness,  similarity. 
Anto.,  unlikencss. 

Reservation,  n.  Reserve,  retention. 
Anto.,  donation. 

Reside,  v.  Abide,  inhabit,  sojourn, 
dwell,  live.     Anto.,  alienate. 

Residence,  n.  Abode,  domicile,  dwell- 
ing. 

Residue.     *.     Remainder,  remnant. 

Resign,  v.  Abdicate,  forego,  give  up, 
relinquish,  renounce.     Anto.,  retain. 

Resignation,  n.  Acquiescence,  endur- 
ance, patience,  submission.    Anto.,  rebellion, 

Resist,  v.  Confront,  oppose,  withstand, 
repel.    Anto.,  assist,  submit. 

Resolute,  adj.  Courageous, determined, 
fixed,  steady.     Anto.,  irresolute. 

Resolution,  n.  1.  Intention,  resolve,  a. 
Firmness,  constancy,  decision.  Anto.,  a. 
Irresolution,  weakness,  vacillation. 

Resort,    v.    Frequent, haunt. 

Resource.     n.     Expedient,  means,  resort. 

Respect,  n.  l.  Esteem,  regard,  rever- 
ence, veneration.  2.  Favor,  good  will.  j. 
Reference.    Anto.,  irreverence. 

Respect,  v.  Honor,  esteem,  regard, 
venerate.     Anto.,  dishonor,  disgrace. 

Respectful,  adj.  Civil,  dutiful,  obedient. 
Anto.,  uncivil. 

Respite,  n.  1.  Interval.  2.  Reprieve, 
suspension,  delay.     Anto.,  continuation. 

Response,  n.  Answer,  reply,  replication, 
rejoinder.     Anto.,  question. 

Responsible,  adj.  Accountable,  amen- 
able, answerable.     Anto.,  irresponsible. 

Rest.  at.  l.  Cessation,  ease,  intermis- 
sion, quiet,  repose,  stop,  pause.  2.  Remain- 
der, others.     Anto.,    1.  Motion,  unrest. 

Restless,  adj.  Unsettled,  unquiet,  roving. 
Anto.,  quirt. 

Restore,  v.  I.  Heal,  cure.  2.  Give  up, 
repay, return, render, replace.  Anto.,  2.  Keep. 

Restoration,  n.  Amends,  reparation, 
restitution.     Anto.,  retention. 

Restrain,  v.  Coerce,  constrain,  limit, 
repress,  restrict,  curb.    Anto.,  liberate. 

Restrict,  v.  Bound,  restrain,  limit,  con- 
fine.    Anto., free. 

Result,  n.  Consequence,  effect,  event. 
Issue. 

Resurrection,     n.    Rising  again. 

Retain,  v.  Detain,  hold,  reserve,  keep. 
Anto.,  yield. 

Retaliation,  n.  Reprisal,  repayment. 
Anto.,  pardon. 

Retard,  v.  Hinder,  obstruct,  delay, 
check,  impede.    Anto.,  hasten. 

Retire,  v.  Recede,  retreat, secede,  witk- 
draw.     ^Wo.,comc  forward,  approach. 

Retract,  r.  Abjure,  recall,  recant,  re- 
voke.   Anto.,  reiterate. 

Retrenchment.  *.  Diminution,  reduc- 
tion, curtailment.    Anto.,  increase. 

Retrieve.  V,  Regain,  recover.  Anfo.,\n*t. 

Retrogression,  n.  Rctrogradation,  go- 
ingbackward.     Anto.,  progression. 

Retrospect,  n.  Review,  re -survey.  Anto., 
forecast.  , 

Reveal,  v.  Discover  disclose,  divulge, 
communicate,  impart,  publish.  Anto.,  con- 
ceal. 

Revenge,  n.  Requital,  retaliation.  Anto., 
bfsivejMMi 

Revenue,  n.  Income,  receipts.  Anto., 
expenditure. 

Revere,  v.  Honor,  venerate,  adore,  rev- 
erence.    Anto.,  execrate. 

Reverse,  r.  Change,  subvert,  overturn, 
Anto.,  establish. 

Review  v.  Notice,  revise,  survey,  recon- 
nect. 

Revision,  n.  Review,  reconsideration, 
■ 

Revive,  v.  1.  Refresh,  quicken,  rouse, 
chrrr.  animate.     2.  Revivify. 

Revoke,  r.  Abolish,  abrogate,  annul, 
cancel,  repeal,  retract.    Anto.,  reiterate. 


/_ 


Hr 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


*fr 


77 


Reward.  n.  Compensation, recompense, 
remuneration,  requital,  satisfaction.  Anto., 
punishment. 

Riches,  n.  Fortune,  wealth,  affluence, 
opulence.    Ante,  poverty. 

Ridicule,  n.  Mockery,  derision,  sneer, 
sarcasm,  raillery,  satire.    Anto.,  sympathy. 

Ridiculous,  adj.  Absurd,  preposterous, 
droll,  ludicrous.    Anto.,  solemn,  funereal. 

Right,  adj.  True,  straight,  just,  proper, 
Anto.,  wrong. 

Right.  ».  Privilege,  claim,  immunity. 
Anto.,  disadvantage. 

Righteous,  adj.  Good,  honest,  virtuous, 
upright,  just,  devout,  religious,  pious,  holy, 
saintly.     Anto.,  bad. 

Rigid*  adj.  i.  Strict,  stern,  severe,  harsh, 
rigorous.  2.  Stiff ,  unpliant,  inflexible.  Anto., 
pliable. 

Rigorous,  adj.  1.  Rigid,  severe,  harsh, 
austere.  2.  Precise,  accurate,  exact.  Anto., 
lax. 

Ripe.  adj.  1.  Mature.  2.  Finished,  con- 
summate. 3.  Ready,  fit,  prepared.  Anto., 
green,  raw,  immature. 

Ripeness,  n.  Maturity,  perfection, 
growth.    Anto.,  immaturity. 

Rise.  n.  Increase,  ascent,  origin.  Anto., 
subsidence. 

Rite.    n.    Ceremony,  form,  observance. 

Rivalry.  ».  Contention,  emulation,  com- 
petition.   Anto.,  friendliness. 

Road.    n.    Course,  path,  way,  route. 

Roam*  v.  Ramble,  range,  wander,  rove, 
stroll. 

Robust,  adj.  Athletic,  stout,  strong, 
brawny,  stalwart,  hale,  mighty,  powerful. 
Anto., weak. 

Romance,  n.  Tale,  story,  novel,  fiction. 
Anto.,  history. 

Room.    n.    Apartment,  chamber,  space. 

Room.    v.    Lodge. 

Rough,  adj.  1.  Coarse, 'rude,  blunt,  un- 
gentle, churlish.  2.  Uneven.  3.  Unpol- 
ished.   Anto.,  smooth. 

Round,  adj.  Globular,  circular.  Anto., 
cubical. 

Round,  n.  1.  Circuit,  tour,  step.  2. 
Globe,  orb,  sphere.    Anto.,    2.  Cube. 

Roundness,  n.  Rotundness,  rotundity, 
circularity,  sphericity. 

Route.    n.    Road,  way,  course,  path. 

Rude.    adj.     See  Hough. 

Rudeness,  n.  1.  Roughness.  2.  Gruff- 
ness,  coarseness,  incivility,  churlishness.  3. 
Inelegance.     Anto.,  politeness,  urbanity. 

Rugged.  adj.  1.  Uneven,  irregular, 
rough.  2.  Harsh.  3.  Robust,  vigorous. 
Anto. j  smooth. 

Ruinous,  adj.  Baneful,  noxious,  des- 
tructive, calamitous.    Anto.,  helpful. 

Rule.  n.  1.  Law,  government,  com- 
mand. 2.  Maxim,  method,  precept.  3. 
Guide,  regulation.    Anto.,  lawlessness. 

Rule.  v.  1,  Govern,  control.  2.  Mark. 
Anto.,  rebel. 

Rumor.  «.  Talk,  gossip,  report,  news, 
bruit. 

Rupture.  «.  1.  Altercation,  quarrel, 
feud.    2.  Hernia.    3.  Fracture,  breach. 

Rural,  adj.  Country,  pastoral,  rustic. 
Anto.,  urbane. 

Ruse.    k.    Artifice,  fraud,  trick,  wile. 

Rustic,  n.  Clown,  peasant,  swain,  boor, 
lout,  bumpkin. 

Rustic,  adj.  1.  Uncouth,unpolished,aivk- 
wark,  rude.  2.  Country,  rural.  Anto., 
urban. 

Ruthless,  adj.  Cruel,  pitiless,  merciless, 
relentless,  savage,  inhuman.    Anto.,  pitiful. 

s 

Sacred,  adj.  Divine,  devoted,  holy. 
Anto.,  profane. 

Sad.  adj.  1.  Depressed,  sorrowful,  cheer- 
less, disconsolate.  2.  Dismal,  gloomy, 
mournful.    Anto.,  joyous. 

Safe,  adj.  1.  Guarded,  protected.  2. 
Sound,  secure.  3.  Reliable.  Anto..  dangerous. 

Sagacity.  «.  Acuteness,  discernment, 
penetration.    Anto.,  dulness. 


Sailor.  1*.  Mariner,  seaman.  Anto., 
landsman. 

Salary,    n.    Hire,  pay,  stipend,  wages. 

Sanction.  ».  1.  Countenance,  support. 
2.  Ratification,  confirmation.  Anto.,  rejec- 
tion, prohibition. 

Sane.  adj.  Sober,  lucid,  sound.  Anto., 
crazy. 

Sapient,  adj.  Sagacious,  wise,  discern- 
ing.   Anto.,  foolish. 

Sarcasm,    n.     Irony,  ridicule,  sati^p. 

Satiate,  v.  1.  Cloy,  glut.  2.  Satisfy, 
gratify.    Anto.,  hunger,  starve. 

Satisfaction,  n.  1.  Atonement.  2.  Con- 
tent. 3.  Remuneration,  reward.  Anto.,  dis- 
satisfaction. 

Satisfy,  v.  Gratify,  please.  2.  Glut, 
satiate,  cloy.    Anto.,  displease. 

Saving,  adj.  Thrifty,  economical,  fru- 
gal, sparing.    Anto.,  prodigal. 

Saying.  ».  1.  Remark,  observation, 
statement.  2.  Maxim,  proverb,  aphorism, 
adage,  saw. 

Scandal,  n.  Discredit,  disgrace,  infamy, 
reproach,  detraction.    Anto.,  praise. 

Scarce,  adj.  Singular,  rare,  uncommon. 
Anto.,  common. 

Scarcity.  n.  Want,  lack,  deficiency, 
dearth.    Anto.,  abundance. 

Search,  v.  Examine,  investigate,  en- 
quire, pursue,  scrutinize,  seek. 

Secede,  v.  Recede,  retire,  withdraw. 
Anto.,  return. 

Seclusion,  n.  Loneliness,  retirement, 
privacy,  solitude. 

Secondary,  adj.  Inferior,  subordinate, 
second.    Anto.,  primary. 

Secret,  adj.  Clandestine,  covered,  hid- 
den, concealed,  latent,  mysterious.  Anto., 
open. 

Secular,  adj.  Temporal,  worldly.  Anio., 
religious. 

Secure,  v.  1.  Be  certain,  guard,  make 
sure.    2.  Guarantee.    Anto.,  lose. 

Sedate,  adj.  Calm,  composed,  quiet, 
still,  serene,  unruffled.    Anto.,  lively. 

Seduce,  v.  Allure,  attract,  decoy,  Anto., 
repel. 

See.  v.  Behold,  eye,  look,  observe,  per- 
ceive, view. 

Seek.  v.  1.  Search  for,  ask  for.  2.  Strive, 
try,  endeavor.    Anto.,  lose. 

Sell.  v.  Vend,  barter,  dispose  of.  Anto., 
buy. 

Senile,  adj.  Aged,  old,  infirm.  Anto., 
juvenile. 

Sensation,  n.  Perception,  sentiment, 
feeling. 

Sense.  «.  Feeling,  judgment,  import, 
meaning,  reason. 

Sensibility,  n.  Delicacy,  feeling,  sus- 
ceptibility. 

Sensitive,  adj.  1.  Impressible,  easily  af- 
fected.   2.  Perceptive.    Anto.,  callous. 

Sentence.  «.  Decision,  judgment,  period, 
phrase,  proposition. 

Sentiment,  n.  Feeling,  notion,  opinion, 
sensation.    Anto.,  insensibility. 

Sentimental,      adj.      Romantic.     Anto., 


prosaic. 

Separate,  v. 
disunite,  isolate. 
join. 


1.  Disjoin,  divide,  detach, 

2.  Cleave,     sever.    Anto., 


Serious,  adj.  1.  Weighty,  momentous. 
2.  Sober,  grave,  solemn,  earnest.  Anto.,  jo- 
cose. 

Servile,  adj.  Fawning,  mean,  slavish. 
Anto.,  free. 

Settle,  v.  Adjust,  arrange,  determine, 
establish,  regulate, fix.    Anto.,  unsettle. 

Settled,  adj.  Conclusive,  confirmed,  de- 
cisive, definitive,  established.  Anto.,  unset- 
tled. 

Sever,  v.  Detach,  disjoin,  divide,  separ- 
ate.   Anto.,  join. 

Several,  adj.  Different,  distinct,  diverse, 
sundry,  various. 

Severe,  adj.  Austere,  cruel,  harsh,  rigid, 
rigorous,  rough,  sharp,  strict,  unyielding, 
stern.    Anto.,  mild. 

Severity.  n.  I.  Austerity,  rigor,  stern- 
ness. 2.  Keenness,  causticity.  3.  Violence, 
Anto.,  mildness. 


Shake,  v.  Agitate,  quake,  quiver,  shiver, 
shudder,  totter,  tremble.    Auto.,  steady. 

Shallow,  adj.  1.  Shoal.  2.  Frivolous, 
flimsy,  trivial.  3.  Superficial,  ignorant.  Anto., 
deep. 

Shame.  ».  Disgrace,  dishonor,  ignominy, 
reproach .     Anto. ,  honor. 

Shameless,  adj.  Immodest,  impudent, 
indecent,  indelicate.    Anto.,  modest. 

Shape,    v.    Fashion,  form,  mould. 

Share,  v.  Apportion,  distribute,  divide, 
partake,  participate. 

Share,    n.    Dividend,  part.    Anto.,  whole. 

Sharpness.  n.  Acrimony,  acuteness, 
penetration,  shrewdness,  sagacity.  Anto., 
dulness. 

Shelter,    n.    Asylum,  refuge,  retreat. 

Shelter,  v.  Cover,  defend,  harbor,  lodge, 
protect,  screen.    Anto.,  cast  forth. 

Shine,  v.  Gleam,  glare,  glisten,  glitter, 
Anto.,  darken. 

Shining,  adj.  I,  Brilliant,  glittering, 
radiant,  sparkling.  2.  Bright,  splendid,  re- 
splendent.   Anto.,  dark,  dim. 

Shock,  v.  1.  Affright,  terrify.  3.  Appal, 
disturb,  dismay.  3.  Offend,  disgust.  Anto., 
encourage,  inspirit. 

Shocking,  adj.  Dreadful,  disgusting, 
terrible.    Anto.,  pleasant. 

Short,  adj.  1.  Defective,  scanty,  want- 
ing. 2.  Brief,  concise,  compendious,  laconic, 
succinct,  summary.   Anto.,  long. 

Shorten,  v.  1.  Abridge,  abbreviate,  re- 
trench.   2.  Diminish.    Anto.,  extend. 

Show.  n.  1.  Display,  parade,  pomp.  2. 
Exhibition,  representation,  sight,  spectacle. 

Show.  v.  Display,  exhibit,  parade.  Anto., 
hide,  cover. 

Showy,  adj.  Gay,  gorgeous,  gaudy, 
flaunting,  garisn.  2.  Pompous,  ostentatious, 
magnificent.     Anto.,  simple,  plain. 

Shrewd,  adj.  Acute,  keen,  penetrating, 
artful,  sly,  sagacious.    Anto.,  dull. 

Shudder,  v.  Shrink,  shake,  quake, 
quiver. 

Shun,  v.  Avoid,  elude,  evade,  eschew. 
Anto.,  seek. 

Sickly,  adj.  Diseased,  ill,  indisposed, 
morbid,  sick,  unwell.    Anto.,  healthy. 

Sign.  x.  1.  Mark,  note,  symptom,  prog- 
nostic, presage,  signal.  2.  Omen,  token,  sym- 
bol. 

Signify,  v.  1.  Betoken,  declare,  express, 
intimate,  testify,  utter.    2.  Denote,  imply. 

Significant,  adj.  1.  Indicative,  ex'pres- 
sive,  betokening.  2.  Momentous.  Anto., 
common,  usual. 

Silence,  n.  Stilness,  taciturnity,  mute- 
ness, oblivion.     Anto.,  sound,  noise. 

Silence,    v.     Still,  stop,  appease. 

Silent,  adj.  1.  Dumb,  mute,  speechless. 
a.  Still,  quiet.     Anto.,  noisy. 

Silly,  adj.  Absurd,  foolish,  simple,  stupid, 
weak,  dull.     Anto.,  sedate. 

Similarity,  n.  Likeness,  resemblance, 
similitude.     Anto.,  unlikencss. 

Simile,     n.     Comparison,  similitude. 

Simple,  adj.  I.  Elementary,  single,  not 
complex.  2.  Open,  artless,  sincere.  3.  Plain. 
4.  Silly.    Anto.,  complex,  artful. 

Simplicity.  «.  Artlessness,  plainness, 
singleness.    2.  Folly.    Anto.,  artfulness. 

Simply,  adv.  I.  Merely,  only,  solely.  2. 
Artlessly. 

Since,  conj.  As,  because,  for,  insomuch 
as. 

Sincere,     adj.      1.    Frank,  honest,  plain, 

?;enuine.  2.  True,  upright,  incorrupt.  Anto., 
alse. 

Sinewy,    adj.     See  Robust. 

Single,  adj.  1.  Unmarried.  2.  Alone, 
solitary.  3.  Particular,  individual.  Anto., 
married,  double,  several. 

Singular,  adj.  1.  Odd,  strange,  uncom- 
mon, rare.  2.  Peculiar,  exceptional.  Anto., 
customary,  usual. 

Situation,  n.  1.  Case,  plight,  predica- 
ment, condition,  2.  Locality,  place,  position, 
site. 

Skilful,  adj.  Clever,  skilled,  knowing, 
intelligent,  ready,  adroit,  quick.  Anto.,  un- 
skilful. 


^i*r 


78 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


"7[ 


1& 


Slander,  v.  Asperse,  blacken,  defame, 
traduce,  libel.    Auto.,  praise. 

Slavery,  n.  Bondage,  captivity,  scrvi- 
tiidc,  drudgery.    Auto.,  freedom. 

Slender,  adj.  I,  Fragile, slight.  a.  Slim, 
thin.    3.  Limited.    Auto.,  thick. 

Slight,  adj.  i.  Cursory,  desultory,  super- 
ficial, a.  SJim,  weak.  Anto.,  i.  careful.  2. 
solid. 

Slight,  v.  Neglect,  scorn.  Anto.,  notice, 
commend. 

Slow.  adj.  i.  Deliberate.  2.  Heavy, 
dull,  stupid.    3.  Sluggish.     Anto.,  quick. 

Small,  adj.  1.  Little,  diminutive,  stunted, 
tiny.  2.  Minute,  microscopic.  3.  Narrow, 
illiberal.    Anto.,  large,  great. 

Smell,  n.  Fragrance,  odor,  perfume, 
scent,  stench. 

Smooth,  adj.  1.  Bland,  mild,  easy.  2. 
Even,  level.    Anto.,  rough. 

Smother,  v.  1.  Stifle,  suffocate.  2.  Sup- 
press. 

Snarling,    adj.    Cynical,  snappish,  wasp- 
Sober,     adj.     1.   Abstemious,  abstinent, 
temperate,  moderate.     2.  Grave.     Anto.,  in 
temperate,  gay. 

Sobriety.  ».  1.  Abstinence,  temperance. 
2.  Coolness,  soberness,  gravity.  Anto.,  in- 
temperance, intoxication. 

Social,  v.  Companionable,  conversable, 
familiar,  sociable,  convivial.   Anto.,  unsocial. 

Society,  adj.  1.  Company,  association, 
fellowship,  corporation.     2.  The  public. 

Soft.  adj.  I.  Compliant,  ductile  flexible, 
tractable,  pliant,  yielding.  2.  Mild,  docile, 
gentle.     Anto.,  hard. 

Soiled,  adj.  Stained,  spotted,  tarnished, 
defiled,  polluted.    Anto.,  clean,  pure. 

Solicit,  v.  1.  Ask,  request.  2.  Beg,  en. 
treat,  implore.  3.  Beseech,  supplicate.  Anto., 
give. 

Solicitation.  «.  1.  Importunity,  entreaty. 
2.  Invitation.    Anto.,  offering. 

Solicitude,  n.  Anxiety,  carefulness,  trou- 
ble.    Anto.,  carelessness. 

Solid,  adj.  Firm,  hard,  stable,  substan- 
tial.   Anto.,  unstable. 

Solitary,  adj.  1.  Alone,  retired,  sole.  2. 
Desolate,  deserted,  remote.  3.  Lonely,  only. 
Anto.,  crowded. 

Sombre,  adj.  1.  Dark,  shadv,  dusky, 
sunless.  2.  Sad,  doleful,  mournful'.  Anto.. 
gay,  bright. 

Soothe,  v.  1.  Allay,  lessen,  mitigate, 
ease.  a.  Quiet,  compose,  pacify,  appease. 
Anto.,  irritate.  .•  —rw 

Sorrow.  «.  j.  Grief,  affliction,  trouble, 
sadness.    2.  Regret.    Auto.,  Joy, 

Sort.  n.  1.  Kind,  species.  2.  Order, 
rank.    3,  Manner. 

Sound,  adj.  1.  Heartv,  healthy,  sane.  2. 
intirc,  perfect,  unhurt.    Anto.,  ill.  1 

Sound,  (i.  1.  Tone,  noise,  report.  2. 
Strait.    Anlo.f  silence. 

Sour.  adj.  Acid,  acrimonious,  acctose. 
acetous,  sharp,  tart.    Auto.,  sweet. 

Source.  «.  Cause,  fountain,  origin,  rea- 
son, spring.  ° 

Spacious,  adj.  Ample,  capacious.  Anto.. 
•mul,  ' 

Sparkle,  v.  1.  Twinkle,  glitter,  glisten, 
scintillate,  corruscate.  2.  Bubble,  effervesce! 
Anto.,  darken. 

Speak.  v.  Articulate,  converse,  dis- 
course, pronounce, say, talk,  tell,  utter.  Anto., 
silence. 

Speaking,  n.  1.  Elocution.dcclamation. 
oratory,    a.  Discourse,  talk. 

Species.    tt.    Class,  kind,  sort,  race. 

Specific,  adj.  Particular,  special,  definite. 
Anto.,  indefinite. 

Specimen.  ».  Model,  pattern,  sample, 
example.  '     ' 

Specious,  adj.  Colorable, feasible, ostens. 
lolj,  plausible,  showv.      Anto.,  real, genuine. 

Spectator,  n.  Bcholdcr.'bystandcr,  ob- 
server. *  ' 

Speculation.  ».  Conjecture,  scheme, 
theory. 

Speech.  ».  1.  Talk.  a.  Language,  dia- 
lect. 3.  Address,  discourse,  harangue,  ora- 
tion. 


k. 


Speechless,      adj.      Dumb,  mute,  silent 

Spend,  v.  Dissipate,  exhaust,  lay  out. 
expend,  squander,  waste,  consume.  Anto., 
save. 

Sphere.  n.  Circle,  globe,  orb.  Anto., 
cube. 

Spill,  v.  Pour,  shed,  waste.  Anto.,  nil, 
gather. 

Spirit,  n.  \.  Ardor,  breath,  courage, 
temper.    3.  Ghost,  soul.     Auto.,  mortal. 

Spirited,  adj.  Active,  animated,  ardent, 
lively,  vivacious.    Anto.,  stupid. 

Spiritless,  adj.  I.  Dull,  cold,  apathetic, 
feeble,  soulless.  2.  Dejected,  downcast,  x. 
Stupid,  heavy,  prosy,  insipid.  Anto.,  spirited. 

Spirits,  n.  Animation,  courage,  life,  vi- 
vacity.   Anto.,  dullness. 

Spiritual,  adj.  Ecclesiastical,  Imma- 
terial, incorporeal,  unearthly,  heavenly. 
Anto.,  worldly,  terrestrial. 

Spite,  n.  Grudge,  malice,  malignity, 
malevolence,  pique,  rancor.  Anto.,  forgive- 
ness. 

Spite,  v.  Anger,  vex,  thwart.  Anlo.x 
pardon,  please. 

Splendid,  adj.  1.  Showy,  sumptuous, 
gorgeous,  magnificent,  superb,  a.  Beaming, 
radiant,  glowing,  effulgent,  brilliant.  3.  No- 
ble, heroic.  4.  Glorious,  eminent.  Anto., 
mean,  dull,  low. 

Splendor.  ».  Brightness,  brilliancy,  lus- 
tre, magnificence,  pomp,  pageantry.  Anto., 
dullness,  poverty. 

Splenetic,  adj.  1.  Fretful,  peevish.  3, 
Gloomy,  morose,  sullen.    Anto.,  amicable. 

Sport,  n.  1.  Amusement,  game,  pastime, 
play.    2.  Diversion,  recreation.    Anto.,  work. 

Spotless,  adj.  1.  Blameless,  faultless, 
stainless.  2.  Unblemished,  unspotted.  3. 
Innocent.     Anto.,  stained. 

Spread,  v.  1.  Circulate,  disseminate, 
distribute,  scatter.  2.  Disperse,  dispense.  3. 
Propagate,  diffuse.    Anto.,  collect. 

Spring*  v.  1.  Emanate,  flow,  proceed, 
issue.    2.  Arise,  start,  leap. 

Sprinkle,    v.     Bedew,  scatter,  besprinkle. 

Sprout,     v.    Bud,  germinate,  shoot  out. 

Squander.  :■.  Expend,  spend,  lose,  lavish, 
dissipate,  waste.    Anto., cArn,  husband. 

Stability.  ».  Firmness,  steadiness,  fixed- 
ness. Anto.,  instability,  unstableness,  incon- 
stancy, fickleness. 

Stain,  v.  I.  Foul,  soil,  sully,  tarnish, 
blot,  spot.    2.  Color,  tinge.     Anto.,  clean. 

Stain.  n.  1.  Color,  discolor.  2.  Dye, 
tinge.    3.  Flaw,  speck,  spot,  blemish,  blot. 

Stale,  adj.  1.  Old,  faded.  2.  Common, 
trite.  3.  Vapid,  flat,  musty,  insipid.  Anto., 
new,  fresh. 

Stammer,    v.    Falter,  hesitate,  stutter. 

Stamp,     n.    Print,  mark,  impression. 

Standard,    n.    Criterion,  rule,  test. 

Standard,  adj.  1.  Legal,  usual,  ap- 
proved.   2.  Banner.    Anto.,  unusual. 

.state,  n.  Condition,  position,  situation, 
predicament,  plight. 

Station,  n.  Post,  place,  position,  situ- 
ation. 

Stay.  v.  1.  Prop,  support,  a.  Abide, 
continue,  remain.  3.  Delay,  hinder,  stop.  4. 
Support. 

Steadfast,  adj.  Firm, constant, resolute. 
Anto.,  shaky. 

Steal,  v.  1.  Pilfer,  purloin,  poach,  em- 
bezzle.   2.  Win,  grain,  allure.    Anto.,  lose. 

Stench,  n.  Bad  smell,  stink.  Anto., 
frurraaoe,  perfume. 

Sterling,  adj.  Real,  genuine,  true,  pure. 
Anto.,  false,  counterfeit. 

Sterility,  «.  Barrenness,  unfruitfulness, 
ar   litv.     Anto.,  fnntfulncss. 

Stern,  adj.  Austere,  rigid,  rigorous,  sc- 
not.    Anfo.,mi)i\. 

Sticking,  adj.  Adherent,  adhesive,  ten- 
acious. 

Stil!.  n.  1.  Allay,  appease,  assuage,  a. 
Calm,  lull,  quiet,  silence,  pacify.  Anto.,  en- 
rage, move,  disturb. 

stimulate,  v.  Animate,  excite,  inci'c, 
IIOQNi  knulle,  fire.      Anto,,  dtfM 

Stingy.  ,1.7,  Close,  mean,  miserlv,  nig- 
gardly, penurious,  sordid.      Anto..  get 

Stork,  n.  1.  Accumulation,  fund,  hoard, 
provisions,  store,  4upply.    2.  Cattle. 


Stole,  n.  Follower  of  Zeno.  Anto.,  epi- 
curean. 

Stoop,  v.  Bend,  condescend,  submit. 
Anto.,  straighten. 

Stop.  n.  Cessation,  intermission,  rest. 
Anto.,  continuance. 

Stop.  v.  Check, hinder,  impede.  Antc.zld. 

Stormy,  adj.  1.  Gusty,  squally,  tem- 
pestuous, boisterous.  2.  Rough,  passionate. 
Anto.,  calm. 

Story,  n.  Anecdote,  incident,  memoir, 
tale. 

Stout,     adj.     See  Strong,  Robust. 

Strait,  adj.  1.  Close,  narrow.  2.  Strict. 
Anto.,  wide,  loose. 

Strange.  Adj.  Curious,  eccentric,  odd. lin- 
gular, surprising,  wonderful,  foreign,  unusu- 
al.    Anto.,  usual. 

Stratagem,  n.  Device,  artifice,  ruse, 
dodge,  trick.     Anto.,  simplicity. 

Strength,  n.  1.  Authority.  2.  Force, 
might,  power,  potency.     Anto.,  weakness. 

Strenuously,  adv.  Ardently,  realously, 
earnestly,  vigorously.    Anto.,  weakly,  feebly. 

Strict,  adj.  Accurate,  exact,  nice,  par- 
ticular, precise, rigorous, scvere,stern.  Anto., 
lenient. 

Stricture,  n.  Animadversion,  censure, 
contraction, criticism.   Anto., commendation, 

Strife,  n.  Contention,  contest,  dissension, 
discord.     Anto.,  peace. 

Strong,  adj.  1.  Efficient,  powerful,  po- 
tent, rnightv.  2.  Athletic,  stalwart,  robust, 
stout.  3.  Forcible,  cogent.  4.  Tough,  tena- 
cious.   Anto.,  feeble,  weak. 

Structure,  n.  t.  Make,  construction, 
textare.    2.  Building,  pile,  edifice. 

Stubborn,  adj.  Wilful,  obstinate,  mulish, 
perverse,  obdurate,  cantankerous,  Anto., 
docile. 

Stupid,  adj.  1.  Sleepy,  drowsy,  torpid. 
2.  Flat,  heavv,  insipid,  humdrum.  3.  Dull, 
obtuse,  foolish,  witless,  daft.    Anto.,  shrewd. 

Style,  n.  Manner,  mode,  phraseology, 
diction. 

Style,  v.  Characterize,  designate,  de- 
nominate, entitle,  name. 

Subdue,  t.  1.  Defeat,  conquer,  van* 
quish,  overwhelm.  2.  Subject,  control.  Anto., 
submit. 

Subject,  adj.  Exposed,  liable,  subser- 
vient.    ^w*V.,shicUled,  secured. 

Subject.     «.    Object,  matter,  material. 

Subject,    v.    Subdue,  subjugate. 

Sublime  adj.  Elevated,  exalted, grand, 
great,  lofty,  majestic,  high.  Anto.,  mean, 
low,  base. 

Submissive,  adj.  Compliant,  obedient, 
humble,  yielding.    Anto.,  rebellious. 

Submission,  n.  1.  Compliance,  obedi- 
ence, meekness,  humility,  a.  Forbearance, 
endurance.     Anto.,  revolt. 

Subordinate.  ».  Inferior,  dependent. 
Anto.,  superior; 

Suborn,    r.    Forswear,   perjure.     Anto., 

verify. 

Subsequent,    ad/.      1.    After,    following. 
rior.  consequent.     Anto.,  preceding. 

Subservient,  adj.  1.  Inferior,  subordin- 
ate.    2.  Subject,     Anto.,  superior. 

Subside,  v.  1.  Abate,  sink.  2.  Intermit. 
Anto.,  rise. 

Subsistence.     *.    See  Sustenance. 

Substantial,  adj.  1.  Responsible.  2. 
Solid,  stout,  strong.    Anto,,  unstable. 

Substantiate,     r.     Ptot*.  establish,  cor 
ite,  verify.     Anto.,  dispro\  e. 

>.ibMitiitc.   ;.    Change,  exchange.  Anto., 

subterfuge.  *.  1.  Evasion,  shift.  2. 
Quirk,  trick. 

subtile,  adj.  1.  Fine,  delicate,  nice.  a. 
Thin,  rare,  ethereal.     Anto.,  coarse,  rough. 

Subtle  mdf,  1  Keen,  sagacious,  pro» 
found.  2.  Artful,  sly,  astute,  crafty.  Anto., 
1.  Dull.    2.  Open. 

subtract,  v.  Deduct,  withdraw.  Anto., 
add. 

Subvert,  r.  1.  Invert,  reverse,  a.  Over- 
turn, overthrow.    Anto.,  maintain,  build. 

Successful,  adj.  Fortunate,  lucky,  pros- 
perous.    Anto.,  unsuccessful. 

sin-cession,  n.  Order,  scries.  Anto., 
disorder. 


^ 


«e ^ 


TT 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


7? 


79 


£ 


1 


Succinct,  oc^'.  Brief,  concise,  terse,  com- 
pact.   Auto.,  verbose. 

Succor,  v.  Aid,  help,  assist,  relieve. 
Auto.,  injure,  harry,  mar. 

Sudden,  adj.  Hasty,  unanticipated,  un- 
expected, unlooked-for.     Anto.,  slow. 

Suffor.  v.  i.  Allow,  permit,  tolerate.  2. 
Endure,  bear. 

S-.iifjcate.    v.    Choke,  smother,  stifle. 

Sufficient,  adj.  1.  Adequate,  enough. 
2.  Competent.    Auto.,  want. 

Suffrage.     n.     1.  Aid,  voice.    2.  Vote. 

S.i^rgest.  v.  Allude,  hint,  insinuate,  in- 
timate. 

<  Suggestion,    «.    Hint,  allusion,  intima- 
tion, insinuation. 

Suitable,  adj.  1.  Agreeable,  becoming. 
2.  Apt,  (it,  expedient.    Anto.,  unfit. 

Suitor,  n.  1,  Lover,  wooer.  2.  Peti- 
tioner. 

Summary.  «.  Abstract,  compendium, 
digest,  synopsis,  epitome. 

Summon,  v.  Bid,  call,  cite,  invite.  Anto., 
send. 

Sundry,  adj.  1.  Different,  diverse.  2. 
Several,  various.    Anto.,  single. 

Superficial,  adj.  Flimsy,  shallow,  slight. 
Anto.,  thorough. 

Supersede,  v.  1.  Supplant,  displace. 
2.  Annult  suspend. 

Supplicate,  v.  Ask,  beg,  beseech,  en- 
treat, implore,  solicit.     Anto.,  command. 

Support.  v.  Assist,  cherish,  defend,  en- 
dure, encourage,  favor,  forward,  maintain, 
nurture,  patronize,  'protect,  prop,  sustain, 
stay,  second,  uphold.     Anto.,  destroy,  injure. 

Suppose,  v.  Consider,  imagine,  appre- 
hend, presume,  think,  believe. 

Supreme,  adj.  Paramount,  first,  prin- 
cipal, chief,  highest,  greatest.  Anto.,  sec- 
ondary. 

Sure.  adj.  Certain,  confident,  infallible. 
Anto.,  uncertain. 

Surface,  n.  Outside,  superficies.  Anto., 
interior. 

Surly,  adj.  Morose,  touchy,  cross,  fret- 
ful, peevish,  cynical,  rude.    Anto.,  amiable. 

Surmise,  v.  Believe,  conjecture,  pre- 
sume, suppose,  suspect,  think.    Anto., coubt. 

Surmour/t.  v.  Conquer,  overcome,  rise 
above,  subdue,  vanquish.     Anto.,  yield. 

Surpass,  v.  Excel,  exceed,  outdo,  out- 
strip.   Anto.,  fall  short. 

Surprise,  n.  Admiration,  amazement,  as- 
tonishment, wonder.     Anto.,  habit,  use. 

Surrender,  v.  Cede,  deliver,  give  up, 
.resign,  yield.     Anto.,  taket 

Surround,  v.  Beset,  encircle,  encompass, 
environ,  enclose,  invest. 

Survey,    n.    Prospect,  retrospect,  review. 

Suspense,  n.  Doubt,  in  determination, 
hesitation.    Anto.,  certainty. 

Suspicion.  «.  Distrust,  jealousy.  Anto. 
trust. 

Sustain,     v.     See  Support. 

Sustenance.  «.  Living,  maintenance, 
livelihood,  subsistence,  support. 

Swarm,  n.  Crowd,  throng,  multitude, 
concourse.    Anto.,  few. 

Sweetheart,  n.  Admirer,  beau,  lover, 
wooer.    2.  Flame,  lady-love. 

Sweetness.  ».  1.  Beauty,  loveliness.  2. 
Agreeableness.  3.  Mildness,  gentleness, 
amiability.    Anto.%  bitterness,  sourness. 

Swiftness,  w.  1.  Celerity,  rapiditv,  fleet- 
ness,  speed,  velocity.    Anto.,  slowness. 

Swiftly,  adv.  Speedily,  post-haste,  quick- 
ly, apace.    Auto.,  slowly. 

Sycophant.    ».    Toady,  fawner,  parasite. 

Symbol.    «.    Token,  sign,  figure,  emblem. 

Symmotry.  «.  Harmony,  proportion. 
Aito.,  mharmony. 

Sympathy.  ».  1.  Pity,  kindness,  com- 
passion, condolence,  commiseration,  fellow- 
feeling.  2.  Harmony,  affinitv,  correlation.  3. 
Agreement.  Anto.,  apathy,  mercilessness, 
cruelty. 

Symptom.  ».  Indication,  mark,  note. 
Sign,  token. 

Synopsis.     n.     See  Summary. 

System.  «.  Method 'order,  scheme.  Anto., 
confusion. 

Systematize.  Arrange,  order,  regulate, 
methodize.    Anto.,  disarrange. 


Table.  ».  1.  Board.  2.  Repast,  food, 
fare.    ^.  List,  index,  catalogue. 

Tacit,  adj.  Implied,  silent,  inferred,  un- 
derstood.    Anto.,  spoken,  expressed. 

Taciturnity.  ;/.  Reserve,  reticence,  close- 
ness.   Anto.,  loquacity. 

Tact.  «.  Adroitness,  skill,  quickness, 
judgment.    Anto.,  awkwardness,  gaucherie. 

'Talent.  ».  Ability,  capability,  faculty, 
endowment,  gift. 

Talk.  n.  Chat,  -ommunication,  confer- 
ence, colloquy,  conversation,  dialogue,  dis- 
course.   Anto.,  silence.  ■ 

Talk.  v.  Chat,  converse,  discourse,  speak, 
state,  tell.    Anto.,  silence. 

Talkativeness.  ».  Loquacity,  garrulity. 
Anto.,  taciturnity. 

Tally,  v.  Accord,  agree,  match,  com- 
port, harmonize. 

Tantalize,  v.  1.  Aggravate,  irritate,  pro- 
voke, tease,  torment.  2.  Taunt.  Anto.,  p*lcase, 
harmonize,  gladden. 

Taste,  n.  1.  Discernment,  judgment,  per- 
ception.   2.  Flavor,  relish,  savor. 

Tattler.  ».  Gossip,  prattler,  babbler, 
gadabout. 

Taunt,  v.  Deride,  mock,  ridicule,  jeer, 
flout.    Anto.,  praise,  commend. 

Tax.  ».  1,  Assessment,  custom,  duty,  toll, 
rate.    2.  Contribution,  tribute. 

Teacher.     ».     See  Schoolmaster, 

Tedious,  adj.  Dilatory,  slow,  tiresome, 
tardy,  wearisome.     Anto.,  prompt- 

Tell.  v.  Acquaint,  communicate,  dis- 
close, impart,  inform,  mention,  make  known, 
report,  reveal,  talk.     Anto.,  listen. 

Temerity,  n.  Heedlessness,  rashness, 
precipitancy.     Anto.,  caution. 

Temper,    n.     Disposition,  temperament. 

2.  Humor,  mood.    3.  Frame. 
Temperate,   adj.   Abstinent,  abstemious, 

moderate,  sober.    Anto.,  immoderate. 

Tempest,  n.  1.  Storm,  gale,  squall,  hur- 
ricane, tornado.  2.  Tumult,  disturbance. 
Anto.,  calm. 

Tempt,  v.  1.  Allure,  entice,  induce,  de- 
coy, seduce,  inveigle.    2.  Incline,  provoke. 

3.  Test,  try,  prove. 

Temporal,  adj.  1.  Secular,  worldly.  2. 
Sublunary.     Anto.,  spiritual,  eternal. 

Temporary,  adj.  1.  Transient,  transi- 
tory.    2.  Fleeting.     Anto.,  permanent. 

Tendency,  n.  \.  Inclination,  propensity, 
pronencss.  2.  Drift,  scope.  3.  Aim.  Anto.t 
disinclination. 

Tender,  adj.  1.  Kind,  compassionate, 
miid,  lenient,  sympathetic,  2.  Delicate,  soft. 
3.  Womanly,  effeminate.  4.  Feeble,  infantile. 
<.  Pathetic.  6.  Sensitive.  Anto.,  tough,  cal- 
lous, brutal. 

Tenderness.  ».  Affection,  benignity, 
fondness,  humanity.    Anto.,  roughness. 

Tenet,  n.  Doctrine,  dogma,  opinion, 
position,  principle. 

Term.  n.  1.  Boundary,  limit.  2.  Condi- 
tion, stipulation.    3.  Expression,  word. 

Terminate,  v.  Complete,  finish,  end, 
close.    Anto.,  commence,  begin. 

Terrible,  adj.  Dreadful,  fearful,  fright- 
ful, terrific,  horrible,  shocking.  Anto.,  de- 
lightful. 

Territory.    ».    Country,  domain,  land. 

Terror,  n.  Alarm  apprehension,  conster- 
nation, dread,  fear,  fright.   Anto., confidence. 

Tnrse.  adj.  Compact,  concise,  pithy, 
sententious.    Anto.,  verbose. 

Test.  n.  Criterion,  experiment,  trial,  ex- 
perience, proof,  standard. 

Testify.  v.  Declare,  prove,  signify,  wit- 
ness, affirm. 

Testimony,    n.    Evidence,  proof. 

Text.  «.  Verse,  passage,  sentence,  para- 
graph.   2.  Topic,  subject,  theme.    3.  Body. 

Thankful,  adj.  Grateful.  AHto.,iin- 
grnteful. 

Theory,  n.    Speculation.    Anto,, practice. 

Therefore,  adv.  Accordingly,  hence,  so, 
th^n,  consequently,  thence,  wherefore. 

Thick,    adj.     Dense,  close.    Anto.,\k\r\% 

Think,  v.  Cogitate,  conceive,  consider, 
contemplate,  deliberate,  imagine,  opine,  med- 
itate, ponder,  surmise. 


Thirsty,  adj.  1.  Dry,  parched,  a.  Eager, 
longing,  craving,  greedy. 

Though,    conj.    Although,  while. 

Thought.  n.  Cogitation,  conception, 
conceit,  contemplation,  deliberation,  fancy, 
idea,  imagination,  meditation,  notion,  re- 
jection, supposition. 

Thoughtful.  adj.  Anxious,  attentive, 
careful,  circumspect,  considerate,  contem- 
plative, deliberate,  discreet,  reflective,  solici- 
tous, wary.     Anto.,  thoughtless. 

Thoughtless,  adj.  Careless,  gay,  incon- 
siderate, foolish,  hasty,  indiscreet,  unrefiec- 
tive.     Anto.,  thoughtful. 

Thrive,  v.  1.  Succeed,  prosper,  2.  Im- 
prove, flourish,  grow,  advance.    Anto.,  decay. 

Throng,  n.  Multitude,  crowd,  horde, 
host. 

Through,    prep.     By,  with. 

Throw,  v.  Cast,  fling,  hurl,  toss.  Anto., 
catch. 

Thwart,  v.  I.  Balk,  defeat,  oppose,  ob- 
struct, frustrate,  2.  Cross,  traverse.  Anto., 
aid. 

Time.  n.  Age,  date,  duration,  epoch,  era, 
period,  season. 

Timely,  adj.  Prompt,  punctual,  oppor- 
tune, seasonable.    Anto.,  untimely. 

Timidity,  n.  1.  Bashfulness,  coyness, 
diffidence,  sheepishness.  2.  Timorousness, 
cowardice,  pusillanimity.     Anto.,  audacity. 

Tiny,  adj.  Small,  little,  puny,  diminutive. 
Anto.,  great,  large. 

Tirea,  adj.  Fatigued,  harassed,  jaded, 
wearied.    Anto.,  buoyant,  eager. 

Tiresome,  adj.  Tedious,  wearisome. 
Anto.,  interesting. 

Title.  «.  1.  Name,  appellation,  designa- 
tion, cognomen.    2.  Right.    3.  Inscription. 

Toast.  »,  r.  Toasted  bread.  2.  Tltdge, 
health.    3.  Sentiment. 

Token.  n.  Indication,  mark,  note,  sign, 
symptom. 

Tolerate,  v.  Admit,  allow,  suffer,  per- 
mit.    Anto.,  prohibit,  decline. 

Tolerance,  n.  Toleration,  sufferance, 
endurance.    Anto.,  intolerance. 

Too.  adv.  1.  Over,  more  than  enough. 
2,  Also,  besides. 

Torment,  v.  1.  Tease,  plague,  provoke, 
worry,  harass,  tantalize.  2.  Distress,  agon- 
ize, torture,  rack.    Anto.,  appease. 

Torture.     See  Torment. 

Tortuous,  adj.  Tormenting,  twisting, 
winding.     Anto.,  easy,  straight. 

Total.  adj.  Complete,  entire,  whole, 
gross.    Anto.,  part. 

Touch.    «.    Contact,  proof,  test,  feeling. 

Touching,  adj.  Tender,  moving,  pa- 
thetic, melting,  affecting.  Anto.,  ridiculous, 
prosy. 

Tough,  adj.  1.  Cohesive,  tenacious.  *, 
Hardy,  strong,  firm.  3.  Stubborn,  obdurate, 
refractory.    Anto.,  tender,  brittle. 

Tour.  m.  Circuit,  excursion,  ramble,  jaunt, 
round,  trip. 

Toy.  n.  Bubble,  trifle,  bagatelle.  2,  Play- 
thing, trinket,  gimcrack. 

Trace,  v,  1.  Deduce,  derive.  2.  Sketch, 
follow. 

Trace,    n.    Mark,  track,  vestige,  footstep. 

Trade,  ft.  Avocation,  business,  calling, 
dealing,  employment,  occupation,  traffic. 

Traduce,  -v.  I*  Calumniate,  vilify,  de- 
fame, decry,  degrade,  depreciate,  detract, 
disparage.  "  2.  Censure,  condemn.  Anto., 
eulogize. 

Tranquility,  n.  Calmness,  quiet,  re- 
pose, peace,  placidity,  sereneity.  Anto., 
turmoil,  tumult.  . 

Transact,  v.  Conduct,  negotiate,  man- 
age. 

Transcend,  v.  Pass,  excel,  exceed,  sur- 
pass, out*do. 

Transient,  v.  Fleeting,  short,  moment- 
ary. Anto.,  permanent. 

Transparent,  adj.  Clear,  peliucid,  per- 
vious, translucent,  transpicuous.  Anto., 
opaque. 

Transpire,  v.  1.  Occur,  happen.  2. 
Come  out,  be  disclosed.    3.  Exhale,  evaporate, 

Transport,  n.  1.  Carriage,  conveyance, 
transport  at i  on .  2 .  Ecstacy,  rapture.  3. 
Rage.     Anto.,  depression,  melancholy. 


*? 


8o 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


"Tfl 


E 


Traveller.  ».  Tourist,  passenger,  itiner- 
ant, voyager,  pilgrim. 

Treacherous,  adj.  Faithless,  perfidious, 
insidious,  false.     Anto.,  faithful. 

Treachery.  n.  Treason,  perfidy,  disloy. 
alty,  pcrfidiousness.     Anto.,  loyalty. 

Treasonable,      adj.     Traitorous,  treach- 
erous.    Anto.,  loyal. 
Treat,    v.     Entertain,  negotiate,  feast. 
Tremendous.      adj.      Dreadful,    terrible, 
horrible,  frightful,   alarming,  awful,    appal- 
ling.   Anto.,  small,  mean. 

Trepidation.  n.  Agitation,  emotion, 
tremor,  trembling.     Anto.,  calm. 

Trespass,  v.  I.  Offend,  transgress,  sin. 
a.   Intrude,  infringe,  encroach. 

Trial,  n.  i.  Attempt,  effort,  endeavor,  ex- 
periment,  examination,  proof,  test.  a.  Temp- 
tation. 

Tribunal,  n.  i.  Court,  bar,  judicatory. 
a.  Bench. 

Trick,  st.  Artifice,  cheat,  deception, 
fraud,  finesse,  imposture,  sleight,  stratagem. 

Trifling,  adj.  Futile,  frivolous,  incon- 
siderable, light,  petty,  unimportant.  Anto., 
important. 

Trim.     v.    I.    Lop,  clip,  shear.     a.    Ar- 
range, adjust.      3.    Deck,  decorate,  adorn, 
;arnish,     ornament,     embellish.       Anto.,   1. 
ncrease,  add.     a.  Disarrange. 

Trip.     st.     Excursion,  jaunt,  tour,  ramble. 

Triumphant,  adj.  Victorious,  success- 
ful, conquering.     Anto.,  subdued. 

Troth,  n.  1.  Faith,  fidelity,  belief,  a. 
Truth.    Anto.,  falsehood,  lie. 

Trouble,  n.  Adversity,  affliction,  anx- 
iety, distress,  sorrow,  vexation.  Anto.,  hap- 
ptMMi 

Trouble,    v.    Disturb,  grieve. 

Troublesome,  adj.  Annoying,  disturb- 
ing, harassing,  importunate,  irksome,  per- 
plexing, teasing.     Anto.,  pleasant. 

True.  adj.  Honest,  plain,  upright,  sin- 
cere.   Anto.,  treacherous. 

Truce,  n.  1.  Cessation,  intermission,  a. 
Armistice.     Anto.,  continuance. 

Trust,  n.  Belief,  credit,  confidence,  faith, 
hope.     Anto.,  suspicion. 

Trustee.    n.    Agent,  depositary,  fiduciary. 

Truth,  n.  Faitnfalncss,  fidelity,  honesty, 
veracity.    Anto.,  falsehood. 

Try.  v.  Attempt,  endeavor,  essay,  test, 
examine. 

Tug.    v.    Hale,  haul,  pluck,  pull. 

Tuition,  n.  Schooling,  instruction,  teach- 
ing, education.    Anto.,  ignorance. 

Tumble,  v.  Drop,  fall,  rumple,  sink, 
turn  over.     Anto.,  rise. 

Tune.  ».  1.  Air,  strain,  melody,  a.  Con- 
cord, harmony. 

Turbid,  adj.  Roily,  unsettled,  thick, 
muddy,  foul.     Anto.,  clear. 

Turbulent*  adj.  Mutinous,  riotous,  se- 
ditious, tumultuous,  violent.    Anto,,  quiet. 

Turmoil,  n.  Disturbance,  uproar,  com- 
motion, tumult.     Anto.,  peace. 

Turn.  n.  Bent,  cast,  gyration,  meander. 
Anto.,  disinclination. 

Turn.  v.  Bend,  circulate,  contort,  dis- 
tort, gyrate^  revolve,  twist,  wind,  wheel,  whirl. 
Anto.,  straighten,  still,  quiet. 

Turncoat,    n.    See  Renegade. 

Turpitude,  n.  Wickedness,  baseness, 
depravity,  vileness.    Anto.,  goodness. 

Tutor.  11.  Instructor,  governess,  gover- 
nante. 

Twaddle,  n.  Stuff,  nonsense,  tattle,  gos- 
sip, balderdash,  moonshine.    Anto.,  sense. 

Twilight.    ».    Dusk.    Anto.,  daylight. 

Twine,  n.  Encircle,  embrace,  entwine, 
Anto..  untwine. 

Twinge,    v.    Pinch,  pull,  twitch,  tweak. 

Twinge,    n.    Pang,  grip,  twitch,  spasm. 

Twit.  v.  Taunt,  blame,  reproach.  Anto., 
commend. 

Type.  n.  1.  Printing  character,  a.  Kind, 
form,  sort.  3.  Exemplar,  original,  model.  4. 
Mark,  symbol,  sign,  token,  emblem. 

Tyro.  n.  Beginner,  learner,  novice.  Anto., 
licentiate. 


Ugliness.    ».    Homeliness,  plainness,    a 
Hidcousness,  {rightfulness.    Anto.,  beauty. 


Ugly,  adj.  1.  Plain,  homely,  ordinary, 
unsightly.  a.  Horrid,  hideous,  shocking. 
Anto..  pretty. 

Ultimate,  adj.  Final,  last,  eventual,  ex- 
treme.   Anto.,  first. 

Umpire,  n.  Judge,  referee,  arbitrator, 
arbiter. 

Unacceptable,  adj.  Unwelcome,  dis- 
pleasing, unpalatable.      Anto.,  acceptable. 

Unadorned,  adj.  Undecorated,  untar- 
nished, not  embellished,  not  bedecked.  Anto., 
ornate. 

Unbecoming,  adj.  Improper,  unsuita- 
ble, indecorous,  unseemly.     Anto.,  becoming. 

Unbelief,  n.  Disbelief,  infidelity,  skep- 
ticism, incredulity,  distrust.    Anto.,  "belief. 

Unblemished,  adj.  Pure,  clean,  spot- 
less, sinless,  guileless,  immaculate.  Anto., 
blemished. 

Unbounded,  adj.  Boundless,  illimitable, 
infinite,  interminable,  unlimited.  Anto.,  lim- 
ited. 

Unceasingly,  adv.  Always,  constantly, 
continually,  ever,  perpetually.  Anto.,  inter- 
mittently. 

Uncertain,  adj.  Doubtful,  precarious, 
dubious,  equivocal.     Anto.,  certain. 

Unchangeable,  adj.  Immutable,  un- 
alterable.    Anto.,  fickle. 

Uncivil,  n.  Impolite,  ungracious,  un- 
courteous,  rude.     Anto. ,  polite. 

Uncommon,  adj.  Choice,  unfrequent, 
rare ,  scarce ,  singular ,  unique.   Anto. ,  usual. 

Uncongenial,  adj.  1.  Unsuited,  disa- 
greeable,    a.  Dissimilar.      Anto.,  congenial. 

Unconcerned,  adj.  Cool,  unaffected,  in- 
different, careless,  apathetic  nonchalant. 
Anto.,  concernea,  excited,  vexed. 

Uncover,  v.  1.  Discover,  reveal,  dis- 
close,   a.  Strip,  lay  bare.     Anto.,  conceal. 

Undaunted,  adj.  Fearless,  brave,  bold, 
manful,  resolute,  intrepid.    Anto.,  weak. 

Undeniable,  adj.  Evident,  obviousf  In- 
disputable, incontrovertible,  irrefragiblc, 
Anto.,  disputable. 

Under,  prep.  Below,  beneath.  Inferior, 
lower,  subjacent,  subject. 

Understanding,  n.  x.  Mind,  intellect, 
reason,  sense,  a.  Notion,  idea,  judgment, 
knowledge.     3.  Agreement. 

Undetermined,  adj.  Doubtful,  fluctu- 
ating, hesitating,  irresolute,  unsteady,  vacil- 
lating, wavering.     Anto.,  resolute. 

Unfaithful,  adj.  False,  treacherous, 
faithless,  recreant,  perfidious,  dishonest,  dis- 
loyal.    Anto..  faithful. 

Unfit,  adj.  1.  Inapt,  inappropriate,  un- 
suitable, a.  Incapable,  unqualified.  Ante, 
competent,  convenient. 

Unfold,  v.  Develop,  display,  open,  di- 
vulge, expand,  reveal,  unravel.     Anto.,  hide. 

Unguarded,  adj.  1.  Thoughtless,  care- 
less, a.  Undefended,  naked,  unprotected. 
Anto.,  guarded. 

Ungrateful,  adj.  Unplcasing,  thankless. 
Anto.,  thankful. 

Unhandy,  adj.  1.  Inconvenient,  a.  Clum- 
sy, bungling,  awkward,  maladroit.  Anto., 
skilful.  ** 

Unhappy,  adj.  1.  Afflicted,  distressed, 
wretched,  miseranle.  a.  Disastrous,  hard, 
severe.     Anto.,  happy. 

Unhealthy,  adj.  Diseased,  sickly,  infirm, 
invalid.    Anto.,  healthy. 

Uniform,  adj.  1.  Begnlar,  unvarying, 
alike,  undeviating.  a.  Consonant.  Anto.,  ir- 
regular. 

Unkind,  adj.  Harsh,  unamiablc,  un- 
fricndlv,- cruel .     Anto.,  kind. 

Unimportant,  adj.  Inconsidrrable,  Im- 
material, insignificant,  trifling,  petty,  trivial. 
Anto.,  weighty. 

Unison,  n.  Accordance,  agreement,  con- 
cord, harmony,  melody.    Anto.,  discord. 

Unlawful,  adj.  Illegal,  unlicensed,  illicit. 
Anto.,  legal,  lawful. 

Unlearned,  adj.  Ignorant,  illiterate, un- 
educated, unlettered.    Anto.,  learned. 

Unlike,  adj.  Different,  dissimilar,  dis- 
tinct.   Anto.,  similar. 

Unlimited,  adj.  Boundless,  illimitable, 
Infinite,  unbounded.    Anto.,  limited. 

Unmerciful,  adj.  Callous,  cruel,  hard- 
hearted, merciless,  severe.    Anto.,  merciful. 


Unquestionable,     adj.   Indisputable,  un- 
deniable, certain,  obvious,  incontestable,  in- 
dubitable,  irrefragiblc.     Anto.,  questionable. 
Unravel,    v.    Develop,  disentangle,  extri- 
cate, unfold.     Anto..  tangle. 

Unreal,  adj.  Shadowy,  imaginary.  In* 
substantial,  visionary,  ghostly,  spectral. 

Unrelenting,  adj.  Unpitying,  relentless, 
rigorous,  inexorable,  harsh,  cruel,  merciless. 
Anto.,  tender. 

Unruly,  adj.  Ungovernable,  mutinous, 
seditious,  insubordinate,  turbulent.  Ante, 
obedient. 

Unseen.  adj.  Invisible,  undiscovered, 
hidden.     Anto.,  visible. 

Unsettled,  adj.  1.  Vacillating,  uncer- 
tain, unsteady,  wavering,  restless,  a.  Turbid. 
3.  Undetermined.     Anto.,  resolute. 

Unspeakable,  adj.  Unutterable,  inex- 
pressible, ineffable. 

Unskilful,  adj.  Ignorant,  wanting  art 
or  knowledge.     Anto.,  skilful. 

Unsocial,  adj.  Unsociable,  unkind.  An* 
to.,  sociable. 

Unstable,  adj.  1.  Fickle, inconstant, mut- 
able,    vacillating,      a.  Fluctuating. 

Untimely,  adj.  Premature,  inopportune, 
unseasonable.     Anto.,  timely. 

Unsuccessful,  adj.  Unfortunate,  un- 
lucky.    Anto.,  successful. 

Untwine,     v.    Untwist,  unwind. 

Unwearied,  adj.  Indefatigable,  restless, 
fresh.     Anto.,  tired. 

Unwilling,  adj.  Reluctant,  loath,  indis- 
posed, disinclined.     Anto.,  willing. 

Upbraid,  v.  Blame,  censure,  reprove, 
condemn,    stigmatize,  taunt. 

Upright,  adj.  1.  Erect,  a.  Honest,  bold. 
Anto.,  prone. 

Uproar.  11.  Commotion, hubbub, disturb- 
ance, clamor,  tumult.    Anto.,  calm. 

Urbanity.  St.  Civility,  courtesy,  polite- 
ness, suavity.     Anto.,  incivility. 

Urge.  v.  1.  Instigate,  incite,  stimulate, 
spur.  a.  Solicit,  entreat.  3.  Impel,  push, 
drive.     Anto.,  hinder. 

Urgent,  adj.  Importunate,  pressing,  co- 
gent.   Anto.,  unimportant. 

Usage,  n.  1.  Habit,  practice,  custom. 
2.  Treatment. 

Use.  v.  l.  Employ,  a.  Consume,  exhaust, 
expend.  3.  Exercise,' practice.  4.  Accustom, 
inure.    Anto.,  abuse. 

Useful,  adj.  Helpful,  serviceable,  good, 
convenient,  profitable.     Anto.,  futile. 

Usually,  adz:  Regularly,  ordinarily,  gen- 
erally, habitually.     Anto.,  seldom. 

Useless,    adj.     Fruitless,  ineffectual,  vain. 

Utility,  n.  "Use,  service,  usefulness,  avail, 
benefit,  profit.     Ante,  wortnlessness. 

Utterly,  adv.  Wholly,  completely,  fully, 
totally.     Anto.,  partly. 

Uttermost,  adj. '  1.  Utmost,  greatest,  a. 
Extreme,  farthest.     Anto.,  nearest,  next. 

Unusual,     adj.     Rare,  uncommon. 

Unwelcome,  adj.  1.  Unacceptable,  a. 
Displeasing.    Anto.,  welcome. 


Vacant,  adj.  t.  Emntv,  unfilled,  Void. 
a.  Thoughtless.    Anto.,  filled. 

Vacancy,  n.  1.  Chasm,  a.  Emptiness, 
vacuity.     Anto.,  fulness,  plethora. 

Vacate.  :.  1.  Make  empty,  void,  annul, 
a.  Leave.     Anto.,  occupv. 

Vague,  adj.  Indefinite,  uncertain,  dim, 
doubtful,  obscure.     Anto.,  definite. 

Vain.  adj.  1.  Inflated,  concrited,  over- 
weening,  ostentatious,  a.  Useless,  fruitless. 
Anto.,  modest. 

Valediction,  a.  Taking  leave,  farewell. 
Anto.,  welcome. 

Valid,  adj.  Sound,  lust,  logical,  sum- 
cicnt,  grave.    Anto,,  invalid. 

Valuable,  adj.  Costlv,  precious,  worthy, 
estimable.     Anto.,  worthless. 

VrtMie.  n.  Account,  appreciation,  esti- 
mation, price,  rate,  worth. 

Value,  r.  Appraise,  assess,  calculate, 
appreciate,  compute,  esteem,  estimate,  regard, 
respect. 

Vanity,  n.  Arrogance,  conceit,  pnde, 
haughtiness.     Anto.,  modesty,  humility. 


ST 


SYNONYMS    AND    ANTONYMS. 


8l 


# 


Vanquish,  v.  Beat,  overcome,  quell, 
conquerf  subdue,  confuse,  defeat,  subjugate. 
Anto.,  yield. 

Vapid,  adj.  i.  Insipid,  flat,  spiritless.  2. 
Dull,  tame,  prosy.    Anto.,  spirited. 

Variable,  adj.  Changeable,  capricious, 
fickle,  unsteady,  versatile,  wavering.  Anto., 
unchangeable. 

Variance.  ».  Discord,  strife,  discussion. 
Anto.,  unison. 

Variation.  «.  1.  Difference,  deviation, 
diversity.  2.  Change,  mutation.  Anto. ,  per- 
manence. 

Variety,  n.  1.  Difference,  diversity.  2. 
Multiplicity.     Anto.,  simplicity. 

Various,  adj.  1.  Different,  several,  sun* 
dry,  many.     2.  Diversified.    Anto.,  simple. 

Veer,    v.    Turn,  shift,  change  course. 

Vegetate,  v.  Spring,  grow,  shoot,  ger- 
minate. 

Vehement,  adj.  1.  Passionate,  violent, 
furious.  2.  Earnest,  fervid.  3.  Forcible, 
strong.     Anto.,  gentle. 

Velocity.  «.  Speed,  rapidity,  swiftness, 
fieetness.     Anto.,  sloth. 

Venerate,  v.  Honor,  respect,  revere, 
adore.    Anto.,  despise. 

Veracity,  n.  Candor,  truthfulness,  hon- 
esty, ingenuousness.     Anto.,  mendacity. 

Verbal,  adj.  1.  Literal.  2.  Unwritten, 
oral,  spoken,  parole.     Anto.,  written. 

Verbose,  adj.  Diffuse,  wordy,  windy, 
prolix.    Anto.,  succinct,  terse,  concise. 

Vestige,     n.     Mark,  trace,  track,  footstep. 

Vexation,  n.  1 .  Annoyance,  trouble,  tor  ■ 
ment.    2.  Displeasure.     Anto.,  pleasure. 

Vice.  n.  wickedness,  crime,  sin,  moral 
ill.    Anto.,  virtue. 

Vicinity.  «.  1.  Neighborhood.  2.  Prox- 
imity, nearness. 

View.  n.  1.  Scene,  vista,  prospect.  2. 
Picture,  sketch.  3.  Sight,  inspection.  4. 
Opinion. 

Vigilant,  adj.  Watchful,  circumspect. 
Anto.,  heedless. 

Vigorous,  adj.  1.  Strong,  energetic.  2. 
Healthy,  sound.  3.  Racy,  pointed.  Anto., 
weak. 

Violent,  adj.  1.  Fierce,  hot.  2.  Vehe- 
ment, boisterouSj  furious,  impetuous,  turbu- 
lent 3.  Sharp,    intense.    Anto.,  gentle. 

Vile.  adj.  1.  Wicked,  knavish.  2.  Low, 
base,  mean,  foul.     Anto.,  noble  lofty. 

Vindicate.  v.  Clear,  defend,  protect, 
justify.    Anto.,  implicate,  criminate. 

Virtue,  n.  1.  Goodness,  integrity, worth. 
2.  Power,  efficacy.     Anto.,  vice. 

Virtuous,  adj.  1.  Pure,  chaste.  2.  Good, 
righteous,  exemplary.    Anto.,  bad. 

Visible,  adj.  1.  Patent,  apparent,  evi- 
dent,  obvious.  2.  Perceptible.  Anto.,  unseen. 

Visionary,  adj.  Enthusiastic,  fantastic, 
fanatical,  imaginary.  Anto.,  cautious, 
sensible. 

Visitation,  n.  1.  Affliction,  trouble,  dis- 
pensation.   2.  Inspection. 

Vital,  adj.  Necessary,  essential,  indis- 
pensable.   Anto.,  unnecessary. 

Vitiate,  v.  Contaminate,  pollute,  defile, 
infect,  sophisticate,  taint.     Anto.,  cleanse. 

Vivid,  adj.  Active,  bright,  clear,  lively, 
lucid,  quick,  sprightly,  striking,    Anto.,  dull. 

Volatility.  «.  Fhghtiness,  giddiness,  lev- 
*ty,  lightness,   liveliness.    Anto.,  steadiness. 

Voluptuous,  adj.  Sensual,  epicurean, 
luxurious.    Anto.,  stoical,  harsh. 

Voluptuary.  «.  Epicure,  sensualist. 
Anto.,  ascetic. 

Vouch,  v.  1.  Attest,  warrant,  avouch. 
2.  Back,  support.    Anto.,  deny. 

Vulgarity,  v.  Coarseness,  grossness, 
meanness,  rudeness,  vileness.  Anto..  refine- 
ment. 

w 

Wag.  «.  Humorist,  joker,  jester,  wit. 
Anto.,  dullard,  butt. 

Wages.  n.,pl.  Pay,  salary,  hire,  com- 
pensation, stipend,  earnings. 

Wakeful,  adj.  Sleepless,  vigilant,  watch, 
ful,  wary,    Anto.,  drowsy. 

Walk.    «.    Carriage,  gait,  path* 

Walk.    v.    Perambulate. 


Wander,  v.  1.  Stray,  swerve,  digress, 
deviate.  2.  Stroll,  ramble,  roam.    Anto., run. 

Want.  n.  1.  Need.  2.  Poverty,  indigence. 
3.  Lack,  dearth,  scarcity.    Anto.,  plenty. 

Wares,  n.  Commodities,  goods,  mer- 
chandise. 

Wariness,  n.  Care,  caution,  circumspec- 
tion, forethought,  prudence.  Anto.,  heed- 
lessness. 

Warlike,  adj.  1.  Hostile,  inimical.  2. 
Military,  bellicose.    Anto.,  peaceful. 

Warm.  adj.  \.  Genial,  pleasant,  sunny. 
2.  Not  cold.  3.  Fervent.  4.  Excited.  Anto  , 
cool. 

Warmth,  n.  1.  Glow.  2.  Zeal,  vehe- 
mence, ardor,  fervor.    Anto.,  coolness. 

Warning,  n.  1.  Monition,  admonition. 
2.  Notice.    3.  Caution. 

Wary.  adj.  Vigilant,  cautious,  discreet, 
guarded.    Anto.,  heedless. 

Waste,  n.  1.  Loss,  consumption.  2. 
Refuse.  3.  Pillage,  ruin,  destruction,  devas- 
tation.   Anto.,  replenishment,  frugality. 

Wasteful,  adj.  1.  Destructive.  2,  Pro- 
fuse, lavish,  extravagant.     Anto.,  frugal. 

Watchful,  adj.  Vigilant,  careful,  wary, 
circumspect,  alert.     Anto.,  careless. 

Wave.  n.  Ripple,  undulation,  swell, 
surge,  billow,  breaker. 

Waver,  v.  1.  Fluctuate,  vacillate.  2. 
Flicker,  wave.     Anto.,  steadfast. 

Way.  n.  1.  Path,  route,  course,  road.  2. 
Mode,  method. 

Wayward,  adj.  Forward,  perverse,  ob- 
stinate, willful,  headstrong,  stubborn.  Anto., 
docile. 

Weak.  adj.  1.  Feeble,  languid,  weakly. 
2,  Frail,  sickly.    Anto.,  strong. 

Weaken,  v.  Debilitate,  unnerve,  enfee- 
ble.   2.  Lower,  reduce.    Anto.,  invigorate. 

Weakness,  n.  Debility,  effeminacy.  An* 
to.  y 1  strength. 

Wealth.  n.  Abundance,  fortune,  afflu- 
ence, riches,  opulence.     Anto.,  poverty. 

Weariness.  n.  Exhaustion,  languor, 
lassitude,  fatigue.    Anto.,  buoyancy,  vigor. 

Weary,  adj.  Annoy,  fatigue,  harass, 
jade,  subdue,  tire,  vex.  Anto.,  fresh,  un- 
wearied. 

Wedding.  «.  Bridal,  espousal,  mar- 
riage, nuptials.    Anto.,  divorce. 

Wedlock,   n.  Marriage,  matrimony. 

Wee.  adj.  Small,  little,  diminutive,  pigmy, 
tiny.     Anto.,  large. 

Weight,  n.  1.  Gravity,  ponderosity.  2. 
Burden,  load.  3.  Influence,  importance.  An~ 
to.,  lightness. 

Weighty,  adj.  Momentous,  important. 
Anto.,  unimportant,  light,  trifling. 

Welcome,  adj.  1.  Pleasing,  acceptable, 
agreeable,  gratifying.  2.  Admitted  with 
pleasure.     Anto.,  unwelcome. 

Welfare,  n.  Weal,  well-being,  success, 
prosperity.    Anto.,  failure,  poverty. 

Wnet.  v.  1.  Stimulate,  quicken,  excite, 
arouse,  kindle.    2.  Sharpen.    Anto.,  dull. 

Whimsical,  adj.  Capricious,  fantastic, 
fanciful.    Anto.,  commonplace. 

Whiten,  v.  Bleach,  fade,  blanch.  Anto., 
blacken. 

Whole,    adj.  All,  sum,  total.  Anto.,parU 

Wicked,  adj,  1.  Bad,  ill,  evil,  iniquitous. 
2.  Sinful,  vicious,  impious.    Anto.,  virtuous. 

Willingly,  adj.  Spontaneously,  volun* 
tarily,  readily.     Anto.,  unwillingly. 

Wily.  adj.  Crafty,  artful,  sly,  cunning, 
insidious,  subtle,  snaky.     Anto.,  ingenuous. 

Win.  v.  1.  Gain,  get,  obtain,  acquire, 
earn,  achieve.    2.  Gain  over.    Anto.,  lose. 

Wince,    v.    Shrink,  flinch,  startle. 

Winding,  adj.  Meandering,  serpentine, 
flexuous,  sinuous.     Anto.,  straight. 

Windy,  adj.  Breezy,  stormy,  gusty,  tem- 
pestuous, blustering.     Anto.,  calm. 

Wisdom,  n.  1.  Sagacity,  sense,  judg- 
ment. 2.  Learning,  knowledge.  3.  Reason- 
ableness.   Anto.,  ignorance. 

Wise.  adj.  1.  Sage,  sensible,  judicious. 
2.  Erudite.  3.  Sly,  subtle,  knowing.  Anto.% 
ignorant. 

Wit.  n.  Burlesque,  contrivance,  humor, 
irony,  ingenuity,  stratagem.     Anto.,  dulness. 

With.   prep.    By,  through. 


Withdraw,  v.  1.  Recant,  disavow.  2. 
Remove.  3.  Disengage,  wean,  go  back,  re- 
cede, retire,  retreat,  retrograde,  take  back. 
Anto.,  1.  Endorse,  come  forward. 

Withhold,  v.  1.  Retain.  2.  Restrain. 
Anto.,  release. 

Withstand,    v.    Oppose,  thwart,   resist. 

Witness.  «.  Deponent,  evidence,  tcsti- 
111  °"y* 

Wonder,  n.  1.  Marvel,  prodigy,  miracle. 
2.  Surprise,  amazement.  3.  Curiosity.  Anto., 
commonplace. 

Wonderful,  adj.  Admirable,  astonish- 
ing, curious,  marvellous,  strange,  surprising. 
Anto.,  usual,  customary. 

Wood.  «.  1.  Copse,  grove,  forest.  2. 
Timber. 

Word.     n.     Expression,  promise,  term. 

Worker.  ».  1.  Performer.  2.  Operativet 
labortr,  workman,  artificer.    Anto.,  idler. 

Worship,  n.  Adore,  honor,  revere.  Anto., 
execrate. 

Worth,  n.  Desert,  excellence,  merit, 
price,  rate,  value.    Anto.,  worth  less  n  ess. 

Worthless,  adj.  Valueless,  degraded. 
Anto.,  valuable. 

Worthy,  adj.  1.  Good,  excellent,  estim- 
able, virtuous.  2.  Deserving.  Anto.,  un- 
worthy. 

Wretched,  adj.  1.  Poor,  bad,  vile,  piti- 
ful. 2.  Calamitous.  3.  Forlorn,  unhappy, 
miserable.     Anto.,  happy. 

Written,  adj.  Penned,  inscribed,  tran- 
scribed.    Anto.,  verbal. 

Writer,  n.  \.  Author.  2.  Scribe,  clerk, 
secretary,  amanuensis.    3.  Penman. 

Wrong,  v.  Maltreat,  injure,  abuse,  op- 
press.    Anto.,  right. 

Wrong,  adj.  Untrue,  faulty,  not  fit,  un- 
suitable, unjust.     Anto.,  right. 

Wrong.  n.  Inj  ustice,  error,  inj  ury, 
Anto.,  right,  justice. 

Wrongly,    adv.    Erroneously. 

Wrought,     v.   Done,  performed,  effected. 

Wry.  adj.  Crooked,  askew,  distorted, 
twisted*    Anto.,  straight. 


Xeres.    ».    Sherry. 

Xiphoid,    adj.    Swordlike,  ensiform. 

Xylography,    a.    Wood-engraving. 


Yearly,    adj.    Annually,  per  annum. 

Yeoman,  n.  Farmer,  freeholder,  com* 
moner.    Anto.,  gentleman. 

Yet.  conj.  or  adv.  But,  however,  never- 
theless, notwithstanding,  still,  hitherto,  fur. 
ther,  besides. 

Yield,  v.  Allow,  cede,  communicate, 
comply,  conform,  concede,  give,  produce, 
permit,  resign,  surrender.    Anto.,  take. 

Yield,    n.    Crop,  product. 

Yielding,  adj.  Compliant,  submissive, 
facile,  unresisting,  accommodating.  Anto., 
stubborn. 

Yoke.  n.  1.  Link,  chain,  tie,  bond.  3. 
Servitude,  dependence,  bondage,  subjection, 
thraldom. 

Yoke.  v.  Associate,  join,  link,  couple, 
conjoin.    Anto.,  sever. 

Youth,  n.  1.  Lad,  boy,  stripling,  a. 
Young  men,  young  women.  3.  Juniority, 
minority,  juvenility,  adolescence.  Anto.,  age. 


Zany.  adj.  Clown,  buffoon,  harlequin, 
Punch,  fool. 

Zeal.  n.  Earnestness,  fervor,  cordiality, 
ardor,  passion. 

Zealot,  «.  Enthusiast,  bigot,  fanatic, 
visionary. 

Zealous,  adj.  Earnest,  fervid,  glowing, 
burning,  passionate.    Anto.,  lukewarm. 

Zenith,  ».  Top,  apex,  summit,  pinnacle, 
climax.     Anto.,  nadir. 

Zephyr.  ».  1.  Breeze,  a.  West  wind. 
Anto.,  calm. 

Zero.    n.    Cipher,  naught,  nothing. 

Zest.    n.      Flavor,   taste,  savor,  relish. 

Zone.  *.  1.  Girdle,  belt  a*  Clime,  r«. 
gioa. 


K" 


»£, 


82 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


~? 


A  Self-Instructors 


IN  THE 


^German  Language. 


BY  THE  NEW  SYSTEM  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING,  THE  SIMPLEST  METHOD  KNOWN. 


bTUDENTS  will  readily  con- 
cede that  of  all  foreign  lan- 
guages the  one  which  best 
deserves  their  attention  is 
the  German.  The  influence 
of  the  Teuton  stock  on 
American  civilization  and 
commerce  is  all-important,  and  as 
each  year  continues  to  bring  thou- 
sands of  German  immigrants  to  our 
shores,  it  will  be  more  and  more 
felt.  A  practical  illustration  of 
this  fact  is  shown  in  the  cry  for 
1  German  in  the  public  schools"  which 
is  heard  in  the  leading  cities  of  the 
country  at  the  present  day.  Eventu- 
ally a  knowledge  of  the  language  will 
become  so  essential  in  the  spheres  of  commer- 
cial and  professional  life  that  the  business  or 
professional  man  who  cannot  conduct  conversa- 
tion and  correspondence  in  German  will  find 
himself  at  a  decided  disadvantage  compared 
with  him  who  has  acquired  the  language.  Those 
who  wish  to  do  so  will  find  in  the  following  sys- 
tem of  self-tuition  a  means  of  grounding  them- 
selves so  thoroughly  in  the  principles  of  the  lan- 
guage that,  with  its  lessons  well  learned,  they 
will  have  no  difficulty  in  convening  and  corre- 
sponding intelligibly  with  Germans  whom  they 
may  meet  in  the  way  of  business  or  social  con- 
verse. And,  having  accomplished  so  much,  all 
that  will  be  needed  to  gain  a  mastery  of  the 


**% 


/_ 


language  is  careful  reading  of  the  standard 
works  of  German  literature,  which  in  time  will 
bring  fluency  of  both  written  and  spoken  expres- 
sion. 

THE  ALPHABET. 

The  German  alphabet  consists  of  the  following  twenty-six 
letters : 


-  * 

IP 

sg 

si 

0  < 

X  < 

PRONUNCIATION. 

■  * 

H  < 

a  < 

S 

X 

X 

u 

B 

0 

A 

91  a 

ah 

as  a  in  part. 

I 

SB  b 

bay 

as  in  English. 

C 

tsay 

as  c  in  cape  if  before  a,  ot  *  or  a  consonant, 

or 

when  final. 

n 

7)b 

day 

as  in  English. 

i  as  a  in  Fame  when  long. 

E 

Q  ( 

»y 

t  as  /  in  /'/■//when  short. 

r 

SH 

cf 

as  in  English. 

H     S| 

E» 

like  A  in  horse. 

i     at 

e 

as  1  in  sit. 

vi\ 

Vol 

kah 

us_y  in  jr  ear. 

1.    e  1 

•1 

M 

SD?m 

cm 

N 
O 

Do 

en 
0 

■  as  in  English* 

P 
Q 

l\ 

nay 
koo 

K 

»  r 

err 

s 

S4( 

cs 

as  /  In  sit. 

T 

St  t 

tav 

as  in  I-.ngHsh. 

U 

U  u 

00 

as  00  in  pool. 

V 

SO  » 

fow 

w*f\nftei. 

w 

SB  10 

vay 

as  fin  vary. 

X 

3E  \ 

Iks 

as  jr  in  box. 

Y 

I 

ypsllon 

as  y  in  system. 

Z 

tsct 

as  ts  in  'sits. 

VOWELS. 

The  simple  vowels  are  a,  «,  t,  0,  u.  Their  sounds  are  gives  abore. 

COMPOUND   TOWELS. 

6,  <r,  pronounced  like  a  in  isjpa, 

t,  a,  pronounced  like  tu  in  the  French  word//*,  or  mi  In  touch. 

u,  ui,  pronounced  like  <•<•*,  or  the  a  in  the  French  word  nr.   The  ac 

curate  sound  of  this,  as  well  as  of  the  t,  can  only  be  learned  from 

a  German,  as  there  are  no  similar  sounds  In  ] 
an,  an,  is  pronounced  like  ovr  in  now, 
tu,  ru.  Is  like  oy  ln/iy. 


$h 


\ 

?                  ■» 

— 

£*• 

Si 

\ 

^ 

r 

1 

THE   GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 

83 

CONSONANTS.                                                   1 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION 

■ 

The  g,  g,  has  never  the  soft  sound  as  in  genius,  but  is  either  hard  as 

the  morning 

bet  STRorgen 

dair  morgen 

in  gave,  or  has  the  guttural  sound  of  d),  which  letter  is  sounded  like  the 

a  day 

ctn  lag 

ine  tahg 

ch  in  the  Scotch  word  loch.    In  the  pronouncing  column,  the  g  and  ch 

the  midday 

berHHittag 

dair  mittah^ 

will  he  printed  in  italics  whenever  they  should  have  the  guttural  sound. 

the  night 

tie  Madjt 

dee  nacht 

Sch  is  pronounced  like  sh  in  ship. 

the  moon 
the  sun 

ber  ilBonb 
bie  Sonne 

dair  mond 
dee  sonnai 

THE  DEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

a  star 

ein  ©tern 

ine  shtairn 

Masculine.             Feminine.               Neuter. 

the  light 

bag  Oidjt 

das  licht 

*    bet                        tie                        bttS,  is  the  German  Article. 

a  year 

ein  3af)t 

ine  yahr 

dair                       dee                        das 

THE  HUMAN  BODY 

THE  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

The  arm 

ber  Hrm 

dair  arm 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

the  beard 

ber  SBart 

dair  bart 

Nom.    ein  Sater,        a  father. 

Nora,    tine  Stabt,       a  town. 

the  blood 

bad  Slut 

das  bloot 

Gen.     eineS  33ater«,  of  a  father. 

Gen.      einer  Stabt,      of  a  town. 

the  bosom 

ber  Sufen 

dair  boosen 

Dat.     einem  SBater,    to  a  father. 

Dat.      einer  <Stabt,      to  a  town. 

the  breast  (chest) 

bte  Stuff 

dee  broost 

Ace.     einen  SSater,     a  father. 

Ace.     cine  Ztait,       a  town. 

the  eye 

bag  Huge 

das  owgay 

Neuter. 

the  ear 

bag  Dbjr 

das  ore 

Nom.    ein  ©djtff,           a  ship. 

a  chin 

ein  ftinn 

ine  kin 

Gen.      etneS  <3d?iff*8,    of  a  ship. 

the  eyebrows 

bie  Hugenbrauen 

ctee  owgenbrowea 

Dat.      einem  ©djiffe,     to  a  ship. 

the  elbows 

ber  Qlbogen 

dair  elbogen 

Ace.      ein  Sdjiff,           a  ship. 

the  fist 

biejauft 

dee  fowst 

COMBINATION  OF  ARTICLE  AND  NOUN. 

a  finger 
the  flesh 

ein  ginger 
bag  gleifd) 

ine  fing-er 
das  flyshe 

DECLENSIONS. 

the  foot 

ber  Xuj 

dair  fooss 

The  German  language  has  three  genders:  Masculine,  bet;  Feminine, 

the  hair 

bag  §aar 

das  har 

bte;  Neuter,  bag;  which  form  the  definite  Article. 

the  hand 

bie  ©anb 

dee  hahnd 

The  definite  article  is  declined  as  well  as  the   substantive,  and 

the  right  hand 

bie  rea)te  $anb 

dee  rechtay  hahnd 

examples  are  here  given : 

the  left  hand 

bie  linfe  Jjanb 

dee  linkay  hahnd 

Masculine. 

the  heart 

bag  £erj 

das  hairz 

Singular.                                                    Plural. 

the  hip 

bie  Suite 

dee  hiftay 

Nom.    bet2Kann,       the  man. 

bie  SBanner,                the  men. 

a  knee 

ein  flnie 

ine  knee  (A pronoun? d) 

Gen.      be3  SOZanneS,    of  the  man. 

ber  Winner,                 of  the  men. 

the  lip 

bie  Sippe 

dee  lippay 

Dat.      bem  3Kanne,    to  the  man. 

ben  SDIannern,               to  the  men. 

the  neck 

ber  9!acfen 

dairnaheken 

Ace.     ben  2tfann,       the  man. 

bie  SIRanner/                the  men. 

the  nose 

bie  SRafe 

dee  nahzay. 

Feminine. 

a  mouth 

etn  ffli'unb 

ine  moond 

Nom.    bie  §rau,     the  woman. 

bie  o*rauen,             the  women. 

THE  FAMILY. 

Gen.      bet  grew,     of  the  woman. 

bergrauen,              of  the  v*oro*«. 

The  father 

ber  Bater 

dair  fahter 

Dat.      bet  %tn\x,      to  the  woman. 

ben  grauen,              to  the  women. 

the  grandfather 

ber  ©rojjpater 

dair  grossfahter 

Ace.      bie  %xwk,     the  woman. 

bie  gtauen,              the  women. 

the  stepfather 

ber  Stieffater 

dair  shteeffahter 

Neuter. 

the  fatherland 

bag  Saterianb 

das  fabterland 

Nom.    ba8  $fetb,      the  horse.  * 

bie  SBferbe,               the  horses. 

the  mother 

bie  aflutter 

dee  mootter 

Gen.      be«  IgferbeS,    of  the  horse. 

ber  SBferbe,                 of  the  horses. 

a  brother 

ein  SBruber 

ine  brooder 

Dat.      bent  $ferbe,    to  the  horse. 

ben  ^ferben,              to  the  horses. 

the  sister 

bie  Sojireftet 

dee  shwester 

Ace.      baS  93ferb,      the  horse. 

bie  SBferbe,                 the  horses. 

the  uncle 

ber  Ontel 

dnir  onkel 

EXERCISES  IN  THE  ARTICLE  AND  NOUN. 

the  aunt 

bie  Xante 

dee  tahntay 
dair  neffay 

the  nephew 

bet  SReffe 

THE  EARTH. 

a  niece 

elne  Widjte 

ineay  nic^tay 

ENGLISH.                                  GERMAN.                        PRONUNCIATION. 

the  girl  (maiden) 

bag2R5bdjen 

das  maidiAen 

The  earth                          bte  Gtbe                             dee  airdai 

the  man 

ber  STJann 

dair  mahnn 

a  fire                                  ein  %euex                           ine  foyer 

the  young  man 

ber  junge  2Rann 

dair  yoongay  mahnn 

the  water                          bo3  2Baffet                        das  vasser 

the  old  man 

ber  alte  SJJann 

dair  altay  mahnn 

the  rainwater                 ba8  Secjemraffet              das  ragenvasser 

the  wife  (woman) 

hie.  Ecib 

das  vybe 

the  stream                        ber  Sttom                          dairshtrome 

a  bride 

eine  Sraut 

ineay  browt 

the  sea                              bte  ©ee                               dee  say 

the  widow 

bie  SBittwe 

dee  vitvay 

the  weather                     ba8  SDSettet                         das  vetter 

the  widower 

ber  SBittner 

dair  vitver 

the  summer  weather      baS  ©ommerreettet           das  summervetter 

the  guest 

ber  fflafl 

dair  gahst 

the  winter  weather        ba8  SEBinterroettet             das  vintervetter 

the  neighbor 

ber  9!ad)bat 

dair  narAbar 

the  wind                           bet  23tnb                           dair  vinnd 

the  friend 

berjjreunb 

dair  froint 

the  rain                             bet  9?egen                           dair  ragen 

the  storm                        bet  ©tutm                       dairshtoorm 

FOOD. 

the  hail                           bet  §oge!                         dair  hahgel 

The  beer 

tag  SSfet 

das  beer 

the  frost                            ber  gtoft                             dair  frust 

the  glass 

ba8  (Slag 

das  glahs 

the  summer                      bet  Sommet                      dair  summer 

the  flask  (bottle) 

bie  glafdie 

dee  flash  ay 

the  winter                        ber  SBtntet                         dair  vinter 

the  bread 

bag  SBtob 

das  brote 

the  snow                           bet  ©$nee                         dair  shnay 

fresh  bread 

frifdjeg  Srob 

frishes  brote 

. 

the  ice                               bad  Ct«                               das  ice 

the  butter 

bie  Sutter 

dee  bootter 

k 

the  thunder                     ber  Donnet                      dair  duuner 

fresh  butter 

frtfaie  Sutter 

frishay  bootter 

1 

of 

/- 

N 

1 

7 

1 

T-. 

1 

a 

m 

=*£i 

1 

V 

"7 

p 

| 

84 

THE    GERMAN 

LANGUAGE. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

rRONVNCIATION. 

the  cheese 

tet  *afe 

dair  caysay 

the  postmaster 

ter  Skfimeifiet 

dair  postmicctcr 

the  honey 

tet  &onig 

dair  honi^ 

to  ride 

reiten 

ritcn 

the  milk 

t«  mi:-. 

dec  milch 

the  riding-master 

ter  Sittmeifiet 

dair  rittmiceter 

the  buttermilk 

tie  Suttermtld; 

dee  boottermilcA 

the  school 

tte  Sd'ule 

dee  shoolay 

the  oil 

bat  Cel 

das  eel 

the  schoolmaster 

ter  Sdjulmeifitt 

dair  shoolmicetcr 

the  fish 

tet  gif* 

dair  fish 

the  smith 

ter  Sdjmiet 

dair  shmit 

the  flesh  (meat) 

tat  gletft 

das  Jlyshe 

the  smithy 

tte  Cebmiete 

dee  shmeeday 

the  wine 

tet  ffieln 

dair  vine 

the  nailsmith 

ter  '.laaelfaV    .b 

dair  nahgelshmit 

old  wine 

alter  2Bein 

alter  vine 

the  goldsmith 

ter  ©citftfcmltb 

dair  goldshmit 

the  punch 

tee  tpunfa) 

dair  poonch 

the  coppersmith 

tet  ftucferfebmieb 

dair  koopfershroit 

the  ruin 

tet  9!um 

dair  room 

the  weaver 

ter  ESebet 

dair  vayber 

the  water 

tag  SSaffet 

das  vasser 

the  king 

ber ficnig 

dr.ir  kecnig 

the  salt 

tat  Sal) 

das  saltx 

the  prince 

ter  $rtn| 

dair  prints 

the  pepper 

tet  35feffer 

dair  pfeffer 

the  baron 

tet  ZJarcit 

dair  bahrone 

the  salad 

tet  Ealat 

dair  salaht 

the  officer 

ter  Cfficiet 

dair  offeetseer 

the  soup 

tie  Sucre 

dee  sooppay 

the  soldier 

t  it  Z  tit  at 

dair  soldaht 

the  beefsteak 

tat  Seefileaf 

das  beefsteak 

the  pope 

tet  JJabft 

dair  pahbst 

the  pudding 

tet  putting 

dair  poodding 

the  archbishop 

ter  Chtjtifdjrf 

dair  airtsbishof 

the  coffee 

tetgaffee 

dair  kaffay 

the  bishop 

tet  *if*ef 

lair  bishofe 

the  tea 

tet  Ibee 

dair  tay 

the  chocolate 

tie  Gbololate 

dee  chocolahday 

CLOTHING. 

the  lemonade 

tie  Simonate 

dee  limonahday 

The  jacket 

tie  fjatfe 

•  tee  yackay 

TOWN  AND  COUNTRY. 

the  shoe 
the  hat 

tet  2i  ub 
tet  $ut 

iair  shoe 
dair  hoot 

The  honse 

taS  $au8 

das  house 

the  brush 

_  tteSJirfle 

dee  becurstay 

the  garden 

tet  Patten 

dair  garten 

the  hairbrush 

tie  £aaiburfle 

dee  harbeeurstay 

the  land 

tal  Sanb 

das  lahnd 

the  frock  (coat) 

tet  graet 

dair  frak 

the  market 

tetSKattt 

dair  markt 

the  wool 

tie  SoIIe 

dee  vollay 

the  street 

tie  ettaie 

dee  strahssay 

the  cravat 

tie  Grarattt 

dee  cravahtte 

the  church 

tie  fltrcbe 

dee  keerchay 

the  purse 

tte  Eerie 

dee  becrsay 

the  mail 

tie$cft 

dee  pust 

the  cap 

tie  Sacpe 

dec  kappay 

the  bank 

tleSBanl 

dee  bank 

the  ring 

tet  King 

dair  ring 

the  theater 

tat  Ibcater 

das  tayahter 

the  hospital 

tat  Scfpitat 

das  hospitahl 

BEASTS,  BIRDS,  FISHES,  ETC. 

the  coffee-house 

bat  Kaffcebaut 

das  kaffayhouse 

The  hound  (dog) 

tet  4}unt 

dair  hoond 

the  palace 

tet  !Pala(t 

dair  palast 

the  cat 

tie  Sage 

dee  kahtsay 

the  harbor 

tet  £afen 

dair  hahfen 

the  rat 

tie  Katie 

dee  rattay 

the  field 

tat  gelt 

das  feld 

the  mouse 

tie  !Ka»t 

dee  mouse 

the  dale  (valley) 

tat  Stbat 

das  tahl 

the  swine  (pig) 

tat  edSrcetn 

das  shvine 

the  wood  (forest) 

tet  Bait 

dair  vald 

the  hare 

tet  i>aie 

dair  hahzay 

the  bush 

tet  SBuf$ 

dair  boosh 

the  roe 

tat  Hcb 

das  ray 

the  heath 

tie  ftalte 

dee  hiday 

the  ox 

tetC*fe 

dair  ocksay 

the  hill 

tet  ijuget 

dair  hecugel 

the  cow 

tie  Sub 

dee  koo 

the  mill 

tie  Siubte 

dee  meeullay 

the  calf 

bat  ftalb 

das  kalb 

the  corn 

tat  iletn 

das  korn 

the  sheep 

tat  Etfaaf 

das  shahf 

the  straw 

tat  Strob 

das  shtro 

the  lamb 
the  fox 

tat  Samra 
tet  J>u*t 

das  lam 
dair  f  ooka 

TRADES  AND  PROFESSION'S. 

the  wolf 

bet  Belt 

dair  volf 

The  baker 

tet  ajftcTet 

dair  becker 

the  bear 

ter  ¥ar 

dair  baer 

the  bookbinder 

tet  9?ud)binber 

dair  bookbinder 

the  elephant 

tet  Qierbant 

dair  elcfahnt 

the  book 

tat  S? lid) 

das  hooch 

the  camel 

tat  Sameel 

das  cahmail 

the  doctor 

tet  Tcttot 

dair  iloktor 

the  swan 

ter  Stbiran 

dair  shvan 

the  hat 

tet  i>ut 

dair  hoot 

the  falcon 

tergalle 

dair  falkay 

the  hatter 

tet  ftulmaitei 

dair  hootmafAer 

the  goose 

tie  <?anl 

dee  gahn* 

the  shoe     . 

tet  Sajub 

dair  shoe 

the  stork 

tet  etcra) 

dair  shtorr k 

the  shoemaker 

tet  S<fcubma$ei 

dair  shoemaker 

the  snipe 

tie  e*nep)e 

dee  shncpfay 

the  razor 

tat  9Ia(itme(let 

das  rasccrmesser 

the  raven 

tet  Sate 

dair  rahbay 

a  barber 

ein  SJaiblet 

inc  bifboog 

the  lark 

tie  Srr*e 

dee  lairalar 

the  glass 

tat  (Slat 

das  giahs 

the  crow 

tte  fctibt 

dee  krayay 

the  glazier 

tet  ffllifet 

dair  glaiscr 

the  nightingale 

tie  Sad-naaH 

dec  na<  Atigal 

the  natl 

tet  SRaget 

dair  nahgcl 

the  cuckoo 

tet  Suiuif 

dair  kookook 

the  saddle 

tet  Eattel 

dair  sattct 

the  swallow 

tic  etbirjlbe 

dee  shvalbay 

the  saddler 

tet  eattlet 

dair  saltier 

the  finch 

tet  glnte 

dair  finkay 

the  mill 

tit  SKuble 

dec  meeullay 

the  sparrow 

bet  eperling 

dair  spairling 

the  miller 

tet  STOuttet 

dair  meeullcr 

the  fish 

tet  gli* 

dair  fish 

the  master 

tet  SKei|let 

dair  miccter 

the  carp 

tet  Saufe 

dair  carpf  ay 

dancing 

tanjen 

tanzen 

the  herring 

tet  faring 

dair  hairing 

i 

the  dancing-master 

tet  lanjmtipet 

dair  tnnztnlcetcr 

the  ecl 

tet  flat 

dair  ahl 

I 

the  post 

tie  Vojl 

dec  pust 

the  frog 

tet  gte(d) 

dair  fruah 

J 

£_   . 

S 

r\ 

~? 

«-      w 

-^— 

■ 

V 

1 

1 

i 

o 

« 

i** 

a 

\- 

.   y 

f 

' 

THE   GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 

85 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN.                         PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

1 

the  worm 

bet  2Burm                         dair  voorm 

winter 

SBtnter 

vinter 

the  spider 

tie  Spinne                      dee  shpinnay 

January 

Januar 

yanooar 

the  oyster 

bit  Outlet                         dee  ouster 

February 

gebruat 

febrooar 

the  crab 

bet  fltebd                          dair  kreps 

March 

STCarj 

mayrts 

the  flea 

bet  glo$                              dair  flo 

April 

Hptil 

apreet 

the  fly 

ble  gtiege                          dee  fleegay 

May 

SKat 

my 

the  bee 

bie  85iene                          dee  beenay 

June 

3»i<i 

yoonee 

the  wasp 

bie  SBefpe                         dee  vespay 

July 

Suit 

yoolee 

the  snail 

bie  ©d)necfe                      dee  shneckay 

August 
September 

Hugufl 
September 

owgoost 
September 

MINERALS  AND  METALS. 

October 

October 

October 

The  gold 

bad  (Sotb                           das  gult 

November 

SRooembet 

november 

the  silver 

bad  Stlbet                        das  silber 

December 

Xejember 

daytsember 

the  copper 

bad  ffupfet                        das  koopfer 

the  days  of  the  week 

bie  SSoa)entage 

dee  vo<r/tentahgay 

the  iron 

bad  Gifen                          das  eisen 

Sunday 

Sonntag 

WOBB&M0 

the  tin 

bad  3>nn                           das  tsin 

Monday 

SRontag 

monetae 

the  steel 

bad  Stahl                         das shtahl 

Tuesday 

Dtenftag 

deensta^" 

the  zinc 

bad  3tnf                             das  tsink 

Wednesday 

3Ritttcoa> 

mittvocA 

the  bronze 

bie  SBtonje                        dee  bronsay 

Thursday 

!£onnetftag 

donnersta^ 

the  diamond 

bet  liamant                     dair  deeamahnt 

Friday 

Sreitag 

freitah^" 

the  pearl 

bie  ¥etle                           dee  pairlay 

Saturday 

t  Samftag 
I  Sonnabenb 

sahmstah^ 
sunnahbend 

the  coral 
the  marble 

bie  ftotalle                        dee  corallay 
bad  uTZatmot                     das  marmor 

The  holiday 
Christmas 

ber  {Jfeiertag 

SBeitinadjten 

dair  fireta^ 
YinarAten 

the  gypsum 

berfflopd                           dair  gyps 

Easter 

DfietK 

ohstern 

the  clay 
the  chalk 
the  coal 

bet  Sepnt                           dair  lame 
bet  flair                               dair  calk 
bie  R o$ le                           dee  coalay 

Whitsuntide 
the  morning 
*  noon 

fPfinglten 
bet  Sffiorgen 
SHtttag 

pflngsten 

dair  morgen 

mitta^ 

dair  narAmitta^ 

dair  abend 

the  earth 
the  sand 

bie  Ctbe                              dee  airday 
berSanb                          dairsahnd 

the  afternoon 
the  evening 
the  night 

ber  SRad)mtttag 
bet  Stbenb 

the  stone 

ber  Stein                          dairstine 

bie  9Jad)t 

dee  nar/;t 

SHIPS  AND  SHIPPING. 

midnight 

SDiittetnacbt 

mitternarAt 

The  ship 

bad  Sd)iff                         das  shift 

THE  HOME. 

the  boat 

bad  Soot                           das  boat 

the  ship-of-the-Ilne 

bad  2inienfa)i|f                 das  leenyenshiff 

The  bell 

bie  ©lode 

dee  gluckay 

the  flsherboat 

bad  Sifajer&oot                 das  flsherboat 

the  knocker 

bet  Stopfer 

dair  klupfer 

the  anchor 

bet  Stnfet                          dair  anker 

to  open 

bffnen 

oeffnen 

the  deck 

bad  Ted                           das  deck 

the  servant 

bie  9Ragb 

dee  ma^d 

the  flag 

bie  Jlagge                         dee  flaggay 

the  staircase 

bie  Xreppe 

dee  treppay 

the  mast 

bet  2Raft                           dair  mast 

the  room 

bad  3immer 

das  tsimmer 

the  foremast 

bet  SBotbermajt                 dair  fordermast 

the  drawing-room 

bad  ¥uvStmmer 

das  pootstsimmer 

the  sail 

bad  Seget                         das  saygel 

the  sitting-room 

bad  SBobnjtmmet 

das  vohntsimmer 

the  strand 

betSttanb                        dairshtrand 

the  dining-room 

bad  QSjtmmet 

das  esstsimmer 

the  rudder 

bad  Subei                        das  rooder 

the  sleeping-room 

bad  Sajlafjimraei 

das  shlahftsimmer 

the  net 

bad  5Rev                            das  netz 

the  kitchen 

bie  flu*e 

dee  keeurZiay 

the  lading  (freight) 

bie  Sabung                        dee  lahdung 

the  cellar 

bet  ReUet 

dair  keller 

the  freight 

bie  Jtacit                          dee  tncit 

the  window 

bad  genflet 

das  fenster 

the  coast 

bie  Jtufte                           dee  kistay 

the  stove 

bet  Ofea 

dair  oh  fen 

the  cliff 

bie  fllippe                          dee  klippay 

the  chimney 

bet  flarain 

dair  kameen 

the  downs 

bie  Dunen                        dee  deeunen 

the  looking-glass 

ber  Spiegel 

dair  shpeegel 

the  ground 

bet  Orunb                         dair  groond 

the  table 

bet  Ztfdj 

dair  tish 

the  storm 

bet  Sturm                        dair  shtoorm 

the  chair 

ber  Stub;  t 

dair  shtool 

the  fleet 

bie  Jiotte                          dee  flottay 

the  arm-chair 

ber  Hrmftubl 

dair  arm  shtool 

the  frigate 

bie  Stegatte                       dee  fregattay 

the  carpet 

the  chest  of  drawers 

bet  Seppid) 
bie  flommobe 

dair  teppicA 
dee  ommohday 

TIME  AND  SEASONS. 

the  sofa 

bad  Sopva 

das  sofa 

The  century 

bad  3abt$unbett              das  yarhoondert 

the  candlestick 

ber  Seud)tet 

dair  loytAter 

the  year 

bad  3ab>                           das  yar 

the  candle 

bad  Sid)t 

das  lirAt 

the  month 

bet  SRonat                        dair  mortat 

the  lamp 

bie  £ampe 

dee  lam  pay 

the  week 

bie  25od)e                          dee  vocv&ay 

the  wick 

ber  Sod)t 

dair  dor  At 

the  day 

bet  Sag                             dair  ta^ 

the  oil 

bad  Del 

das  eel 

the  hour 

bie  Stunbe                        dee  shtoonday 

to  light 

anjunben 

antsinden 

half-an-hour 

erne  baibe  Stunbe             Inay  halbay  shtoonday 

the  bed 

bad  Sett 

das  bet 

the  minute 

bie  Minute                       dee  minoohtay 

thj  counterpane 

bie  Settberfe 

dee  betdeckay 

the  second 

bie  Sefunbe                      dee  secoonday 

the  sheets 

bie  iBetttudjet 

dee  betteeiAer 

the  seasons 

bie  Jalitedsetten                dee  yarestsiten 

the  pillow 

bad  ffopfltffen 

das  kupfkissen 

spring 

Stuping                           freeling 

the  basin 

bad  aBafajbeien 

das  vashbecken 

J 

summer 

Scmnter                           summer 

the  soap 

bie  Seife 

dee  sifay 

I 

— _* 

autumn 

£ 

ftetbft                               hairbst 

the  towe* 

bad  §anbtua} 

das  handtootrA 

\ 

L 

■ 

—• — » 
1 

«r 

«4 

R  ..    -. 

— -1 

If. 

1 

\  ■ 

/ 

86 

THE    GERMAN 

LANGUAGE. 

\ 

1 

■  NGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PR  OHVX  CIATIO  K. 

warm  water 

trarmeS  SBaflet 

varmes  vasser 

the  petticoat 

bet  Untrue* 

dair  oonterruck 

cold  water 

falttS  JBaRet 

kaltes  vaster 

the  stays 

bat  esjnurletb 

der  shneerlipc 

hot  water 

vttfcet  iffiaffei 

hyses  vasser 

the  veil 

bet  edjletet 

dair  shlire 

to  wash 

irafAen 

vashen 

the  powder 

bat  SBnbet 

das  pooder 

the  comb 

1 1  r  Jfamm 

dair  kamm 

the  soap 

Me  getfe 

dee  sifay 

to  comb 

fammen 

kemmen 

the  tooth-powder 

bat  3abntulrn 

das  tsahnpoolfer 

FRUITS,  TREES  AND 

FLOWERS. 

TRAVEL. 

The  apple 

bet  Hpfttl 

dair  apfel 

The  voyage 

Me  Strife 

dee  rizay 

the  apple-tree 

bet  aipfdbaum 

dair  apfclbowm 

the  traveller 

bet  Wetfente 

dair  rizendsy 

the  pear 

bie  Sitne 

dee  becrnay 

the  road 

bte  Saitbfhafct 

dee  lahnd&htrahsay 

the  pear* tree 

bet  SBunbaum 

dair  beernbowm 

the  railroad 

bte  Ciimbabn 

dee  isenbahn 

the  plum 

tie  ?>flaume 

dee  pflowmay 

the  station 

bte  etaticn 

dee  stahtzione 

the  plum-tree 

bet  ipflaumeniaunt 

dair  pflowmenbowm 

the  train 

betS«8 

dair  tsoo/ 

the  cherry 

bie  flirfAe 

dee  keershay 

the  engine 

bie  2Raf*t»e 

dee  mash  ten  ay 

the  chestnut 

bie  flafianie 

dee  kastanyay 

the  carriage 

bte  Rutfdte 

dee  kootshay 

the  peach 

bet  sphrficb. 

dair  pfeersirA 

the  wagon 

bet  SSaaen 

dair  vahgen 

the  apricot 

bie  Mpttccfe 

dee  apreecohsay 

the  departure 

bie  rlbtcife 

dee  abrizay 

the  orange 

bie  Slpfelfine 

dee  apfelseenay 

the  arrival 

bte  Slnfunft 

dee  ankoonft 

the  lemon 

bte  Citrone 

dee  tsitronay 

the  pass-port 

bet  t-afc 

dair  pass 

the  grape 

bie  SBelntiatlSe 

dee  vinetrowbay 

the  inn  (hotel) 

bet  (Safibof 

dair  ga&thof 

the  nut 

bie  Wufe 

dee  nooss 

the  landlord 

bet  JT-ittb 

dair  vetrt 

the  walnut 

bie  ffiaUnud 

dee  vallnooss 

the  waiter 

bet  fletlnet 

dair  k  finer 

the  currant 

bie  3o6anni8beete 

dee  yohanisbairay 

the  bill 

bie  9ied>nunoi 

dee  ree/moong 

the  gooseberry 

bie  ©tadjelbeete 

dee  shtat/jelbairay 

the  interpreter 

bet  Xcltnetfciet 

dair  dulltnctsher 

the  raspberry 

bie  Qimbeere 

dee  himbairay 

the  luggage 

bat  C'rrad 

das  geptek 

the  blackberry 

bie  iBtcmbeetc 

dee  brombairay 

the  trunk 

bet  Reflet 

dair  cuff er 

the  strawberry 

bie  Qtbbeete 

dee  airdbairay 

the  carpetbag 

bet  Stiff  tad 

dair  rizaysack 

the  oak 
the  beech 

bie  (Sicbe 
bte  SPucte 

dee  ir/jay 
dee  boor/ray 

AT  THE  WRITING-DESK. 

the  poplar 

bie  SPapptl 

deepappei 

The  paper 

bat  Racier 

das  papeer 

the  lime 

bie  Binbe 

dee  linday 

the  writing-paper 

bat  £*ittbpaptet 

das  shrihepapeer 

the  ash 

bie  <Sfd>e 

dee  eshay 

the  writing 

bie  Bchiiit 

dee  shrift 

the  fir 

bie  lanne 

dee  tannay 

the  sheet 

bet  iBcaen 

dair  bogeo 

the  willow 

bie  SBetbe 

dee  viday 

the  pen 

bie  g-etet 

dee  fayder 

the  rose 

bie  Wcfe 

dee  rosay 

the  steel-pen 

kte  etoblfetet 

dec  stahlfaydcr 

the  pink 

bie  3!elfe 

dee  nelkay 

the  penknife 

bat  gtbetmeflet 

das  fay  derm  esse* 

the  tulip 

bie  Xulpe 

dee  toolpay 

the  inkstand 

bat  lintentafj 

das  tinttnfass 

the  lily 

bit  Stile 

dee  leeleay 

the  ink 

bte  Xinte 

dee  tintay 

the  violet 

bat  Beildjeit 

das  nlerAen 

the  pencil 

ket  Sletfitft 

dair  blystift 

the  lilac 

bet  glleber 

dair  feeder 

the  scissors 

bie  Bcbeett 

dec  shayray 

the  lily  of  the  valley 

bat  SD!aibIumd)en 

das  mybleumchen 

the  date 

bet  Tatura 

der  dahtoom 

THE  TOILET. 

the  direction 
the  mail 

bie  abttfle 
bte  T>pft 

dee  ahdressay 
dec  pust 

The  clothes 

bie  JHelbet 

dee  klider 

the  seal 

bat  4?eH*aft 

das  pctshaft 

• 

the  coat 

bet  Mod 

dair  ruck 

the  sealing-wax 

bet  Eteatnad 

dair  seegcllac 

the  trowsers 

bie  $ofen 

dee  hozen 

the  wafer 

bte  Cblate 

dee  oblahtay 

the  pocket 

bie  aafebe 

dee  tashay 

the  ruler 

bat  SMntal 

das  lecnayabj 

the  buttons 

bte  flnopfe 

dee  knoepfay 

the  letter 

bet  SJtief 

dair  brcef 

the  dressing-gown 

bet  Sdjlattp* 

dair  shlahfruck 

the  note 

bat  Strict 

das  bilyet 

the  slippers 
the  drawers 

bie  iPantoffetit 
bie  Unterbofen 

dee  pantuffeln 
dee  oonterhosen 

LANDS  AND  PEOPLES. 

the  stockings 

bie  2  trumpfe 

dee  streeumpfay 

The  country 

bat  f!anb 

das  lahnd 

das  f ahtcrlahnd 

the  shirt 

bat  JJemb 

das  hemt 

the  native  land 

bat  SSatrrlanb 

the  braces 

bie  ftofenttigei 

dee  hosentrayger 

the  state 

bet  etaat 

dair  shtaht 

the  waistcoat 

bie  SBefie 

dee  vestay 

the  empire 

bat  »ei* 

das  ririe 

the  boot 

bet  Sltctel 

dair  shteefel 

the  kingdom 

bat  Jtbntatttcb 

das  kn  \\\gnetm 

the  boot-jack 

bet  ettefelfnedjt 

dair  shtecfelknefAt 

Europe 

Oureva 

otropa 

the  cap 

tie  OJJufce 

dee  mitsay 

the  European 

bet  Gntcpaet 

dair  oiropayer 

the  gloves 

bie  $anbfd)ube 

dee  bandshooay 

America 

amenta 

amayricah 

the  handkerchief 

bat  lafdjentudj 

daS  I.I.Oii'nMi  n  h 

Ike  American 

bet  amettfanet 

dair  amayrikahncr 

the  watch 

bie  Ubt 

dee  i  >i  t 

A-i.i 

afien 

axicn 

the  umbrella 

bet  Me  aenfdjltm. 

dair  raygensheerm 

Africa 

Bfttfa 

afrika 

the  purse 

bte  Scrfe 

dee  hrersay 

the  East  Indies 

rrtintten 

oj^tindicn 

the  brush 

bte  (Bfirfie 

dee  birstay 

the  West  Indies 

BrfMMM 

vestindien 

the  comb 

bet  Ramra 

dair  kamm 

the  United  States 

tie  rminijten  eiaaten 

dee  verint/ten  it  ah  tea 

the  apron 

bte  e*fltje  ' 

dee  shecurtsay 

Brazil 

*rafilten 

brahr.ee.  lien 

- 

the  fan 

bet  gadjet 

dair  facta 

Englfhil 

Gnalanb 

englahnd 

. 

the  dress 

bat  ftletb 

das  klite 

the  Englishman 

bet  Onglantet 

dair  Kngiendcr 

f 

/ 

^ 

1 

■ 

• 

-. * 

J*. 

« 

\ 

r~ 

1 

THE    GERMAls 

LANGUAGE. 

87 

1 

ENGLISH.                                 GERMAN.                        PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

Ireland                             3rlanb                              eerlahnd 

rich 

rela) 

ricAe 

the  Irishman                   bet  3r[anber                     der  eerlender 

cold 

fait 

kalt 

Scotland                          ed)ott[anb                        shutlahnd 

warm 

natnt 

varm 

the  Scotchman                 bet  Sdjotle                         dair  shuttay 

long 

lang 

lahng 

France                             grantreia)                         frankricAe 

high 

bod) 

hoarA 

the  Frenchman               bet  Jranjofe                     dair  frantsosay 

full 

Ml 

foil 

Germany                            Xeutfd)Ianb                        doylshlahnd 

cool 

tubl 

keel 

the  German                     bet  Deutfdje                     daii  doytshay 

near 

nabe 

nan 

Holland                             £oQanb                               hullahnd 

hard 

bar! 

hart 

the  Dutchman                  bet  ^olianbet                     dair  hullender 

light 

Ietdjt 

lycAt 

Austria                             Deftetteid)                         eceterricAe 

wild 

Btlb 

villd 

the  Austrian                   bet  Deftetteidjer                dair  ecetcrric/ier 

fat 

feu 

fet 

Prussia                            ipreufjen                            proyssen 

fine 

feln 

fine 

the  Prussian                    bet  $teu$e                         dair  proyssay 

mild 

mllb 

milld 

Russia                                SRufslanb                              rbossland 

deep 

tlef 

teef 

the  Russian                     bet  9iuffe                           dair  roossay 

fresh 

frlf* 

frish 

Sweden                            ©cbneben                          shvayden 

ripe 

teif 

rife 

the  Swede                        bet  ©d)»ebe                      dair  shvayday 

unripe 

nntetf 

oonrife 

Denmark                           Xanemart                          danemark 

bitter 

bitter 

bitter 

the  Dane                         bet  Xdne                           dair  daynay 

small 

.  fdjmal 

shmahl 

Switzerland                     bie  ©cbrceitj                       dee  shvyts 

wide 

Belt 

vite 

the  Swiss                         bet  3d)roei§er                   dair  shvytser 

open 

often 

uffen 

Italy                                 3'alien                              eetalyen 

loud 

Iaut 

lout 

the  Italian                       bet  ^toltenet                     dair  ectaleeayner 

right 

tecbt 

recAt 

Spain                                  Spanifn                              shpanyen 

wise 

Btlfe 

visay 

the  Spaniard                   bet  Spanter                      dair  shpaneeyare 

blind 

bltnb 

blinnd 

Greece                              (gtierbenlanb                     greetAenlahnd 

unwell 

untrcb,! 

oonvole 

the  Greek                        bet  (SrteAje                        deir  greecAay 

hot 

6«16 

hice 

Turkey                             bie  Stuttel                         dee  teerki 

thick 

bid 

dick 

the  Turk                          bet  Jutfe                          dair  teerkay 

neat 

nett 

net 

the  Jew                            bet  3"be  '                          dair  yooday 

thin 

bunn 

din 

i 

the  Persian                      bet  3Ptrfier                         dair  perzier 

broad 

bteit 

brite 

THE  ADJECTIVE. 

round 
false 

ml 

falfs) 

roond 
fahlsh 

The  German  adjective  is  placed  before  the  substantive. 

sour 

faun 

sour 

With  the  definite  article  it  takes  the  termination  in  e;  with  the  in- 

hollow 

bobl 

hole 

sharf 

fl«A 

kline 

engay 

needrig 

schcen 

hibsch 

hesslicA 

shlecAt 

definite  article  or  without  the  article,  it  takes  the  termination  of  its 

gender ;  as : 

Der  gute  SJater,  the  good  father;  guter  Slater,  good  father;  ein  gutet 

Satet,  a  good  father. 
Die  gute  Sffiuttet,  the  good  mother ;  gute  SKutter,  good  mother ;  tine  gute 

Wuttit,  a  good  mother. 
•  D««  gute  Stint,  the  good  child ;  gute«  fttnb,  good  child ;  ein  gute8  Uinb, 

a  good  child. 

sharp 

flat 

small 

narrow 

low 

beautiful 

handsome 

ugly 

bad 

fa)arf 
Pad) 
tletn 
enge 

niettlg 

fd)6n 

bubfd) 

bafilta) 

fd)Ied)t 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTTVES. 

easy 

Ietdjt 

leieAt 

The  comparative  of  a  German  adjective  is  formed  by  adding  et  to 

heavy 

fdjoei 

shvair 

the  positive,  the  superlative  by  adding  fie;  as: 

soft 

Beta) 

vycAe 
vahr 

Rletn,  little  —  [[finer,  smaller  —  fleinfie,  smallest. 

true 

ltOyt 

Welti,  riqh  —  reldjet,  richer  —  teltbfle,  richest. 

short 

furj 

koorts 

The  *'  than"  following  the  comparative  is  translated  by  „aI8". 

far 

Belt 

vite 

Sr  i(l  tleinet  al§  id);  he  is  smaller  than  I. 
VOCABULARY  OF   ADJECTIVES. 

sweet 

hollow 
blunt 

fuB 

bob! 

ftumpf 

seess 
hole 

shtoompf 

White                             n>et&                                vice 

delicious 

leftlia) 

ksstlifA 

red                                    tot,                                   rote 

disagreeable 

unangenebm 

oonahngenaym 

blue                                blau                                blou 

honest 

ebtltd) 

ayrlifA 

brown                              braun                                brown 

polite 

bofltd) 

hsnirA 

gray                                  gtau                                  grou 

obliging 

gefattig 

gefell^f 

green                                gtin                                  green 

kind 

gutig 

geeti^ 

yellow                              gelb                                   gelb 

prudent 

Hug 

kloo^ 

orange                              orange                               orahn^e 

stupid 

butnm 

doomm 

Purple                              Umpire                              poorpoor 

ridiculous 

lacbetlid) 

lecAerlicA 

violet                                  Diolett                                 veeolet 

reasonable 

eernunftig 

ferninfti^ 

old                                    alt                                     ahlt 

happy 

gludlid) 

glicklicA 

young                                 Jung                                     yoong 

unhappy 

unglutflia) 

oonglickUVA 

new                                  neu                                    noi 

glad 

frob 

fro 

1 

great                                  8io(i                                     gross 

satisfied 

juftleben 

tsoofreeden 

i 

good                                gut                                    goot 

active 

tbattg 

taitif 

f 

,  0 

' 

s 

I, 

[fs w 

-^ 1 

sr* 

K" 


88 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

rRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

proud 

grot 

shtults 

a  million 

etne  2Hifiicn 

inay  milleeone 

rude 

grope 

one    thousand     eight  ein  taufenb  ao>t  bunbert 

ine  towsend  arAt  hoon- 

bold 

(uvn 

keen 

hundred    and   fifty- 

neununtfunfjtg 

dert  noyn  oond  nnf- 

strong 

flat. 

shtark 

nine. 

Uig 

weak 
attentive 

fd)ma$ 
aufmcrtjaa 

shvach 
owfmerksahm 

THE  ORTONAL  NUMBERS. 

clever 

gefebtett 

geshickt 

the  first 

ber  erfte 

dalr  ayrstsy 

sick 

frant 

krahnk 

the  second 

ber  (nette 

dair  uviuy 

pale 

Ha| 

blahss 

the  third 

ber  brtlte 

dair  drittay 

healthy 

«-tut.b 

gezoond 

the  fourth 

ber  Bierte 

dair  feertay 

poor 

arm 

arm 

the  fifth 

ber  funfte 

dair  finftay 

empty 

Iter 

lair 

the  sixth 

ber  fed)8fte 

dair  sextag 

light 

bell 

hell 

the  seventh 

ber  ficbente 

dair  seebentay 

dark 

bunfet 

doonkel 

the  eighth 

ber  acbte 

dair  ar/uay 

dry 

tro-fen 

trocken 

the  ninth 

bet  neunte 

dair  noyntay 

wet 

naf) 

nahss 

the  tenth 

ber  jebnte 

dair  tsanetay 

dirty 

fdjmuttg 

shmootsi^ 

the  eleventh 

ber  elfte 

dair  elftay 

cheap 

Mm 

Mill/ 

the  twelfth 

ber  jrcolfte 

dair  tsvelfUy 

clean 

rein 

rine 

the  thirteenth 

ber  breijebnte 

dair  drytsanetEy 

tired 

mube 

meeday 

the  fourteenth 

bet  Bierjebnte 

dair  feertsanetay 

angry 

bofe 

bossay 

the  fifteenth 

ber  funfjebnte 

dair  finfuanetay 

merry 

lufltg 

loosti^ 

the  sixteenth 

ber  fetbsiebnte 

dair  sc<-*tsanetay 

CARDINAL  NUMBERS. 

the  seventeenth 
the  eighteenth 

ber  fiebenjebnte 
ber  aettjebnte 

dair  secbentsanctay 
dair  arAtsanetay 

One 

tin,  etnS 

Ine, ines 

the  nineteenth 

ter  neunjebnte 

dair  noyntsanetay 

two 

greet 

tsvi 

the  twentieth 

ber  jrcanjigfte 

dair  tsvanzi^stay 

three 

tret 

dri 

the  twenty-first 

bet  einunbjtBaniigfle 

dair  ineoondtsvantsig- 

four 

Bier 

feer 

stay 

five 

ffinf 

flat 

twenty -second 

ber  itBetunbjn-anitjiie 

dair  tsvioondtsvantsi/"- 

six 

f.*« 

sex 

stay 

seven 

fiebeu 

seeben 

the  twenty-third 

ber  breiuxtjiranjtgfte 

dair   drioonduvants!/- 

eight 

M|l 

■dt 

stay 

nine 

neun 

noyn 

the  thirtieth 

ber  breifi.gfte 

dair  drysi/stay 

ten 

je»n 

tsane 

the  thirty -first 

ber  elnuubbreiblgfte 

dair  ineoonddrysijfltay 

eleven 

HI 

elf 

the  thirty-second 

ber  •n-etunbbrclbtgfte 

dair  tsvioonddrysij*stay 

twelve 

jmaif 

tsvelf 

the  fortieth 

ber  Blerjigfle 

dair  fecrtsi^stay 

thirteen 

breljebn 

drytsane 

the  fiftieth 

ber  funfjigfte 

dair  finttsijs.ay 

fourteen 

«lerjeyn 

feertsane 

the  sixtieth 

ber  fecbe-jlgfie 

dair  sechfi /stay 

fifteen 

funfjebn 

finftsane 

the  seventieth 

ber  ftebenjlgfle 

daii  seebentsi^sur 

sixteen 

fee,«jeyn 

scxtsane 

the  eightieth 

ber  oebtjigfte 

daii  arAtsi/stay 

seventeen 

Peben'eya 

seebentsane 

the  ninetieth 

ber  neuniigfte 

dair  noyntsi/slay 

eighteen 

«d)tjevn 

a<7/ttsane 

the  one  hundredth 

ber  bunbertfle 

dair  hoonderstay 

nineteen 

neun>evn 

noyntsane 

the  one  hundred  and  bet  buntertunterfle 

dair  hoondcrtoondayr- 

twenty 

lisanitg 

tsvantzi^ 

first 

stay 

twenty-one 

ttnunb>n>anjlg 

Incoondtsvantz!/ 

the  two  hundredth 

ter  )ireibuntertfte 

dairuvihoondertstay 

twenty*  two 

jroelunbiroanjlg 

zvloondtsvantzi^ 

the  three  hundredth 

ber  brelbuntertfte 

dairdrihoondenstay 

twenty-threo 

breiunb)nan)ig 

dryoondtsvantzy 

the  one  thousandth 

ber  laufentfte 

dair  towsendsuy 

thirty 

bretfilg 

drysi^ 

forty 

Bierjlg 

tceruig 

COLLECTIVE  NUMBERS. 

fifty 

fftnfjtg 

tataig 

A  pair 

ein  9aar 

Ine  pahr 

sixty 

fe-v«ji9 

MCklz\g 

a  dozen 

ein  XuBenb 

ine  doolaend 

seventy 

(lebenjig 

secbenzi^" 

a  score 

jteanilg 

Uvanlslf 

eighty 

oebtjlg 

ac/ilzijr 

firstly 

crftenS 

ayrstens 

ninety 

neunjtg 

noyntzl^ 

secondly 

jtreilen* 

tsvitens 

one  hundred 

bunbert 

hoondcrt 

thirdly 

britlenl 

driltens 

one  hundred  and 

one     bunbert  unb  etnJ 

hoondert  oond  incs 

the  first  time 

bae  erfte  JRal 

das  ayrslay  msi 

one  hundred  and  two    bunbert  unfe  jn>el 

hoondert  oond  tsvl 

the  second  time 

baft  ltBeite  SRal 

das  tsvitay  mal 

two  hundred 

jroei  bunbert 

tsvl  hoondcrt 

once 

einnal 

inemal 

three  hundred 

brel  bunbert 

dry  hoondert 

twice 

•n-eimat 

tsvimal 

four  hundred 

bier  buntert 

feer  hoondert 

thrice 

breimal 

drymal 

five  hundred 

funf  bunbert 

tinf  hoondert 

single 

etnfad) 

lncfar* 

six  hundred 

fed)<  bunbert 

sex  hoondert 

double 

tcrrelt 

duppclt 

seven  hundred 

(ieben  bunbert 

seeben  hoondert 

threefold 

brelfaeb 

dryfaol 

eight  hundred 

<i*t  bunbert 

a<7/t  hoondert 

fourfold 

Blerfaet 

fecriact 

nine  hundred 

neun  bunbert 

Royn  hoondcrt 

one  sort 

clnerlcl 

inerlye 

one  thousand 

taufenb 

towsend 

two  sorts 

iwelerlet 

Uvierlye 

two  thousand 

|met  taufenb 

tsvl  towsend 

three  sorts 

treietlei 

drierlyej 

three  thousand 

brel  taufenb 

dry  towsend 

four  sorts 

ftetetlel 

fcererlyej 

ten  thousand 

jebn  taufenb 

tsane  towsend 

ten  sorts 

jebnetlet 

tsancrlye 

■55 


.:• 


V 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


89 


PRONOUNS. 

14 

mine 

mein 

SDu 

thine 

Detn 

tx 

his 

fetn 

fl« 

her 

tbt 

Bit 

ours 

unfet 

3&* 

yours 

Suet 

fl« 

theirs 

*» 

Mefet 

who,  which 

neither 

jenet 

who 

Ber 

fold)et 

each,  every  one 

jeber 

jetnanb 

nobody 

ntemanb 

I 

thou 

he 

she 

we 

you 

they 

this 

that 

such 

somebody 

The  polite  form  of  address  in  German  is  to  use  the  pronoun  Sic,  in- 
stead of  Du,  in  the  second  person  singular.  In  that  sense  <Sie  is  writ- 
ten with  a  capital  letter. 

THE  YERB. 

Before  studying  the  regular  verbs  the  student  must  learn  by 
heart  the  auxiliary  verbs,  whose  conjugations  are  as  follows: 
AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

jjal'cn  —  to  have. 

INFINITIVE. 

baben,  to  have 

gebabt  hah'iz,  to  have  had. 

(aben  Berben,  to  be  about  to  have. 


Present, 
Perfect. 
Future. 
Participles: 


Present. 
Perfect. 


INDICATIVE. 


babent,  having. 
ge(abt,  had. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


id)  (abt, 

lu  baft, 
er  (at, 
Bit  (aben, 
36t  babt, 
fte  baben, 

td)  batte, 
!Eu  battefi, 
er  batte, 
Bit  batten, 
3bt  battel, 
fie  batten, 


I  have 
thou  hast 
he  has 
we  have 
you  have 
they  have 


Present. 

id)  b>bc, 

lu  babeft, 
er  babe, 
nit  baben, 
3bt  babet, 
fie  baben, 


I  had 
thou  hadst 
he  had 
we  had 
you  had 
they  had 


Imperfect. 


ich  batte, 
In  battefi, 
er  b.  atte, 
Bir  batten, 
3vt  battel, 
fte  batten, 


I  may  have 
thou  mayst  have 
he  may  have 
we  may  have 
you  may  have 
they  may  have 

I  might  have 
thou  mightest  have 
he  might  have 
we  might  have 
you  might  have 
they  might  have 


I  have  had. 

td)  babe  gebabt 
CDu  baft  gebabt 
er  bat  gebabt 
Bit  baben  gebabt 
3bt  babt  gebabt 
fie  baben  gebabt 

I  had  had. 

id)  (atte  gebabt 
Hu  battefi  gebabt 
er  batte  gebabt 
Btr  batten  gebabt 
3bt  battel  gebabt 
fie  batten  gebabt 

I  shall  have. 
id)  Berbe  baben 
Du  Birfi  baben 
er  Birb  baben 
Btr  Berben  baben 
3*r  Berbet  baben 
fte  Berben  baben 


Perfect. 


Pluperfect. 


First  Future. 


I  may  have  had. 

id)  babe  gebabt 
Du  babeft  gebabt 
er  babe  gebabt 
Bit  baben  gebabt 
3br  babet  gebabt 
fte  baben  gebabt 

I  might  have  had. 

id)  batte  gebabt 
CDu  battefi  gebabt 
er  batte  gebabt 
Btr  batten  gebabt 
3br  battel  gebabt 
fte  batten  gebabt 

If  I  shall  have, 
id)  Berbe  baben 
Du  Berbefl  baben 
er  Berbe  baben 
Bit  Berben  baben 
3bt  Berbet  baben 
fie  tuerten,  baben 


INDICATIVE. 


Second  Future. 


I  shall  have  had. 
id)  Berbe  gebabt  baben 
lu  Birfi  gebabt  baben 
er  Birb  gebabt  baben 
Bir  Berben  gebabt  baben 
3br  Berbet  gebabt  baben 
fie  wetben  gebabt  baben 

FIRST   CONDITIONAL. 

I  should  have. 
id)  rcurbe  baben 
Du  Bftrbeft  baben 
er  Biirbe  baben 
Btr  Btirben  baben 
3bt  Burbet  baben 
fie  Btirben  baben 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

If  I  shall  have  had. 
id)  Berbe  gebabt  baben 
la  Berbefl  gebabt  baben 
er  Berbe  gebabt  baben 
Btr  Berben  gebabt  baben 
3br  Berbet  gebabt  baben 
fie  Berben  gebabt  baben 

SECOND   CONDITIONAL. 

I  should  have  had. 
id)  Biirte  gebebt  baben 
3>u  Burbefi  gebabt  baben 
er  Blirfee  gebabt  baben 
Btr  Burben  gebabt  baben 
3br  Bitrtet  gebabt  baben 
fie  Btirben  gebabt  baben 


babe  er, 


IMPERATIVE. 

have  I       baben  Bir, 

let  him  have  fjabt  (3Sr), 

baben  fte, 


let  us  have 

have  ye 

let  them  have 


Sein  —  to  be. 


INFINITIVE. 

Present.       fein,  to  be. 
Perfect.        geBefen  fetn,  to  have  been. 
Future.         fein  Berben,  to  be  about  to  be. 
Participles:    Present,    fetenb,  being. 
Perfect.     geBefen,  been. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

td)  Sin,  I  am  id)  fei  I  may  be 

5)ubijt,  thou  art  SDu  fetft,  thoumayestbe 

er  ift,  he  is  er  fei,  he  is 

Bit  ftnb,  we  are  Bir  feien,  we  may  be 

3bt  feib,  you  are  3v*  feiet,  you  may  be 

fte  fmb,  they  are  fte  feien,  they  may  be 

Imperfect. 

id)  Bat,  I  was  id)  Bare,  I  might  be 

®u  Barft,  thou  wert  CDu  Bareft,  thou  mightest  be 

er  Bat,  he  was  «t  Bare,  he  might  be 

Bit  Baren,  we  were  Bir  Bdren,  we  might  be 

3bt  Batet,  you  were  35*  Batet,  you  might  be 

fie  Baren,  they  were  fte  Baren,  they  might  be 

Perfect. 

I  may  have  been, 
td)  fei  geBefen 
CDu  feift  geBefen 
et  fei  geBefen 
Bit  feien  geBefen 
3bt  feiet  geBefen 
fte  feien  geBefen 


I  have  been. 
•'  4)  bin  geBefen 
Su  Sifi  geBefen 
et  Ifi  geBefen 
Bit  ftnb  geBefen 
3(r  feib  geBefen 
fie  ftnb  geBefen 

I  had  been. 
td)  Bar  geBefen 
CDu  Barft  geBefen 
er  Bar  geBefen 
Bir  Baren  geBefen 
3br  Baret  geroefen 
fie  Baren  geBefen 

I  shall  be. 
id)  »etbe  fetn 
CDu  Bitft  fein 
et  Bitb  fein 
Bit  Berben  fein 
3bt  Berbet  fein 
fie  aetben  fein 


Pluperfect. 


First  Future. 


I  might  have  been. 
td)  Bate  geBefen 
CDu  Bareft  geBefen 
er  Bare  geBefen 
Bir  Baren  geBefen 
3br  Baret  geBefen 
fte  Baren  geBefen 

If  I  shall  be. 
id)  Berbe  fein 
CDu  Berbefl  fein 
et  Berbe  fein 
Bir  Berben  fein 
3bt  aetbet  fein 
fie  Berben  fein 


/* 


** 


1 

-V      ...   Em 

m           => 

•» 

SI 

\ 

P* 

1 

go                                                                                    THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 

Second  Future. 

Bit  reetben  Betben                                Bit  Betben  reetben 

1 

I  shall  have  been. 

If  I  shall  have  been. 

3yt  reetbel  Betben 

36t  Betbet  Betben 

1*  rente  gereefen  fern 

id)  Betbe  gereefen  fein 

fie  Betben  reetben 

fie  setten  Betbca 

Da  reltft  gereefen  fein 

Du  Betbeft  geBtfen  fein 

Second  Future. 

tt  reitb  gereefen  (tin 

et  Betbe  gereefen  fein 

I  shall  have  become.                           If  I  shall  have  become. 

Bit  reetben  gereefen  fein 
3yt  reetbet  gereefen  f'in 
fit  reetben  gereefen  fein 

Bit  reetben  gereefen  fein 
3,t  Betbet  gereefen  fein 
fie  reetben  gereefen  fein 

id)  Bttbe  gereotben  fein 
Da  reitfl  gereotben  fein 
et  reitb  gereotben  fein 

14  reetbe  geBotben  fell 
Da  reetteft  gereetbtn  fela 
et  Bttbe  geBotben  fein 

FIRST  CONDITIONAL.                                  SECOND   CONDITIONAL. 

Bit  Betben  gereotben  fein 

Btt  Betben  gereotben  feta 

I  should  be. 

I  should  have  been. 

3yt  reetbet  geBotben  (tin 

3vt  Betbet  gereotten  fela 

14  Bfitbe  fein 

td)  Biitbe  geBefen  fein 

fie  Betben  geBotben  fein 

fie  reetben  geBotben  feta 

lu  reatbeft  fein 

Da  reatbeft  geBefen  fein 

FIRST   CONDITIONAL.                                   SECOND   CONDITIONAL. 

et  Bitbe  fein 

et  reatbe  geBefen  fein 

I  should  become.                               I  should  have  become. 

Bit  Batben  fein 
3bjr  reutbet  fein 
fie  reuiten  fein 

Bit  Batben  gereefen  fein 
3vt  reatbet  geBefen  fein 
fie  Batben  gereefen  fein 

td)  reutbe  reetben 
Da  reatbeft  reetben 
et  reatbe  reetben 

14  Butbe  geBotben  fela 
Da  Batbefl  gereotten  fetn 
et  reatbe  gereotten  fela 

IMPERATIVE. 

Btt  Batben  Betben 

Bit  Butben  gttrnten  feta 

fet              be 

feien  Bit          let  us  be 

3vt  reatbet  Betben 

3bt  reuttet  gereotten  feta 

fei  et         let  him  be. 

fetb  3bt            be  ye 

fie  Batben  reetben 

fie  Batten  gereotten  feta 

leten  fie             let  them  be 

IMPERATIVE. 

SBetben— to  become. 

Bttbe  (Dn;  become  thou 

Betben  Bit     let  us  become 

INFINITIVE. 

Betbe  et        let  him  become 

reetbet  3*t     become  ye 
reetben  fte       let  them  become 

Present.    Betben,  to  become. 

Perfect,     geBotben,  geBotben  fein,  to  have  become. 

SKcgen— to  may,  to  like. 

Future.      Betben  reetben,  to  be  about  to  become. 

Participles:    Present.    Betbenb,  becoming. 

INDICATIVE.                                                    SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Perfect.      geBotben,  become. 

INDICATIVE.                                                       SUBJUNCTIVE. 

I  may. 

I  may. 

Present. 

Id)  ntag 

14  m6ge 

14  Betbe                   I  become 

id)  reetbe       I  may  become 

Da  magfi 

Da  mogeft 
ctmege 

Bit  megea 
3bt  meget 

Tu  Bitft                    thou  becomest 
et  Bith                     he  becomes 
Bit  Betben                we  become 

Dareetbeft  thou  mayest  become 
et  rcetbe        he  may  become 
Bit  Betben   we  may  become 

Bit  mogen 
3yt  m6gt 

3yt  Betbet               you  become 

3yt  Betbet    you  may  become 

fie  mogen 

fie  Betben               they  become 

fie  reetben     they  may  become 

Imperfect.    14)  mo4)te 

14  mttie 

Perfect.       in)  babe  gemo4)t 

14  babe  aemcd>t 

Imperfect. 

Pluperfect.  14)  baile  gemod)t 

14  bine  gemo4t 

14  Butbe                  I  became 

td)  Batbe      I  might  become 

ist Future.  14)  Betbe  mogen 

14  reetbe  rccjen 

Da  Batbefl             thou  becamest 

Da  Batbefl  thou  mightest  become 

ad  Future.  14  Betbe  gemo4)t$a&en 

14  Betbe  gtmo4t  bcita 

(t  Batbe                   he  became 

et  reatbe       he  might  become 

First  Conditional.       14  Butbe  mrgen. 

Bit  Bntben              we  became 

Bit  Batben  we  might  become 

Second  Conditional.    14  Butbc  gemo4t  boben. 

3yt  Bntbet              you  became 

3yt  reatbet  you  might  become 

fie  Batben               they  became 

fie  Batben    they  might  become 

SBellen— to  be  willing. 

INDICATIVE.                                                         SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Perfect. 

Present. 

I  have  become. 

I  may  have  become. 

I  am  willing. 

I  may  be  willing. 

14  bin  geBotben 

td)  fet  geBotben 

14  BID 

14  BoOc 

Da  bifi  geBotben 

Da  feifl  gereotben 

Dn  Btnfl 

Du  itctlefl 

(t  1ft  geBotben 

et  fei  geBotben 

ctretS 

eiBolIe 

Bit  finb  gereotben 

Bit  feien  gereotben 

Bit  Botlen 

Bit  reoflcn 

3vt  feib  gereotben 

3vt  feiet  gereotben 

3btBoUet 

3»t  recllet 

fie  finb  gereotben 

fie  feien  gereotben 

fie  ircHen 

fie  BoUca 

Pluperfect. 

Imperfect.     14  tooDte 

14  BoOte 

I  had  become. 

I  might  have  become. 

Perfect.       14  babe  geBoBt 

14  babe  gereoSt 

14  reat  gereetben 

td)  redte  gereotben 

Pluperfect.  14  baite  gtBellt 

14  yalle  gereoDt 

Da  reatft  gereotben 

Da  Bated  gereetben 

1st  Future.  14  reetbe  ret- lien 

14  reetbe  BoHtm 

et  reat  geBotben 

et  Bate  gereotben 

ad  Future.  14  reette  gtreotlt  $aoen 

14  Betbe  geBoUt  ya*tJ 

Bit  Baten  gereotben 

Bit  Boten  gereotben 

First  Conditional.       14  Butbe  Bollen. 

3v'  reatet  gereotben 

3bt  reSvet  gereotben 

Second  Conditional.    14  Batbe  gcBcOl  babfu. 

fie  reoten  gereotben                                 fie  reaten  gereotben 

Eellen— to  be  obliged:  I  shall,  I  ought. 

First  Future. 

INDICATIVE.                                                         SUBJUNCTIVE. 

I  shall  become. 

If  I  shall  become. 

Present. 

16)  Betbe  Betben 

14)  reetbe  reetben 

I  shall.                                                     I  shall. 

J 

Da  Bitfl  reetben 

Dn  reetteft  reeiben 

14  foO                                               14  f»I< 

I 

et  reitb  Betben 

et  Betbe  reetben 

Da  foUfl                                                   D«  feneff 

J 

y 

N 

w 

1 

r- 

-"»          i 

i 

o 

--          ■ 

"1 

%     

/ 

a 

1 

THE   GERMAIs 

LANGUAGE.                                                                                    9 I 

> 

cr  foil 

erfotte 

Saffen— to  let. 

trit  fotten 

Bit  foOen 

INDICATIVE.                                                        SUBJUNCnVT. 

3*'  foDet 

3Bt  iottet 

Present. 

fie  foUen 

fie  foUen 

I  let. 

I  may  be  let. 

Imperfect,     td)  foUie                                                    tc^  fotlte 

ttBIaffe 

UBIaffe 

Perfect.       id;  B<>oe  gefoUt 

id)  babe  gefottt 

Xu  Iaffefl 

Xu  Iaffefl 

Pluperfect,  id)  ^atte  gefoDt 

id)  batte  gefoUt 

er  lafit 

'     er  Hit 

««  Future,  icf)  Berbe  f  ouen 

id)  Berbe  fotten 

Bir  laffen 

Bir  laffen 

ad  Future,   td)  Berbe  gefoEt  BaBen 

id)  merbe  gefoUt  Baben 

36r  Iaffet 

3*»  lofld 

fie  laffen 

fie  laffen 

/VW/  Conditional.       id)  Bilrbe  foDen. 

Second  Conditional,    id)  Burbe  gefoflt  baben. 

Imperfect,    id)  lief) 
Perfect.       id)  Babe  gelaffen 

id)  Itefie 

td)  Bate  gelaffen 

Jtonnen— to  be  able. 

Pluperfect,  id)  Batte  gelaffen 
ist  Future,  id)  Bette  laffen 

id)  Batte  gelaffen 
id)  Berbe  laffen 

INDICATIVE.                                                         SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

ad  Future,  id)  Berbe  gelaffen  Baten 

id)  Berbe  gelaffen  BaBen 

I  am  able,  I  can.                                         I  mav  be  able. 

First  Conditional.       id)  Burbe  laffen. 

1*  fann 

id)  fSnne 

Second  Conditional,    id)  Butte  gelaffen  b,  aben. 

I«  fannft 

Xu  fonneft 

IMPERATIVE. 

ec  faun 

er  tonne 

lafi  Xu 

laffen  Bit 

»it  fonnen 

Bir  fonnen 

lafet 

Iaffet  3bt 

3Br  fonnet 

3br  fonnet 

laffen  Re 

fie  fonnen 

fie  fonnen 

Imperfect.    id)  tonnte 

id)  tonnte 

THE  REGULAR  VERB. 

Perfect.        id)  Babe  gefonnt 

id)  b,abt  gefonnt 

The  rule  for  the  formation  of  the  regular  verb  is  very  simple.    It 

Pluperfect,  id)  tiatie  gefonnt 

id)  Batte  gefonnt 

.runs :  The  present  tense  is  formed  by  dropping  the  n  of  the  infinitive ; 

1st  Future,  id)  Berbe  fonnen 

id)  nerbe  fonnen              . 

file  imperfect  by  dropping  the  final  e  of  the  present  and  adding  te ;  the 

21/  Future.  Id)  Berbe  gefonnt  Baben 

id)  Berbe  gefonnt  Ittet 

past  participle  by  dropping  the  final  e  of  the  imperfect  and  prefixing 

J^/Vse  Conditional.       id)  Burbe  fonnen. 

ge.    For  example:    Infinitive,  leben,  to  live;  present,  id)  lebe,  I  live; 

Second  Conditional,    id)  Burbe  gefonnt  baben. 

imperfect,  id)  lebte,  I  lived;  past  participle,  gelebt,  lived. 
Active  Voice. 

Xurfen— to  be  allowed,  to  dare. 

SeBen— to  live. 

INDICATIVE.                                                        SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

INFINITIVE. 

I  am  allowed.                                         I  mav  be  allowed. 

Present,    leben,  to  live.    . 

Perfect,     gelebt  Baben,  to  have  lived. 

id)  barf 

id;  burfe 

Future.      leBen  Berben,  to  be  about  to  live. 

Xu  barf  ft 

Xu  bfirfeft 

Participles:    Present,    febenb,  living. 

er  barf 

er  burfe 

Perfect,     gelebt,  lived. 

Bit  burfen 

Bir  burfen 

3br  burfet 

3B.r  burfet 

INDICATIVE.                                                         SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

fie  burfen                                            fie  burfen 

id)  tebe                       I  live                          td)  lebe           I  may  live 

Imperfect,    id)  burfte 

idi  burfte 

Xu  lebft                      thou  livest 

In  leBeft       thou  mayest  live 

Perfect.       Id)  Babe  geburft 

id)  Babe  geburft 

et  lebt                        he  lives 

er  leBe             he  may  live 

Pluperfect,  id)  Batte  geburft 

id)  Batte  geburft 

Bir  leben                   we  live 

Bir  leben        we  may  live 

«/  Future,  id)  Berbe  burfen 

id)  Berbe  burfen 

3B*  lebt                     you  live 

3B*  Iebet        you  may  live 

id  Future,  id)  Berbe  geburft  B>6en 

id)  Berbe  geburft  baben 

fie  IeBen                     they  live 

fie  leben         they  may  live 

/Yrjr  Conditional.       id)  Burbe  burfen. 

Imperfect. 

Second  Conditional,    id)  Butte  geburft  f)aben. 

id)  lebte                     I  lived 

id)  lebte       I  might  live 

SMuffen— to  be  obliged. 

Xu  lebteft                 thou  livedst 
er  lebte                    he  lived 

Xu  lebteft  thou  mightest  live 
er  lebte        he  might  live 

INDICATIVE.                                                        SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Bir  Iebten                  we  lived 

Bir  Iebten    we  might  live 

3B*  leBtet                  you  lived 

3B»  lebtet    you  might  live 

I  am  obliged,  I  must. 

I  may  be  obliged. 

fte  Iebten                   they  lived 

fit  Iebten     they  might  live 

id)  mug 

id)  muffe 

Xu  muftt 

Xu  miffeft 

Perfect. 

er  mufj 

er  muffe 

I  have  lived. 

I  may  have  lived. 

Bir  muffen 

Bir  muffen 

id)  BaBe  gelebt 

id)  babe  gelebt 

3btniufjt 

3Br  miiffet 

Xu  Baft  gelebt 

Xu  BaBeft  gelebt 

fie  muffen 

fie  muffen 

er  Bat  gelebt 

er  hate  gelebt 

Imperfect,    id)  muflte 
Perfect.       id)  babe  gemufjt 
Pluperfect,  id)  batte  gemufjt 

id)  mufite 

id)  babe  gemufit 

id)  Batte  gemufit 

Bit  Baben  gelebt 
3Br  babt  gelebt 
fie  Baben  gelebt 

Btr  Baben  gelebt 
3Br  babet  gelebt 
fie  BaBen  gelebt 

1st  Future,  td)  Betbe  muffen 

id)  Berbe  muffen 

Pluperfect. 

ad  Future,  td)  Berbe  gemufit  $aBen 

id)  Berbe  gemufit  Baien 

I  had  lived. 

I  might  have  lived. 

i 

jrtfetf  Conditional.       id)  Burbe  muffen. 

td)  Batte  gelebt 

id)  batte  gelebt 

I 

J 

Second  Conditional,    id)  Butte  gemufit  baben. 

Xu  Batteft  gelebt 

Xu  Batteft  gelebt 

\ 

A 

r- 

"*        e 

1 

K 


92 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


S 


et  batte  gtiebt 
tsit  fatten  gelebt 
3br  battet  gelebt 
fie  fallen  gelebt 

I  shall  live. 
14  netbe  leben 
In  nitft  leben 
ct  trirb  leben 
lrir  netben  leben 
3btnetbet  leben 
fit  netben  leben 

I  shall  have  lived. 

14  Bribe  gelebt  baben 
53u  nttjt  gelebt  baben 
et  nlrb  gelebt  baben 
nit  rcerben  gelebt  baben 
3bt  netbet  gelebt  baben 
fie  netben  gel'bt  baben 

FIRST   CONDITIONAL. 

I  should  live. 
Id)  nutbe  Iebcn 
Iii  routbeft  leben 
et  luutte  leben 
nit  nutben  leben 
3btnutbet  leben 
(ie  nutben  leben 


First  Future. 


et  batte  gelebt 
nit  batten  gelebt 
3bt  battel  gelebt 
fie  batten  gelebt 

If  I  shall  live. 
t*  netbe  leben 
Xu  netbeft  leben 
et  netbe  leben 
nit  nerten  leben 
3bt  netbet  leben 
fie  netben  leben 

Second  Future. 

If  I  shall  have  lived. 
tdi  netbe  gelebt  baben 
In  netbeft  gelebt  baben 
ct  netbe  gelebt  boben 
nit  netben  gelebt  baben 
3b»  netbet  gelebt  baben 
fie  netben  gelebt  baben 

SECOND   CONDITIONAL. 

I  should  have  lived, 
id)  nutbe  gelebt  baben 
!Eu  nurbeft  gelebt  baben 
et  nutbe  gelebt  baben 
nit  nutben  gelebt  baben 
3bt  rcutbet  gelebt  b«ben 
fie  nutben  gelebt  baben 


lebe  (Du) 
tebe  et 


To  eat 

to  drink 

to  dream 
to  wash 
to  comb 
to  go 
to  speak 
to  laugh 
to  think 
to  learn 
to  bathe 
to  break 
to  bite 
to  cost 
to  hear 
to  help 
to  give 
to  make 
to  do 
to  ride 
to  say 

to  S<  I1<1 

to  seek 

to  breakfast 

to  dine 

to  sup 

to  arrive 

to  depart 

to  meet 

to  be  tired 

to  be  sleepy 

to  excuse 

to  understand 


IMPERATIVE. 


live  (thou) 
let  him  live 


leben  nit 
lebet  (3bt) 
leben  fie 


let  us  live 
live  (ye) 
let  them  live 


VOCABULARY  OF  VKKHS. 


effen 

ttinfen 

ttaumen 

naldjen 

lamina 

geben 

fptedjen 

Iadjen 

benfen 

letnen 

baben 

bted)en 

belfien 

foftea 

biren 

b«if« 

geben 

madjen 

t|SI 

tettcn 

fiva 

fenben 

fuc^en 

fru^flutfea 

fveiffn 

ju  Slbeab  effen 

anfommca 

a&rclfen 

trtffen 

mute  fela 

fdjMfrtg  Uin 

fittf*ultiflcn 

vrrflctjrn 


MM 

trinken 

troy  men 

vashen 

kemmen 

gayen 

shprerAen 

lac/;  en 

denken 

lairnea 

bahden 

brecAen 

bisen 

custen 

haeren 

helfen 

gayben 

macAen 

toon 

riten 

sahgen 

■enden 

soocAen 

frceshticken 

shpeyzen 

tsoo  ahbend  essen 

ankummen 

abrizen 

treffen 

meeude  teyn 

shlayfri^scyn 

entshooldigcn 

fairshUycn 


to  believe 

to  know 

to  write 

to  read 

to  pronounce 

to  translate 

to  recollect 

to  forget 

to  promise 

to  expect 

to  converse 

to  express 

to  explain 

to  tell 

to  call 

to  weep 

to  recommend 

to  receive 

to  send 

to  buy 

to  pay 

to  order 

to  furnish 

to  sell 

to  reply 


Yes 


Indeed 

truly 

certainly 

surely 

only 

some 

nothing 

much 

quite 

very 

so 

thus 

how 

no 

not 

but 

enough 

scarcely 

all 

almost 

here 

there 

where 

in 

out 

then 

now 

soon 

till 

seldom 

since 

ever 

never 

oft 

already 

to-day 

yesterday 

late 

why? 

because 


gtanben 

glowben 

niflen 

vusen 

fd)teibra 

shriben 

lefen 

layzen 

ouSfptefben 

owsshpreceen 

fib<tfe,e* 

eebcrsetscn 

fid)  ettnnets 

sick  chnnern 

»etgeffen 

fairgessen 

eetfpterben 

fainhpreolea 

ctnatten 

airvarten 

untetbalten 

oonterhalten 

aulbtuden 

owsdrickea 

ctflaten 

airklnyren 

fagen 

saagen 

tnfen 

roofen 

nelnen 

▼inen 

empfebUn 

empfaylen 

empfangen 

empfangen 

fdMdea 

shickeo 

faufen 

kowfen 

b()ablen 

betiahlen 

iefteHen 

beshtellen 

liefets 

lcefem 

vettaufes 

fairkowfea 

tntnotten 

antvorteo 

ADVLKBS. 

Jo 

yah 

jarcobl 

yahvole 

in  bet  Ibnt 

in  dair  tabt 

ntbtlid) 

vaarlirA 

genii 

geviss 

fiSetltt; 

•icAerlie* 

nut 

noor 

etna* 

etvas 

nl4tl 

nirAts 

Btel 

feel 

ganjlte, 

gents 

febt 

■are 

fo 

•0 

oH» 

also 

nle 

Tee 

netn 

nine 

■MM 

nir*t 

nut 

noor 

genug 

genoo/ 

lanm 

kowm 

ganj 

gants 

beinaV 

bynahe 

blrt 

beer 

ba 

da 

•0 

TO 

bmt« 

herine 

(etaal 

herowt 

tenn 

den 

!<»' 

yetst 

balb 

bald 

ill 

bis 

(((ten 

eelten 

ftH 

cite 

tmiiR 

Immer 

mil 

nee 

oft 

uft 

MM 

schone 

beute 

hoytay 

genets 

nstern 

ft*t 

■hpate 

natnm? 

varoomr" 

neil 

vile 

-■ 


-r- 


1 

9       ,     - 

> 

.#— 

—+ 

«l 

\ 

/ 

g> 

1 

THE    GERMAN 

LANGUAGE. 

93 

> 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN.                         PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN.                         PRONUNCIATION. 

if 

rcenn                                 vcn 

I  say  it  is  not. 

34)  fage  eS  ifl  nid)t.         Ich  saagay  es  ist  nicAt 

perhaps 

»teu"eld)t                          feellyeAt 

It  is  not  so. 
It  is  not  true. 

(58  ift  nid)t  fo.                   Es  ist  tiicht  so. 
QS  ifl  nidjt  reavt.              Es  ist  nirAt  var. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

I  say  nothing. 

3d)  fage  nid)t8.                 LA  saagay  nirAts. 

Above 

Jbet                                eeuber 

He  is  not  here. 

St  ifl  nld)t  yiet.                Air  ist  nicAt  heer. 

about 

urn                                     oom 

I  have  it  not. 

3d)  §abe  e8  n>4)'„              ich  haabay  es  nicAt. 

after 

nad)                                   nock 

He  has  it  not. 

IS*  ,at  e8  nl4)t.                   Air  hat  es  nirAt. 

against 

gegen                              gaygen 

We  have  it  not. 

SBir  baben  e8  nid)t.          Veer  haaben  es  nicAt. 

before 

Dot                                       fore 

You  have  it  not. 

3bt  babt  e«  nid)t.             Eer  haabt  es  nicht. 

of 

vcn                                    fun 

He  said  no. 

Qx  fagte  nein.                   Air  saa^tay  nine. 

over 

Abet                                  eeuber 

Has  he  said  no? 

£at  et  nein  gefagt  ?          Hat  air  nine  gesaa^t? 

since 

feit                                    site 

Has  he  said  nothing? 

£at  et  nid)t8  gefagt  ?       Hat  air  nirAts  gesaa^t? 

for 

far                                  feeur 

I  have  not  heard  it. 

3d)  t)abe  e8  nid)t  gebort.  LA  haabay  es  nicAt  ge- 

from 

son                                 fun 

hoert. 

in 

in                                   in 

You  are  quite  wrong. 

©ie  baben  tutdjaul  Un=  See  haaben  doorrfouse 

near 

nab>                                  nahay 

red)t.                                 oonrecAt. 

under 

unlet                               oonter 

up 

auf                                 owf 

with 

mil                                    mit 

PHRASES  OF  INTERROGATION. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Who? 

SEer  ?                               Vair? 

And 

unb                                   oont 

Who  was  it? 

SSet  mat  e8  ?                    Vair  var  es  ? 

but 

abet                                ahber 

What  is  it? 

SBaStft  e8?                      Vas  ist  es? 

also 

aud)                  .              oucA 

Who  is  it? 

SBet  ifl  e8  ?                       Vait  ist  es  ? 

even 

fogar                                 sogar 

Did  you  say  it? 

©agten  ©ie  e8  ?               Saajten  seees? 

or 

obet                                   oder 

What  are  you  doing? 

2Ba8  tbun  ©ie  ?               Vas  toon  see? 

nor 

nod)                                   nuch 

What  is  he  doing? 

8Ba«  t$ut  et  ?                   Vas  toot  air? 

yet 

bod)                                 duck 

Tell  me. 

©agen  ©ie  mit*               Saagen  see  meer. 

because 

Beit                                vile 

Will  you  tell  me? 

SBoflen  ©ie  mit  fagen  ?   Vollen   see  meer  saa- 

that 

lab                                 das 

gen? 

therefore 

babet                                 dahair 

How  are  you? 
How  is  he? 
What  for? 

SEte  geb.t'«  ?                     Vee  gates? 
Eie  gebt'S  Ibm  ?              Vee  gates  eem? 
SBefut  ?                              Vofeer? 

Why? 

Why  do  you  ask? 

SBarum  ?                           Varoom? 

9Sarum  ftagten  ©ie  ?       Varoom  fraagen  see? 

Jfl 

«|f    CONVER 

Why  shall  I  go? 

SEatum  foil  id)  geb.en  ?     Varoom  sull  ifAgayen? 

What  do  you  say? 
Do  you  hear? 

2Ba8  fagen  ©ie  ?              Vas  saagen  see? 
§cren  ©ie  ?                       Hrerdnsee? 

PHRASES   OF  AFFIRMATION. 

I  don't  speak  to  you. 

3d)    fpred)e  mtl  3$nen  Ich  shprecAay  mit  eenen 

nicbt.                                 nicAt. 

ENGLISH. 

It  is  true. 

GERMAN.                         PRONUNCIATION. 

G8  ifl  n>a$t.                     Es  ist  var. 

Do  you  understand? 

SBerfteben  Ste  t                Fershtayen  see? 

It  is  so, 

I  believe  it. 

I  think  so, 

I  say  yes, 

I  say  it  is. 

I  am  certain, 

I  am  certain  of  it. 

(S3  i{i  fo.                            Es  ist  so. 

3d)  glaube  e8.                   Ich  glowbay  es. 

3d)  bente  eS.                     Ich  denkay  es. 

Listen  1 
Come  here. 
What  is  that? 
Answer. 

£6renEiel                       Hoir.nsee! 
Slcmmen  ©ie  bierber.       Kummen  see  heerhsir. 
5E-aS  ifl  ba8  ?                    Vas  ist  das? 
SInttootten  ©ie.                Antvorten  see. 

3d)  fage  fa.                       Ich  sahgay  yah. 

3d)  fage  eS  ifl.                   Ich  sahgay  es  ist, 

3d)  bin  getsifj.                   Ich  bin  gayviss. 

3d)  bin  beffen  genif.        Ich  bin  dessen  gayviss. 

Why  don't    you    an.  SEBarum  antrcorten  ©ie  Varoom  antvorten  see 

swer?                               ntdjt  ?                               nicAt? 
What  do  you  mean  by  fflaS  metnen  ©ie  bamit  ?  Vas  minen  see  damit? 

You  are  right. 

Sic  baben  SRcdit.              See  haaben  recht. 

that? 

You  are  quite  right. 
I  know  it. 

©ie  $aben  ganj  Wed)t.      See  haaben  gantzreo&t. 
3d)  meif!  eS.                      Ich  vice  es. 

You  speak  German, 

suppose? 

I  3d)  oetmutbe  ©ie  f»re=  IcA     fermootay     see 
d)en  3)eutfd).                    shpret-Aen  doytsh. 

I  know  it  well. 

I  know  him. 

I  know  it  positively. 

3d)  toeifj  c§  genou.           Ich  vice  es  genow. 
3d)  lenne  Ibn.                   Ich  kenne  een. 
3d)  toeijj  e8  fid)et.             Ich  vice  es  sicAer. 

Very  little,  sir. 

Do  you  know  Mr.  H. 

I  know  him  by  sight. 

©ebr  toenig,  mein  §ett.  Sair  vani^,  mine  hair. 
'  ffenncn  ©ie  §crrn  jj.  ?    Kennen  see  hairn  ha? 
3d)  lenne   ibn  ton  an:  LA  kennay  een  fun  an- 

fe§en.                                sane. 
3d)  fenne  ibn  bel  SRas    IcA  kennay  een  by  nah- 

men.                                 men. 

I  promise  it. 

I  promise  it  to  you. 

3d)  Derf»red)e  eS.              Ich  vershprerAay  es. 
3d)  eerftred)e  e«  3vnen.  I  ch    vershprecAay    es 

I  know  him  by  name. 

I  give  it. 

eenen. 
3d)  gebe  e8.                      Ich  gaybay  es. 

I  know  him  well. 

(St  ifl  mit  toofcl  befannt.  Air  ist  meer  vole  bay- 

Irnnt 

I  give  it  to  you. 
I  will  give  it  to  you. 
You  are  wrong. 
He  is  wrong, 
I  believe  him. 

Very  well. 

3d)  gebe  e8  3&nen.           Ich  gaybay  es  eenen. 

34)  toilt  eS  3§nen  geben.  LA  villes  eenen  gayben. 

Eie  baben  llnted)t.           See  haaben  oonrefAt. 

Qt  I;at  Unted)t.                 Air  hat  oonrerAt. 

3d)  glaube  ibm.                Ich  glowbay  eem. 
J  ©ebr  mobL                       Sare  vole. 
1  ©e$r  gut.                         Sare  goot. 

What  do  you  call  that?  SBte  nennen  ©ie  ba8  ?     Vee  nennen  see  das  ? 
What  is  that  in  Ger-  SBie     velfst     ba8     auf  Vee     histe     das    owf 

man?                                ■Xeutfd)  ?                          doytsh? 
What  does  that  mean?  SBaS  $eifit  baS  ?               Vas  histe  das? 
Why  do  ydu  speak?       Sarum  fcted)en  Sit  ?      Varoom  shprefAen  see? 
Why  are  you  silent?      Saturn  fdjweigen  ©ie  ?  Varoom  shvigen  see? 

Why  did  you  go? 

SBatum  gingen  6ie  ?       Varoom  gingen  see? 

PHRASES  OF  NEGATION. 

Is  it  ready  ? 

3fl  e8  fettig  ?                    Ist  es  f airt^? 

< 

No. 

SRein.                                Nine. 

Have  you  heard? 

ijaben  ©ie  geb&it  ?          Haaben  see  grhoert? 

i 

I  say  no. 

3d)  fage  nein.                   Ich  saagay  nine. 

Do  you  hear? 

ftoten  ©ie  ?                      Hosren  see? 

-  a 

/ 

^, 

<9 

-.    -"    e 

1 

\  <5_ 


N" 


94 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


"7f 


Where  U  she? 
Where  are  you  ? 
Where  are  you  going? 
Where  do  you  come 

from? 
Where  were  you? 
What? 

What  is  that? 
What  o'clock  Is  it? 
What  have  you? 
What  do  you  say? 
What  do  you  want? 
What  will  you  do? 


GERMAN. 

SBo  tft  fie  ? 

SBo  finti  Sie  ? 

23o  gcben  Sie  bin  ? 

SBo  toramen  Sie  f)tx  ? 

IBo  troren  Sie  ? 

Wait 

SBae  1ft  ta8  ? 

iffiic  sic!  Ubr  1ft  el  ? 

BaS  baben  Ste  ? 

23al  fagen  Ste  ? 

SffiaS  molten  Ste  ? 

SEJa8  tooUen  Sie  tbun  ? 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Voistsee? 

Vo  sind  see? 

Vo  gayen  see  hin? 

Vo  kummen  see  hair? 

Vo  varen  see? 
Vas? 

Vas  ist  das? 
Veefeel  oor  ist  es? 
Vas  haaben  see? 
Vas  saagen  see? 
Vas  vullen  see? 
Vas  vullen  see  toon? 


PHRASES  OF  COMMAND. 


Come  away  I 
Come  here  I 
Go  there  I 
Come  backl 
Go  on ! 
Sit  downt 
Stand  still ! 
Wait ! 

Wait  for  me ! 
Wait  a  little  I 
Make  haste  1 
Be  quick  1 
Follow  me  I 
Tell,  him ! 
Call  him! 
Speak  1 
Eat  I 
Drink  I 
Hear! 
Hear  me  1 
Look  at  me! 
Begin ! 
Continue! 
Stop! 
Tell  me ! 
Tell  it  to  him ! 
Speak  to  him! 
Be  quiet! 
Go! 

Go  to  him! 
Go  to  bed  I 
Fetch  it! 
Bring  it! 
Bring  it  to  me! 
Let  it  be ! 


ftommen  Sie  fort! 
ftommen  Sie  bicrfier. 

ffleben  Sie  tonbiii! 
ftommen  (Sie  jutuef  I 
Welii'ii  Sie  unmet! 
Sejjen  Sie  fid) ! 
Steben  Sie  ittlll 
!E>arten  Sie! 
SBarten  Sie  auf  ml4! 


Kummen  see  fort! 
Kummen  see  heerhair! 
Gayen  see  dort-hin ! 
Kummen  see  tsoorick! 
Gayen  see  viter! 
Setsen  see  sickf 
Shtayen  see  shtill! 
Varten  see ! 
Varten  see  owf  mickl 


SBarten  Sie  ein  loentg  I    Varten  see  ine  vaynigt 


Smarten  Ste  fdjnell! 
iBeeilen  Ste  fid)! 
Jolgen  Ste  mitl 
Sagen  Ste  ttim! 
StufenSteibnl 
Sorcdjen  Ste! 
(Sffen  Ste! 
Irtnten  Sie! 
i&oren  Stel 
jjoren  Sie  mid;! 
Seben  Ste  mid)  an! 
gangen  Ste  an! 
gayren  Sie  fort! 
Salt! 

Sagen  Sie  rairl 
Sagen  Sie  e*  tbm! 
Sprcdjen  Ste  mtt  t$ml 
Eelen  Sie  rubig! 
(Wolu'ii  Sie! 
<9«ytn  Sie  ill  ihm! 
©eb>n  Ste  ju  iBette! 
Stolen  Steel! 
iBrlngen  Sie  (II 
IBrtngen  Sie  e«  mir! 
CaffenSieelfetn! 


Mac/ten  see  shnel ! 
Bay-ilen  see  sick/ 
Fulgen  see  meer! 
Saagen  see  cem ! 
Roofcn  see  een  1 
Shprcc/ien  see! 
Essen  see! 
Trinken  see ! 
Haren  see! 
Hoeren  see  mick! 
Sayen  see  mick  an! 
Fangen  sec  an ! 
Faaren  see  fort ! 
Halt! 

Saagen  see  meer! 
Saagen  see  es  eem ! 
Shprec/icn  see  mit  cem ! 
Syen  see  rooi^/ 
Gayen  see ! 
Gayen  see  tsoo  cem  ! 
Gayen  see  tsoo  bettay ! 
Holen  see  es ! 
Bringcn  seees! 
Bringcn  see  es  meer! 
Lassen  see  es  sine ! 


EVEBY-DAY  UTTERANCES. 


Saagen  see  meer. 
Gceti^st — gayf  ell  i^st. 
Haaben  see  dee  geetay. 
Yah,  mine  hair. 
Yah,  madam. 
Nine,  mine  hair. 
Nine,  madam. 
Nine,  mine  froyline. 


Tell  me!  Sagen  Sie  mir. 

If  you  please.  fflutigft— gefaulgft. 

Have  the  goodness.       Qaben  Sie  tie  Bute. 

Yes,  sir.  3a,  metn  fterr. 

Yes,  madam.  3a,  SDjabam. 

No,  sir.  ffleln,  mein  fterr. 

No,  madam.  9!etn,  SRabam. 

No,  miss.  Jtetn,  metn  gtauieln. 

Do  you  speak  German  Spre4en    Ste    Deutfd)  Shpre<rAcn    see   doyuh 

or  French  ?  obel  granjiflf*  ?  odcr  frantscesish  ? 

I  do  not  speak  Ger.  34  fpre4en(4t  Iletitfd).  LA     shprerAe     nurAt 

man.  doytsh. 

I  understand  it,  but  do  3d)  petftebe  el,  aber  Id)  LA  fcrshtayayes,  aaber 

not  speak  It.  fpte*e  el  ntdft.  ick  shprerAc  es  nirAt. 

I  speak  English.  3d)  fpte4e  OngIlfo>.  Uk  shprerAc  cnglish. 

I  speak  French  a  little.  34    fprete   ein    usemg  If*  shprct-Ac  ine  vayni^ 
Sranjififd).  franUaetish. 


ENGLISH. 

Do  you  understand? 
Can  you  understand? 
Speak  slower. 

You  speak  too  fast. 

Give  me  some  bread. 


GERMAN.  PRONUNCIATION. 

SJerfteben  Ste  ?  Fershtayen  see? 

ftonnen  Ste  perfteben  ?    Kanncn  see  ferstayen! 
Spird>en  Stelangfamet.  ShprcfAen     see    lang. 

samer. 
Sie  fpred>en  ju  idjnell.     See     shprerAen      tsoo 

shnell. 
©eben  Ste  mir  Stob.       Gayben  see  meer  brote. 
Give  me  something  to  ©eben  Ste  mil  Gtiral  Gayben  see  meer  etvas 

eat.  iu  effen.  tsoo  essen. 

Something  to  drink.      Gtiral  ju  tttnfen.  Etvas  tsoo  trinken. 

Bring  me  some  coffee.  iBrlngen  Ste  mtr  Jtaffee.  Bringcn  see  meer  kaaf  • 

fay. 
3d)  bante  3$»en. 
©uten  SKotgen. 
©uten  lag. 
HBte  gebt'S  ? 
SBie  befinben  Sie  fid)  ? 
2ebr  toobl. 


I  thank  you. 
Good  morning. 
Good  day. 
How  do  you  do? 
How  are  you? 
Very  well.' 
I  am  very  well. 


Pretty  well. 

Tolerably. 

How  is  your  father? 

How  is  your  mother? 


I  am  not  well. 

I  am  unwell. 

She  is  ill. 

He  is  very  ill. 

She  has  a  cold. 

I  have  a  toothache. 

I  must  go. 

It  is  time  to  go. 

Farewell. 

Good-by. 

I    wish    you 

morning. 
Good  evening 
Good  night. 


Ick  daankay  eenen. 

Gooten  morgen. 

Gooten  taa^. 

Vee  gates? 

Vee  bayfinden  see  ski? 

Sair  vole. 
34    befinbe    mid)    febr  Ick  bayftnday  mick  fair 

Botl.  vole. 

3tem!ia>  mobL  TseemlirA  vole. 

So  jtemltd).  So  tsccmlirA. 

SBIe    befinbet    fid)    3$r  Vee  bayfindet  tick  eer 

ajerr  SJater  ?  hair  faatcr? 

SBie   befinbet  ft*   3bre  VeebayfrndetsarAeeray 


grau  SKutter  ? 
34  bin  ni4t  moyL 
34  bin  untrobl. 
Sie  ift  fianf. 
Or  ift  feb>  Itanf. 
Sie  bat  fid)  erlaltet. 
34  babe  jjabnioeb. 
34  muS  geven. 
SI  tfl  Sett  ju  ge,en. 
Seben  Sie  mobl. 

■Mm. 


frow  mootter? 
Ick  bin  nickt  vole. 
Ick  bin  oonvole. 
See  ist  krank. 
Air  ist  sair  krank. 
See  hat  sick  airkeltet. 
Ick  haabay  tsahnvay. 
Ick  mooss  gayen. 
Es  ist  tsite  tsoo  gayen. 
Layben  sec  vole. 
Adyce. 


good  3d)  irunfAe  3bnen  einen  Ick  vinshay  eenen  inen 
guten  HRorgen.  gooten  morgen. 

Outen  Hbcnt.  Gooten  ahbend. 

©ate  Ka4t.  Gootay  nacAt. 

I  wish  you  goodnight.  3d)  munf4e  3v"«n  flute  Ic*  vinshay  eenen  goo- 
Sa4t.  tay  na* At. 

at  OTelne     Qmpfeblungen    Minay  empfayloongen 
ben  3brigrn.  den  eeri^cn. 

A  MORNING  i    III.. 

Es  klupft. 
Es  ist  hair  ah. 
Es  1st  frow  bay. 
ju  Ick  froyay  micA  see  tsoo 
saven.  ■ 


My     compliments 
home. 


There  is  a  knock. 

It  is  Mr.  A. 

It  is  Mrs.  B. 

I  am  glad  to  see  you. 


Pray  be  seated. 
What  news  is  there? 
Good  news. 
Do  you  believe  It? 


dt  tlopft. 
08  Ift  $rrr  91. 
S«  ift  grau  ». 
34  freue  mt4  Sie 

feben. 
Sitte  fe«en  Sie  ft*. 
2Ba«  gtbt's  fteue«  ? 
(Sule3!a4rt4ten. 
Olauben  Sie  ((  ? 


Bittay  setsen  see  tick, 
Vas  geepts  noyes? 
Gootay  narArif  Atcn. 
Glowbcn  see  es? 


I  don't  believe  a  word  3d)   glaube    tein    SBort  LA  glowbay  kine  vort 


of  it.  baton. 

I  think  so.  34  bente  (glaube)  fo. 

I  think  not.  34  bcntc  nl4t. 

Who  told  you?  SBer  bat  e«  3bnen  gc- 

fagt? 
It  is  true.  Si  Ift  nabr. 

I  doubt  it.  34  bejmelfte  el. 

Have  you  heard  from  £aben  Sie  son   ^aufe  Haaben  see  fun  how 

home?  geb.6rt?  say  gayhorrt? 

The  postman  brought  Tet  Brlefttiget  bra4te  Dair   brcef  trayger 

me  a  letter  to-day.         mtr  beute  etnen  SStief.      brarAtay  meer  hoytay 

inen  breef. 
Sad  news.  S4Ie4te  SEa4rt4ten.       ShlccAtay  na<-AricAten. 


daafun.  [so, 

LA    denkay  (glowbay) 
LA  denkay  nirAt. 
Vair  hat  ei 

Mfjytl 
Es  1st  var. 
LA  baytsviflay  es. 


4*= 


^=^r 


,-v 

a 

i 

v  - - 

_..   y 

(0 

] 

THE    GERMAN 

LANGUAGE.                                                                                          95 

I 

^ 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN.                         PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH.                                 GERMAN.                         PRONUNCIATION. 

Will  you  dine  with  us 

>  SBotlen    Sie    mtt    un8  Vullen   see    mit    oons 
fpeifen?                            shpisen? 

I  shall  soon  be  thirty.    3d)  metbe  Balb  bteifjtg  Ich  vairday  bald  drysi/ 
fein.                                 sine. 

No,  thank  you. 

9iein,  id)  banfe  36nen.     Nine,  i^Adaanke  eenen. 

He  looks  older.              Or  fiebt  alter  au8.            Air  scet  elter  owse. 

I  cannot  stay. 

3$  tann  nldjt  6let6en.     Ich  kann  nkAt  blyben. 

She  is  younger.               Sie  ift  j linger.                   See  ist  yingcr. 

You    are   in    a   great  ©ie  fmb  in  gtofcer  Gtle.    See  sind  in  grosserilay. 

She  cannot  be    so  Eie  tann  nid)t  fo  jung  SeekannnitAtsoyoong 

hurry. 

young.                             fein.                                 sine. 

I  have  a  great  deal  tc 

3d)  $abe  Diet  ju  t6un.      \ch   haabay    feel    tsoo 

He  must  be  older.          Qt  tnufj  fitter  fein.            Air  moos  elter  sine. 

do. 

toon. 

I  did  not   think   you  3$    glaubte    nldjt    bafc  Ich  glowptay  nicAt  das 

PLEASURE  AND  REGRET. 

were  so  old.                    Sie  fo  alt  feien.               see  so  alt  syen. 
He  is  at  least  sixty.       Or  ift  rcenigftcnS  fed)8*  Air  ist  vani^stens  serA- 

What! 

SBaS !                               Vas ! 

jig.                                 tsig. 

Is  it  possible ! 

3fi  e8  moglid) !                 Ist  es  m<eg\icit 

How    old    is    your  SBie  alt  ift  36. r  Batet  ?     Vee  alt  ist  eer  fahter? 

Can  it  be! 

San.i  (i  fein !                   Kan  es  sine ! 

father? 

How  can  it  be  possi 

SEie  tann  e8  moglid)  fein  1  Vee   kan    es  mce^lirA 

He  is  nearly  eighty.      Or  ift  6etna6e  ad)tjtg.       Air  ist  bynahay  acAtsi^-. 

ble! 

sine  I 

Is  he  so  old?                   3fterfoalt?                    Ist  air  so  alt? 

Who  would  have  be- 

SBet miirbe  fco3  geglaul't  Vair  veerday  das  ge- 

A  great  age.                   Gin  § o6e«  alter.              Ine  hohes  alter. 

lieved  it ! 

fatten  !                             glowpt  haaben ! 

He  begins  to  grow  old.  6t  fangt  an  alt  ju  tret*  Air  fengt  an  alt   tsoo 

Indeed! 

SBhffid)!                          VeerklirA/ 

ben.                                  vairden. 

It  is  impossible ! 

03  ifl  unmogttdj!             Es  ist  oonmcegiich  t 

How  old  isyoursistcr?  SBie  alt  ift  36."  Sd)»e<  Vee  alt  ist  eeray  shves- 

That  cannot  be ! 

03  tann  nid)t  fetn !           Es  kan  nicAt  sine ! 

fier?                                 ter? 

I  am  astonished  at  it ! 

3d)  rounbete  mid)  bat*  lei   voonderay  mi  ch 
ii6er!                                daareeber. 

She  is  fifteen.                 Sie  ift  funfjebn.              See  ist  finftsain. 

You  surprise  me ! 

Sie  ubetrafd)en  raid) !      See  ecberrashen  mlc/t. 

A  MORNING  CHAT. 

It  it  incredible ! 
I  am  very  sorry. 
What  a  pity ! 

03  ifi  unglauBltd)  1           Es  ist  oonglowblicA  / 

An  early  morning.         6in  ftu6er  SlHotgen.         Ine  freer  morgen. 

63  tBut  mit  fe^r  tetb.       Es  toot  meer  sair  lite. 
SBie  fdjate !                      Veeshahday! 

It  is  a  fine  morning.      68  ifl  ein  fdjbnet  SKots  Es  ist  ine  shcener  mor- 
gan,                                 gen. 
What  o'clock  is  it?         aBa8  ift  bie  Uvt  ?              Vas  ist  dee  oor? 

It  is  a  great  pity. 
It  is  a  sad  thing. 

03  ifi  (ef^r  fdjabe.            Es  ist  sair  shahday. 

S3    ifi     cine    traurtge  Es    ist  inay  trowrigay 

Sadje.                                      s;irA;iy. 

It  is  nearly  eight.           68  ift  BcinaBe  ad)t  UBt.    Es    ist    bynahay    acAt 

It  is  a  great  misfortune.  (J3  ifl  ein   gro&eS  Uns  Es  ist  ine  grosses  oon- 
glud1!                                  glick. 

Light  the  fire.                3ul,t"'  ®'e  Ba8  gcuer  Tsinden  see  das  foyer 

an.                                    an. 
I  am  going  to  get  up.    3°)  TOiH  auffteBen.            IcA  vill  owfshtayen. 

I  am  glad  of  it. 

3d)  freue  mid)  batuBet.    \ch   froyay    mirA    dar- 

eeber. 
63  ifi  mit  lieB.                 Es  ist  meer  leeb. 

I  am  glad. 

Get     me     some     hot  SSrtngen  Sie  mit  etn>a8  Bringen  see  meer  etras 

It  gives  me  pleasure. 

63  m«d)t  mit  23«rgnu  =  Es  macAtmeerfergnee- 
gen.                                  gen. 

water.                              BeifjeS  SBaffer.                 hises  vasser. 
Some  dinking-water.    6troa8  Sttintoaffet.          Etvas  trinkvasser. 
Make  haste.                     2Wad)en  Sie  fdjnell.          MaxrAen  see  shnell. 

It  gives  me  great  joy. 

63    madjt    mit     gtofje  Es  marAt  meer  grossay 
greube.                             froyday. 

There  is  no  towel.         63  Ift  [ein  $anbtud)  ba.   Es  ist  kdne  haandtoorA 

d^h. 
Bring  me  some  soap.    IBringen  Sie  mlr  Selfe.   Bringen  see  meer  sif ay. 
I  want  to  wash  myself.  3d)    ttunfd)e    mid)     ju  IcA  vinshay  micA  tsoo 
IvafcBen.                           vashen. 

I  am  happy. 
How  happy  I  am ! 
I  wish  you  joy. 

3d)  bin  gtueftldj.               Xch  bin  gleeklicA. 
SBie  glficflid)  id)  Bin !       Vee  gleeklicA  ich  bin ! 
3d)     BiunfcBe     3  Men  \ch      vinshay      eenen 

I  congratulate  you. 

@[ud\                               glick. 
3d)  gratultre  3$nen.       Ich    gratooleeray 
eenen. 

How  have  you  slept?     SBie  BaBen  Sie  gefdjla:  Vee   haaben    see    ge- 

fen  ?                                  shlaafen/ 
Did  you  sleep  well?      $aBen  Sie  gut  gefd)la=  Haaben    see   goot  ge- 

ANGER  AND  BLAME. 

fen?                                  shlaafen? 

I  am  angry. 

3d)  Bin  argetlid).              I<rA  bin  air^erlirA. 

Very  well,  thank  you.   SeBr  gut,  id)  banfe  3§ '-  Sair   goot,  icA   dankay 

He  is  angry. 

6t  ifi  argerlid).                 Air  ist  airgerliirA. 

ren.                                  eenen. 

Don't  be  angry. 

Seien  Sie  md)t  argets  Syen  see  nicAt  airger- 
lia).                                  Mch. 

Not  very  well.                9?id)t  feB.  r  gut.                  NicAt  sair  goot. 

I  could  not  sleep.           3$  lonnte  nid)t  feMafen.  Ich  kuntay  nicht  shlaa- 

You are  wrong. 

©ie  Ba6en  Unredjt.          See  haaben  oonrerAt. 

fen. 

You  are  right. 

Sie  6a6en  SHedjt.             See  haaben  rerAt. 

I  was   so   tired  from  3<B  u>ar  fo  mube  »on  bet  IcA  var  so  meeday  fun 

Why  don't  you  do  it? 

2Barum    ibun    Sie    e8  Varoom    toon    see    es 
nidjt?                               nicAt? 

travelling.                       Weife.                               dair  risay. 

Be  quiet! 

Seien  Sie  tuBig  I            Syen  see  roo\g! 

AT  THE  BREAKFAST  TABLE. 

What  a  shame! 

2Beld)e  Sdjanbe!              VelcAay  shanday! 

Breakfast  is  ready.        <X>aS  gtuvftucf  ift  fettig.  Das  freeshtick  ist  fair- 

How  could  you  do  it? 

SBie    fonnten    Sie    e8  Vee kunten  see  es  toon? 
tBun? 

Come  to  breakfast.        Sommen  Eie  jum  JruBs  Kummen     see     tsoom 

I  am  ashamed  of  you 

3d)fd)amemid)36,tet!    Ich   sham  ay    roicA 
eerer ! 

fturf.                                   freeshtick. 
Letus  breakfast.           Saffen   Sie    un8    ftuB.s  Lassen  see  oons  free- 

You  are  very  much  to  ©ie  finb  fe$r  ju  tabeln.    See  sind  sair  tsoo  taa- 

ftuifen.                             shticken. 

blame. 

deln. 

Does  the  water  boil?     flocbt  ba8  iBaffer?            KucAt  das  vasser? 

Be  patient! 

(Sebulben  Sie  Sid) !         Gaydoolden  see  sick! 

Is  the  tea  made  ?            3ft  bet  Zbet  fettig  ?          Ist  dair  tay  f alrtio? 

I  will  improve. 

3d)  merbe  mid)  Beffetn.     Ich  vairday  mi<rA  bes- 
sern. 
AGE. 

Give  me  a  cup  of  tea.    (SeBen    Sie    mit    eine  Gayben  see  meer  inay 

Staffe  IB".                      tassay  tay. 
A  cup  of  coffee.             6ine  laffe  ilaffee.            Inay  tassay  kaffay. 

How  old  are  you? 

SBie  alt  finb  Sie  ?            Vee  alt  sind  see  ? 

A  roll.                             6ln  SIRil4;itob.                 Ine  milcAbrote. 

i 

I  am  twenty  years  old 

3dj  Bin  jmanjig  3a$re  Ich  bin  tsvaantsif  yah- 
alt.                                   ray  alt. 

Do  you  drink  tea  or  Irinten  Sie  Z$et  obet  Trinken   see   tay  oder 
coffee?                            Saffee?                             kaffay? 

\ 

J 

d 

\ 

1» 

H 

"*                    & 

^r 

1 

9            m. 

--              : 

■ 

\ 

• 

fi  ' 

< 

96                                                                                    THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 

f 

ENGLISH.                                  GERMAN.                         PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN.                         PRONUNCIATION. 

Will  you  take  an  egg?  SBcHtn  Ete  etn  (Si  effen?  Vullen  see  ine  eye  ei- 

Change  the  plates. 

XBecMeln  Eu  bte  ZeUet.  Veckscln  see  dee  teller. 

sen? 

I  want  a  spoon. 

34  munfdjc  etnen  Soffe'.  If  A  vinshay  incn  locffel. 

These  eggs  are  hard.    Tiefe  (Sfer  fint  tjart.        Dcesay  eyer  sint  hart. 

Are  you  hungry? 

Binb  Eie  bungru  "         Sind  see  hoongri^/ 

Give  me  the  salt.            Gkbcn    Etc    mtt     taG  Gayben    see  meer  das 

Not  very. 

Kid)t  febt.                         NicAt  sair. 

Ealj.                                 salts. 

I  am  hungry. 

34  oin  bungttg.               Id  bin  hoongri^f 

Pass  me  the  butter.        !Reta)cu    Sic     mtt    tic  RyfAcn  see    meer   dee 

You  do  not  eat. 

Bte  cften  ntdt.                 See  essen  nifAt. 

Slitter.                              bootter. 

I  am  very  thirsty. 

3d)  bin  febt  tutf.ig.         IfA  bin  sair  doorsti/. 

. 

Bring  some  more  but-  Srtngcn  Eie  mil  etnas'  Bringen  see  meer  etvas 

I  am  dying  of  thirst. 

34  fi'tbe  cot  Turn.        Id  stairbay  for  doorst. 

tcr.                                    mcl)t  Sutter.              "      mair  bootter. 

Take  a  glass  of  wine 

SHebmen  Etc  cin  (Slaf  Naymen  see  ine  glaas 

Give  me  a  spoon.           (Seben    Ete    mit    tinen  Gayben  see  meer  inen 

STSein.                               vine. 

Soffel.                             1.1  it.  1. 

Give  me  something  to  ©cben    Sie   mit   etmaS  Gayben  see  meer  etvas 

Is   the   coffee   strong  3ft  bet  ffaftee  flatf  ges  1st  dair  kaffay  shtaark 

drink. 

ju  ttinfen.                         tsoo  trinken. 

enough?                          nug  ?                                gaynoo^7 

I  want  some  beer. 

3d)  tcunfdje  Sttr.             Id  vinshay  beer. 

We  want  more  cups.     SBtt  btau4en  mefct  Znfs  Veer    browcAen     mair 

fen.                                 tassen. 

Take  some  more  su.  SHebmen  Sic  nod;  etmaS  Naymen  see  nucA  etvas 

TALK  AT  THE  TEA  TABLE. 

gar.                                  3nder.                              tsoocker. 
Cold  meat.                      ftalteS  Slelfd).                   Kaaltes  flyshe. 

Tea  is  quite  ready. 

Set  Zbee  tfl  ganj  fettig.  Dair  tay  1st  gants  fair. 

The  table-cloth.             ICaS  Stifdjrud).                 Das  tishtoo<-A. 

«V- 

The  sugar-basin,           Tie  3wd'erbud)fe.              Dee  tsookerbiksay. 

They  are  waiting  for  2Kan  roartet  auf  Zxt.       Man  vaartet  owf  see. 

Chocolate.                       Gbofolate.                         Chocolahday. 

you. 

A  knife.                           (Sin  SHefter.                       Ine  messer. 

I  am  coming. 

3d)  fommc.                      If  A  kummay. 

A  fork.                             (Stne  (Sabcl.                       Inay  gahbel. 

Bring  a  saucer. 

Sringcn  Eie  etne  Unleti  Bringen  see  inay  oon- 

The  knife  Is  blunt.         D08  SKeffer  ifl  ftuntpf.  Das  messer  istshtoompf. 

fafte.                               tertassay. 

We  have  done  break-  BBtt  finb  mil  bem  Jtubs  Veer   sind    mit     dame 

Pour  out  the  tea. 

6d)enfen  Ete  ben  2bee  Shenken  see  dane  tay 

fast.                                  fiucf  fettig.                        freeshtick  fairti^. 

etn.                                   ine. 

You    can   take    away  Eie  Bnnen  bie  Eocbcn  See    kcennen    dee   sa- 

The  tea  is  very  strong.  Xcr  Xbet  ifl  febr  ftarf.    Dair  tay  ist  sairshtark. 

the  things.                       fottnebmen.                      c/ien  fortnaymen. 

It  is  very  weak. 

(St  ifi  febt  f  citoad).           Air  ist  sair  shvacA. 

A  slice  of  bread  and  Gin    Stutftfeen    Gutter;  Ine  shtickrAen  bootter- 

DINNER. 

butter. 

btob.                                    brote. 

Have  you  ordered  din-  $oben  Ble  bn8  (Sffen  be«  Haaben  see  das  essen 

Hand  the  plate. 

(Seben  Eie  mtt  ben  Zeis  Gayben  see  meer  dane 

ncr?                                  (tent  ?                               baystellt? 

let.                                    teller. 

I  will  order  dinner.       34    rcetbe    baS   3)lnet  IcA  vairday  das  deenay 

Will   you   take  some  ©unf$en  6le  Jht$en  ?  Vinshen  see  koocAen? 

befletten.                         bayshtcllen. 

cake? 

Show  me  the  bill  of  3etgen     Eie    mit    tie  Tsigen  see    meer    dee 

A  small  piece. 

Sin  Etudd)en.                  Ine  shtickrAen. 

fare.                                  Epctfefarte.                      shpisaykartay. 

Make  more  toast. 

Siiflen  Ete  mebt  Stob.  Rcesten  see  malrbrotc. 

Waiter.                            Setlnct.                             Kclner. 

Make  haste. 

SKadSen  Bie  fdmetl.          MarAcn  see  shnell. 

What  soup   will   you  8Ba«  fur  Buppe  Buns  Vas  feer  sooppay  vln- 

This  is  good  tea. 

I)ie«  Ifl  gutet  2vee.       Dees  1st  gooter  tay. 

* 

have?                     •         fdjen  Eie  ?                        shen  see? 

The  tea-tray. 

let  ^tafentittellei.         Dair  praysenteerteller. 

Rice-soup.                       fRetSfuppe.                        Ricesooppay. 

A  set  of  tea-things. 

l!a«  Ibeefenstee.            Das  taysalrveece. 

Have  you   any  roast  $aben      Bit      Sinters  Haaben     see     rinder- 

Have  you  finished? 

Stnb  Eie  fettig  ?            Sind  see  fairti^f 

beef?                              braten  ?                           braaten? 

Take  another  cup. 

Rebmtn  Eie  nod)   elne  Nuymcn  see  nucA  inay 

We  have  very  fine  fish.  Bit   baben   fetjt  guten  Veer  haaben  sairgo'o- 

Zafte.                              tassay. 

glftb.                                 ten  fish. 

Brown  bread. 

EditrarjfS  Btob.              Shvaartses  hrote. 

Trout.                            goteOen.                          Forellen. 

White  bread. 

83etfte«  DJtob.                  Vices  brote. 

Fried  pike.                     fflebratene  fteeSte.             Gebraalcnay  hcfAtay. 

Stale  bread. 

Kile »  Ste t.                      Altes  brote. 

Roast  mutton.                $aramelbraten.                 Hammelbraaten. 

New  bread. 

gttfd)e«  Stot.                  Frishes  brote. 

What  wine  will   you  iBJa«  furSEBetnmunfCien  Vas  feer  vine  vinshen 

have?                               Ble  ?                                 see? 

BED  TI M  r. 

Let  us  see.                    Soften  Sic  fe$en.             Lassen  see  sayen. 
Here  Is  the  wine  list.    $iet  ifi  bie  SBetntarie.     Heer  1st  dee  vinekar. 

It  Is  late. 

What  o'clock  is  it? 

0*  tfl  fpit.                       Es  ist  shpate. 
SBa!  ifl  bte  Ubr  ?             Vas  1st  dee  oorf 

tay. 
What  time  will  you  Um  nieldje  3*ft  »unf4en  Oom  vclcAay  tslte  vin- 
dine?                              Eie  ju  tpeifen  ?             shen  see tsooshpisen? 

It  is  still  early. 
Are  you  tired? 

04  (ft  nod)  (rub.              Es  1st  nuf  A  free. 
Bint  Bie  mite  ?             Sind  see  meeday? 

We  shall  dine  at  six  ZBir    nietben   um    fcdbS  Veer  vairden  oom  sex 

Not  at  .ill. 

Oat  nidjt.                         Gar  nif At. 

o'clock.                          Ubr  fpelfen.                    oor  shpisen. 

Not  much. 

Hldft  febt.                         NifAt  sair. 

Be  punctual.                  Eelen  Ete  punttlld).        Syen  see  pinktllcA. 

It  Is  only  ten. 

Si  ifl  etft  jebn.                Es  ist  turst  tsane. 

Help  yourself.                Sebtenen  Bie  (14).            Baydeenen  see  sicA. 

It  Is  time  to  go  to  bed.  ISA  tfl  3«tt  ju  Sett  ju  Es  islsite  tsoobetttsoo 

It  U  excellent                (S«  i(l  »oirteffU4.             Es  1st  foretrefflicA. 

geben.                             g*T*a- 

I  like  German   cook-  Tie  beutfdje  Knelt  go  Dee  doytshay  kcecAay 

It  U  a  fine  evening. 

0«  Ifl  tin  fd)onet  Hbent.  Es  ist  ine  shotner  ah- 

ery-                                   fini  mtt.                           gefellt  meer. 

bend. 

I  do  not  like  foreign  Tie  au*lantlf4e  Jtuebe  Dee  owslendishay  kee- 

It  is  moonlight. 

0*  Ifl  aSontf*eln.           Es  is  mohndshlne. 

cookery.                         fa)metft  mit  nia>t.            rAay  shmcckt    meer 

Is  my  room  ready? 

3fl  mein  Jlmmet  fettig?  Ist  mine  ttimmcr  fair- 

nicAt. 

tigr 

Do  you  take  pepper?    Jletmen  Bte  qSfeffet  I      Naymen  see  pfeffer? 

Sheets. 

Tie  Safen.                       Dee  laaken. 

No,  thank  you.              Wetn,  ie>  tante.                Nine,  i<-A  dankay. 

A  blanket. 

Sine  noOene  Seltbetfe.    Inay     vullcnay     b«tt- 

Ves,  If  you  please.         3a,  id)  bitte.                    Yah,  It- A  bittty. 

deckay. 

i 

Give  me  th,  mustard.  (Seben     Ble     mit    ben  Gayben  tee  meer  dane 

Good -night. 

9ute  S«4I.                      Gootay  nat-At. 

i 

J 

Bcnf.                              icnf. 
* 

Are  you  sleepy? 

Blnb  Bit  14iaftlg  ?         Sind  see  shlayfrl/' 

\e, 

"7 

i 

#      -         w 

-»      ■      6 

^r 

At 


V 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


"71 


97 


THE  HOUR  OP  THE  DAT. 


ENGLISH. 

What  o'clock  is  It? 
My  watch  has  stopped, 
It  does  not  go. 
I  forgot  to  wind  it  up. 

My  watch  is  too  fast. 

It  is  too  slow. 

It  is  five  minutes  too 

slow. 
It  goes  right. 
One  o'clock. 
Five  minutes  past  two. 

A  quarter  past  three. 
Half-past  four. 
A  quarter  to  five. 
Just  six  o'clock. 
Twenty     minutes     to 

seven. 
It     has     just     struck 

eight. 
Noon. 
Midnight. 


SBaS  (ft  bie  Uvt  ? 
SKclne  Uf)t  fte§t. 
Sie  ger>t  nt4)t. 
3$   tergal   fie    auf}U= 

jteben. 
SKeine  Ut>  ge$t  oor. 
Sie  gett  nad;. 
Sieiftfunf2Rimiten  ju 

fpat. 
Sie  ge$t  ri4)ttg. 
din  ll$r. 
gunf  SDHnuten  nad)  jaei. 

Qtn  Siertet  auf  sift. 
§ali  funf. 

Dtei  tiertet  auf  funf. 
(Setate  fe4)8  U$r. 
ijBanjtg  Sffiinuten   sot 

fieten. 
08  fjat  eben  a4)t  gef4)Ias 

gen. 
SRittag. 
SKitternad)t. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Vas  ist  dee  oor? 
Minay  oor  shtate. 
See  gayt  nicAt. 
Ich  vairgaass  see   owf- 

tsootseen. 
Minay  oor  gayt  fore. 
See  gayt  nacA. 
See    ist   finf  minooten 

tsoo  shpate. 
See  gayt  ricAti^. 
Ine  oor. 
Finf     minooten     nacA 

tsvi. 
Ine  feertel  owf  feer. 
Haalb  finf. 
Dry  feertel  owf  finf. 
Gayraaday  sex  oor. 
Tsvaantsi^1     minooten 
•  fore  seeben. 
Es  hat  ayben  a^-Al  ge- 

shlaagen. 
Mittaa^. 
MittemacAt. 


Yes,  let  us  walk. 
Where  shall  we  go? 
On  the  high  road. 


Let  us    take    a 
into  the  town 


THE  PROMENADE. 

Shall  we  take  a  walk?  2BotIen  Bit  einen  Spa*  Vullen  veer  inen 
Jietgang  mad)en  ?  shpaatseergang    ma- 

cAen? 
3a,  Bit  BoHen  au8ge=  Yah,  veer  vullen  ows- 

ten.  gayen. 

SBo  Botten  Bit  Singe*  Vo   vullen    veer    hin- 

ten  ?  gayen? 

Huf  tie  GSauffee.  Owf  dee  shossay. 

There  is  a  good  deal  08  ifi  bort  fet>r  ftaubig.    Es  ist  dort  sairshtou- 

of  dust.  bio". 

Into  the  fields.  8tuf  bie  Setter.  Owf  dee  felder. 

They  are  reaping.  2Ban  erntet.  Man  airntet. 

They  are  making  hay.  08  ift  §euetnte.  Es  ist  hoyairntay. 

What  a  pleasant  scent  1  SffiaS  fur  ein  angene$mer  Vas    feer     ine     ange- 
©  eru  4) !  naymer  gayroocA  / 

walk  SKadjen  loir  eine!)!romej  MacAen    veer    inay 
nabe  in  bie  Stabt.  prummenahday      in 

dee  shtadt. 
What  street  is  that?       SBaS  ijl  ba8    fir    eine  Vas  ist  das  feer  may 

Strafce  ?  shtraassay? 

Where  does  it  lead  to?  SBo  fu$tt  fie  ^(n  ?  Vo  feert  see  hin? 

Handsome  shops.  Sdjone  85ben.  Shcenay  laden. 

Bad  pavement.  Sd)te4)te8  ipftafter.  Shle<rAtes  pflaster. 

Are     these     Prussian  Sink     bieS     preufjlfdje  Sind  dees  proyssishay 

soldiers?  Sotbaten  ?  soldaaten? 

Where  is  King  street?  SSJo  ifi  bie  fttnigSftra&e  ?  Vo  ist  dee  kcenj^straas- 

say? 
Straight  before  you.       SSor  3$nen.  Fore  eenen. 

To  the  left  hand.  Sinter  §ant— linI8.         Linker  hand— links. 

To  the  right  hand.         8Je4)ter  £anb— red)t8.       Rerfter  hand— rerAts. 
Is  the  village  far  from  3(1  baS  Serf  Belt  ton  Ist  das  dorf  vite   fun 

here  ?  iier  ?  here  ? 

About  a  mile.  UngefaSr  eine  5DJeite.       Oongayfare  inay  milay. 

A  good  hour.  Otne  gute  Stunte.  Inaygootayshtoonday. 

Hardly  a  mile.  Raum  etne  2Beite.  Kowm  inay  milay. 

Half  a  mile.  (Sine  6>Ibe  SIHeite.  Inay  halbay  milay. 

PERSONAL  INQUIRIES. 

Do  you  know  Mr.  F.?  ftennen  Sie  §ertn  g.  ?    Kennen  see  hairn  F? 
I   do  not  know   any-  34)  tenne  SRiemanb  tte*  LA  kennay  neemaand 

body  of  that  name.        fe8  31amen8.  deeses  nahmens. 

Does  he  live  here?         SBo$nt  er  $let  ?  Vohnt  air  here? 


ENGLISH. 

He  lives  in  this  house. 

Where? 

On  the  first  floor. 

I  know  him. 

Intimately. 

I     am    very   Intimate 

with  him. 
He  is  my  friend. 
I  have   known  him  a 

long  time. 
Where  does  he  live? 
He    lives    in     Broad 

street,  No.  3. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


St    »o$nt     In    ttefem 

$aufe. 
ffio  ? 

3m  erflen  etc*. 
3*)  fenne  ib>. 
Oenau. 
34)  tin  mil  i$m  fe$r  tn* 

tim. 
Or  ift  metn  greunb. 
3*)  ^ate  tbn  Iange  ge= 

fannt. 
SBo  Bo$nt  er  ? 
Or  Bo^nt  In  ter  treiten 

Strafe,  Kuraero  tret. 


When  is  he  at  home?    SJBann  tft  er  |«  fiaufe  ? 


In  the  morning. 
In  the  evening. 
He  lives  close  by. 
Is  it  far? 
Can  you  direct  me  to 

his  house? 
I  will  show  you  where 

he  lives. 
That  is  the  market. 
This  is  the  street. 
The  square. 
This  is  his  house. 
Here  he  lives. 


£e«  SDlorgenS. 

Te8  Stents. 

Or  Betnt  naS e  Set. 

3ft  e8  Belt  ? 

Ronnen   Sle   mlr   fetn 

$au8  jeigen  ? 
34)  Berte  3bnen  jeigen 

bo  cr  Botnt. 
•I:a8  ifi  ter  SHatlt. 
Xie8  1ft  bie  Strafe. 
fEeripiaJ. 
!Cie8  tft  fetn  $au8. 
J&ier  Botnt  er. 


Air  vohnt    in    deesem 

howsay. 
Vo? 

Im  airsten  shtuck. 
Ich  kennay  een. 
Gaynow. 
Ich    bin    mlt  eera    sair 

intecm. 
Air  ist  mine  froind. 
LA  haabay  een  laangay 

gekant. 
Vo  vohnt  air? 
Air  vohnt  in  dair  bry- 

ten   shtraassay   noo> 

mero  dry. 
Van  ist  air  tsoo  how- 

say? 
Des  morgens. 
Des  ahbends. 
Air  vohnt  nahay  by. 
Ist  es  vite? 
Kttnnen  see  meer  sine 

house  tsigen  ? 
LA  vairday  eenen  tsi- 
gen vo  air  vohnt. 
Das  ist  dair  markt. 
Dees  ist  dee  shtraassay. 
Dair  plats. 
Dees  ist  sine  house. 
Heer  vohnt  air. 


THE  TALK  OF  TRAVEL. 


Are  you  goingto  Ger-  ®e$en  Sle  nad)  Deutfd): 

many?  Iant  ? 

I  intend  to  go  to  the  3d)     gelenfe    an     ben 

Rhine.  iRpetn  ju  geven. 

When  do  you  think  of  fflann  gebenfen  Sle  ju 

going?  reifen  ? 

How  long  shall  you  SESie  Iange  Berben  Sie 

stay?  ft4)  aaf batten  ? 

About  a  month.  Ungefabr  einen  STConat. 


I  set  out  to-morrow. 

Have   you    made    all 

your  preparations  ? 

Everything  is  ready. 
I  shall  go  by  railway 
to  Dover. 

The  train  starts  ia  ten 

minutes. 
I  want  a  ticket  for  Co. 

logne. 
First-class. 
The  express  train. 
The  ordinary  train. 


34)  reife  morgen  at. 
§aben   Sie    atte    3§*e 

SSorfe$rungen  gettof* 

fen? 
StUeS  ift  fertig. 
34)  Berte  mil  ber  Often = 

bavn  na4)  iDoeer  fobs 

ren. 
tn  3«9  S«v'  tn  Jft> 

SKinuten  at. 
34)  Bfinfo)e   eln  BtOet 

na4)  Roln. 
Orfle  Utaffe. 
Eer  S4)neHjug. 
Xet  g(B6tnlio)e  3ug. 


Where   is  your  bag.  SBo  ifi  3$r  fflepai  ? 

gage? 
Here  it  1».  ftier  ifi  eS. 

The  train  Is  just  going  CCer  jjjug  Birt  fogteid) 

to  start.  atgeven. 

It   does   not   go  very  08  ge$t  nt4)t  fe$r  f4)neH. 

fast. 
Not  so  fast  as  in  En-  3»a)t  fo  f4)netl  aI8   tn 

gland.  Onglanb. 


YL 


Gayen  see  nacA  doytsh- 

land? 
Ich  gaydenkay  an  den 

Rhine  tsoo  gayen. 
Van      gedenken       see 

tsoo  risen  ? 
Vee  langay  vairden  see 

s\ck  owfhalten? 
Oongayf  air  inen  moh- 

nat. 
Ich  risay  morgen  ap. 
Haaben  see  allay  eeray 

forkayrungen  getruf- 

fen? 
Alles  ist  fairti^. 
Ich   vairday    mit    dair 

isenbahn  nach  Dover 

fahren. 
D  air  tsoo^gayt  in  tsane 

minooten  ab. 
Ich  vinshay  ine  bilyet 

nacA  Kceln. 
Airstay  klassay. 
Pair  shneltsoo^. 
Dair       ge  v  ce  hnl  ich  ay 

tsoog. 
Vo  ist  eer  gepeck? 

Heer  1st  es. 
Dair  tsoog  veert   so* 
gliche  abgayen. 

Es  yate  nicAtsairshnel. 

"Sicht  so  shnel  als  In 

England. 


^ 


K 


rr 


98 


THE    GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 


ENGLISH. 

Here  is  a  station. 
Do  we  stop  here? 
They  stop  at  every  sta- 
tion. 
It  is  a  long  journey. 

Yes,  fom  ten  to  twelve 

hours. 
Very  pretty  country. 
Arrived  at  last. 
The  steamer. 
When  do  you  start? 
With  the  tide. 
Let  us  go  down  into 

the  cabin. 

The  tide  is  strong. 
The  sea  is  rough. 
The  wind  is  against  us. 

So  much  the  worse. 
We  shall  have  a  long 
passage. 


§let  ifl  tine  Station, 
ftalten  roir  biet  an  ? 
ORan  halt  auf  jefcer  3ta^ 

Hon  an. 
G3  ift  tine  lange  SRetfe. 

3a,  ton  je6n  618  jroblf 

Stunben. 
Sebt  fcionc  Segenb. 
GntliCy  angetommen. 
Sa8  Xampfboot. 
SBann  geben  Zie  at  ? 
SDiit  bet  jjlutp. 
fiaffen  Sic  unS  binab  in 

bleRajflte  geben. 

Hie  glutb  ifl  ftatf. 
Die  See  ifl  ftutmtfa). 
Set  8Blnb  ifl  gegen  un8. 

Urn  fo  fcbllmmet. 
SEBir  rcerben  etne  lange 
Ueberfabtt  baben. 


I  feel  sea-sick. 


The    sea 

calmer. 
I  see  land. 
It  is  the  harbor  of  Ost- 

end. 
We  have  arrived. 


3*)  f able  mid)  feeftanf. 
getting  SaS  2H«t  roirb  tublget, 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Heer  is  inay  shtatstone. 
Halten  veer  heer  an? 
Man  hclt  owf  yaydalr 

shtatsione  an. 
Es     ist    inay     langay 

risay. 
Yah,     fun     tsane    bis 

tsvelf  shtoonden. 
Sair  shcenay  gaygend. 
Endlir  A  angekummen. 
Das  dampfboat. 
Van  gayen  see  ab  ? 
Mit  dair  floot. 
Lassen  see  oons  hinab 

in  dee  kahyeetay 

gayen. 
Dee  floot  ist  shtark. 
Dee  say  ist  shteermish. 
,  Dair   vind   ist  gaygen 

oons. 
Oom  so  shlimmer. 
Veervairden  inay  lan- 
gay eeberfahrt   haa- 

ben. 
Ich    feelay    mteA    say- 

krank. 
Das  mair  veert  rooiger. 


34)  febe  Sanb.  Ich  sayay  lant. 

08    (ft    bet  $ofeu   Von  Es  ist  dair  haafen  fun 

Dftenbe.  Ustenday. 

©It  finb  angetommen.     Veer    sind    angekum- 


ENGLISH.  GERMAN.  PRONUNCIATION. 

It  Is  the  most  useful  09  Ift  ble  nfi»Ii*fle  nnb  Es  ist  dee  nitslirAstay 
and  interesting  Ian-  inteteflonlefle  Sptaeie  oont  intereasantestay 
guageforanAmeri-  bie  ein  Slmerilanet  shpraarAay  dee  ine 
can  to  learn.  letnen  tann.  Amayrikahner     lair- 

nen  kann. 

THE  WEATHER  AND  THE  SEASONS. 

Spring  has  come.  Set  gtu&llna  Ift  ba.         Dair  freeiing  ist  dah. 


DISCUSSING  THE  GERMAN  LANGUAGE. 


Can  you  read  German?  ftbnnen  Ste  Seutfa)  le= 

fen? 
Gin  roenlg. 
34)  lefe  e8  ganj  jut,  abet 

14)  fann  e8  ni4>t  fpte* 

d)en. 
Sptecien  Sle  Seutf4)  ? 


doytsh 


A  little. 
I  read  it  very  well,  but  : 
I  cannot  speak  it. 


Do  you  speak  Ger- 
man? 

I  do  not  understand  it. 

People  speak  so  fast. 

You  have  had  but  lit- 
tle practice. 

You  have  a  good  pro- 
nunciation. 

Your  sister  speaks  it 
perfectly. 

It  !•   a   difficult  lan- 
guage. 
You  will  learn  it  soon. 

Where  do  they  speak 
the  best  German? 

In  the  North  of  Ger- 
many. 

I  find  the  pronuncla* 
tion  easy. 

It  la  very  much  like 
English. 

Yws,  the  German  lan- 
guage Is  the  mother 
of  the  English. 


34}  petftepe  eS  nldjt. 
Wan  fptlcit  fo  f4)nelt. 
Sle   baben   nut   rcertig 

Uebung  gebabt. 
Sle    baben    etne     gute 

WuSfpradie. 
36tt   S4)roeftet    fptlcit 

e8  gelaufig. 
G8  Ift  elne  f4)nete  Spta> 

«e. 
Sle  metben  tt  balb  lets 

nen. 
SSo  fptlcit  man  ba8  be= 

fie  Seutfib  ? 
3n  Morbbeulfdjlanb. 

34)  ftnbe  ble  Wu8fpra*e 

lel*i. 
(58   Ift   bem    (Sng(lf4)en 

febr  abnlia>. 
3a,   ble  beutfetc  6pra> 

tie  Ift  ble  SKu!let  bet 

Cngllfd)en. 


Kcennen     see 
laysen? 

Ine  vani^-. 

IrA  laysay  es  gants 
goot,  aber  ich  kann 
es  nicht  shprec Aen. 

ShprecAen  see  doytsh  ? 

Ich  fershtayay  es  nif  At. 
Man  shprirAt  so  shnel. 
See  haaben  noor  vayni^ 

eeboong  gchaabt. 
See  haaben  inaygootay 

owsshpraacAay. 
Eeray  shvester  shpricAt 

es  geloyfy. 
Es    1st   inay   shvayray 

shpraarAay. 
See    vairden    es    bald 

lairnen. 
Vo   shprlrAt   man  das 

bestay  doytsh  ? 
In  norddoytshland. 

Ich  finday  dee  ows- 
shpraarAay  lio-At. 

Es  ist  daim  englishen 
sair  ainlurA. 

Yah,  dee  doytshay 
shpraafAay  1st  dee 
mootter  dair  en  • 


glishen. 


Set  gtub'ing  fangt  gat  Dairfreelingfengtgoot 

an.  an. 

S8  ift  Jiemlici  gellnbe.      Es  ist  tseemlirA  gtlin- 

day. 
08  Ifl  gra&llngSlrettet.     Es  ist  frcelingsvetter. 
Sle  Bourne  fangen  an  Dee  boymay  fangen  an 
au8iufcb[agcn.  owstsooshlaagcn. 

The  season  is  very  for- Sle  3abte8jelt  ifl    febt  Dee  yahrestsite  ist  »air 

ward.  BOtgetudt.  forgayrickt. 

It  is  so  pleasant.  08  Ift  fo  angenebm.  Es  ist  so  angenaym. 

The  sun  is  so  warm.      Sle  S  onne  ift  f  0  warm.  Dee  sunnay  ist  so  vara. 
There  are  some  flow-  08  gtebt  etnlge  SJlumen.  Es  geebt  inigay  bloo- 


Spring  begins  well. 

It  Is  rather  mild. 

It  is  spring-feather. 
The  trees  are  begin- 
ning to  hud. 


men. 
Shnayg^crckfAen. 
Toolpen. 
Hccahtsih.en. 
Pflicken  see  velrAay. 
So  feel  eenen  beleebt. 


ers. 
Snowdrops.  Scbneeglbelcitn. 

Tulips.  Stulpen. 

Hyacinths.  ftpactnt&en. 

Gather  some.  <Sfia4en  Sle  meld)e. 

As  many  as  you  please.  So  ctel  3bnen  beliebt. 
The    season    is    very  Sle  3«bte8)elt  Ift  febt  Dee  yahrestsite  ist  aair 
backward.  JUtud.  tsoorick. 

Set  Sommei  tommt.       Dair  summer  kurot. 

08  Blrb  warm.  Es  vee-t  vara. 

08  Ift  )U  rearm.  Es  ist  tsoo  vara. 

08  ifl  fafl  beifi.  Es  ist  fast  hice. 

08  Ift  etn  ttnnbetfo>inet  Es  is  ine  voonderehce. 

lag.  ner  t*g. 

Sle  fti,e  Ifl  gtofc.  Dee  hitsay  1st  gross. 

SlefiHetflunerttaglicv.  Dee  hitsay  1st  ooner- 

tray^iirA. 
08  Ift  febt  bludenb.  Es  ist  saire  drickend. 


Summer  is  coming. 
It  is  becoming  warm. 
It  is  too  warm. 
It  is  almost  hot. 
It  is  a  splendid  day. 


The  heat  is  great. 
The  heat  is  unbeara- 
ble. 
It  is  very  close. 


Summer  Is  over. 

The  heat  is  past. 
The  leaves  arc  begin- 
ning to  fall. 


A 


I  think  we  shall  have  3*  glaube  n>it  roetben  I<:A  glowbay  veer  vair- 
a  storm.  einen  Sturm  baben.        deninenshtoormhaa* 

I  ben. 

The  clouds  are  gather-  Sle  SBolfen  jle&en  fid)  Dec  vulken  tsee-ensUA 

ing.  jufammen.  tsoosammen. 

I  hear  thunder.  34)  bote  Sonnet.  Ich  haeray  dunner. 

It  thunders  fearfully.    08  bonnet!  fdjtecTUci.        Es  dunnert  shrecklirA. 
It  lightens.  08  blttt.  Es  blitst. 

How  it  rains!  ffiie  e8  tegnet !  Vee  es  rayj net. 

The    sky    begins     to  Set   j>tmmel  flirt  fla)  Dair  himmel  klairt  sir* 

clear.  auf.  owf. 

The  rain  ceases.  Set  SRtgtn  pott  «nf.        Dair  raygen  horrt  owf. 

There  is  a  rainbow.       Sa  tft  ein  Begcnbogen.    Da  ist  ine  raygenbogen. 
The  sun  breaks  out.       Sle  Sonne  brldjt  bcto).  Dee   sunnay   brirAt 

doorrA. 
Set  Sommtt  Ift  totfti  Dair  summer  ist  foree- 

bet.  ber. 

Sle  a}tve  Iflootbel.  Dee  hitsay  is  forbya. 

Sit  SJlattet  fangen  an  Dee  blctttr  fangen  an 
abjufaflen.  abtsoofallcn. 

Tha  eTaya  are  sUU  fine.  Sle  lage  fmb  noo>  fd)bn.  Dee  tahgay  sind  nurA 

shorn. 
The  days  are  closing.    Sle  Stage  nepmen  ab.      Dee  tahgay  naymen  ab. 
Autumn  Is  Interesting  Set  ftetbft  Ift tnteteffanl  Dair  hairtwt  istmtercs- 

on  the  Rhine.  am  Sbeln.  sant  am  Rhine. 

It  la  the  time  of  the  08  Ifl  tie  3elt  bet  TOeln.  Es    ist   dee   tsite    dair 

vintage.  lefe.  vinrlavsav. 

How  happy  the  peo-  Site  gtuoTIie,  bte  Seute  Vee  glicklirA  dee  loytay 

pie  are.  flnb.  sind. 

We  must  soon  begin  SBtt    mnffen    balb    bte  Veer  mlssen  bald  dew 
fires.  Oefcn  belaen.  acfen  hitcsen. 

^1 


1 

-, 

s 

3 

^ p 

£* 

1 

\ 

7' 

(O 

\ 

THE    GERMAN 

LANGUAGE.                                                                                         99 

» 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN.                         PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH.                                   GERMAN.                         PRONUNCIATION. 

We  have  had  a  fire  al 

2Bit    Ijaben    (d)on    ein  Veer  haabcn  shone  ine 

It  thaws.                         (SS  tfjaut.                          Es  tovrt. 

ready. 

geucr  ge!)a&t.                   foyer  gchaabt. 

It  is  slippery.                 Q8  tji  fdjlupfrlg.               Es  ist  shlipfri^-. 

It  is  soon  dark. 

(S8  (fl  baib  bunfet.            Es  ist  bald  doonkel. 

The  ice  is  thawing.       5Da8  Si8  gebt  auf.            Das  ice  gayt  owf. 

It  is  a  fine  night. 

153  ijt  eiue  ftt)6ne  92ad)t.    Es    ist    inay    shcenay 
na<r//t. 

The   streets   are  very  He  ©trafcen  flnb  Je6t  Deeshtraassensindsalr 
wet  and  dirty.                 nafj  unb  fcbmutytg.            nass  oont  shmootsi/. 

Is  it  moonlight? 

3(1  e8  SKonbfdietn  f           Ist  es  mohntshine? 

Christmas.                      STBeifjnadjten.                    Vynarften. 

It  is  full  moon. 

(S3  ijl  SSotlmonb.              Es  ist  fulmohnt. 

New  Year.                      9!eujab>.                          Noiyahr. 

New  moon. 

Sfteumonb.                        Noymohnt. 

New  Year's  day.            iReujabrStag.                    Noiyahrsta^. 

Do  you  think  it  will  ©lau&en  ©te  ba§  eS  tegs  Glowben    see    das    es 

A  new  year.                    (Sin  neue8  3«&''               In«  noyes  yahr. 

rain? 

nen  trsirb  ?                        ray^nen  veert? 

I  am  afraid  so. 

34)  befftrdjte  e8.                Ich  befeercAtay  es. 

RELATING  TO  CORRESPONDENCE. 

It  hails. 

(S3  b>gelt.                         Es  hahgelt. 

It  rains. 

(S3  tejnet.                         Es  ray^net. 

Ink.                                 Sinte.                               Tintay. 

It  is  very  windy. 

(53  ijl  iebr  rctnfci j.           Es  ist  sair  vindlg. 

Pens.                               Jrebettt.                             Faydern. 

It  is  winter. 

(5*  ift  SBtnter.                  Es  ist  vinter. 

Have  you  any  envel-  £«ben  Sie  SouuertS  ?      Haaben  see  coovalrts? 

The  days  are  so  short 

Dte  Stage  (tub  fo  tut).      Dee    tahgay    sind   so 
koorts. 

opes? 
Postage  stamps.             SJJofrmarfen.                      Postmarken. 

It  is  very  cold. 

R3  tit  fchr  fait.                 Es  ist  sair  kalt. 

I  want  a  sheet  of  writ-  3$  braudje  einen  fBogen  Ich  browtAay  inen  bo- 

There  is  a  cold  wind. 

(S3  gefjt  etn  falter  SEtnt.  Es  gayt  ine  kaltervind. 

ing-paper.                       ©djretbpapier.                 gen  shribepapeer. 

It  is  bad  weather. 

(58  t(t  fd)tea)te8  iBetter.    Es  ist  shlerftes  vetter. 

Blotting-paper.              Cofdjpapier.                      Lceshpahpeer. 

It  is  foggy. 

(S3  tjt  nefceiig.                   Es  is  naybeli^. 

[  have  a  letter  to  write.  3d)  babe  einen  Brief  ju  Ich  haabay  inen  breef 

The  sky  is  overcast. 

SDer  jjlmmet  t(t  bebetft.    Dair    himmel    ist  be- 
deckt. 

fdjreiben.                          tsoo  shryben. 
A  pen-knife.                   (Sin  Sjcfeetmeffer.               Ine  faydermesser. 

It  will  snow. 

(58  niirb  fdjneten.              Es  vird  shnyen. 

Now  I  will  write.           3*6'  nil  id)  fdjretben.      Yetst  vill  ich  shryben. 

It  freezes  very  hard. 

(S3  fdert  ftarf.                 Es  freert  shtark. 

What  is  the  day  of  the  !£en   toteoielften  fjaben  Den  veefeelsten  haaben 

Can  you  skate? 

Sfonncn  Ste  Sdjltttt&iuf)  Kasnnen  see  shlitshoo 
laufen  ?                          lowfen? 

month?                            ttir  f)eute  ?                       veerhoytay? 
It  is  the  sixteenth.          (58  t(l  ber  (ed)8jef)nte.       Es  ist  dair  sextsanetay. 

The  ice  does  not  bear 

!Da8  ffii«  ttagt  nid)t.         Das  ice  travel  nicht. 

Where  is  the  post-of-  SBo  tft  ble  $0(1  ?               Vo  ist  dee  pust? 

The   ice   is   thick  35a8  Gi3  tft  bicf  genug.    Das  ice  ist dick genoo^, 

fice? 

enough. 

Close  by.                       9Jaf)e  Set.                        Nahay  by. 

It  is  healthy  weather. 

<SS  ift  gefunbeS  abetter.    Es  1st  gesooades  vet- 
ter. 

Take  care  of  the  letter.  92ef)men  Ete  ben  SJttef  Naymen  see  den  breef 
tn  aaju                          in  aott. 

- 

.] 

s 

,    \ 

t 

V 

^s^ 

«r 

\ 

■ 

K 


~7i 


THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 


->*sMf— 4§-B**J- 


'A~SVT/Z^9' 


pRENGH  WITH0UT  a  Master. 


Jfe.,^Ff™~-r- 


A  Simple  System  of  Self-Instruction  in  the  French  Language. 


MATTER  of  vital  impor- 
tance to  all  is  the  study 
of  the  French  language. 
Not  to  mention  the  rich- 
ness of  French  literature 
and  the  vast  pleasures 
which  arise  from  an  in- 
telligent perusal  of  the  pages  of 
the  great  authors  who  have  built 
it  up,  the  practical  advantages  to 
be  derived  from  a  knowledge  of 
"  the  language  of  diplomacy  "  are 
too  patent  to  require  explanation. 
No  one  can  be  a  perfect  master  of 
the  English  language  who  does 
not  possess  a  certain  amount  of  familiarity  with 
the  French  tongue,  through  which  so  many 
of  our  strongest  expressions  have  been  filtered 
after  leaving  the  more  ancient  parent  stock. 
The  traveller  making  the  tour  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  will  find  a  knowledge  of  the 
French  language  indispensable.  In  all  parts  of 
that  continent  this  language  provides  the  com- 
mon ground  upon  which  men  of  all  tongues 
meet  in  conversation,  and  the  traveller,  having 
simply  made  himself  sufficiently  familiar  with 
the  language  to  ask  for  what  he  wants,  will  have 
done  much  towards  making  his  trip  thoroughly 
enjoyable  and  instructive.  The  following  sys- 
tem of  self-instruction  has  been  formulated  with 
a  view  to  providing  a  simple  yet  thorough  means 


of  studying  French.  The  student  who  masters  its 
details  with  care  will,  within  the  space  of  a  very 
few  days,  find  himself  able  to  converse  in  that 
language,  and  begin  to  enjoy  thoroughly  the 
beauties  of  its  literature. 

ALPHABET  AND  PRONUNCIATION. 


FRENCH 

NAME. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

ALPHABET. 

A 

ah 

like  a  in  the  English  word  arm. 

B 

bay 

as  in  English. 

C 

say 

before  e  and  /",  is  pronounced  like  s;  before 
at  ot  u  and  before  a  consonant  c  sounds 
like  k;  is  soft  before  a,  ot  u  In  certain 
instances,  when  a  mark  beneath  it  called 
a  cedilla  is  used,  thus :  c. 

D 

day 

as  in  English. 

E 

ai 

f,  4 1  ai,  ei,  are  pronounced  like  a  in  the 
English  word  c are. 

T 

eff 

as  in  English. 

G 

j»y 

before  e  and  /sounds  like/. 

H 

aash 

is  generally  silent. 

I 

ec 

like  **  in  the  English  word  w. 

7 

j« 

like  f  in  the  English  word  measure. 

K 

kah 

as  in  English. 

L 

el 

as  in  English. 

M 

em 

as  in  English. 

N 

en 

as  in  English. 

O 

o 

ot  in  stock;  au,  earn,  are  pron.  like  o  in  no. 

P 

p*y 

like  the  English,  but  is  often  mute  at  the  end 
of  words. 

4 

ku 

like  ft, 

R 

air 

like  the  English  r  in  run. 

s 

(*-s 

like  the  English  s,  sometimes  like  i. 

T 

t»r 

like  /  in  the  English  word  tent. 

U 

eeyu 

like  m  in  the  English  word  smite. 

V 

vay 

like  the  English  v. 

X 

ceks 

as  in  English. 

r 

egrcc 

like  e  in  the  English  word  w. 

z 

led 

like  a  soft  .<. 

There  are  combinations  of  letters  which  are  sometimes  called 
compound  vowels,  viz. :  an,  in,  oh,  tu,  ou,  which  are  pro- 
nounced as  follows : 


4!f= 


A 


THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 


101 


■* 


L 


The  compound  vowel  an  as  an  in  the  word  want. 
"  "        /« as  an        M        "      anchor, 

**  "       on  as  on        "        "      wrong. 

"  "        u»  has  no  correspondent  in  English, 

•*  "       eu  as  i   in  the  word  bird. 

"  "       ou  as  ou     "        "      you. 

Ch  is  pronounced  generally  as  *//  in  the  word  share* 

Gn  like  ni  in  the  word  minion. 

Gu  is  pronounced  generally  likeginget* 

Ph  as  ph  in  philosophy. 

Qu  is  generally  pronounced  like  k  in  king. 

Th  like  M  in  Thames. 

ACCENTS  AND  OTHER  MARKS. 

The  French  make  a  frequent  use  of  certain  signs  called  ortho- 
graphic signs.  They  are  the  accents,  the  apostrophe,  the  trait  cVun- 
ion  (hyphen), the  trima  (diaeresis),  the  cidille  (cedilla),  the parenthise 
(parenthesis),  and  the  different  marks  of  punctuation. 

There  are  three  accents,  the  accent  aigu  (acute '),  which  is  never 
used  except  over  the  vowel  e ;  the  accent  grave  ( *  ) ,  which  is  used  over 
the  vowels  a,  e,  u,  and  the  accent  circonflexe  (*) ,  which  is  used  with  any 
of  the  vowels  huty. 

The  apostrophe  (')  is  used  to  point  out  the  elision  of  a  vowel  at  the 
end  of  a  word  before  another  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  an  h 
mute,  as  in  Vdme,  the  soul;  Vhomme,  the  man,  instead  of  la  dme, 
le  homme. 

A,  e,  i,  are  the  only  vowels  liable  to  be  thus  cut  off,  and  this  last  one 
in  the  single  word  si  before  /'/;  s'il  for  si  it. 

The  trait  d'union  (-)  is  used  principally  to  connect  compound  words, 
as  in  arc-en-ciel  (rainbow),  or  to  join  the  pronoun  to  the  verb,  in  the 
interrogative  conjugation. 

The  trema  ( •• )  is  the  same  sign  as  the  diaresis  and  used  for  the  same 
purpose  in  French  as  in  English. 

The  cidille  is  a  little  mark  put  under  the  c  ($)  whenever  it  is  required 
to  give  to  that  letter  the  articulation  produced  by  the  letter  *,  before 
the  letters  a,  ot  u;  as,  Franqais ,  garqon,  re$u. 

NUMBER  AND  GENDER. 

There  are  two  numbers  in  French  as  in  English,  the  singular  and 
the  plural. 

The  French  language  has  only  two  genders,  the  masculine  and  the 
feminine.  The  gender  of  animate  objects  is  the  same  as  in  English  ; 
but  practice,  close  attention  to  the  harmony  of  the  language,  and  very 
often  derivation,  can  alone  teach  the  gender  of  inanimate  objects. 

PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

These  are  ten  in  number :  article,  noun,  adjective,  pronoun, 
verb,  adverb,  participle,  conjunction,  preposition,  interjection. 
THE  ARTICLE. 
There  are  two  articles,  the  definite  and  the  indefinite.    The  definite 
article  is  rendered  by  "le"  before  a  masculine  noun,  and  by  "la  "  before 
a  feminine  noun ;  as,  le  pire,  the  father ;  la  mire,  the  mother.    The 
plural  for  both  genders  is  "les;"  as,  lesplres,  the  fathers;  les  mires, 
the  mothers. 
The  articles  are  declined  as  follows : 
Masculine, 
Singular. 


Nora,  le  (leh)  fire,  the  father 

Gen.  du  (du)  pire,  of  the  father 

Dat.  au  (o)  pire,    to  the  father 

Ace.  le  (leh)  pire,  the  father 


Plural. 

les       (lay)  plres,      the  fathers 
des      (day)  plres,    of  the  fathers 
aux     (o)  plres,         to  the  fathers 
les       (lay)  plres,     the  fathers 


Feminine. 
Nom.  la  mire,        the  mother 
Gen.     de  la  mire,  of  the  mother 
Dat.     &  la  mire,    to  the  mother 
Ace    la  mire,        the  mother 


les  mires, 
des  mires, 
aux  mires, 
les  mires. 


the  mothers 
of  the  mothers 
to  the  mothers 
the  mothers 


DECLENSION 

Of  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  a  silent  "k." 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom. 

Vhomme, 

the  man 

le  s^"  homme  s, 

the  men 

Gen. 

de  Vhomme, 

of  the  man 

des*^hommes, 

of  the  men 

Dat. 

d  Vhomme, 

to  the  man 

aux^hommes. 

to  the  men 

Ace. 

Vhomme, 

the  man 

les*~*hommes, 

the  men 

INDEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Nom. 

un  jar  din, 

a  garden 

une  vitte, 

a  town 

Gen. 

cVunjardin, 

of  a  garden 

cVune  vitle, 

of  a  town 

Dat. 

a  unjardin. 

to  a  garden 

a  une  ville. 

to  a  town 

Ace. 

un  jar  din, 

a  garden 

une  ville, 

a  town 

DECLENSION  OF 

PROPER  NAMES. 

Nom. 

Parts, 

Paris 

Louise, 

Louisa 

Gen. 

de  Paris, 

of  Paris 

de  Louise, 

of  Louisa 

Dat. 

d  Paris, 

to  Paris 

d  Louise, 

to  Louisa 

Ace. 

Paris, 

Paris 

Louise, 

Louisa 

EXERCISES  IN  THE  USE  OF  THE  ARTICLE. 

Having  mastered  the  declensions,  the  student  will  thoroughly 
familiarize  himself  with  the  use  of  the  articles  by  memorizing 
the  following  vocabulary : 


THE  UMIVKKSE. 


ENGLISH. 

FRENCH 

God 

Dieu 

the  world 

le  monde 

the  sky 

leciet 

the  sun 

le  soleil 

the  moon  - 

la  tune 

a  star 

une  itoiU 

the  air 

Voir 

the  earth 

la  terre 

the  water 

Veau 

the  fire 

lefeu 

the  sea 

tamer 

an  island 

une  He 

a  lake 

un  lac 

a  stream 

unjleuve 

a  river 

une  rivitre 

the  animals 

les  animaux 

the  metals 

les  mi t aux 

the  gold 

for 

the  silver 

Vargent 

the  iron 

lefer 

the  steel 

Vacier 

the  copper 

le  cuivre 

the  tin 

Vetain 

THE   HUMAN 

Man 

Vhomme 

the  body 

le  corps 

the  head 

la  ate 

the  face 

le  visage 

the  forehead 

tefront 

the  eye 

Vail 

the  eyes 

lef~yeux 

the  nose 

tenet 

the  .ears 

les  oret'ttes 

the  chin 

le  menton 

the  beard 

la  bar  be- 

the mouth 

ta  bouche 

the  lips 

les  llvte* 

the  tooth 

la  dent 

the  tongue 

ta  tongue 

the  neck 

leeon 

PRONUNCIATION. 

Deeyu 

leh  maund 
leh  seeyel 
leh  sohleyl 
Iah  lune 
une  aitoahl 
Pair 
lah  tayr 
l'o 

leh  feuh 
lah  mare 
une  eel 
ung  Iahc 
nng  fleuhv 
une  reeveeare 
laiz  aneemo 
Ial  maito 
l'orr 
l'arjang 
leh  f  ayr 
l'asseay 
leh  cweevr 
1'aitang 


l'omm 
leh  cor 
lah  tait 
leh  veesaje 
leh  frong 
Pile 

laiz  eeyeu 
leh  nay 
laiz  ohraill 
leh  mauntong 
lah  barb 
lah  boosh 
iai  layvr 
lah  dong 
lah  laungh 
leh  coo 


/_ 


■T 


. 

. 

s 

«= 

m 

j- 

1 

\  - 

. 

/ 

» 

103 

THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 

f 

1 

EMOLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION, 

the  shoulders 

les^ifiaults 

laiz  aipole 

the  umbrella 

It  Parapluit 

leh  paraplwee 

the  arm 

Is  bras 

leh  brah 

the  parasol 

It  parasol 

leh  parassl 

the  hand 

la  main 

lah  mang 

the  fingers 

Its  doigts 

Jai  donah 

THE  HOME. 

the  nails 

ItsT^onglts 

laiz  aungl 

The  house 

la  maison 

lah  maysong 

the  chest 

la  poitrint 

lah  pouahtreen 

the  door 

la  ports 

lah  port 

the  heart 

It  carur 

leh  keuhr 

the  key 

la  clef 

lah  clay 

the  knee 

Itgtnou 

leh  jenoo 

the  bell 

la  sonnet te 

lah  sonnet 

the  leg 

la  jamb  t 

lah  jahmb 

the  staircase 

Ptscalier 

l'cscallysi 

the  foot 

It  pied 

leh  peeay 

the  drawing-room 

la  sails 

lah  sal 

the  bone* 

IttT^os 

laizo 

the  dining-room 
the  room 

la  salle-h- manger 
la  chamhrt 

lah  sal-ah-maunjal 
lah  shaumbr 

FOOD. 

the  bed -room 

la  chamhre-ix-couchef 

lahihaumbr-ah-cushal 

Bread 

le  pain 

leh  pang 

the  window 

lafenUrt 

lah  fennaitr 

flour 

lafarint 

lah  fareen 

the  wall 

la  parol 

lah  pahrouah 

meat 

dt  la  viandt 

de  la  veeaund 

the  kitchen 

la  cuisint 

laheweezeen 

roast  meat 

du  rdti 

du  rotce 

the  roof 

It  toil 

leh  touah 

beef 

dm  baeuf 

du  beuhf 

the  cellar 

la  cavt 

lah  caav 

veal 

du  vtau 

du  vo 

the  garden 

le  jar  din 

leh  jardang 

mutton 

du  m  out  on 

du  mootong 

a  table 

unt  tab  It 

une  tahbl 

lamb              i 

dt  Vagntan 

deh  1'anyo 

a  chair 

unt  chaist 

une  shayse 

pork 

du  pore 

du  pork 

an  arm-chair 

unfautcuil 

ung  fotayle 

bacon 

du  lard 

du  lar 

a  looking-glass 

un  miroir 

ung  meerouahr 

ham 

dujambon 

du  jahmbons* 

a  clock 

une  horlogt 

une  orloje 

soup 

la  toupt 

lah  soup 

a  trunk 

un  coffrt 

ung  cofr 

rice 

du  ri* 

duree 

a  boa 

unt  bo'Ut 

une  houaht 

eggs 

dts^-aufs 

daiz  euh 

the  bed 

It  lit 

leh  lee 

salad 

dt  la  saladt 

deh  lah  salade 

the  counterpane 

la  couvtrturt 

lah  cooTalrtyure 

mustard 

dt  la  moutards 

deh  lah  mootard 

a  pillow 

un  oreiller 

un  oraylyai 

salt 

du  stl 

dusel 

the  sheets 

Its  drops  dt  lit 

lai  drah  deh  lee 

oil 

4t  r  hulls 

deh  l'weel 

the  mattress 

It  matelms 

leh  mailah 

vinegar 

du  vinaigrt 

du  veenaigr 

the  plate 

Vassiette 

l'assyet 

pepper 

dupoivrt 

du  pouahvr 

a  candlestick 

un  chandelier 

ungshsundelysi 

butter 

du  beurrt 

du  beuhr 

the  lamp 

unt  lampt 

unelaump 

cheese 

dufromagt 

du  from  ah  je 

a  spoon 

unt  cutiler 

une  cweelyal 

breakfast 

It  di  jt-uner 

leh  dayjeuhnai 

a  fork 

unt fourchettt 

une  foorshet 

dinner 

It  diner 

leh  deenai 

a  knife 

un  couteau 

ung  cooto 

supper 

It  touptr 

leh  soopai 

a  cup 

unt  tasst 

une  lass 

hunger 

la/aim 

lah  fahng 

the  saucer 

la  soucoupt 

lah  sooccoop 

thirst 

la  soif 

lah  souaf 

the  tablecloth 

la  nappt 

lah  nap 

water 

dt  ttau 

deh  l'o 

the  towel 

un  essuie-main 

ung  esswee-mang 

wine 

du  vin 

du  vang 

a  glass 

un  verrt 

ung  vair 

beer 

dt  la  bikrs 

deh  lah  beealr 

the  tea-pot 

la  theiere 

lah  taij  are 

milk 

dulait 

du  lay 

TRADES. 

tea 

gin 

duthi 

du  tay 

An  occupation 

un  mttitr 

ung  maytysi 

dugtnikvrs 

du  jenyavr 

a  workman 

un  artisan 

ung  arteesong 

brandy 

dt  Vtau  dt  vi* 

deh  lo  d«h  vee 

a  baker 

un  boulangtr 

ungboolonjal 

DRESS. 

a  miller 

un  meunier 

ung  meuhnysi 

A  coat 
a  cloak 
a  waistcoat 
the  trowsera 

un  surtout 
un  manttau 
ungiltt 
la  culottt 

ting  sy uretoo 
ung  maunto 
ung  jeelay 
lah  kyulot 
lai  bretell 

a  butcher 
a  brewer 
a  tailor 
a  shoemaker 

un  bouchtr 
un  brass tur 
un  tailltur 
un  cordonnitr 

ung  booshai 
ung  brasseuhr 
ung  talyeur 
ung  cordonyal 

the  braces 

Its  brtttllts 

a  smith 

unforgrron 

ung  forjehrong 

the  cap 

It  bonnet 

leh  bonnay 
leh  shapo 
leh  patne 
dai  gang 

a  saddler 

un  se flier 

ung  sclyal 

the  hat 

It  chapeau 

a  carpenter 

un  menuist'er 

ung  menweesymt 

the  comb 
gloves 

le  P  eigne 
des  gants 

a  mason 

a  bookbinder 

un  matron 
un  relieur 

ung  massong 
ung  rellyeuhr 

a  ring 

une  bagut 

une  baag 

THE  TOWN. 

a  watch 

unt  montrt 

une  mongtre 

The  town 

la  villt 

lahveel 

the  stocking 

It  bat 

leh  bah 

the  bridge 

leponi 

leh  pong 

the  boots 

Its  bottts 

lai  bot 

the  tower 

la  tour 

lah  toor 

the  bootjack 

It  tirt-bottt 

leh  tccr-bot 

the  gate 

la  ports 

lah  port 

the  slippers 

Its  pantoujlts 

lai  pauntoofl 

the  street 

la  rut 

lah  ru 

the  shoes 

let  soulters 

lai  soolyai 

the  market 

It  ma  re  hi 

» leh  marsh  sy 

a  shirt 

unt  chemist 

une  shemeeze 

the  building 

It  bdttment 

leh  hahUcmong 

the  necktie 

la  cravat t 

lah  cr. iv. ilit 

the  town-house 

tkdttl  dt  rills 

1'otel  deh  vcel 

< 

a  pockct>handkerchic 

i  un  mouckoir 

ung  mooshouah 

the  theatre 

It  thldtrt 

leh  tsyahtr 

a 

the  clothes-brush 

la  brosst 

lah  bross 

the  post-office 

lapostt 

Uft  B*  vt 

-  *y 

fm 

s^ 

L, 

*7 

•                    ^ 

— H 

y 

THE  FRENCH  LANGUAGE. 


103 


ENGLISH. 

the  church 
the  cathedral 
the  school 
the  prison 
the  exchange 
the  palace 
the  hotel 
the  inn 

the  public  house 
the  coffee-room 


FRENCH. 

Viglise 

la  caihidrale 

Vccole 

la  prison 

la  bourse 

I  e  palais 

Vhotel 

Vauberge 

le  cabaret 

le  cafi 


BEASTS,  BIRDS,  FISHES 

An  animal  un  animal 

a  horse  un  cheval 

a  donkey  un  arte 

the  dog  le  ehien 

the  cat  le  chat 

the  rat  /*  rat 

the  mouse  la  souris 

an  ox  un  bceuf 

a  cow  une  vache 

a  calf  un  veau 

a  sheep  une  brebis 

a  lamb  un  agneau 

a  pig  un  cochon 

the  hare  lelievre 

a  monkey  un  singe 

a  wolf  un  loup 

a  bear  un  ours 

a  Hon  un  lion 

an  elephant  un  iliphant 

a  tiger  un  tigre 

a  bird  un  oiseau 

a  cock  un  coq 

a  hen  une  poule 

a  chicken  unpoulet 

a  swan  un  eigne 

a  goose  une  oie 

a  duck  un  canard 

a  lark  une  alouette 

a  nightingale  un  rossignol 

the  swallow  Vhirondelle 

the  sparrow  lemoineau 

the  raven  le  corbeau 

the  crow  la  cornet'lle 

the  parrot  le perroquet 

the  eagle  Paigle 

a  fish  unpoisson 

a  pike  un  brocket 

a  salmon  un  saumon 

a  carp  une  carpe 

an  eel  une  anguille 

a  trout  unetruite 

a  herring  un  hareng 

oysters  des  kultres 

a  crab  une  icrevisse 

a  whmle  une  baleine 

a  serpent  un  serpent 

a  frog  une grenouille 

a  worm  un  ver 

an  insect  un  insecte 

a  spider  une  aratgnie 

a  moth  une  teigne 

a  fly  une  tnoucke 

a  gnat  un  moucheron 

a  bee  une  abeille 

the  honey  le  miel 

a  wasp  uneguipe 

a  butterfly  une papillon 


PRONUNCIATION. 

1'aygleeze 
lah  cataydral 
l'aycol 
lah  preesong 
lah  boorse 
leh  pall  ay 
l'otel 
l'obayrje 
leh  cabbaray 
leh  caffay 

,  ETC. 

ung  aneemal 
ung  sheval 
ung  ahn 
leh  sheeang 
leh  shah 
leh  rah 
lah  sooree 
ung  beuh 
une  vash 
ung  vo 
une  brebbee 
un  anyo 
un  coshong 
leh  leeayvr 
ung sangj 
ung  loo 
ung  oor 
ung  leeong 
un  aylayfong 
ung  teegr 
un  woiso 
un  cock 
une  pool 
ung  poolay 
ung  seen 
une  ouah 
ungcanar 
une  allooet 
ung  rosseenyol 
l'eenrongdel 
leh  mouano 
leh  corbo 
lah  cornayl 
leh  perokay 
l'aygl 
ung  pouassong 

ungbroshay 

ungsomong 

une  carp 

une  ongghee 

une  trweet 

ung  harrong 

daiz  weetr 

une  aycreveece 

une  ballayn 

ung  sairpong 

une  grenooeel 

un  vair 

un  angsect 

une  arraynyax 

ung  taine 

une  moosh 

ung  moosherong 

une  abbail 

leh  meeyel 

une  gape 

ung  pappillyong 


TREES,  FRUITS,  FLOWERS   AND  VEGETABLES. 


ENGLISH. 

A  tree 
a  branch 
a  leaf 
an  apple 
a  pear 
a  plum 
a  cherry 
a  nut 
a  currant 
a  gooseberry 
a  strawberry 
a  chestnut 
the  oak-tree 
the  fir- tree 
the  birch 
the  willow 
a  flower 
arose 
a  pink 
a  tulip 
a  lily 
a  violet 
a bouquet 
beans 
peas 
cabbage 
cauliflower 
carrots 
asparagus 
spinach 
radishes 
celery 
a  melon 
cucumber 


A  school 
the  teacher 
the  book 
the  paper 
a  pen 

an  inkstand 
the  ink 
the  pencil 
a  letter 
an  envelope 


FRENCH. 

un  arbre 

une  branche 

unefeuille 

une  pomme 

une  poire 

une  prune 

une  cerise 

une  not'x 

4e  la  groseille 

de  la  groseille  verte 

une /raise 

un  marron 

le  chine 

le  pin 

le  bouleau 

le  saule 

unejteur 

une  rot* 

un  ceil  let 

une  tulip e 

un  lis 

une  violette 

un  bouquet 

desfevtt 

despots 

des  choux 

des  choux-Jleurs 

des  betteraves 

des  asperges 

des  tpinards 

des  radis 

du  cileri 

un  melon 

des  concombres 


PRONUNCIATION. 

ung  arbr 

une  braungsh 

une  file 

unepomm 

une  pouar 

une  pryun 

une  serreeze 

une  nouah 

de  lah  grozale 

deh  lah  grozale  verte 

une  fraize 

ung  marrong 

leh  shane 

leh  pang 

leh  boolo 

leh  sole 

une  fleuhr 

une  rose 

un  ileyai 

une  tyuleep 

ung  lee 

une  veeolet 

ung  bookay 

dai  f  aive 

dai  pouah 

dai  shoo 

dai  shoo-fleuhr 

dai  betrahve 

daiz  aspairj 

daiz  aipeenar 

dai  raddee 

du  selree 

ung  mellong 

dai  congcongbr 


THE     SCHOOL. 

Vicole 
le  txaitre 
le  livre 
le  papier 
une  plume 
un  encrier 
Vencre 
It  crayon 
une  lettre 
une  enveloppe 


l'aycol 
leh  maytr 
leh  leevr 
leh  papyal 
une  plyume 
un  ongcreeal 
Tongkr 
leh  crayong 
une  lettr 
une  o.^gvellope 


TIME  AND  SEASONS. 


The  time 

a  minute 

an  hour 

a  quarter  of  an  hour 

half  an  hour 

the  day 

the  morning 

noon 

the  afternoon 

the  evening 

the  night 

a  year 

a  month 

J  anuary 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 


le  temps 

une  minute 

une  heure 

un  quart-d'heure 

une  demie-heure 

lej'our 

le  matin 

le  midi 

rapris-midi 

le  soir 

la  nuit 

un  an 

un  mot's 

'Janvier 

Fivrier 

Man 

Avril 

Mai 

Juin 

Juillet 


leh  tong 
une  meenyute 
une  eur 
ungkar  d'eur 
une  demi  eur 
leh  joor 
leh  mattang 
leh  meedee 
Papray  meedee 
leh  souahr 
lah  nwee 
un  ong 
ung  mouah 
Jongveeay 
fayvreeay 
marse 
avreel 
may 
jyuang 
jweelyai 


^ST* 


•if? 


104 


THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 


— » 


$t 


August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

a,  week 

a  fortnight 

Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

Saturday 

Sunday 

spring 

summer 

autumn 

winter 


The  country 
the  village 
the  hut 
the  soil 
the  meadow 
the  barn 
the  mill 
the  cattle 
the  hero* 
the  shepherd 
the  mountain 
the  hill 
the  dale 
the  wood 
the  forest 
the  road 
the  high* road 
the  railroad 
a  mile 

the  waterfall 
the  fisherman 
the  huntsman 


The  family 
the  husband 
the  wife 
the  father 
the  mother 
the  child 
the  son 
the  daughter 
the  brother 
the  sister 
the  uncle 
the  aunt 
the  cousin 
the  marriage 


An  American 
a  German 
Germany 
a  Dutchman 
Holland 
a  Belgian 
Belgium 
a  Swiss 
Switzerland 
a  Hungarian 


AaiU 

Septembrt 

Octobrt 

Novembre 

Dicetnbrt 

une  semaine 

quinsejourt 

Lundi 

Mardi 

Mercredi 

yeudi 

Vtndredi 

Samedi 

Dimancht 

le  printemp* 

tm 

fautomne 
Vhiver 

THE  COUNTRY. 

la  cam  pa  gut 

le  village 

la  cabane 

It  sol 

Upri 

la  grange 

le  moulin 

le  bitail 

le  troupeau 

le  berger 

la  montagnt 

la  colline 

la  vallie 

le  bois 

lafortt 

le  ciumin 

le  grand -chem  in 

le  chemin  defer 

une  mille 

la  cascade 

lepicheur 

le  chasseur 

THE  FAMILY. 

la  fa  mille 
le  marl 
la/emms 
lepere 
la  mere 
renfant 
lejils 
la  file 
Itfrkrt 
la  sa>ur 
tonclt 
la  taut* 
It  cousin 
It  mariage 

NATIONALITIES. 

un  America  in 
un  Allemand 
VAllemagnt  f. 
un  Hollandait 
la  Hollandt 
un  Beige 
la  Belgiqut 
un  Suits* 
la  Suisse 
un  Hongrois 


00 

septaumbr 

octobr 

novaumbr 

daysaumbr 

une  semmane 

kanze  joor 

lungdee 

mardee 

may  re  re  dee 

jeuhdee 

vondredee 

s am  dee 

deemaunshe 

leh  prangtong 

l'aytay 

l'otonn 

1'eevare 


lah  caumpahna 

leh  Teelaj 

lah  caban 

leh  sol 

lah  pray 

leh  graunj 

leh  moolang 

leh  bay  tale 

leh  troopo 

leh  bayrjay 

lah  montaine 

lah  colleen 

lah  vail  ay 

leh  bouah 

lah  forray 

leh  shemmang 

leh  grong  shemmang 

leh  shemmang  deh  fare 

une  meet 

lah  cascad 

leh  paysheur 

leh  shasseuhr 


lah  famed 
leh  maree 
lah  f am 
leh  pare 
lah  mare 
1'ongfong 
leh  fecss 
lah  feel 
leh  frare 
lah  seuhr 
l'oncle 
lah  taunte 
leh  coosang 
leh  mareeahje 


un  amayrcecang 
un  almaung 
l'almalne 
ung  hollaunday 
lah  hollaund 
une  belj 
lah  bcljeck 
ung  swecss 
lah  swecss 
ung  hongrwah 


Hungary 

an  Englishman 

England 

an  Irishman 

Ireland 

a  Scotchman 

Scotland 

a  Dane 

Denmark 

a  Swede 

Sweden 

a  Russian 

Russia 

a  Spaniard 

Spain 

a  Frenchman 

France 

an  Italian 

Italy 


la  Hongrie 
un  Anglais 
PAngteterrt  f . 
un  Irlandais 
PIrlandt  I. 
un  Ecossais 
VEcosse  I. 
un  Dmnois 
It  Danemarc 
un  Suldois 
la  Suede 
un  Russt 
la  Russu 
un  Espagnol 
PEspagnt  f. 
un  Francais 
la  Franct 
un  Italien 
ritalie  f. 

THE  NOUN. 


lah  hongrec 
un  aunglay 
l'aungltare 
un  eerlaunday 
1'ecrlaund 
un  aycossay 
l'aycoss 
ung  danoaah 
leh  danroark 
ung  swayd  wah 
lah  sway de 
ungrusae 
lah  russee 
un  espanyol 
l'espaine 
ung  f raungsay 
lah  fraungse 
un  eetalyang 
l'eetalee 


To  form  the  plural  of  French  nouns,  add  s  to  the  singular ; 
as/<>rt*,  father,  pires,  fathers. 

Nouns  ending  in  f,  x  or  s,  in  the  singular,  do  not  vary  In  the  plural ; 
&s,j!ls,  son ;  Jlls,  sons. 

Nouns  ending  in  au  or  eu  add  x  to  form  the  plural;  as,  emu,  water; 
eaux,  waters. 

Nounsan  ou  form  their  plural  regularly,  by  the  addition  of  s. 

But  the  following  nouns  in  ou  take  x  to  the  plural,  viz.:  bijou ,caillou, 
ckottygenouy  hibou,  joujou, pou. 

Nouns  ending  in  al  change  this  termination  into  aux  to  form  the 
plural ;  as,  cheval,  horse ;  ckevaux,  horses. 

But  bal,  carnaval,  regal,  and  a  few  others,  form  their  plural  reg- 
ularly, by  the  addition  of  s  to  the  singular. 

Nouns  in  ail  form  their  plural  regularly,  by  adding  s  to  the  singular. 

The  following  seven  nouns  in  ail  form  their  plural  by  changing  ail 
into  aux ,  viz. :  bail,  lease ;  imail,  enamel ;  corail,  coral ;  soupirail, 
air-hole  ;  travail,  work  ;  vantail,  leaf  of  the  folding-door;  ventail,  the 
part  of  a  helmet  which  admits  air;  vitrail,  glass-window. 

del,  heaven,  has  cicux  in  the  plural.  (Eil,  eye,  has  yeu x.  Aleul, 
ancestor,  has  ateux. 

THE  ADJECTIVE. 

The  French  adjectives  are  placed  either  before  or  after  the 
nouns ; as : 

Itbon  fire,  the  good  father  la  bonne  mire,  the  food  mother 

un  bongarqon,  a  good  boy  une  jeune  file,  a  young  girl 

une  table  ronde,  a  round  table  dm  lait  chauJ,  warm  milk. 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Grand,  great        plus  grand,  greater 


petit,  small  plus  petit,  smaller 

ban,  good  meilleur,  better 

mauz'ais,  bad        pire,  worse 

petit,  little  moindre,  less 

"  Than  "  following  the  comparative  is'always  translated  by  "  que: 
PI  est  plus  poli  que  sonfrire— tic  is  more  polite  than  his  brother. 


le  plus  grand,  the  greatest 
le  plus  petit,  the  smallest 
/*  meilleur,  the  belt 
lepire,  the  worst 
le  moindre,  the  least 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


I 

un 

ung 

1 

deux 

deuh 

J 

trot's 

trouah 

♦ 

quatre 

kahtr 

s 

cinq 

sahnk 

6 

six 

seece 

7 

sept 

act 

s 

kuit 

wheet 

1 

neuf 

neuf 

0 

di* 

deece 

11 

ome 

ongx 

1 1 

douse 

doore 

M 

treise 

traya 

H 

qualorse 

katora 

'5 

quinse 

kanga 

m 

seise 

saya 

'7 

dixsepl 

dee-set 

iS 

dix-kuit 

deez- wheet 

i» 

dix-neuf 

decs- neuf 

2C 

vimgl 

vahng 

-M 


THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 


/ 


I°5 


21    vingt-un        vahnt-ung 
aa    vtngt-deux 

23  vingt- trois 

24  vingt-  quatre 

25  vingt-cinq 

26  vingt- six 

27  vingt- sept 

28  vingt 'knit 

29  vingt -neuf 

30  trente  traunt 
qua rant  e         karaunt 
cinquante       sahnkaunt 
soixante  soassaunt 
soixante-dix 
soixante-onxe 
soixante- douxe 
soi xante  -treixe 
soixante-  quatorxe 
soixante- quints 
soixante- seize 
soixante-dix  •  sept 
soixante-dix -huit 
soixante-dix  •  neuf 

80    quatre-vingt        katr-vahng 
Si    quatre-vingt -un 

katr-vahnt-ung 

quatre-vingt  -  deux 

quatre  -  vingt  -trois 

quatre  •  vingt- quatre 

quatre-vingt-cinq 

86  quatre-vingt- six 

87  quatre-vingt- sept 


82 

83 

84 

8S 


88  quatre-vtngt -huit 

89  quatre -vingt- neuf 
00    quatre-vingt- dix 

91  quatre-vingt-  onxe 

92  quatre  -  vingt  •  douxe 

93  quatre- vingt- treixe 

94  quatre  -  vingt  -  quatorxe 

95  quatre-vingt- quinxe 

96  quatre  -  vingt  -  seixe 

97  quatre-vingt- dix- sept 

98  quatre-  vingt  -  dix  -huit 

99  quatre- vingt -dix -neuf 

100  ct>«/  saung 

101  cent-un  saunt-ung 

1 10    tvrt/  <//>  saung-  deece 

120    cent  vingt        saung-vahng 

130    cent  trente 

200    deux  cents 

300    trois  cents 

400    quatre  cents 

500    «' wy  r^n/f 

600    six  cents 

700    «//  <vn/j 

800    huit  cents 

900    neuf  cents 

1,000    »»//*  meet 

2,000    <&■»*  mi*le 

3,000    /row  miT/ir 

10,000    dix  mills 

20,000    r/w^*  *»///* 

a  million,  ««  mS/tom,  ung  niellyong 


ORDINAL  NUMBERS. 

The  first,  le premier  leh  premyai 

11    second  /*  second  leh  zeggong 

■    third  letroisikme  leh  trouazzeeame 

"    fourth  le  quatrikme  leh  kattreeame 

"    5th  lecinquikme  leh  sahnkeeame 

*    6th  le  sixieme  leh  seeceeame 

"    7th  le  septihme  leh  seetteeame 

"    8th  le  huitieme  leh  wheeteeame 

"    9th  le  neuvfome  leh  neuveeame 

"     10th  le  dixieme  leh  deezeeame 

"     nth  I'onzikme  leh  ongzceame 

"     12th  le  douxiime  leh  doozeeame 

"     13th  le  treixieme  leh  trayzeeame 

"     14th  U  quatorxihme  leh  kattorzceame 

"     15th  le  quinxikme  leh  kahngzeeame 

44     16th  le  veixiime  leh  sayzeeame 

H     17th  le  dix ■- septikme  leh  deessettiame 

"     18th  le  dix -huitieme  leh  deez- wheeteeame 

"     19th  le  dix-neuvikme  leh  deez-neuveeame 

"    20th  le  vingtikme  leh  vahnteeame 

M    21st  //  vingt-unikme  leh  vahnt-uneeame 

M    30th  le  trentieme  leh  traunteeame 

"    40th  le  quarantikme  leh  karaunteeame 

M    50th  /*  cinquantikme  leh  sahnkaunteeame 

**    60th  le  soixantihme  leh  souahssaunteeame 

*'    70th  le  soixante-dixikme  leh  souahssaunt-deezeeame 

"    80th  le  quatre- vingtieme  lehkattr-vahnteeame 

**    90th  le  quatre -vingt -dix*  lehkattr-vahnt-deezeeamo 

iime 

"     icoth  le  centieme  leh  saunteeame 

"     1,000th  lemillikme  leh  millecame 

the  last  /*  dernier  leh  dareneeay 

VOCABULARY  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Poor  pauvre  pohvr 

«ch  ricke  reesh 


clever 
stupid 
sharp 
blunt 
clean 
dirty- 
hard 
soft 
strong 
weak 
well 
111 
lean 
thick 
fat 
thin 
polite 
impolite 
false 
deep 
wide 
narrow 
round 
square 
short 
long 
fiat 
warm 
cold 
fresh 
ripe 
dry 
sour 
sweet 
bitter 
hungry 
thirsty 
heavy 
Hght 
wet 

content 
happy 
gay 
sad 
useful 
strange 
pretty 
ugly 
dark 
open 

disagreeable 
proud 
arrogant 
cowardly 
courageous 
faithless 
innocent 


Prudent 
stupids 
aigu 
obtus 


sals 
dur 

MOM 

fort 

faible 
sain 
malade 
maigre 
grot 
gras 
mine* 
poli 

malhonntte 
faux 
Profond 
large 
itroit 
rond 
earri 
court 
long 
plat 
chaud 
froid 
frais 
miir 
tee 
atgre 
doux 
amer 
affawti 
aUiri 
pesant 
liger 
humide 
content 
heureux 
gat 
triste 
utile 
it  range 
foli 
laid 
sombre 
ouvert 
disagriable 
fier 

arrogant 
l&che 
courageux 
Perfide 
innocent 


prndong 

stupeed 

aygu 

obtu 

propr 

saal 

dure 

moo 

fore 

fabl 

sang 

malahd 

maygr 

gro 

gra 

mangce 

polee 

mallonnate 

fo 

profong 

larj 

aytrouah 

rong 

carray 

coor 

long 

pla 

sho 

froaah 

fray 

mure 

sec 

aygr 

doo 

am  are 

affammay 

altayray 

pezong 

layjai 

uraeed 

congtong 

eurea 

treest 
uteel 
aytraunj 

jolee 

lay 

sombr 

oovare 

daysagrayabl 

feeare 

arrogong 

lahsh 

coorrajeu 

pairfeed 

fnnosong 


THE  PRONOUN 
The  personal  pronouns  are  as  follows: 


7« 

(jeh) 

I 

Jfma 

(noo) 

we 

tu 

(tu) 

thOU 

vous 

(voo) 

you 

tt 

(teh) 

thee 

vous 

(voo) 

you 

it 

(eel) 

he 

its 

(eel) 

they 

ettt 

(el) 

she 

tlUs 

(el) 

they 

mot 

(mouah) 

me 

nous 

(noo) 

us 

tot 

(touah) 

thee 

lui 

(lwee) 

him 

£ 


r 


^ 

t 

•         at. 

^            t, 

f 

ei 

\ 

/ 

f 

«j 

io6                                                                                       THE    FRENCH 

LANGUAGE. 

PO88ESSIVB  PRONOUNS. 

he  had  had 

it  avail  eu 

eel  avait  ew 

1 

we  had  had 

nous  avians  tu 

nooz  aveeohngz  ew 

Ma«.            mom            (mong)      my  1      „,       ,                    .         , 
_.                                  "        •'         3  [     Plural:     mes      (may)  my 
r  em.           ma              (man)        my )                                      «-—»»—» 

you  had  had 

vous  avies  eu 

vooz  aveeayz  ew 

they  had  had 

Us  uvaitnt  eu 

eels  avait  ew 

Mas.           ton             (tong)        thy  ■         „                                     . 
Fern.          la               (tah)         thy  {                      "'       (Uy)    ,hy 

Past  Anterior. 

Ma«.           ton            (<°ng)     (  hi*   .         _                                ,   . ,     . 
Fern.          ,.               (sah)       J  her  |                      '"        <"*>   h"' h"- 

I  had  had 

ftustu 

Jeusew 

thou  hadst  had 

lu  eus  tu 

tu  eus  ew 

noire         (notr)        our            "           no$       (no)     our 

he  had  had 

il  eut  m 

eel  eut  ew 

voire         (votr)        your           "           vol       (vo)    your 

we  had  had 

nous  eumes  eu 

nooz  euma  ew 

leur           (leur)        their           "           leurt    (leur)  their 

you  had  had 

vous  tiUts  tu 

vooz  cuts  ew 

they  had  had 

Us  turtnt  tu 

eelseurtew 

RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

Future. 

%ul          (kee)                        who,  which,  that 

I  shall  have 

faurai 

joray 

ouot          (couah)                  what,  that 

thou  shalt  have 

tu  auras 

tu  orah 

ouel          (kel),   lequelT      which?            que  (keh)  what? 

he  shall  have 

il  aura 

eel  orah 

we  shall  have 

nous  aurons 

nooz  orong 

THE  VERB. 

you  shall  have 

vous  aurts 

vooz  oray 

they  shall  have 

Us  auront 

eel*  orong 

Before  proceeding  to  study  the  conjugations  of  the  regular 

Futurt  Anttrior. 

verbs,  the  student  must  ground  himself  thoroughly  in  the  irreg- 

I shall  have  had 

faurai  tu 

Joray  ew 

ular  verbs  avoir,  to  have,  and  it  re,  to  be,  which  are  designated 

thou  shalt  have  had 

tu  auras  tu 

tu  orah*  ew 

auxiliary  verbs  because  they  assist  in  the  conjugation  of  the 

he  shall  have  had 

il  aura  tu 

eel  orah  ew 

others. 

we  shall  have  had 

nous  aurons  tu 

noos  orongz  ew 

you  shall  have  had 

vous  aurts  tu 

vooz  orayz  ew 

THE  AUXILIARY  VERB  "AVOIR"— TO  HAVE. 

they  shall  have  had 

Us  auront  tu 

eel*  orontew 

INFIHITIVS    MOOD. 

Conditional  Present, 

Present.                                                            Past. 

I  should  have 

f  aurais 

Joray 

Avoir,  to  have,                                      Avoir  eu,  to  have  had. 

thou  shouldst  have 

tu  aurais 

tu  oray 

PARTICIPLES. 

he  should  have 

il  aurait 

eel  oray 

Ajranl,  having-.                                        .*;«,  had 

we  should  have 

nous  aurions 

nooz  oreeong 

Ayanl  eu,  having  had. 

you  should  have 

vous  aurit* 

vooz  oreeay 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

they  should  have 

Us  aura ient 

eels  oray 

. .                                               Present, 

Conditional  Past. 

I  have                             jal                                    jay 
thou  hart                        mm  at                              tu  ah 
he  ha»                              Hm                                   eel  ah 
-  »h«  •>*»                             elle  a                                el  ah 

I  should  have  had 

f  aurais  tu 

Joray*  ew 

thou  shouldst  have  had  tu  aurais  tu 

tu  oray*  ew 

he  should  have  had 

il  aurait  tu 

eel  orait  ew 

we  have                            nous  mvens                      nooz  avong 
you  have                          VOus  avet                        vooz  aval 
they  have                       Us  (elles)  enl                 eeUong 

we  should  have  had 
you  should  have  had 
they  should  have  had 

nous  aurions  tu 
vous  auries  tu 
Us  aura ient  eu 

nooz  areeonga  ew 
vooz  oreeaya  ew 
eel*  orait  ew 

Imperfect. 

IMPERATIVE.    MOOD. 

1  nad                               f  avals                             Javay 

Have 

ait 

»y 

thou  hadrt                       tu  avals                           tu  avay 
he  had                              il  avail                            eel  avay 

let  us  have 

ajfons 

•yona; 

have  (ye) 

mjfts 

«yay 

wehad                              nous  avions                    vooz  aveeong 

you  had                          vou,  aviso                     nooz  aveeay 
*hey  had                          //,  avaienl                       eels  avay 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

• 

Prtstnt. 

Past  Definite. 
1  h»d                                feus                                Jew 
thouhadit                        tueus                               tu  ew 

That  I  may  have 

gut  fait 

keh  Jal 

that  thou  mayest  have  our  tu  aits 

keh  to  at 

he  had                              ,/,«/                                 eelew 

that  he  may  have 

gu'il  ait 

kcelal 

w«  had                           noirj  pAmm                     nooz  eum 

that  we  may  have 

gut  nous  ay  ens 

keh  nooz  ayong 

you  had                            vous  eitet                        yooz  eut 

that  you  may  have 

gut  vous  ajfts 

keh  vooa  ayay 

they  had                           lit  turenl                         eelt  eur 

that  they  may  have 

gu'il*  aient 

keel*  al 

Perfect. 

fmferfect. 

I  have  had                    fat  en                            Jay  ew 

That  I  might  have 

gueftusst 

keh  Jeus* 

thou  hast  had                  tu  as  en                           tu  ahz  ew 

that  thou  mightesthave  an*  tu  eusses 

keh  tu  eus* 

he  has  had                       11  a  eu                              eel  ah  ew 

that  he  might  have 

gu'il  t%\t 

keel  en 

she  has  had                     elle  a  en                           el  ah  ew 

that  we  might  have 

gut  nous  tusstons 

keh  noos  eutsyong 

we  have  had                   nous  avons  eu                 nooz  avongz  ew 

that  you  might  have 

gut  vous  eussies 

keh  vooz  cuwyay 

you  have  had                  vous  avet  tu                   voozavayzew 

that  they  might  have 

gu'Us  tusstnt 

keels  eus* 

they  have  had                  its  out  eu                         eel*  ont  ew 

Perfttt. 

Pluperfect. 

That  I  may  have  had 

gut  fait  tu 

keh  Jal  ew 

i 

I  had  had                       favais  en                        Javayz  ew 

that  thou  mayest  have  gut  tn  aits  tu 

kchtu  aiaew 

\ 

I 

thou  hast  had                  tu  avals  en                      tu  avayz  ew 

had 

J 

c 

\ 

I, 

"*7 

*  ■     » 

*■                     » 

=r* 

i 

1 

•i 

S 

_- 

\h 

8| 

\ 

.      / 

p 

1 

THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 

IO7 

• 

that  he  may  have  had    qu'ilaiteu 

keel  ait  ew 

we  had  been 

nous  eumes  Hi 

nooz  eums  ettay 

that  we  may  have  had    que  nous  ayons  eu 

keh  nooz  ayongz  ew 

you  had  been 

vous  eutcs  iti 

vooz  euts  ettay 

that  you  may  have  had  que  vous  ayex  eu 

keh  vooz  ayayz  ew 

they  had  been 

U  eurent  ite 

eels  eurt  ettay 

that  they  may  have  had  qu'ils  aient  eu 

keels  ait  ew 

Future, 

Pluperfect. 

I  shall  be 

je  serai 

je  serray 

That  I  might  have  had  quefeusseeu 

keh  jeuss  ew 

thoushalt  be 

tu  seras 

tu  serrah 

that  thou  mightest  have  que  tu  eusses  eu 

keh  tu  euss  ew 

he  shall  be 

il  sera 

eel  serrah 

had 

we  shall  be 

nous  serons 

nooserrong 

that  he  might  have  had  qu'il  eut  eu 

keel  eut  ew 

you  shall  be 

vous  serez 

voo  serray 

that   we    might    have  que  nous  eussions  eu 

keh    nooz     eussyongs 

they  shall  be 

ils  seront 

eel  serong 

had 

ew 

Future  Anterior, 

that  you  might    have  que  vous  eussiez  eu 

keh  vooz  eussyaz  ew 

had 

I  shall  have  been 

faurai  iti 

joray  ettay 

that  they  might  have  qu'ils  eussent  eu 

keels  eusst  ew 

thou  shalthave  been 

tu  auras  iti 

tu  orahs  ettay 

had 

he  shall  have  been 
we  shall  have  been 

il  aura  iti 
nous  aurons  iti 

eel  orah  ettay 
nooz  orongz  ettay 

THE  AUXILIARY  VERB  "ETRE"— TO    JE. 

you  shall  have  been 

vous  aurez  iti 

vooz  orayz  ettay 

they  shall  have  been 

ils  auront  iti 

eels  oront  ettay 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present. 

Past; 

Conditional  Present 

Eire  (eta),  to  be.                     Avoir  iti  (avoahr  ettay),  to  have  been. 

I  should  be 

je  serais 

je  serray 

PARTICIPLES. 

thou  shouldst  be 

tu  serais 

tu  serray 

Etant  (ettaung),  being.           Eti  (ettay),  been. 

Ayantiti  (ayaunt  ettay)  having  been. 

he  should  be 
we  should  be 
you  should  be 

il  serait 
nous  serions 
vous  seriez 

eel  serray 
nooserreeong 
voo  serreeay 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

they  should  be 

Us  seraient 

eel serray 

Present. 

Conditional    Past. 

I  am                               je  suis 

jeh  swee 

I  should  have  been 

faurais  iti 

jorays  ettay 

thou  art                           tu  es 

tu  ay 

thou  shouldst  have 

tu  aurais  iti 

tu  orays  ettay 

he  is                                   ilest 

eel  ay 

been 

she  is                               tile  est 

el  ay 

he  should  have  been 

il  aurait  iti 

eel  orait  ettay 

we  are                             nous  sommes 

noo  som 

we  should  have  been 

nous  aurions  iti 

nooz  oreeongz  ettay 

you  are                           vous  ites 

vooz  ait 

you  should  have  been 

vous  auriez  iti 

vooz  oreeayz  ettay 

they  are                           ils  (elles)  sont 

eel  song 

they  should  have  been 

ils  auraient  iti 

eels  orait  ettay 

Imperfect. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

I  was                              fitais 

j  ettay 

thou  wert                          tu  itais 

tu  ettay 

Be 

soi 

sou  ah 

he  was                             illtait 

il  ettay 

let  us  be 

soyons 

swoiyong 

we  were                             nous  (lions 

nooz  ettyong 

be  (ye) 

soyez 

swoiyay 

you  were                            vous  Hiez 

vooz  ettyay 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

they  were                          ils  itaient 

eels  ettay 

Present. 

Past   Definite. 

m 

That  I  may  be 

gueje  sot's 

keh  jeh  sou  ah 

I  was                                 j'efus 

je  fu 

that  thou  mayestbe 

que  tu  sot's 

keh  tu  souah 

thou  wert                          tufus 

tufu 

that  he  may  be 

qu't'l  soil 

keel  souah 

he  was                             ilfut 

eel  fu 

that  we  may  be 

que  nous  soyons 

keh  noo  swoiyong 

we  were                             nous  fumes 

noo  fume 

that  you  may  be 

que  vous  soyex 

keh  voo  swoiyay 

you  were                          vous  files 

voo  fute 

that  they  maybe 

qu'ils  soient 

keel  souah 

they  were                          ilsfurent 

eel  fure 

Imperfect. 

Perfect. 

That  I  might  be 

que  je  fusse 

keh  jeh  fusse 

I  have  been                    fai  He 

jai  ettay 

that  thou  mightest  be 

que  tu  fusses 

keh  tu  fusse 

thou  hast  been                 tu  as  cti 

tu  ah  ettay 

that  he  might  be 

qu' ilfut 

keel  fu 

he  has  been                      Ha  iti 

eel  ah  ettay 

that  we  might  be 

que  nous  fussions 

keh  noofussyong 

she  has  been                    elleaiti 

el  ah  ettay 

that  you  might  be 

que  vousfussiex 

keh  voo  fussyay 

we  have  been                 nous  avons  He 

nooz  avongz  ettay 

that  they  might  be 

qu'ilsfussent 

keel  fusse 

you  have  been                 vous  avez  Hi 

vooz  avayz  ettay 

Perfect. 

que  f  aie  iti 

they  have  been                ils  (elles)  ont  Hi 

eels  ont  ettay 

That  I  may  have  been 

keh  jai  ettay 

Pluperfect. 

that  <hou  mayest  have 

que  tu  aies  iti 

keh  tu  aiz  ettay 

I  had  been                       j'avais  He 

javayz  ettay 

been 

thou  hadst  been              tu  avais  Hi 

tu  avayz  ettay 

that  he  may  have  been 

qu'il  ait  iti 

keel  ait  ettay 

he  had  been                      il  avail  iti 

eel  avait  ettay 

that  we  may  have  been 

que  nous  ayons  iti 

keh  nooz  ayongz  ettay 

we  had  been                     nous  avions  Hi 

nooz  avyons  ettay 

that    you    may    have 

que  vous  ayez  Hi 

keh  vooz  ayayz  ettay 

you  had  been                   vous  aviez  Hi 

vooz  avyayz  ettay 

been 

they  had  been                  ils  avaient  He 

eels  avait  ettay 

that    they    may    have  qu'ils  aient  iti 

keels  ait  ettay 

Past  Anterior. 

been 

I  had  been                       feus  Hi 

jeuz  ettay 

Pluperfect. 

J 

thou  hadst  been              tu  eus  Hi 

tu  euz  ettay 

That  I  might  have 

quefeusse  iti 

keh  jeuss  ettay 

k 

he  had  been                      //  eut  iti 

eel  eutettay 

been 

N 

w 

■ 

■"     0 

io8 


THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 


that    thou    mightest 

have  been 
that  he  might    have 

been 
that    we  might  have 

been 
that  you  might  have 

been 
that  they  might  have 

been 


que  tu  fusses  iti 

qu'il  cut  HI 
que  nous  eussions  iti 
que  vous  eussies  iti 
qu'ils  eussent  iti 


keh  tu  eu«  ettay 
keel  eut  ettay 

keh  nooz  cussyongs 
ettay 

keh  vooz  eussyaze  et- 
tay 

keels  eusst  ettay 


REGULAR  VERBS. 

The  Infinitives  of  verbs  in  the  French  language  have  the  four  fol- 
lowing terminations : 

erf        as  in    parler,        to  speak, 
/>,         in  in   fint'r,  to  finish, 

ot'r,      as  in     reqevoir,    to  receive, 
re,        as  in    vendre,      to  sell. 
All  that  precedes  this  infinitive  termination  is  called  the  "root  "  of 
the  verb. 

Verbs  which  only  change  their  terminations  and  not  their  roots  are 
called  "Regular  Verbs;  "  those  which  change  their  roots,  "Irregular 
Verbs." 

The  verbs  ending  in'Wr"  are  all  irregular,  and  the  French  language 
therefore,  has  in  reality  only  three  regular  conjugations. 
The  First  Conjugation  ends  in  "er." 
The  Second  Conjugation  ends  in  *'/>." 
The  Third  Conjugation  ends  in  "oir.u 
The  Fourth  Conjugation  ends  in'V*." 
The  past  participle  is  formed  by  adding  to  the  root  of  the  First  Con- 
jugation an  "4,"  to  that  of  the  second  an  "/,"  to  the  fourth  a  "«/" 
as: 


Parl-er, 

to  speak; 

parti, 

spoken 

Fin-ir, 

to  finish; 

fini* 

finished. 

Ventre, 

to  sell ; 

vendu, 

sold. 

The  student  may  now  proceed  to  the  mastery  of 
THE  FOUR  CONJUGATIONS. 

FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


Present. 

Parler  (parlay),  to  speak. 


INFINITIVE    MOOD. 


Past. 

Avoir  parli,  to  have  spoken. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Partant  (parlong),  speaking.      Parli,  spoken. 

Ay  ant  parUt  having  spoken. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present. 


SIMPLE   TENSES. 

Absolu. 
I  speak. 
ye  parts 
tu  paries 
it  parte 
nous  partons 
vous  partes 
Us  portent 

Imperfect. 
I  spoke. 

yepartais 
tu  parlais 
it  partat't 
nous  portions 
vous  parties 
its  partaient 


jeh  pari 
tu  pari 
eel  pari 
noo  parlong 
voo  parlay 
eel  pari 

Descriptive. 


jch  parlay 
tu  parlay 
eel  parlay 
nooparlyong 
voo  parly  ay 
eel  parlay 


COMPOUND  TENSES. 

AnUrieur. 
I  have  spoken. 
y*ai parti 
tu  as  parti 
it  a  parti 
nous  avons  parti 
vous  aves  parti 
Us  ont parti 

Ptuperfect. 
I  had  spoken. 

y*avais  parti 
tu  aval's  parti 
H  avail  parti 
nous  avions parti 
vous  avies  parti 
Us  avaient  parti 


Past  Definite. 
I  spoke. 
yeparlai 
tu  par  las 
ilparta 
nous  parldmes 
vous  par  hit  es 
Us  par  lire  nt 

Future. 
I  shall  speak. 
ye  parlerai 
tu  parler  as 
ilpartera 
nous  parlerons 
vous  par  teres 
Us  parleront 

Present. 

I  should  speak. 
ye  parler ais 
tu  parlerais 
U  parler  ait 
nous  parlerions 
vous  parleries 
Us  parleraient 

Present. 

That  I  may  speak. 
Que  je  parte 
que  tu  partes 
qu'il  parts 
que  nous  portions 
que  vous  parties 
qu'ils  portent 

Imperfect. 

That  I  might  speak. 
Que  fe  parlasse 
que  tu Parlasses 
qu'il  parldt 
que  nous  partassions 
que  vous  par  lassies 
qu'ils  parlassent 


Narrative. 


jeh  parlay 
tuparla 
eel  pari  a 
noo  parlahme 
voo  parlahte 
eel  pari  aire 

Future. 


jeh  parlerai 
tu  parler  a 
eel  parlera 
noo  parlerong 
voo  parleray 
eel  parlerong 

Conditional. 


jeh  parleray 

tu  parleray 
eel  parleray 
noo  parlerceong 
voo  parlereeay 
eel  parleray 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 


keh  jeh  pari 
keh  tu  pari 
keel  pari 
keh  nooparlyong 
keh  voo  parlyay 
keel  pari 


keh  jeh  parlaas 
keh  tu  parlaas 
keel  pariah 
keh  noo  pari assyong 
keh  voo  parlassyay 
keel  parlass 


Past  Anterior. 

I  had  spoken. 

y*eusforli 
tu  eus  parti 
•  it  eut  parti 
nous  eumes  parti 
vous  cities  parti 
Us  eurent parti 

Future  Anterior. 
I  shall  have  spoken. 
y*  auras'  parti 
tu  auras  parti 
it  aura  parti 
nous  aurons  parti 
vous  mures  parti 
Us  auront parts 

Past. 
I  should  have  spoken. 
jTaurais  parti 
tu  aurais  parti 
it  aurait  parli 
nous  aurions  parti 
vous  auries parti 
its  auraient  parti 

Past. 

That  I  may  have  spoken. 
$$ue  f  aie  parti 
que  tu  aies  parti 
qu'il  ait  parli 
que  nous  ay ons  parli 
que  vous  my  es  parli 
qu'ils  aient  parti 
Pluperfect. 

That  I  might  have  spoken. 
Quefeusse  parli 
que  tn  eusses  parti 
qufl  eut  parli 
que  nous  eussions  parli 
que  vous  eussies  parti 
qu'ils  eussent  parti 


IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 


Parle  (pari),  speak  thou  parlous  (parlong),  let  us  speak 

qu'il  parte  (keel  pari),  let  him  speak     paries  (parlay),  speak  jn 

qu'ils  portent  (keel  pari),  let 

them  speak. 

SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

INFINITIVE   MOOD. 


Present. 
Finir  (feeneer),  to  finish. 


Past. 

Avoir  fini  (teeuce),  to  have  finished. 

PARTICirLES. 

Finissant  (feeneesong),  finishing.       Fini,  finished. 

Ayantfini,  havingfinished. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present. 


SIMPLE   TENSES. 

Absolu. 

I  finish. 

yefinis 
tu  finis 


jch  feenec 
tu  feence 


COMPOUND  TENSES. 

Antirieur. 

I  have  finished. 
y*aifini 
tn  as  fini 


V- 


i 

•>    - 

•— - •'*- 

\ 

1 

-    A 

0 

THE   FRENCH 

LANGUAGE. 

109 

i 

i 

ilfinit 

eel  feenee 

il  afini 

THIRD   CONJUGATION. 

nous  finissonz 

noo  feeneessong 

nous  avonsfini 

INFINITIVE   MOOD 

vousfinissez 

voo  feeneessay 

vous  aviexfini 

Present. 

Past. 

ils  finissent 

eel  feeneess 

ils  ontfini 

Recevoir  (ressevouahr),  t 

Descriptive. 

Imperfect. 

Pluperfect. 

PARTICIPLES. 

I  finished. 

I  had  finished. 

Recevant  (ressevong) 

receiving,          7?^ck  (ressu),  received. 

Ay  ant 

requt  having  received. 

yefinissais 

jeh  feeneessay 

y*  avals  fini 

tufinissais 

tu  feeneessay 

tu  avaisfini 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

il  Jinissait 

eel  feeneessay 

il  avait fins' 

Present. 

nous  finissions 

noo  feeneessyong 

nous  avionsfini 

SIMPLE    TENSES. 

COMPOUND   TENSES. 

vousjinissiex 

voo  feeneessyay 

vous  aviexfini 

Absolu. 

Antirieur. 

ils  finissaient 

eel  feeneessay 

Narrattve. 

ils  avaientfini 

I   receive. 

I  have  received. 

Past  Definite. 

Past  Anterior. 

ye  reqois 

jehressouah 

y'ai  requ 

I  finished. 

I  had  finished. 

tu  reqois 
il  reqot't 

tu  ressouah 
eel  ressouah 

tu  as  requ 
il  a  requ 

*Je finis 

j«h  feenee 

y  eus  fini 

nous  recevons 

noo  ressevong 

nous  avons  requ 

tu  finis 

tu  feenee 

tu  eusfint 

vous  recevez 

voo  ressevay 

vous  avex  requ 

ilfinit 

eel  feenee 

il  eutfini 

its  reqoivent 

eel  ressouahve 

ils  ont  requ 

nous  finlmes 

noo  feeneem 

nous  eumesfini 

vous  finite s 
ilsfinirent 

voo  feeneet 
eel  feeneer 

Future. 

vous  exitesfini 
ils  eurentfini 

Imperfect. 
I  received. 

Descriptive. 

Pluperfect. 
I  had  received. 

Future. 

Future  Anterior. 

ye  recevais 

jeh  ressevay 

y'avat's  requ 

I  shall  finish. 

I  shall  have  finished. 

tu  recevais 

tu  ressevay 

tu  avals  requ 

yefinirai 

jehfeeneeray 

y'auraifini 

il  recevait 
nous  recevions 

eel  ressevay 
noo  ressevyong 

il  avait  requ 
nous  avions  requ 

tufiniras 

tu  feeneera 

tu  auras  fini 

vous  receviez 

voo  ressevyay 

vous  aviez  requ 

ilfinira 

eelfeeneera 

il  aura  fini 

ils  recevaient 

eel  ressevay 

ils  avaient  requ 

nousfinirons 

noo  feeneerong 

nous  auronsfini 

vousfinirez 

voofeeneeray 

vous  aurezfini 

Narrative. 

ilsfiniront 

eel  feeneerong 
Conditional. 

ils  aurontfint 

Past  Definite. 
I  received. 

Past  Anterior. 
I  had  received. 

Present. 

Past. 

ye  requs 

jeh  ressu 

yeus  requ 

I  should  finish. 

I  should  have  finished. 

tu  requs 

tu  ressu 

tu  eus  requ 

ye  finirais 

jehfeeneeray 

y*  aura  is fini 

il  requt 

eel  ressu 

il  eut  requ 

tufimrais 

tu  feeneeray 

tu  auraisfini 

nous  regimes 

noo  ressume 

nous  dimes  requ 

ilfinirait 

eel  feeneeray 

il  auraitfini 

vous  refutes 

voo  ressute 

vous  eutes  requ 

nous  finirions 

noo  feeneereeong 

nous  aurhns  fini 

ils  requrent 

eel  ressure 

ils  eurent  requ 

vous  finiriez 

voo  feeneereeay 

vous  auriez  fini 

Future. 

ils  finiraient 

eel  feeneeray 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

Us  auraient  fini 

Future. 
I  shall  receive. 

Future  Anterior. 
I  shall  have  received. 

Present. 

Past. 

That  I  may  finish. 

That  I  may  have  finished. 

ye  recevrai 
tu  recevras 

jeh  ressvray 

tu  ressvrah 

jFaurairequ 
tu  auras  recti 

Quejefinisse 

kehjeh  feeneess 

Que  f  aie  fini 

il  recevra 

eel ressvrah 

il  aura  requ 

que  tufinisses 

keh  tu  feeneess 

que  tu  aiesfini 

nous  recevrons 

noo  ressvrong 

nous  aurons  requ 

qu'il finisse 

keel  feeneess 

qu'il  ait  fini 

vous  recevrez 

voo  ressvray 

vous  aurez  requ 

que  nous  finissions 

keh     noo     feeneessee-y«r  nous  ayonsfini 

ils  recevront 

eel  ressvrong 

ils  auront  requ 

que  vous  finis siex 

ong 
keh  voo  feeneesseeay 

que  vous  ayezfini 

Conditional. 

Past. 

q'uil finis  sent 

keel  feeneess 

qu'ils  ayentfini 

Present. 

I  should  receive. 

I  should  have  received. 

Imperfect. 

Pluperfect. 

That  I  might  finish. 

That  I  might  have  finished. 

ye  recevrais 
tu  recevrais 

jeh  ressvray 
tu  ressvray 

yaurais  requ 
tu  aurais  requ 

Que  je  finisse 

keh  jeh  feeneess 

$htef  eussefini 

il  recevrait 

eel ressvray 

ilaurait  requ 

que  tufinisses 

keh  tu  feeneess 

que  tu  eussefini 

nous  recevrions 

noo  ressvreeong 

nous  aurions  requ 

qu'ilfinit 

keel  feenee 

qu'il  eutfini 

vous  recevrt'ex 

voo  ressvreeay 

vous  auriez  requ 

que  nous  finissions 

keh    noo      feeneess- 

que nous  eussions  fini 

Us  recevraient 

eel  ressvray 

ils  auraient  requ 

que  vousfinissiex 

yong 
keh  voo  feeneessyay 

que  vous  eussiezfini 

Present. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Past. 

qu'ils  finissent 

keel  feeneess 

qu'ils  eussentfini 

That  I  may  receive. 

That  I  may  have  received. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

Quej'e  reqoive 

keh  jeh  ressouahve 

$$uejaie  requ 

Finis  (feenee),  finish 

finissons  (feeneessong), let  us 

que  tu  revives 

keh  tu  ressouahve 

que  tu  ales  requ 

finish 

qu'ilreqoive 

keel  ressouahve 

qui! ait  requ 

qu'il  finisse  (keel  feeneess),                      finissex  (feeneessay),  finish  y» 

que  nous  recevions 

keh  noo  rcssvyong 

que  nous  ayons  requ 

i 

let  him  finish                   qu'ils  finissent  (keel  feeneess), 

que  vous  receviez 

keh  voo  ressvyay 

que  eus  ay  ex  requ 

\ 

l 

let  them  finish 

qu'ils  reqoivent 

keel  ressouahve 

qu'ils  aient  requ 

(9 

\ 

/ 

r* 

i 

no 

THE    FRENCH 

LANGUAGE. 

» 

Imperfect, 

Pluperfect. 

Present. 

Conditional. 

Past. 

That  I  might  receive.                                   That  I  might  nave  received. 

I  should  sell. 

I  should  have  sold. 

Queje  requsse                  keh  jeh  ressuce 
quetu  requsses                 keh  tu  ressuce 
qu'il  recfkt                        keel  ressu 

^uejeusse  requ 
que  tu  eusses  requ 
qu'il  exit  requ 

ye  vendrais 
tu  vendrais 
U  vendrait 

jeh  vaundray 
tu  vaundray 
eel  vaundray 
noo  vaundrccong 

y*aurais  vendu 
tu  auraiz  vendu 
il  amrait  vendu 

que  nous  remissions         keh  noo  ressussyong 

que  nous  eussions  requ 

nous  vendrionz 

nous  aurions  vendu 

que  vous  recusst'ez           keh  voo  ressussyay 
qu'ils  recussent               keelressusse 

que  vous  eussiex  requ 
qu'ils  eussent  requ 

vons  vendriez 
Us  vendraient 

voo  vaundrecay 
eel  vaundray 

vous  aurit-z  vendu 
Us  auraient  vendu 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

fieqois  (ressouah),  receive  thou    recevons  (ressevong),  let  ui  receive 

Present. 

Past. 

recevez  (ressevay),  receive  ye 

That  I  may  sell. 

That  I  may  have  solo. 

y«'i7r*Cff/"iv/(keelressouahve),     qu'ils  resolvent    (keel   rcssouahve), 

Queje  vende 

keh  jeh  vaund 

&uefaie  vendu 

let  him  receive 

let  them  receive 

que  tu  vendes 
qu'il  vende 

keh  tu  vaund 

keel  vaund 

keh  noo  vaundyong 

que  tu  aies  vendu 

qu'il  ait  vendu 

que  nous  ayons  vendu 

que  nous  vendions 

que  vous  vendiez 

keh  voo  vaundyay 

que  vous  ayes  vendu 

FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

qu'ils  vendent 

keel  vaund 

qu'ils  aient  vendu 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Imperfect. 

Pluperfect. 

Present. 

Past. 

That  I  might  sell. 
Queje  vendisse 

keh  jeh  vaundeess 

That  I  might  have  sold 
Quefeusse  vendu 

Vendre  (vaundr),  to  sell.                  Avoir  vendu,  to  have  sold. 

que  tu  vendissez 

keh  tu  vaundeess 

que  tu  eusses  vendu 

Participles* 

qu'il  vend'U 

que  nous  vendissions 

keel  vaundee 

keh    noo    vaundeess 

qu'il  eut  vendil 

oue  nous  eussions  ven- 

Vendant  (vaundong),  selling.         Vendu  (vaundu),  sold. 

Aymnt  vendu,    having  sold. 

que  vous  vendissiez 

yong                                   dm 
keh  voo  vaundeessyay  que  vons  euzsiez  rendu 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

qu'ils  vendisseni 

keel  vaundeess 

qu'ils  eussent  vendu 

Present. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

SIMPLE  TENSES. 

COMPOUND  TENSES. 

Vends  (vong),  sell  thou                              vendons  (vaundong),  let  us  sell 

Absolu. 

Antirieur. 

vendez  (vaunday),  sell  ye 
qu'il  vende  (keel  vaunde),                         qu'ils  vendent  (keel  vaund), 

I  sell. 

I  have  sold. 

let  him  sell 

let  them  sell 

ye  vends                         Je  vong 

y*ai  vendu 

tu  vends                            tu  vong 

tu  as  vendu 

VOCABULARY  OF  TKRBS. 

it  vend                               eel  vong 

il  a  vendu 

nous  vendons                    noo  vaundong 

nous  avons  vendu 

To  eat 

manger 

maunjay 

vous  vendez                      voo  vaunday 

vous  avez  vendu 

to  drink 

voire 

bouahr 

Us  vendent                        eel  vaund 

Us  ont  vendu 

to  be  thirsty 

avoir  soif 

avouahr  souaf 

Descriptive. 

Imperfect. 

Pluperfect. 

to  be  hungry 
to  breakfast 
to  dine 

avoir  faim 

dijeikner 

diner 

avouahr  fans; 

dayjeunai 

decnai 

I  sold. 

'    I  had  sold. 

to  sup 

souper 

soopai 

ye  vendais                        Jeh  vaunday 

y*avais  vendu 

to  serve 

servir 

sareveer 

tu  vendais                         tu  vaunday 

tu  avals  z>cndu 

to  carve 

t rancher 

traunshal 

ilvendait                          eel  vaunday 

il  avail  vendu 

to  smoke 

fumer 

f  urn  si 

nous  vendions                  noo  vaundyong 

nous  ai'ions  vendu 

to  sneeze 

iteruuer 

aytairnual 

vous  vendien                     voo  vaundyal 

vous  aviez  vendu 

to  cough 

tousser 

toaMd 

Us  vtndaient                    eel  vaunday 

Us  avaient  vendu 

to  think 

Penser 

paungsal 

Narrative. 
Past  Definite. 

Past  Anterior. 

to  reflect 
to  speak 
to  say 
to  repeat 

Hftickir 

purler 

dire 

rayflsysheer 

pari  si 
deer 

I  sold. 

I  had  sold. 

riplter 

raypaytsi 

ye  vendis                         Jeh  vaundee 

yens  vendu 

to  explain 

declarer 

dayclarral 

tu  vendis                           tu  vaundee 

tu  eus  vendu 

to  be  quiet 

se  taire 

sch  tare 

ii  vendit                           eel  vaundee 

il  eut  vendu 

to  chut 

causer 

cosay 

nous  vendlmes                  noo  vaundcem 

nous  e&mes  vendu 

to  tell 

raconter 

raccongtai 

vous  vendltes                   voo  vaundeet 

vous  elites  vendu 

to  Bjfe 

demander 

dcmaundal 

Us  vendirent                     eel  vaundeer 

Us  eurent  vendu 

to  answer 

rf'pondre 

raypon^dr 

Future. 

to  reply 

rtpliqmer 

rayplcckal 

Future 

Past. 

to  be  mistaken 
to  object 

se  tromper 
objtcter 

sch  trompal 
objectal 

I  shall  sell. 

I  shall  have  sold. 

to  doubt 

douter 

dootal 

ye  vendrai                       Jeh  vaundray 

y'aural  vendu 

to  affirm 

aJSrmer 

affeennal 

tu  vendras                        tu  vaundrah 

tu  auras  vendu 

to  prove 

Prouvtr 

prooval 

it  vendra                           eel  vaundrah 

ilaura  vendu 

to  assure 

assurer 

assurai 

nous  vendrons                 noo  vaundrong 

nous  aurons  vendu 

to  deny 

nier 

nccai 

< 

vous  vendres                    voo  vaundray 

vous  aurez  vendu 

to  maintain 

soutenir 

sooteneer 

i 

Us  vendront                     eel  vaundrong 

Us  auront  vend* 

to  dispute 

disputer 

disputai 

n 

s 

• 

^7 

* *• 

* 

■■■       e 

V 

• 

S    .       - 

i 

] 

^                Q 

£* 

r- 

\ 

/ 

(0 

\ 

THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 

III 

' 

ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION". 

ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

to  consent 

consentir 

congsaunteer 

to  dress 

s'habiller 

s'abbeelyai 

to  approve 

approuver 

approovai 

to  draw 

tirer 

teerai 

to  praise 

iouer 

looai 

to  show 

montrer     % 

mongtrai 

to  admire 

admirer 

admeerai 

to  present 

presenter 

praysauntai 

to  blame 

bldmer 

blahmai 

to  take 

prendre 

praundr 

to  believe 

croire 

crouahr 

to  accept 

accepter 

acceptai 

to  know 

s  avoir 

savouahr 

to  refuse 

refuser 

reffusai 

not  to  know 

ignorer 

eenyorai 

to  receive 

recevoir 

ressevouahr 

to  imagine 

tmaginer 

eemajeenai 

to  spoil 

g&ter 

gahtat 

to  compare 

comparer 

compahrai 

to  throw 

jeter 

jettai 

to  imitate 

imiter 

eemeetai 

to  lose 

perdre 

pairdr                     * 

to  forget 

oublier 

oobleeai 

to  look  for 

chercher 

shairshai 

to  remember 

se  souvenir 

seh  soovenneer 

to  find 

trouver 

troovai 

to  wish,  to  will 

vou/oir 

voulouahr 

to  hide 

cacker 

cashai 

to  desire 

disirer 

dayseerai 

to  cover 

couvrir 

coovreer 

to  wish 

souhaiter 

sooaytai 

to  uncover 

dicouvrir 

dayeoovreer 

to  love 

aimer 

aimai 

to  roast 

rbtir 

roteer 

to  natter 

flatter 

flattai 

to  boil 

bouillir 

booeelyeer 

to  embrace 

embrasser 

aumbrassai 

to  ■weigh 

Peser 

pezai 

to  hope 

espirer 

espayrai 

to  build 

bdtir 

bahteer 

to  rejoice 

rijouir 

rayjooeer 

to  sow 

semer 

semmai 

to  give 

donner 

donnai 

to  pluck 

cueillir 

kileyeer 

to  thank. 

remercier 

remmairceeai 

to  plant 

Planter 

plauntai 

to  esteem 

estimer 

,    esteemai 

to  reap 

ntoissonner 

mouahssonnat 

to  honor 

honor er 

onorai 

to  despise 

mip riser 

maypreezai 

VOCABULARY  OF 

ADVERBS. 

to  hate 

hair 

haeer 

At  first 

cTabord 

d'abor 

to  offend 

offenser 

offongsai 

previously 

auparavant 

oparravang 

to  tnsult 

insulter 

angsuhltai 

afterwards 

en  suite 

aunsweet 

to  quarrel 

quereller 

kerrellai 

together 

ensemble 

aunsaumbl 

to  swear 

jurer 

jurai 

at  last 

enfln 

aunfang 

to  punish 

Punir 

puneer 

where 

oil 

oo 

to  beat 

battre 

batre 

here 

id 

eesee 

to  weep 

pleurer 

pleuhrai 

there 

Id 

lah 

to  sigh 

soupirer 

sooperai 

elsewhere 

ailleurs 

aeellyure 

to  regret 

regretter 

regrettai 

above 

dessus 

dessu 

to  repent 

se  repentir 

seh  repaunteer 

below 

dessous 

dessoo 

to  excuse 

excuser 

excusai 

within 

dedans 

deddong                 * 

to  pardon 

pardonner 

pardonnai 

without 

dehors 

dehor 

to  revenge 

venger 

vaungjai 

everywhere 

par  tout 

partoo 

to  joke 

railler 

raeelyai 

nowhere 

nulle  part 

nule  par 

to  laugh 

rire 

reer 

up 

en  haut 

aung  ho 

to  live 

vivre 

veevr 

down 

enbas 

aung  bah 

to  feel 

sentir 

saunteer 

anywhere 

quelque  part 

kelkeh  par 

to  touch 

toucher 

tooshai 

already 

dejd, 

dayjah 

to  taste 

gouter 

gootal 

often 

sou  vent 

souvong 

to  see 

voir 

vouahr 

sometimes 

quelquefois 

kelcahfouah 

to  hear 

entendre 

auntaundr 

in  future 

&  Vavenir 

ah  l'avneer 

to  grow 

croUre 

crouahtr 

always 

toujours 

toojoor 

to  go 

alter 

allai 

never 

jamais 

jammay 

to  go  out 

sortir 

sorteer 

soon 

bientdt 

beeangto 

tc  return 

retourner 

retoornat                   , 

immediately 

aussitot 

osito 

to  meet 

rencontrer 

rauncongtrai 

late 

tard 

tar 

to  follow 

suivre 

sweevr 

early 

tot 

to 

to  run 

courir 

cooreer 

at  present 

h  present 

ah  praysong 

to  jump 

tauter 

sotai 

quickly 

vite 

veet 

to  fall 

t  amber 

tombai 

at  once 

tout  de  suite 

too  deh  sweet 

to  dance 

danser 

daungsai 

afterwards 

Puis 

pwee 

to  play 
to  ascend 

Jouer 
monter 

jooai 
mongtai 

yesterday 
yesterday  evening 

hier 

hier  au  sot'r 

yare 

yare  o  souahr 

to  descend 
to  ait  down 

descend  re 

dessaundr 

to-day 

aujourd*hui 

ojoordwee 

s*asseoir 

sassouahr 

to-morrow 

demain 

,        demmang 

to  lie  down 

se  coucher 

seh  cooshai 

to-morrow  morning 

demain  matin 

demraang  mattang 

to  rest 

se  reposer 

seh  repozai 

to-morrow  evening 

demain  soir 

demmang  souahr 

to  sleep 

dormir 

dormeeer 

day  after  to-morrow 

apris' demain 

appray  demmang 

to  dream 

river 

rayvai 

enough 

asset 

assay 

I 

to  awake 

s'dveiller 

sayvailyai 

too  much 

trap 

tro 

1 

1 

1         to  get  up 

se  lever 

seh  lewai 

little 

Peu 

peuh 

1 

J 

a — 

s 

k 

i 

r~~ 

"■        a 

K 


112 


THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 


ENGLISH. 

much 
very 
more 
less 

at  least 

thus 

nearly 

about 

all 

altogether 

only 

well 

better 

so  much  the  better 

bad 

worse 

rather 

without  doubt 

indeed 

on  the  contrary 

scarcely 

perhaps 

all  at  once 

not  at  all 

not  yet 

nothing 

nothing  at  all 


FRENCH. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


beaucoup 
irks , fort 
plus 
mains 
au  mot'ns 
si 

presque 
environ 
tout 

t  out -d.- fait 
settlement 
hi  en 
mieux 
taut -mi tux 
mat 
pis 

p/utdt 

sans  doute 

en  tffet 

au  contraire 

&  Peine 

peut-tlre 

tout- d- coup 

Point  du  tout 

fas  encore 

rien 

rien  du  tout 


VOCABULARY  OF 


Or 

with,  near 
near 

in,  within 

before 

behind 

below 

over 

against 

far  from 

on  the  side  of 

opposite 

round  about 

Instead  of 

In  the  midstof 

on  thisside 

on  the  opposite  side 

out  of 

after 

with 

since 

between 

without 

for 

through,  by 

against 

during 


PU 

chei)  aupris 

pris 
dans,  en 
avant 
derriere 
sous 
sur 
vers 
loin  de 
A  c6U  d* 
vis -*.- vts 
autour  de 
au  lieu  de 
au  milieu  de 
en- dec  A  de 
au-Jeld  de 
hors 
aprks 
avec 
depuis 

entre—parmt 
sans 
Pour 
par 
contre 
Pendant 


bocoo 
tray,  fore 
•  plu 

mouang 

o  mouang 

see 

pressk 

aungveerong 

too 

toot-ah-fay 

seuhlmong 

beeang 

meyew 

tong  meyew 

mal 

pee 

pluto 

song  doot 

aun  effay 

o  con  gt  rare 

ah  pane 

put-aitr 

toot-ah-coo 

pouangdu  too 

pazauncore 

reeang 

reeang  du  too 

PREPOSITIONS. 

oo 

shay,  opray 

pray 

dong,  aung 

avvong 

derreeare 

too 


vare 

louang  deh 
ah  cotay  deh 
veez-ah-vee 
otoor  deh 
o  leeyu  deh 
o  millyu  deh 
aung-dessah  de 
o-dellah-deh 
hor 

appray 
awec 
deppwee 
aungtr — parmee 
song 
poor 
par 
congtr 
paundong 


VOCABULARY  OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 


either.. or 

neither,  .nor 

also 

but 

however 

yet 

if 

If  not 

if  only 

even  if 


0U..OU 

ni..ni 
aussi 
ma  is 

ce pendant 
Pourtant 
si 

si  non 
Pourvu  que 
ouand  mime 


00..00 

nee.. nee 

ossi 

may 

seppaundong 

poortong 

tee 

see  nong 

poorvu  keh 

kaung  mcym 


although 

that  is 

as 

except  that 

for 

because 

why 

and 

therefore 

consequently 


FRENCH. 

quoique 
c*  est -h- dire 
com  me 
outre  que 
ear 

parceqne 
Pourquoi 
et 

am  si 
par  consequent 


PJIOXUKCIATION. 

couak 

sait-ah-deet 

comm 

ootrkeh 

car 

parsk 

poorkouah 

ai 

angsee 

par  congsaycong 


CONVERSATION  IN  FRENCH. 


HAVING  by  study  of  the  foregoing  made  himself 
familiar  with  the  salient  features  of  the  French  gram- 
mar, the  student  will  require  to  learn  those  niceties 
and  elegancies  of  expression  which  make  the  French 
language  the  most  graceful  of  ail  spoken  tongues.  These  can 
be  largely  acquired  by  learning  by  heart  the  following  vacabu- 
lary  of  phrases,  which  have  been  collated  under  different  heads 
and  thus  will  be  the  more  readily  memorized  and  more  certainly 
retained. 

CONSTANTLY  OCCURRING  EXPRESSIONS. 


Tell  me. 

If  you  please. 

Have  the  goodness. 

Yes,  sir. 

Yes,  Madam. 

Yes,  Miss. 

No,  sir. 

Will  you  tell  me? 

I  thank  you. 

Do  you  speak  English  ? 

French? 
I  do  not  speak  French. 

I  understand. 
I  do  not  understand. 
Do  you  understand? 
Give  me  some  bread. 
Bring  me  some  coffee. 

Thank  you. 
Good  morning. 
How  do  you  do? 

Very  well. 

I  am  very  well. 

How  Is  your  father? 


Dites-moi. 
S*  it  vous  plait. 
Ayes  la  bonti. 
Out',  Monsieur. 
Oui%  Madame. 
Out,  Mademoiselle. 
Non,  Monsieur, 
Voules  voux  me  dire  ? 
ye  vous  remercie. 
Paries  vous  anglais  ? 

francais  ? 
ye  ne  parte  pas /ran  - 

cats? 
ye  comprends. 
ye  ne  comprends  pas. 
Comprenes-  vous  ? 
Donnes  moidm  pain. 
Apportes-moi  du  ca/d, 

Merci. 
Bon  jour. 

Comment  vous  portes 

vous? 
Tres-bien. 
ye  me  Porte  fort  bien. 

Comment      se     ports 
monsieur  voire  pere? 


Deet  mouah. 

Seel  voo  play. 

Aiyai  lah  bongtal. 

Wee,  mosseeu. 

Wee,  madamm. 

Wee,  madmouazet. 

Nong,  mosseeu* 

Voolai  voo  men  deer. 

Jeh  voo  remmairsee. 

Parlal-voo  aunglai? 
fraunsai  ? 

Jeh     nch      pari      pah 
fraunsai. 

Jeh  comprong. 

Jeh  nch  comprongpah. 

Comprennai-voo. 

Donnai  mouah  du  pang. 

Apportai-mouah    du 
caffay. 

Mairsee. 

Bong  joor. 

Comroong  voo    por* 
tai  voo? 

Tray  beeang. 

Jeh  meh  port  fore  bee- 
ang. 

Comroong       seh     port 
mosseeu  voir  pare? 


How  is  your  mother?     Comment     ss    ports     Commong      sch      port 

madams  voire  mere?    mad  dam  votr  mare? 
She  Is  not  well.  £tle  ne   se  ports  pas  El  nch    seh   port    pah 


She  is  ill. 
He  U  very  111. 
She  has  a  cold. 
I  must  go. 
Good*  by. 
Farewell. 


bien. 
£tle  est  matade. 
It  est  bien  malade. 
£tte  est  enrkumis. 
fl/aut  partir. 
Auplaisir. 
Adieu. 


beeang. 
EI  al  mallad. 
Eel  ai  beeang  mallad. 
El  ait  aunrccmay. 
Eel  fo  parteer. 
O  playzeer. 
Adieu. 


/_ 


^^^ 


AI 


t*r 


K: 


~ 


THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 


"3 


ENGLISH. 

Your  servant. 

I    wish    you    a  good 

morning. 
Good  evening. 
Good  night. 
I  wish  you  good  night. 


My     compliments     to 

your  father. 
I  will  not  fail. 


What! 

Is  it  possible? 

Who  would  have  be* 

lieved  it  I 
Indeed  1 

It  is  impossible. 
That  cannot  be. 
I  am  astonished  at  it. 

It  is  incredible. 
I  am  sorry  for  it. 
It  is  a  great  pity. 
It  is  £.  oreat  misfor- 
tune. 
I  am  very  glad. 
I  am  very  glad  of  it. 
It  gives  me  great  joy. 


Votrt  servileur, 

jfe  vous  souhaite  le 
bon  jour. 

Bon  soir. 

Bonne  nuit. 

Je  vous  souhaite  une 
bonne  nuit* 

Saluez  monsieur  vo- 
ire pere  de  ma  part, 

ye  n'y  manquerai  pas. 

SPECULATORY. 

Comment  I 

Sera  it  •  it  possible  I 
Qui  Vaurait  crut 

En  viritil 
Cela  est  impossible. 
Cela  ne  sepeutpas. 
ye'  suis  bien  itonni. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Votr  sairveetur. 

Jeh     voo     sooate     leh 

bong  joor. 
Bong  souar. 
Bon  nwee. 
Jeh  voo  sooate  une  bon 

nwee. 
Salluai    mossieu     votr 

pare  deh  mah  par. 
Jeh  nee  naaunkrai  pah. 


I  wish  you  joy. 
I     congratulate 
on  it. 


you 


C'est  incroj/able. 
yen  suisf&ehi. 
C'est  bien  dommage, 
C'est    un    grand  mal- 

neur, 
ye  suis  bien  aise. 
y'en  suis  fort  aise. 
y'en    at    bien     de     la 

j'oie. 
ye  vousfdlicite. 
ye   vous  en  fat's  mon 

compliment. 

AGE. 


Commong! 
Serrait-eel  posseebl? 
Kee  loray  crul 

Ong  vereetay. 
Slah  ait  amposseebl. 
Slah  neh  seh  peu  pah. 
Jong  swee    beean    ai- 

tonnai. 
Sait  angcrwoyable. 
Jong  swee  fashah 
Say  beeang  dommaje. 
Sait  ung   grong    mal- 

tear. 

Jeh  swee  beean  aze. 
Jong  swee  fort  aze. 
Jon      ay    beeang    deh 

lah  jouah. 
Jeh  voo  faileeseet. 
J  eh     vooze     ong     fay 

mong  compleemong. 


How  old  areyou?  Quel  age  avez-vous  t     Kel  ahje  avai  voo? 

I  am  twenty-two.  faivingt-deux  ans.      Jay  vang-deuh  ong. 

I  shall  soon  be  thirty,  j'ai     bientot     trente  Jay     beeangto     traunt 

ans.  ong. 

He  looks  older.  Uparait plus  dgi.  Eel  paray  pluze  ahjai. 

I   did    not   think    you  ye  ne  vous  croyaispas  Jeh    neh   voo    crwoyai 
were  so  old.  stage",  pah  see  ahjai. 

TO  ASK  QUESTIONS. 

What  do  you  say?  Quedites-vous  t  Keh  deet  voo? 

Do  you  hear  me?  M'entendez-vous  t         Mauntaundai-voo? 

I  don't  sfleak  to  you.  Ce  n'est  pas    a    vous  Snay  paz  ah  voo  keh 

queje  parle,  jeh  pari. 

Do    you     understand  Me  comprenez-vous  T     Men  comprennay  voo? 

me? 
Listen.  Eeoutez.  Aicootai. 

Come  here.  Approchez—vencz  ici.  Aproshai  —    Vennaiz 

eessee. 
What  is  that?  Qu'est-ceque  cela  t         Case  keh  sla? 

Why  don'tyou answer? Bourquoi uerepondez-  Poorcouah  neh  raipon- 

vous  pas  t  dai  voo  pah? 

What  do  you  mean?      Que  voulez-vous  diret  Keh  voolai-voo  deer? 
Don't    you    speak  Ne  parlez  •  vous  pas  Neh    parlai    voo    pah 

French?  francaist  fraunsay? 

Very  little,  s!r.  Bienpeu,  Monsieur,      Beeang  peuh,  mossieu. 

Do  you  know  Mr.  H.?  Connaissez-vous  M»n-  Connaissai    voo    mos- 

sieur  H.t  sieu  H.? 

I  know  him  by  sight,     ye  le  connmis  de  vue.    Jeh  leh  connay  deh  vu. 
I  know  him  by  name,     ye  le  connais  de  nom.    Jeh     leh    connay   deh 

nong. 
vVhat  doyou  call  that?  Comment  appelet-vous  Comment    applai    voo 
cela  T  sla  ? 


/ 


What  o'clock  is  it? 
It  is  near  eight. 

Light  the  fire. 

I  am  going  to  get  up. 

Ge  t  me  s  ome 

water. 
Make  haste. 

How  have  you  slept? 

Did  you  sleep  well? 


ENGLISH.  FRENCH.  PRONUNCIATION. 

What  does  that  mean?  Qu' est -ce  que  cela  veut  Case  keh  sla  veuh  deer? 

direT 
What  is  that  goodfor?  A  quoicela  esl-t'l  bont  Ah    couah  sla  ait   eel 

bong? 

MORNING  CHAT. 

Quelle keure est- UT        Kel  eur  ait-eel? 

//    est   pres    de   knit  Eel  ai  pray    deh  weet 

heures.  eur. 

Faites  dufeu.  Fate  du  feuh. 

ye  vais  me  lever.  Jeh  vay  meh  levvai. 

hot  AUez  me   chercher  de  Allai     meh     shairshai 
Veatt  ckaude.  deh  lo  shode. 

Ne   soyez    pas    long-  Neh  swoyai  pah  long- 

te**ps.  tong. 

Comment    avez  •  vous  Commont       aval  •  voo 

J:  i- mi t  dorm ee ? 

Avez-vous  bien  dormi  T  Avai*voo  beeang  dor- 
mee? 
Very  well,  thank  you.    Tres-bt'en,  je  vous  re-  Tray    beeang,  jeh  voo 

mercie.  remmairsee. 

Not  very  well.  Pas  tres-bien.  Pah  tray  beeang. 

I  neverwoke  all  night.  jTai  dormit  tout  d'un  Jay  dormee    too  dung 

somme.  som. 

I  could  not  sleep.  ye  n'ai pas pu  dormir.  Jeh  nai  pah    pu    dor- 

meer. 
I  never  closed  my  eyes,  ye  n'ai  pas ftrmi  Tail.  Jeh    nai  pah     fairmay 

Hie. 
I    have   been   up  this  II  y  a  une  keure  que  jr  Eel  ee  ah  une  eur  keh 

hour.  me  suis  lev4.  jeh  meh  swee  levai. 

You  are  an  early  riser.  Vous  ttes  matinal.  Vooz  ait  matteenal. 

I  generally  rise  early,     ye  me  lev e  ordinaire-  Jeh    meh    lave    ordee- 
ment  de  bonne  heure.      naremong    deh    bon 
eur. 
Le  dejeuner  est prtt.      Leh  daijeunay  a*  pray- 
Le  dejeuner  est •ilpritf'L.eh  daijeunay  ait  eel 

pray? 
Venez  dejeuner,  Vennay  daijeunay. 

Cela  est  assez.  Sla  ait  assay. 

Bes  pet  its  pains.  Day  pettee  pang. 

Do  you  drink  tea  or  Prenez-vous  du  thiou  Prennay-voo  du  tay  oo 

coffee?  ducafit  ducaffay? 

This  cream  is  sour.        Cette  crime  s'est  agrie.  Set  crame  sait  agree. 
Will  you  take  an  egg?  Veulez  -  vous  manger  Voolay  •  voo    maunjay 

un  ceuft  un  uf? 

These  eggs  are  hard.     Ces  ceufs  son  durs.         Saze  euf  son  dure. 
Pass  me  the  butter.        Passes  -  mot  le  beurre.    Passay  mouahlehbeur. 
Is   the    coffee   strong  Le   caf&    est  -  il  assez  Leh  caff  ay  ait  eel  assay 

enough?  fort  f  fore? 

We  want  more  cups.     //  nous    manque    desr  Eel    noo 

tasses,  tass. 

Take  some  more  sugar.  Prenez  encore  du  sucre.  Prenaze 

sucr. 
Une  rdlie. 

Be  la  viandefroide. 
La  nappe. 
Le  sucrier, 
Bu  ckocolat. 
Un  couteau, 

Ce   couteau   ne   coupe  Seh  cooto  neh  coop  pas. 
Pas. 
We  have  done  break-  Nous  avonsftni  de  di-  Nooz  avongfeenee  «eh 
fast.  jeuuer.  daijeunay. 

AT  THE  DINNKK-TAHLK. 
Show  me  the  bill   of  Montrez-moi la  carte.    Mongtray    mouah    lah 

fare.  carte. 

What   soup  will  you  Quelle  soupe  vous  ser-  Kel  soup   voo  sairvee- 

have?  virai-j'e  t  raije. 


Breakfast  Is  ready. 
Is  breakfast  ready? 

Come  to  breakfast. 
That  is  enough. 
Some  rolls. 


A  piece  of  toast. 

Cold  meat* 

The  table-cloth. 

The  sugar-bowl. 

Chocolate. 

A  knife. 

This  knife  is  blunt. 


maunk    day 
auncore     du 


Une  rotee. 

De  lah  veeaund  frouad. 

Lah  nap. 

Leh  sucreeay. 

Du  shocolah. 

Ung  cooto. 


ENGLISH. 

Maccaronl  soup. 

Have  you  any  roast- 
beef? 
Not  to-day. 
We  have  very  fine  fish. 

What  wines  will  you 

have? 
Let  us  see. 
Here  is  the  list. 
We  shall  dine  at  six 

o'clock. 
Be  punctual. 
What  shall  I  help  you 

to? 
Will    you    take   some 

soup? 
No,  thank  you. 
Willingly. 
Help  yourself. 
Do  you  take  pepper? 

Potatoes. 

The  mustard  pot. 

Give  me  a  clean  fork. 

Are  you  hungry? 
I  am  hungry. 
You  don't  eat. 
Are  you  thirsty? 
I  am  very  thirsty. 
I  am  dying  of  thirst. 
Take  a  glass  of  wine. 

Give  me  something  to 

drink. 
A  cork -screw. 


FRENCH.  PRONUNCIATION. 

De  la  soup*  an  muca-  Deh   lah   soup  o  mac* 

roni.  aroni. 

Av*z  ■  vous    du    btxuf  Avay-voo   du  beuf  to- 

roll  t  tee  ? 

Pas  aujourcThui.  Paz  ojoordwee. 

Nous  avons  de tris -ban  Nooz  avong  deh  tray* 

poisson.  bong  pouahssong. 

Quels  vhts  Monsieur  Kcl  vang  mossieu  day* 

dislre-t-il t  zeer-t-eel? 

Voyons.  Vwoiyong. 

En  void  la  lists.  Ong  vwoysee  lah  ft  sat, 

Nous  dinerons  6   six  Noo       deenerons       ah 

heures.  scece  eur. 

Soyez  exact*.  Swoyaiz  exact. 

<%ue  vous  serviraije  T  Keh  vos  sairveeraije? 


Voulez-vous  un  feu  de 

soupe  t 
Merci  bien. 
Trbs-volontiers. 
Servez-vous. 
Mangez  •  vous  le  poivre  f 

Des  pommes  de  terre. 
Le  ittoutardier. 
Donnez-moi  une  four- 

chette  propre. 
A  vet  -  vous /aim  t 
y'ai/aim . 
Vous  ne  mangez  pas. 
Avez-vous  soif* 
y'ai  bien  soif. 
ye  meurs  de  soif. 
Prenez  an  verre  de  vin. 

Donnez-moi &  bot're. 

Un  tire-bouchon. 


Voolai-vooz   ung  pcu 

deh  soup? 
Mairsee  beeang. 
Tray  volontyai. 
Sairvai  voo. 
Maunjai  voo  leh  pou- 

ahvr. 
Day  pom  deh  tare. 
Leh  mootardyai. 
Donnay   mouah   une 

foorshet  propr. 
Avay-voo  fang? 
Jay  fang. 

Voo  neh  maunjay  pah. 
Avay  voo  souaf? 
Jay  beeang  souaf. 
Jemeurdeh  souaf. 
Prennaze   ung  vair  de 

vang. 
Donnay    mouah    ah 

bouahr. 
Ung  teer  booshong. 


TALK  AT  THE  TKA-TABLK. 


Tea  Is  quite  ready.  Le  t/ti  est  tout prlt. 

They  are  waiting  for  On  vous  attend* 

you. 
I  am  coming.  Me  void. 

Pour  out  the  tea.  Verses  le  thi. 

Bring  a  saucer.  Apportez  un*  soucoupe. 


Ring,  If  you  please. 
A  little  more  milk. 

What  will  you  take? 
A  slice  of  bread   and 

butter. 
H;nul  the  plate. 
Will    you    take    some 

cake? 
A  small  piece. 
Make  some  toast. 

Make  haste. 

This  is  excellent  tea. 

The  tea-tray. 

The  milk  jug. 

A  set  of  tea-things. 

Brown  bread. 

White  bread. 

Stale  bread. 

New  bread. 


Sonnez,  s'il  vous  plait. 
Encore  un  peu  d*  /ait. 

&ue  prendret-vous  t 

Une  beurrie — une  tar- 
tine  de  beurrt. 

Passtz  Fassiette. 

Voulez  •  vous  du  gft  • 
teaut 

Un  petit  moretau. 

Faites  encore  des  rd- 
ties. 

Deptchet-vous. 

Voilii  d  excellent  (hi. 

L*  cabaret. 

L* pot  au  /ait. 

Un  service* 

Du  pain  bis. 

Du  fain  blanc. 

Du  pain  rassis, 

Du  pain  f  rat's. 


Leh  tay  al  too  pray. 
Ong  vooz  attong. 

Meh  vwoysee. 

Vairsay  leh  tay. 

Apportaze  une  soo- 
coop, 

Sounay  seel  voo  play. 

Auncore  ung  peu  deh 
lay. 

Keh  praundray  voo? 

Une  beurray — une  tar- 
teen  deh  beur. 

Passay  lassyett. 

Voolay  voo  du  gahto? 

Ung  pettee  morso. 
Fates  auncore  day  ro- 

tee. 
Daypayshay  voo. 
Vwoyla  dexcellongtay. 
Leh  cabbaray. 
Leh  potc  o  lay. 
Ung  sairvecce. 
Du  pang  bee. 
Du  pang  blong. 
Du  pang  rassee. 
Du  pang  fray. 


BED-TIME. 

FRENCH.  PRONUNCIATION. 

Itesttard.  Eel  al  tar. 

//  n' est  pa*  tard.  Eel  nay  pah  tar. 

//  est  encore  de  bonne  Eel    ait    auncore    deh 

keure.  bon  eur. 

Etes-vousfaiigut.  Ait  voo  fateegar ? 

Point  du  tout.  Pouang  du  too. 

Pas  beaucoup.  Pa  bocoo. 

//  n'est  que  dix  heures.  Eel  nay  keh  deeze  eur. 
It  is  time  to  go  to  bed.  II  est  Vheur*  de  secou-  Eel    al    leur    deh    aeh 

cher.  cooshay. 

Ma  chambre    est  -  ell*  M  a   shaumbr    ait     e 

prltef  prate? 

Allez  voir.  Allay  vouahr. 

Un*  couverture  d*  Une   coovairture  deh 

lain*.  lane. 

Bon  soir.  Bongsouahr. 

a   good   y*  vous   souhaite   une  J  eh -voo  sooate  unebon 

bonne  nuit.  nwee. 

jTaisommeil.  Jay  sommail. 


ENGLISH 
It  is  late. 
It  is  not  late. 
It  is  still  early. 

Are  you  tired? 
Not  at  all. 
Not  much. 
It  is  only  ten. 


Is  my  room  ready? 


Go  and  see. 
A  blanket. 

Good  night. 
I  wish  you 

night. 
I  am  sleepy. 


Avez-vous  sommeilT     Avay-voo  sommail? 
THE  TIME  OF  DAT. 

What  o'clock  is  it  by  Quelle  keure  *st-il  &  Kel  eur  ait-eel  a  voti 
your  watch?  voir*  montr*  t  mauntr? 

Ell*  s'est  arrlUe.  El  sait  arraytai. 

y'ai  oublU  d*  la  man-  J  ay    oobleeay  deh    la 

ter.  mauntay. 

Ma    montr*   est    *n  Ma     mauntr    ait    an 

avance.  avaunce. 

ElUavanc*.  EI  avaunce. 

Elle  est  en  retard.  El  ait  ong  retard. 


Are  you  sleepy? 


It  has  stopped. 

I  forgot  to  wind  it  up. 

My  watch  is  too  fast. 

It  gains. 

It  is  too  slow. 


It  is  a  quarter  of  an  Ell*  retard*  d 'un  quart  EI     retard     dung     kar 


hour  too  slow. 
It  goes  right. 
A  quarter  to  eight. 

Midnight. 

Noon, 

A  quarter  past  one. 

II;tlf  past  four. 


d*  keure.  deur. 

Elle  N  bien.  El  ra  beeang. 

If uil  heures  mains  un  Wheet  eur  mouansung 

quart.  kar. 

Minuit.  Meemvee. 

Midi.  Meedee. 

Une  heure  et  quart.         Une  eur  ai  kar. 
guatre  heures  et  demie.  K  atr  cur  ai  demmee. 
Twenty  minutes  to  six.  Six  heures  mains  vingt.  Seece    eur    mouang 

vang. 
It  has  just  struck  nine.  Neuf  heures  vi*nntnt  Ncuv   eur  veeyen    deh 

de  sonner.  sonnay. 

Ten    minutes  past  Sept    heures    dix    mi-  Set  eur  dee  meenute. 

seven.  nutes. 

Exactly  three  o'clock.  Trois  heures  juste.  Trouaz  eur  juste. 

The  clock  is  striking.  Voild  Vhor/oge  qui  Vwoylalorlojekce  son. 
tonne. 

THE  PROMENADE. 

Shall  we  take  a  little  Irons  -  nous  fair*  un  Eerong  noo  fare  ung 
walk?  petit  tour  T  pettee  BMrl 

Willingly.  D*  tout  man  ea>ur.  Deh  too  mong  keur. 

Where  shall  we  go?       Par  oit  irons-nous  t       Par  oo  eerong  noo? 

On  the  highroad.  Sur  la  grand*  rout*.       Sure  la  graunde  root. 

There  is  a  good  deal  II  jr  fait  beaucoup  d*  Eel  ec  fay  bocoo  deh 
of  dust.  poussier*.  poossyare. 

Into  the  fields.  Dans  la  campagne.  Dong  la  caumpaine. 

They  are  reaping.  On  moissonne.  Ong  mwoysson. 

They  are  making  hay.  On  fauck*  rkerb*.  On  foshe  lairbe. 

What  a  pleasant  scent!  Quelle  odeur  dt'ti-  Kcl  odeur  daileeaee- 
cieustl  ycusa. 

An  abundant  harvest.  Une  moisson  (une  re"-  Une  mwoyasong  (une 
colt*)  abondante.  raicolt)  abaundaunte. 

Let  us  cross  this  field.  Trover  sons  ct  champ.    Travairsongsehshong, 

Which  isthewayloA. ?*w-7 est techemin pour  Kel  at  leh  shemmang 
al/er  d  A.  T  pour  allay  ah  A? 


-•5=-^ 


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«-* 

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1 

THE    FRENCH    LANGUAGE.                                                                                     115 

ENGLISH.                               FRENCH.                               PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH.                               FRENCH.                               PRONUNCIATION. 

i 

Where  does  this  road   Oil  conduit  cette route  t  Oo  condwee  set  root? 

We  must  soon  begin  //    faudra    que    nous  Eel    fodrah    keh   nooz 

lead? 

fires.                                    ayon  s  du  feu  sous  peu.     ayong  du  feu  soo  peu. 

Which  way  am  I  to  go?  De  quel cotifaut-it que  Deh  kel    cotay  fot  eel 

We  have  had  a  fire  al-  Nous  avons  dej'a  fait  Nooz  avong  dayjahfay 

f  aillet                             keh  j'aeel? 

ready.                                dufeu.                              du  feu. 

Straight  before  you.       A  11 'e x  d > o  i 't  devant  Allay    drouah    devong 

It  is  soon  dark.               II fait  bientot  nuit.          Eel  fay  beeangtonwee. 

Z'OUS.                                        voo. 

It  is  a  fine  night.             21  fait  une  belle  nuit.      Eel  fait  une  bel  nwee. 

To  the  left.                       A  gauche.                         Ah  goshe. 

A  dark  night.                   Une  nuit  obscure.            Une  nwee  obscure. 

To  the  right.                     A  droite.                           Ahdrouate. 

Is  it  moonlight?              Fail •  it  ctair  de  tune  t    Fait-eel  dare  dehlune. 

About  a  mile.                   Environ  un  mille.           Ongveerong  ung  meel. 

Do  you  think  it  will  Croyez  *  vous     q u'il  Crwoiyai  •  voo     keel 

Hardly  a  mile.                  A  peine  un  mille.             Ah  pane  ung  meel. 

rain?                                  pteuvet                             pleuv? 

Let  us  go  in.                     Rentrons.                         Rauntrong. 

I  am  afraid  so.                yen  aipeur.                   Jon  ai  peur. 

It  rains.                             II  phut.                             Eel  pleu. 
It  drizzles.                        //  bruine.                          Eel  brueene. 

PERSONAL  ENQUIRIES. 

Do  you  know  Mr.  F.  ?    Connaissex-vous  Mon-  Connassay    voo    mos> 

It  pours.                            21  phut  it  verse.              Eel  pleut  a  vairse. 

sieur  F.f                          sieu  F.? 

It  is  very  windy.             It  fait  bien  du  vent.        Eel  fay  beeang  du  vong. 

I  don't  know  anybody  Je ne connais personne  Jeh  neh  connay  pairson 

It  is  winter.                      JVous    voila  dans  Noo  vwoila  dong  lee* 

of  that  name.                   de  ce  nom.                         deh  seh  nong. 

Phiver.                           vair. 

I  know  him.                      ye  le  connais.                  Jeh  leh  connay. 

It  is  very  cold.                 //  fait   excessivement  Eel  faitexcesseevmong 

Intimately.                      Inlimement.                     Angteememong. 

froid.                                 frouah. 

I     am    very    intimate  Je  suis  tris-lii   avec  Jeh    swee    tray    leeay 

It  is  bad  weather,            21  fait  mauvais  temps.    Eel  fay  movay  tong. 

with  him.                          lui,                                     avec  lwee. 

Cloudy  weather.              Un  temps  gris.                 Ung  tong  gree. 

He  is  a  friend  of  mine.  II est  un  de  mes  amis.    Eel  ait  ung  deh  maze 

It  is  foggy,                       21  fait  du  brouillard.      Eel  fay  du  brooillar. 

amee. 

The  sky  is  overcast,      Le  cielest  pris  de  tous  Leh  seeyel  ai  pree  deh 

I  have  known  him  a  Je    le  connais   depuis  Jeh  leh  connay  depwee 

cote's.                              too  cotay.        • 

; 

long  time.                         longtemps.                        longtong. 

It  snows.                           2lneige.                            Eel  naje. 

He  is  my  brother-in-   C'est  mon  beau-frire.    Sai  mong  bo-frare. 

It  freezes,                         II gelt.                               Eeljale. 

law. 

Can  you  skater               Savez-vous  patiner.      Savay  voo  pateenay? 

■ 

Do  you  know  him?         Le  connaissex-vous  f     Leh  connaissay-voo. 

It  thaws.                           lldigele.                           Eel  daijaie. 

I  know  him  very  well,  Je  le  connais  parfaite-  Jeh  leh  connay  parfate- 

Christmas.                       Noel.                                 Noel. 

ment.                                 mong. 

New  Year's  day,             Lej'our  de  ran.               Le  joor  deh  long. 

Where  does  he  live?      Ok  demeure-t-il  t           Oo  demmeur-t-eel? 

Light  the  fire.                  Allumez  lefeu.                Allumay  leh  feu. 

Close  by.                          Icipres.              \-            Eessee  pray. 

I  am  looking  for  the  je    chercht    les    //*•  Jeshairshelay  pangset. 

A   step    or  two  from  A  deux  pas  d'ici.             Ah  deu  pa  deessee. 

tongs.                                cettes. 

here. 

Are  there  any  coals?      T-a-t-it  du  charbon  t    Ee  at  eel  du  sharbong. 

Is  it  far?                           Est-celoint                    Ai-ce  iouang. 

Tell    the    servant    to  Difes    a  la   servante  Deets  ah  lah  sairvaun 

Can  you  direct  me  to  Pouvex  •  vous  m'indi-  Poovayvoo   mandee  • 

bring  some.                     d'en  a/  Sorter.                  don  opportay. 

his  house?                        quer  samaisonT             kay  sah  maisong? 

I  will  show  you  where  Je  vous  monlrerai  oil  Jeh  voo  mauntrerai  oo 

GENERAL  CONVERSATION. 

he  lives.                            //  demeure.                       eel  demmeur. 

Cin  you  read  French?  Pouvez-vous    tire    le  Poovay   voo    leer    leh 

THE  SEASONS. 

francais  t                            f  raunsay  ? 

You  read  very  well.        Vous  lisez  tres*bien.      Voo  leesay  tray  beeang. 

Spring  has  come.            Voilti.  le printemps  ar.  Vwoila  leh  prangtongs 

Do  youspeakFrench?  Partez-vous francais T  Parlay  voo  fraunsay? 

; 

rivi.                                  arreevay. 

I  speak  it  a  little.            Je  le  parte  un  peu.          Jeh  leh  pari  ung  peu. 

■ 

It  is  still  cool.                 //  fait  tonjours  un peu  Eel    fay  toojoors    ung 

I  do  not  understand  it,  je  ne  le  comprends pas.  Jeh  neh  leh  compcong 

■ 

frais.                                 peu  fray. 

pah 

The  trees  are  begin-  Les arbres commencent  Laiz  arbr  commaunse 

How  long   have   you  Depuis    quand     Pap'   Depwee    kong    lappre- 

ning  to  bud.                       &  boutonner.                   ah  bootonnnay. 

learned?                           prenez  voust                   nay  voo? 

The  season  is  very  for-  La     saison     est     Hen  Lah  saizon  ai  beeang 

A  short  time  only,           Depuis  peu  de  temps.      Depwee  peu  deh  tong. 

ward.                                 avancie.                            avaunsay. 

You    pronounce    very  Vous   prononcez   tris    Vooz  pronongsay   tray 

The    season    is    very  La  saison  est  bien  re-  Lah  saizon  ai  beeang 

well.                                   bien.                                  beeang. 

backward.                        tardee.                               retarday. 

You  have  a  very  good   Vous     aver     Vacoent    Vooz  avay  lacsong  tray 

Summer  is  coming.       L'iti  approche.               Lettay  approshe. 

accent.                               tr'es-pur.                          pure. 

It  is  becoming  warm.    //  commence   &  /aire  Eel  commaunse  a  fare 

Do  you  understand?      Comprenez-voust           Comprenay  voo? 

chaud.                                sho. 

It  is  no  matter.                Ce  n*est  rien.                   Snay  reeang. 

I  am  very  warm.             J'ai  bien  chaud.             Jay  beeangsho. 

I  am  come  to  tell  you.  ye  viens  vous  dire.       Jeh  veeang  voo  deer. 

It  is  very  warm.              Ilfait  tres-chaud.           Eel  fay  tray  sho. 

I  don't  think  much  of  ye  n*en  fat's  pas  grand  Jeh  nong  fay  pah  grong 

It  is  a  fine  day.                C est  un  beau  jour.        Sait  ung  bo  joor. 

it.                                        cis.                                    cah. 

The  heat  is  unbearable.  La  chaleur  est  insup-  Lah  shalleur  ait   ang- 

No  sooner  said  than  Aussitot  dit,  aussitot  Osseeto     dee,    osseeto 

portable.                           supportabl. 

done.                                 fait.                                   fay. 

.Let   us    go    Into    the  Allons  dans  V ombre.      Allong  dong  lombr. 

I  can  bear  It  no  longer,  ye  n*en  puis  plus.          Jeh  nong  pwee  plu. 

shade. 

She  took  it  in  bad  part.  £11*  Pa  pris  en  mau-  El  lah  preez  on  movaze 

I  think  we  are  going  Je   crois   que   nous  Jeh    croah    keh    nooz 

vaise  part.                        par. 

to  have  a  storm.             aurons  de  Forage.          orong  de  Iorahje. 

I  like  being  here.             ye  me  plat's  t'ci.               Jeh  me  plaze  eessee. 

Summer  is  over.              Voilnriti  passi.           Vwoila  lettay  passay. 

I  have  been  told.             On  m*a  dit.                       Ong  mah  dee. 

The  leaves  are  begin.  Lesfeuilles  commenccnfLay  file  commaunst  a 

As  much  as  I  can.         Autant  qu*il est  en  mot.  Otong     keel     ait    ong 

ning  to  fall.                     itomber.                       taumbay. 

mouah. 

\ 

The  days  are  still  fine.  Les  jours  sont  encore  Lay  joor  sont  auncore 

So  much  the  more.         A  plus  forte  raison.        Ah  plu  fort  raisoag. 

k 

, 

fort  beaux.                       fore  bo. 

I  value  it  very  much.      y\y  tie  us  bcaucoup.        Jee  teeang  bocoo. 

[ 

V 

•     " 

"-J—      e> 

T" 

i 

u6 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


~ 


;F  the  importance  to  all  classes  of  a  legi- 
ble, easy  and  rapid  handwriting,  we 
scarcely  need  speak.  No  other  one 
attainment  assists  an  equal  number  of 
young  ladies  and  gentlemen  to  positions  of  profit 
and  advancement,  or  affords  more  satisfaction 
as  an  accomplishment ;  and  we  believe  it  to  be 
an  acquirement  within  the  reach  of  all  persons 
having  common  sense  and  one  good  hand. 

It  has  been  the  determination  of  the  publish- 
ers of  this  work  to  spare  no  pains  or  expense  to 
place  before  the  student  the  very  best  instruction 
and  examples  in  every  department  of  Penman- 
ship. They  accordingly  employed  Prof.  D.  T. 
Ames,  of  New  York,  the  famed  pen  artist,  and 
editor  of  the  Penman's  Art  Journal,  to  prepare, 
specially  for  this  work,  the  following  pages  of 
instruction  and  examples.  It  is  their  belief  that 
the  instruction  embodies  the  best  thought  of 
the  times,  while  the  copies  and  specimens  are 
certainly  the  product  of  the  highest  order  of 
artistic  skill. 


All  the  copies  and  specimens  have  been  photo- 
engraved  directly  from  the  original  pen-and-ink 
copy,  and  therefore  may  be  said  to  be  actual 
pen-work,  and  not  the  result  of  the  engraver's 
skill,  as  is  generally  the  case  with  what  has 
heretofore  been  presented  to  the  public  as  repro- 
ductions of  penmanship. 

The  learner  will,  therefore,  know  that  the 
copies  before  him,  having  once  been  executed 
with  a  pen,  may  be  exactly  reproduced  by  the 
same  simple  process. 

If,  in  some  instances,  the  forms  are  less  rigidly 
correct,  or  the  lines  less  delicate  than  are  fine 
plate  engravings,  we  are  fully  convinced  that  the 
more  easy,  flowing  and  natural  lines  of  the 
actual  pen-work  will  more  than  compensate  for 
such  lack,  if  so  it  may  be  termed. 

The  publishers  are  confident  that  no  equally 
practical  and  useful  exposition  of  teaching  and 
practicing  the  art  of  Penmanship  has  ever  been 
presented  to  the  public. 


4£ 


\ 


IV 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


117 


^P0SITI0HS.4^ 


1 IRST  in  importance  to  the  pupil  in  writing  is  a  CORRECT 
Position.  As  in  logic  an  error  in  the  premises  must 
lead  to  false  conclusions,  so  a  bad  position  while  learn- 
ing to  write  must  lead  to  failure.  It  is  only  when  in 
a  correct  position  that  the  pen,  even  in  the  hand  of  its  skillful 
master,  is  capable  of  producing  the  smooth,  graceful  line,  shade 
and  curve  so  essential  to  good  writing.  If  such  is  the  fact  when 
in  a  master's  hand,  how  doubly  so  it  is  in  the  undisciplined  and 
struggling  hand  of  the  learner ! 

It  is  also  important  that  a  proper  position  be  maintained  at 
the  table  or  desk,  as  well  as  the  relative  positions  of  the  pen, 
hand,  paper,  desk  and  body. 

Each  of  three  posi- 
tions at  the  desk  has 
more  or  less  advo- 
cates, and  each,  in 
our  opinion,  is  com- 
mendable, according 
to  the  circumstances 
of  the  writer.  We 
give  each  position, 
with  the  reasons  urged 
in  their  favor. 

Right  Position. — 
Turn  the  right  side 
near  to  the  desk,  but 
not  in  contact  with  it. 
Keep  the  body  erect, 
the  feet  level  on  the 
floor.  Place  the  right 
arm  parallel  to  the 
edge  of  the  desk,  rest- 
ing on  the  muscles 
just  forward  of  the 
elbow,  and  rest  the  hand  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth 
fingers,  not  permitting  the  wrist  to  touch  the  paper.  Let  the 
hands  be  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  rest  on  the  book, 
keeping  the  book  parallel  to  the  side  of  the  desk. 

This  position  is  advocated  as  furnishing  the  best  support  for 
the  hand  and  arm  while  writing,  and  we  think  not  without  jus- 
tice in  school  or  class  rooms,  where  the  desk  is  often  sloping 
and  narrow. 

Front  Position. — In  this, 
the  same  relative  position  of 
hand,  pen  and  paper  should  be 
maintained  as  described  in  the 
former  one.  In  commercial  col- 
leges and  writing  academies, 
where  more  spacious  desks,  or 
tables,  are  used  than  in  the 
common  school  room,  this  posi- 
tion is  permissible  and  is  fre- 
quently adopted.  fmokt  fu^hion 


RIGHT  POSITION. 


Left  Position. — Without  illustrating  this  position,  we  would 
say  that  the  left  side  is  presented  to  the  desk,  and  the  same  rela- 
tive positions  maintained  as  in  the  right  and  front.  This  position 
is  advocated  on  the  ground  of  its  relieving  the  right  arm  from 
being  burdened  with  any  support  of  the  body  while  writing,  and 
thus  "giving  a  more  free,  rapid  and  less  tiresom  -  action  to  the 
hand  and  arm.  This  argument  has  considerab  3  force  where 
the  fore-arm  or  muscular  movement  is  practiced. 

It  is  also  the  most  convenient,  if  not  a  necessity,  in  the  count- 
ing-room, where  numerous  and  large  books  are  required  to 
remain  in  a  position  at  right  angles  with  the  desk,  and  also  in 
the  execution  of  large  drawings  or  specimens  of  penmanship, 
which  necessarily,  or  most  conveniently,  occupy  positions  directly 
in  front  of  the  artist. 

Right  Oblique  Position. — Another  position  at  the  desk, 
sometimes  advocated  by  authors  and  teachers,  is  the  right 
oblique,  which  is  a  position   between   the   front   and  side,  as 

illustrated  below. 
In  our  opinion, 
the  question  which 
of  these  positions 
is  to  be  adopted 
is  not  of  such 
vital  importance 
as  that  the  prop- 
er relative  posi- 
tion of  pen%hand 
and  paper  should 
be  maintained, and 
thatthearm  should 
be  perfectly  free 
from  the  weight 
of  the  body  while 
writing. 

Position  of  Pen 
and  Arm. — Take 
the  pen  between 
the  first  and  second 
fingers  and  thumb, 
letting  it  cross  the  forefinger  just  forward  of  the  knuckle,  and 
the  second  finger  at  the  root  of  the  nail,  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
from  the  pen's  point.  Bring  the  point  squarely  to  the  paper 
and  let  the  tip  of  the  holder  point  toward  the  right  shoulder. 
The  thumb  should  be  bent  outward  at  the  first  joint,  and 
touch  the  holder  opposite  the  first  joint  of  the  forefinger. 

The  first  and  second  fingers  should  touch  each  other  as  far  as 
the  first  joint  of  the  first  finger;  the  third  and  fourth  must  be 
slightly  curved  and  separate  from  the  others  at  the  middle  joint, 
and  rest  upon  the  paper  at  the  tips  of  the  nails.  The  wrist 
must  always  be  elevated  a  little  above  the  desk.  This  position 
of  the  pen  is  undoubtedly  the  best  for  all  writers  using  the 
finger  movement,  as  it  admits  of  the  greatest  freedom  and  facil- 
ity of  action  of  the  fingers.  But  among  writers  using  the 
muscular  movement,  where  less  depends  upon  the  action  of  the 
fingers,  it  is  common,  and  we  think  well,  to  allow  the  holder  to 


RIGHT  OBLIQUE  POSITION. 


<a ». 


118 


r 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


£, 


fall  back  and  below  the  knuckle  joint.  It  is  more  easily  held, 
and,  from  its  forming  a  more  acute  angle  with  the  paper,  moves 
more  readily  and  smoothly  over  its  surface. 

Finger  Movement  is  the  combined  action  of  the  first  and 
second  fingers  and  thumb. 

Fore- Arm  M  vement  is  the  action  of  the  fore-arm  sliding  the 
hand  on  the  na.is  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers. 

Cmbined  Movement  is  that  which  is  most  used  in  business 
penmanship.  It  is  a  union  of  the  fore-arm  with  the  finger 
movement,  and  possesses  great  advantage  over  the  other  move- 
ments in  the  greater  rapidity  and  ease  with  which  it  is  employed. 

Whole-Arm  Movement  is  the  action  of  the  whole  arm  from 
the  shoulder,  with  the  elbow  slightly  raised,  and  the  hand 
sliding  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers,  and  is  used 
with  facility  in  striking  capital  letters  and  in  off-hand  flourishing. 


SCALE  OF  SLANT. 

Main  Slant. — A  straight  line  slanting  to 
j  the  right  of  the  vertical,  forming  an  angle  of 
10  S2°  w'tn  the  horizontal,  gives  the  main  slant 
o    for  all  written  letters. 

Connective  Slant. — Curves  which  connect  straight  lines  in 
small  letters,  in  a  medium  style  of  writing,  are  usually  made  on 
an  angle  of  300.  This  is  called  the  connective  slant.  See  dia- 
gram. 

Base  Line. — The  horizontal  line  on  which  the  writing  rests 
is  called  the  base  line. 

Head  Line. — The  horizontal 
line  to  which  the  short  letters 
extend  is  called  the  head  line. 

Top  Line. — The  horizontal 
line  to  which  the  loop  and  capi- 
tal letters  extend  is  called  the 
top  line. 

A  Space  in  Height  is  the 
height  of  small  i. 

A  Space  in  Width  is  the  width  of  small  «. 

The  distance  between  the  small  letters  is  1  }£  spaces,  measured 
at  head  line,  except  in  the  a,  d,  g  and  q.  The  top  of  the  pointed 
oval  in  these  letters  should  be  two  spaces  to  the  right  of  a  pre- 
ceding letter. 

Upper  and  Leaver  Turns. — In  the  analysis  of  small  letters, 
short  curves  occur  as  connecting  links  between  the  principles. 
These  curves  we  call  turns.  When  one  appcan  at  the  lop  of  a 
letter,  it  is  called  an  upper  turn  ;  when  at  the  base,  it  is  called 
a  lower  turn. 

MOVEMENT  EXERCISE. 

All  instruction  in  penmanship  should  be  initiated  with  a 
Bberal  aM  of  movement  exercises,  arranged  and  practiced 
with  the  view  of  facilitating  upward  and  downward  as  well 
as  lateral  movement  of  the  hand,  and  each  and  ever)' 
should  be  preceded  by  more  or  less  practice  upon  movement 
exercises. 


POSITION  OK  PFN  AND  ARM 


CARE  IN  PRACTICE. 

In  practicing  upon  movements  and  writing,  it  should  be  con- 
stantly borne  in  mind  that  it  is  not  the  amount  of  practice  so 
much  as  the  careful  and  thoughtful  effort  to  acquire  precision 
and  certainty  that  determines  the  success  of  the  writer. 

It  is  often  said  that  "  practice  makes  perfect."  This  is  true, 
if  the  term  practice  implies  thoughtful,  patient  and  persistent 
effort  for  improvement;  otherwise  it  may  be  quite  untrue. 

Thoughtless  scribbling  tends  rather  to  retard  than  to  enhance 
the  acquisition  of  good  writing.  Each  time  a  copy  has  been 
carelessly  repeated,  incorrect  or  bad  habits  have  been  confirmed 
rather  than  corrected — a  move  backward  instead  of  forward. 
This  is  a  fact  not  sufficiently  appreciated  by  teachers  or  pupils. 
Better  far  not  to  practice  than  to  do  so  carelessly ;  one  might  as 
well  seek  to  win  a  race  by  occasionally  taking  a  turn  in  the 
opposite  direction. 

Good  or  well-constructed  writing  is  no  more  essential  than 
that  it  should  be  executed  with  facility  and  ease ;  yet  we  would 
have  no  learner  fall  into  the  mistaken  idea  that  he  is  to  give 
special  attention  to  speed  before  having  acquired  by  deliberate 
study  and  practice  correct  forms  and  proportions  in  writing. 
First  accuracy,  then  speed.  Rapid  and  thoughtless  practice  is 
worse  than  useless.  The  mind  must  be  educated  before  the 
hand.  The  hand  and  pen  are  only  the  servants  of  the  mind,  and 
as  such  can  never  surpass  the  mind's  conception  and  power  to 
guide  and  direct  in  any  performance. 

If  upon  the  tablets  of  the  mind  there  is  presented  constantly 
to  our  mental  vision  a  perfect 
copy  of  the  letters  and  their 
varied  combinations  into  grace- 
ful writing,  the  hand  will  strike 
for  the  single  and  definite  pur- 
pose of  reproducing  the  same, 
and  will  progress  steadily  to  the 
attainment  of  skill  requisite  for 
the  reproduction  of  the  most 
perfect  conceptions  of  the  mind'. 
The  hand  of  the  greatest  sculptor  or  artist  has  no  cunning  not 
imparted  by  a  skillful  brain.  Michael  Angelo  was  the  chief  of 
artists,  because  of  his  superior  mental  conception  of  art,  and 
may  we  not  suppose  that  the  untouched  canvas  presented  to  his 
mental  vision  all  the  grandeur  and  beauty  in  design  ami  finish 
that  delighted  the  eye  of  the  beholder  when  finished  into  the 
[quistte  painting?  The  hand  can  never  excel  the  con- 
cept inn  of  the  mind  that  educates  and  directs  its  action.  If 
Spencer  or  Flickinger  excel  others  in  the  perfection  and  beauty 
of  penmanship,  is  it  not  because  of  their  superior  conception  of 
that  in  which  superior  penmanship  consists?  The  student  who 
would  have  success  must  sec  that  his  practice  is  preceded  by 
and  always  attended  with  thoughtful  study  and  criticism. 

I  having  once  written  the  copy,  study  and  criticise  your 
effort  before  the  next  trial.  Your  faults  noted,  and  a  thought  as 
to  how  they  may  be  lust  Corrected  will  enable  you  to  make  an 
intelligent  and  successful  effort  for  improvement.  Remember 
that  unknown  faults  can  never  be  avoided  or  corrected.      First 


YL 


Al 


r^ 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


II9 


study  to  discover,  and  then  to  mend.  Short  exercises  or  copies, 
if  rightly  practiced,  are  much  more  favorable  for  improvement 
than  long  ones,  inasmuch  as  they  are  repeated  at  intervals  so 
short  as  to  keep  faults  and  criticisms  fresh  in  mind,  while  oft- 
repeated  efforts  for  correction  will  be  correspondingly  effective. 
Faults  observed  by  ourselves  or  pointed  out  by  others  at  the 
beginning  of  a  long  copy  are  very  likely  to  be  out  of  mind 
before  that  portion  of  the  copy  in  which  they  occur  is  repeated. 

WRITING  NOT  A  SPECIAL  GIFT. 

It  is  often  said  that  good  writing  is  a  "special  gift."  This 
idea  is  not  only  fallacious,  but  is  exceedingly  pernicious  as 
regards  the  acquisition  of  good  writing,  inasmuch  as  it  tends  to 
discourage  pupils  who  write  badly,  by  leading  them  to  believe 
that,  not  having  "the  gift,"  they  are  debarred  from  becoming 
good  writers. 

Good  writing  is  no  more  a  gift  than  is  good  reading,  spelling, 
grammar,  or  any  other  attainment,  and  in  the  same  way  it  is  and 
can  be  acquired,  viz.,  by  patient  and  studious  effort. 

The  correct  form  and  construction  of  writing  must  be  learned 
by  study,  while  practice  must  give  the  manual  dexterity  for  its 
easy  and  graceful  execution.  Many  persons  fail  to  become 
good  writers  from  not  properly  uniting  study  and  practice. 
Careful  study  with  too  little  practice  will  give  writing  compara- 
tively accurate  in  its  form  and  manner  of  construction,  but 
labored,  stiff  and  awkward  in  its  execution;  while,  upon  the 
other  hand,  much  practice  with  little  study  imparts  a  more  easy 
and  flowing  style,  but  with  much  less  accuracy,  as  regards  the  forms 
of  letters  and  general  proportion  and  construction  of  the  writing, 
which  will  commonly  have  a  loose  and  sprawly  appearance. 

Example  of  writing  which  has  resulted  more  from  study  than 
practice : 

Example  of  writing  in  which  there  has  been  more  practice 
than  study: 


^' 


%  ^a(/l^>7laS) 


The  result  of  study  properly  combined  with  practice: 

Undoubtedly,  many  of  our  readers  will  see  forcibly  illustrated 
in  one  of  these  examples  their  own  experience.  So  manifest  is 
the  effect  of  these  different  modes  of  practice  that  we  have  only 
to  glance  at  a  piece  of  writing  to  discern  the  extent  to  which  a 
writer  has  combined  study  with  practice  while  learning  to  write. 


UNITY  AND- SIMPLICITY  OF  FORM. 

It  is  an  old  but  true  saying  that  "  a  jack  of  all  trades  is  master 
of  none."  This  is  so  from  the  fact  that,  working  at  many 
things,  neither  the  hand  nor  brain  can  attain  to  a  high  order 
of  proficiency  or  skill.  It  is  the  specialist  that  advances  the 
standard  of  progress  in  all  the  directions  of  human  discovery. 
Concentration  of  thought  and  action  makes  the  great  masters  of 
the  world,  while  by  a  diffusion  of  the  same  the  greatest  genius 
is  dissipated  and  fails  to  attain  to  a  marked  degree  of  eminence. 

So,  in  learning  to  write,  the  pupil  who  vacillates  between 
many  systems  and  multitudinous  forms  of  letters  must  inevitably 
fail  of  becoming  an  expert  and  skilful  writer. 

It  is  a  matter  of  frequent  observation  that  persons  learning  or 
practicing  writing  vacillate  between  from  two  to  six  different 
forms  of  the  capitals,  and  as  many  as  are  possible  in  the  small 
letters,  apparently  in  the  belief  that  variety  is  the  chief  element 
of  good  writing,  which  is  a  double  mistake,  as  it  detracts  from 
the  good  appearance  of  the  writing  at  the  same  time  that  it 
enhances  the  difficulty  of  learning  and  of  executing  it. 

For  example,  we  have  known  writers  who,  in  executing  a 
short  piece  of  writing,  would  for  many  of  the  letters  make  use 
of  forms  as  varied  and  numerous  as  follows: 


and  use  more  or  less  variety  in  all  of  the  letters,  thus  requiring 
study  and  practice  upon  about  one  hundred  different  and  unnec- 
essarily complicated  forms  for  the  alphabet,  in  place  of  twenty- 
six.  Thus  the  labor  and  uncertainty  of  becoming  a  skillful 
writer  is  magnified  fourfold.  A  single  and  simple  form  for  each 
letter,  capital  and  small,  should  be  adopted,  and,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  which  we  shall  hereafter  explain,  should  be  invaria- 
bly practiced.  The  frequent  and  uniform  repetition  will 
impart  that  accuracy  of  form,  grace  and  facility  of  execution 
which  constitute  good  writing. 

The  simple  forms  are  not  only  more  easily  acquired  and 
more  rapidly  executed,  but  they  are  more  easily  read  than  the 
more  ornate  styles ;  in  fact,  those  forms  that  cost  the  most  are 
worth  the  least.  It  is  as  if  a  merchant  should  constantly  pur- 
chase an  inferior  class  of  merchandise  and  pay  the  high  price 
of  the  best;  his  chances  for  success  certainly  would  not  be  very 
promising. 

ECONOMY  OF  FORM. 

Labor,  whether  of  the  clerk  or  mechanic,  is  rewarded  accord- 
ing to  the  results  it  can  produce. 

The  copyist  or  clerk  who  can  write  one  hundred  words 
equally  as  well  in  the  same  time  that  another  writes  fifty  will 
certainly,  other  things  being  equal,  command  twice  as  much 
pay.  The  rapidity  with  which  writing  can  be  executed  depends 
largely  upon  the  simplicity  of  the  forms  of  letters  used  and  the 
si/o  of  the  writing.  A  medium  or  small  hand  is  written  with 
much  more  ease  and  rapidity  than  a  large  hand,  from  the  fact 
that  the  pen  can  be  carried  over  short  spaces  in  less  time  and 
with  greater  ease  than  over  long  ones',  and  can  execute  simple 


■ .- 


120 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


~7 


forms  more  easily  and  rapidly  than  complicated  ones.  To  illus- 
trate :  Suppose  one  writer  were  to  habitually  make  the  capital 
R  thus : 

Which  requires  eleven  motions  of  the  hand  to 
execute ;  and  that  another  were  to  uniformly  make 
it  thus: 

/-~y  Requiring  only  four  motions  of  the  hand.  It  is 
/  J/  apparent  that  the  difference  of  time  required  to  make 
\^y L  eacn  cannot  be  less  than  the  proportion  of  eleven  to 
four.  That  is  not  all.  The  complicated  form  consists  of  many 
lines,  some  of  which  are  required  to  run  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  all  made  with  reference  to  balancing  or  harmonizing  with 
some  other  line,  and  requires  to  be  made  with  much  greater  care 
and  skill  than  the  more  simple  form,  so  that  the  disadvantage  is 
even  greater  than  indicated  by  the  simple  proportion  between 
eleven  and  four. 

The  practice  of  these  complex  forms  of  the  alphabet  will  be 
fatal  to  rapid  and  legible  business  writing. 

These  remarks  are  intended  to  apply  more  especially  to  busi- 
ness and  unprofessional  writing.  Where  show  and  beauty  are 
of  greater  consideration  than  dispatch,  variety  ar.1  complexity 
of  forms  are  quite  proper,  and  even  necessary. 

We  give  here  the  entire  alphabet  of  capitals  such  as  we 
would  recommend  for  all  business  purposes,  as  combining  sim- 
plicity of  form  and  ease  of  construction : 

at '  @ '  J>US  cf 

o#  of  o  (?  a 

Of-  a,  y.  g. 

We  would  add  as  not  objectionable  the  following: 


CORRECT  PROPORTION  ESSENTIAL  TO 
GOOD  WRITING. 

One  might  be  able  to  execute  faultlessly  each  single  letter  of 

the  alphabet,  and  yet  be  a  most  miseraUe  writer.     Writing,  to 

lly  good,  must  be  harmonious  in  all  its  ports;  tetter*  must 

portlonat*  to  each  other,  properly  connected,  ipaced,  have 

D  uniform  slope  and  degree  of  pen-pressure,  etc.,  as  well  at  an 


easy  and   graceful  movement.     The  following  example  will 
illustrate  the  bad  effect  of  disproportion  of  letters : 

It  will  be  seen  that  each  letter,  taken  by  itself,  is  creditably 
accurate  in  form,  and  yet,  when  associated  with  each  other  in  a 
word,  they  present  an  appearance  as  ungainly  as  would  an  ox 
yoked  with  an  elephant.  We  have  often  seen  writing  in  which 
the  letters  were  really  badly  formed,  yet  so  harmonious  in  their 
combinations,  and  easy  in  their  construction,  as  to  present  an 
attractive,  not  to  say  an  elegant,  effect;  while,  upon  the  other 
hand,  we  have  often  seen  writing  in  which  the  letters  were  well 
formed,  and  yet  so  awkward  in  their  combinations,  and  labored 
in  their  execution,  as  to  be  really  painful  to  the  sight  of  persons 
having  a  refined  and  correct  taste  regarding  writing. 

CORRECT  AND  INCORRECT  SPACING. 

Another  important  factor  of  good  writing  is  the  proper  spac- 
ing and  connecting  of  letters  and  words.  Upon  these  very  much 
depends,  as  in  many  instances  the  connecting  lines  alone  impart 
the  distinctive  character  to  letters. 

In  determining  the  proper  spacing  of  writing,  the  distance 
between  the  straight  lines  of  the  small  u  may  be  taken  as  a 
space  in  width.  The  distance  between  the  parts  of  letters  hav- 
ing more  than  one  downward  stroke  should  be  one  space ; 
between  the  letters  one  and  one-fourth  spaces,  measured  at  the 
head  line,  except  a,  d,  g  and  f,  which  should  occupy  two  spaces, 
measuring  from  the  preceding  letter  to  the  point  of  the  ovals; 
between  words  there  should  be  two  spaces. 

Example  of  correct  spacing  : 

Incorrect  spacing: 


'T 


(jlltt^Mt^U&s&fs* 


%        SLANT  OF  WRITING. 

The  degree  of  slant  now  adopted  by  the  leading  authors,  and 
one  which  we  approve,  is  at  an  angle  of  520  from  the  horizon- 
tal, as  per  diagram  in  a  preceding  column. 

The  relative  effects  of  incorrect  and  correct  slope  may  be 
seen  in  the  following  examples: 


The  variation  in  the  slope  of  different  letters  and  their  parts 
will  be  rendered  much  more  perceptible  by  drawing  straight 
extended  lines  through  their  parts,  thus : 


/ 


_M 


-•         a 


~A 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


121 


One  of  the  most  common  faults  in  slope  occurs  on  the  last 
part  of  letters  m,  n,  u,  h  and  /,  which  are  made  thus : 


Example  of  correct  slant,  space,  proportion,  etc. : 

SIZE  OF  WRITING. 

In  its  practical  application  to  the  affairs  of  life,  writing  must 
be  greatly  varied  in  its  size,  according  to  place  and  purpose. 

It  would  be  obviously  bad  taste  to  use  the  same  size  and  style 
of  writing  for  the  headings  of  a  ledger  and  other  books  of 
account  or  record  that  would  be  employed  on  the  body  of  a 
page.  In  the  address  of  a  letter  and  superscription  upon  the 
envelope  much  greater  license,  as  regards  size  and  style,  may  be 
taken  than  in  the  body  of  the  writing.  Nor  is  it  practical  at  all 
times  to  maintain  a  uniform  size  for  body  writing.  It  may, 
with  propriety,  be  written  larger  upon  wide  than  narrow-ruled 
paper.  Care  should  always  be  taken  to  gauge  the  size  of  the 
writing  according  to  the  space  in  and  the  purpose  for  which  it 
is  to  be  written.  This  should  be  done  by  varying  the  scale 
rather  than  the  proportions  of  the  writing.  When  writing  upon 
ruled  paper  we  should  always  imagine  the  space  between  the 
lines  to  be  divided  into  four  equal  spaces,  three  of  which  may 
be  occupied  by  the  writing ;  the  fourth  must  not  be  touched, 
save  by  the  downward  extended  letters  from  the  line  above. 
This  open  space  between' the  lines  separates  them,  and  enables 
the  eye  more  readily  to  follow  and  distinguish  between  the  lines 
when  reading.  A  small  or  medium  hand  is  the  best,  both  as 
regards  the  readiness  with  which  it  is  read  and  the  ease  and 
rapidity  of  its  execution. 

In  a  large  hand,  the  writing  is  apt  to  be  more  or  less  inter- 
mingled and  confused,  the  loops  of  one  line  often  cutting  into 
and  obscuring  the  writing  upon  other  lines,  while  the  more 
extended  sweeps  of  the  pen  in  the  large  writing  are  proportion- 
ately slow  and  tedious. 

For  legibility,  ease  and  rapidity  of  execution,  small,  unshaded 
writing  is  decidedly  the  best. 


HOW  TO   LEARN  ANE  TEACH 
WRITING. 

CONSPICUOUS  FAULTS. 

To  note  and  indicate  all  the  faults  liable  to  occur  in  writing, 
or  to  prescribe  a  cure-all  remedy,  is  more  than  we  presume  to 
undertake.  They  are  as  numerous  and  varied  as  are  the  cir- 
cumstances, habits,  tastes  and  accomplishments  of  the  writers; 
but  it  is  quite  safe  to  say  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  all  the 
"unpleasantness"  in  writing  comes  from  sheer  carelessness  on 


the  part  of  the  writers,  which  is  manifest  in  the  awkward,  non- 
descript or  uncertain  forms  which  are  employed — forms  often 
most  easy  and  graceful,  but  which,  taken  separately,  represent 
no  intelligible  character,  and,  apart  from  the  context,  are  liable 
to  be  mistaken  for  any  one  of  the  several  letters  that  are  similar 
in  their  construction.  This  fault  is  specially  grievous  where  it 
occurs  in  an  initial  letter,  in  short  names,  abbreviations  and 
cipher  writing,  as  in  such  cases  the  context  furnishes  the  reader 
little  or  no  aid. 

Another  prolific  source  of  annoyance,  and  not  unfrequently 
illegibility,  arises  from  the  inexcusable  use  of  flourishes  and 
superfluous  lines.  We  say  inexcusable,  because,  at  best,  they 
mix  and  confuse  the  writing,  and,  when  hurriedly  and  carelessly 
made,  they  frequently  take  forms  which  are  liable  to  be  mis- 
taken by  the  reader  for  letters  or  parts  of  letters,  and  thereby 
puzzle  and  annoy,  if  not  entirely  change  the  intent  of  the 
writer.  Another  frequent  fault  is  the  personal  eccentricity 
which  leads  writers  to  adopt,  as  their  style,  forms  for  letters,  and 
especially  capitals  and  in  autographs,  which  are  entirely  outside 
the  pale  of  any  known  system  of  writing,  and  whose  identity 
can  only  be  guessed  at  by  those  unfamiliar  with  the  peculiarity. 

While,  as  we  have  stated,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  name  all 
the  sources  of  bad  writing,  or  to  formulate  rules  for  its  pre- 
vention or  correction,  we  do  believe  that  there  are  many  of  the 
most  common  faults  —  among  which  are  those  enumerated 
above— that  with  a  little  thought  and  care  may  be  avoided. 

To  aid  the  student,  as  far  as  possible  by  negative  instruction, 
to  avoid  some  of  the  more  common  and  inexcusable  faults,  we 
have  formulated  a  few  rules,  with  examples  illustrative,  which 
we  here  present. 

Rule  First. — All  unnecessary,  superfluous  or  flourished  lines 
must  be  omitted ;  as : 


Rule  Second. — No  capital  letters  or  words  should  be  joined 
together;  as : 


tor 


..   £—Jt 


y* 


arl 


122 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


A'ult   Third. — Capital    letters  should   not  be  joined  to  the 
smaller  letters;  as: 


^L&J&riy    for  ^U/dn/ 


Rule  Four. — The  capital   T  should  never  be  looped  at  the 
top;  as: 


Several  expensive  litigations  have  grown  out  of  the  delivery 
of  messages  having  the  latter  combination,  as  Seventy  when  it 
was  written  for  Twenty,  or  vice  versa,  by  the  sender  of  the 
dispatch.  We  are  not  informed  respecting  the  precise  circum- 
stances of  any  of  the  cases,  but,  supposing  the  error  to  have  been 
in  orders  to  buy  twenty  thousand  bushels  of  grain,  shares  of 
stock,  or  other  thing  of  similar  value,  the  consequence  might 
have  been  serious. 


Rule  Five. — A  capital  //  should  never  be  so  made  as  to  be 
mistaken  for  an  A  or  other  combination  ;  as : 


Rule  Six. — Cross  all  /'s  with  a  single  horizontal  line  at  the  top. 


A  telegraph  dispatch  addressed  as  above  was  taken  down  and 
sent  to  Ha-Hi-E,  who  was  not  known  at  the  street  and  number 
to  which  it  was  directed,  and  it  was  consequently  returned ;  and 
when  the  error  was  discovered,  and  traced  to  the  operator  who 
made  it,  he  was  asked  how  he  came  to  make  such  a  mistake,  and 
whom  he  supposed  lla-Hi-E  to  be.  The  operator  replied, 
"  Some  Indian  Chief  or  Chinese  " — a  very  natural  supposition 
in  such  a  city  of  all  peoples  as  is  New  York. 

Rule  Set  en. — The  capital  /should  always  be  made  above  the 
line,  while  the  J  should  extend  below.  Otherwise,  when  used 
as  initials  or  in  cipher-writing,  they  cannot  be  distinguished  with 
certainty. 

Rule  Eight. — The  small  .t  should  never  be  made  with  the 
loop  below  the  line,  as  it  is  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  a/  or  f;  as : 


fbrMrft/ 


VL 


Rule  A'ine. — Letters  should  be  connected  in  their  parts,  and 
with  other  letters,  by  the  proper  and  characteristic  curved  or 
straight  lines.  It  is  a  common  and  grievous  fault  in  writing  that 
a  straight  line  or  the  wrong  curve  is  employed  in  the  construc- 
tion and  connection  of  letters,  thus  leaving  them  without  dis-* 
tinctive  character,  or  imparting  one  which  is  false  and  misleading. 
For  instance,  a  form  made  thus  y/^^  may  be  taken  for 
an  /7^/,*  ^4/-  and,  possibly,  for  a  sC& .  Incases 
where  the  context  docs  not  determine,  its  identity  becomes  a 
mere  matter  of  guess,  and  when  extended  thus  /fsfiff^ 
its  significance,  as  will  be  seen,  is  still  more  vague  and  uncertain, 
as  it  might  be  intended  for  either  of  the  following  seven 
combinations : 

With  a  pro|>crly  trained  hand  no  more  time  or  effort  is 
required  to  impart  the  true  and  unmistakable  characteristics  to 
each  letter  than  to  make  forms  whose  identity  is  open  to  doubt 
ami  conjecture. 


*. 


— © 


"71 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


123 


Rule  Ten. — No  letter  should  have  a  doubtful  form,  such  as 
may  be  mistaken  for  one  of  several  letters ;  as : 

r  - 


#   .  of' or  Or . 

fad* 


J*/Sr/0^a/;  ^Cfif. 


Rule  Eleven. — All  eccentric  form6  and  conspicuous  personal 
oddities,  which  so  often  render  writing,  and  especially  auto- 
graphs, illegible,  should  be  avoided;  as: 


for 

cfir 


^rt  This  example  was  used  as  an  initial  letter  in 
f*~tr  a  communication  recently  received.  In  address- 
ing the  author  we  could  only  do  as  we  are 
often  obliged  to  do  with  doubtful  initials — make  a  facsimile, 
and  leave  it  to  the  postmaster  to  decipher  at  the  office  of  delivery. 
Writers  should  remember  that  short  names  and  initial  letters, 
when  carelessly  written,  are  very  liable  to  be  misread,  from  the 
fact  that  no  aid  can  be  derived  from  the  context. 

A  large  proportion  of  letters  which  miscarry  through  the 
mails  do  so  from  the  careless  manner  in  which  they  are  super- 
scribed. As  an  example,  let  us  suppose  that  a  writer  desires  to 
address  an  important  communication  to 


but  he  hurriedly  and  carelessly  superscribes  it  thus : 


</^.se$iW^ 


-^r 


The  abbreviation  for  the  name  of  the  State  (Cal.)  is  so 
indefinite  that  the  letter  goes  first  to  Colorado,  but,  there  being 
no  Herman  or  Sherman  in  that  State,  it  is  finally  re-directed  to 
Herman,  Cal.  The  initial  S  and  following  letter  h  being  of  so 
indefinite  and  doubtful  a  character,  they  together  were  naturally 
mistaken  for  an  H,  but,  there  being  no  Herman  post-office  in  Cali- 
fornia, the  mistake  is  finally  discovered  by  a  distributing  agent, 
and  the  letter  is  again  re-directed  to  Sherman,  Cal.;  here  the  H 
in  Howell  is  read  St,  and  accordingly  the  letter  is  placed  in  S 
box  for  general  delivery ;  not  being  called  for,  it  is  at  length 
advertised  in  the  list  of  undelivered  letters,  thus :  /.  A.  Stowell. 
The  J,  having  been  made  above  the  line,  is  mistaken  for  an  /, 
while  the  initial  H  is  so  nearly  closed  at  the  top  that  it  is  mistaken 
for  an  A.  After  being  duly  advertised,  the  letter  is  sent  to  the 
Dead  Letter  Office  at  Washington,  and  from  there  returned, 
after  several  weeks,  to  the  writer.  J.  H.  Howell,  in  the  mean- 
time, has  enquired  daily  for  letters  at  the  Sherman  post-office, 
when  the  delivery  clerk  has  looked  in  the  H  box  and  answered, 
"  Nothing."  Mr.  Howell  has  also  carefully  scanned  every  list 
of  advertised  letters,  but  never  could  he  have  imagined  that  the 
letter  advertised  for  I.  A.  Stowell  was  the  one  he  had  so  long 
and  anxiously  looked  for. 

It  is  just  such  errors  as  those  above  described  that  cause  a 
large  percentage  of  the  miscarriages  of  mail  matter. 


_M 


^ 


^r 


124 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


fflOYEMENT   GXEI^GISBS. 


■-;;:■ 


Much  patience  should  be  devoted  by  the  learner  to  practice 
upon  movement  exercises,  for  the  purpose  of  disciplining  and 
bringing  under  perfect  control  the  motions  of  the  hand  and  arm. 

The  following  will  serve  a  good  purpose,  and,  with  the 
copies  following,  will  be  a  guide  to  a  course  of  twenty  lessons, 
with  or  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher : 


PRINCIPLES 


/  y  s 


COPIES. 


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z^arma&z/ 


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SCALE  OF 


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PRINCIPLES. 


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SCALE  OF  PROPORTIONS  OF  LETTERS. 


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STANDARD   ALPHABETS. 


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ABBREVIATED  CAPITALS  FOR  BUSINESS. 


EXTENDED  LETTERS  FOR  LADIES'  EPISTOLARY  WRITING. 


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^rti^tie  •:•  epenman^ip. 


-^  — "g>$g^    4/ 


^jlpmEN  embellishment  is  one  of  the  oldest  and 
:  j-/  most  useful  of  the  arts.  In  ancient  times, 
2_  [<Mt    before  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing, 

^t  the  pen  was  not  only  the  sole  recording 
agent,  save  the  chisel,  but  the  chief  implement 
of  art.  All  manuscript  books  were  the  tedious 
productions  of  the  pen.  These  were  often  elab- 
orately embellished  with  ornate  lettering  and 
various  styles  of  ornament.  The  more  ancient 
styles  of  ornamentation  were  of  the  scroll  and 
grotesque  order.  Mythical  figures  of  gods, 
dragons,  genii  and  all  manner  of  imaginary 
forms  figured  conspicuously  in  ornamentation. 
Later,  beginning  with  about  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, in  nearly  all  of  the  French,  English  and 
American  published  works  upon  penmanship, 
off-hand  flourishing  was  the  predominant  mode 
of  pen  embellishment,  which  appeared  in  all 
manner  of  forms,  from  a  simple  sweep  of  the  pen 
to  elaborate  designs  representing  birds,  beasts, 
dragons,  fishes  and  all  manner  of  fanciful 
designs.  This  order  of  embellishment,  although 
greatly  modified  from  the  masters  of  a  few 
centuries  ago,  is  still  a  conspicuous  element  in 
the  penman's  as  well  as  the  engraver's  art,  and 
is,  therefore,  entitled  to  consideration  in  any 
work  of  the  present  time  devoted  to  artistic 
penmanship.  The  art  of  flourishing  is  not  only 
desirable  as  an  accomplishment  to  the  pen 
artist,  but  its  practice  tends  to  discipline  the  hand 
and  eye,  so  as  to  impart  greater  ease  and  dex- 
terity in  the  execution  of  practical  writing. 

Recently,  through  the  introduction  of  the 
various  photographic  processes  for  transferring 


and  printing  pen  drawings,  new  demands  have 
been  made  upon  the  penman's  art.  The  pen 
artist  is  now  called  upon  to  execute  all  manner 
of  designs  which  have  hitherto  been  strictly 
within  the  province  of  the  engraver,  and  such 
designs  must  be  produced  not  only  with  a 
degree  of  care  and  perfection,  but  in  a  style  to 
meet  and  rival  the  various  classes  of  engraving 
with  which  they  must  compete. 

Through  this  exacting  demand,  the  styles  of 
lettering  and  ornamentation  which  were  formerly 
known  and  recognized  as  essentially  the  pen- 
man's art  require  modification  and  adaptation  to 
these  new  purposes.  Flourishing  is  now  less 
abundant  and  conspicuous;  in  its  place  are 
various  other  species  of  ornamentation,  such  as 
floral,  scroll,  panel  and  tint  work.  Examples  of 
these  several  styles  of  ornamentation,  illustra- 
tive of  their  proper  application  in  artistic  pen 
work,  will  appear  upon  the  following  pages. 

It  has  been  the  earnest  endeavor  of  the  author 
to  present  the  best  forms  for  standard  and  ornate 
lettering,  together  with  designs  covering  the 
entire  range  of  the  penman's  art. 


r  THE  DESIGN  AND  EXECUTION 
•JH^-p.*  OF  PEN-WORK,  ^g 


Srd 


HATEVER  the  purpose  of  any  work, 
much  of  its  success  depends  upon  the 
skill  and  artistic  effect  of  the  design ; 
hence  extreme  care  and  thought  should  be  ex- 
ercised in  this   respect.     No  amount  of  work, 


136 


'A 


it. 


PRACTICAL  AND   ORNAMENTAL   PENMANSHIP. 


however  carefully  and  skilfully  performed,  can 
produce  a  good  or  satisfactory  result  from  a 
design  awkward  or  inappropriate. 

After  selecting  the  paper  or  material  upon 
which  the  work  is  to  be  executed,  fasten  it  with 
thumb-tacks  or  glue  to  a  drawing-board  ;  draw 
with  a  pencil  border  and  centre  lines ;  then 
sketch  lightly  with  a  pencil  the  design,  having 
care  to  give  due  prominence  to  the  several  parts 
according  to  their  importance  in  the  work,  with 
a  proper  intermingling  of  light  and  shade. 

When  designs  are  to  be  copied,  there  are 
numerous  methods  for  making  transfers.  The 
most  common  is  by  means  of  thin,  transparent 
paper  or  cloth,  which  is  placed  over  the  design 
to  be  copied,  and  the  outline  traced  over  with 
a  pencil,  after  which  the  opposite  side  of  the 
tracing  is  penciled  over  with  a  soft,  black  pencil; 
then  place  the  tracing  upon  the  paper  on  which 
the  copy  is  to  be  made,  when  the  lines  upon  the 
tracing  are  retraced  with  a  pencil  or  any  smooth- 
pointed  instrument  which  will  give  a  distinct 
outline  upon  the  paper  underneath. 

Transfer  or  blackened  paper  is  often  placed 
under  the  tracing  before  retracing  it,  instead  of 
pencilling  its  reverse  side,  which  is  objectionable 
from  the  liability  of  blackening  or  soiling  the 
paper  upon  which  the  drawing  is  to  be  made; 
and  then  the  transfer  lines  thus  made  are  not 
easily  removed  with  a  rubber. 

Of  course  this  method  of  transfer  can  be  used 
only  where  the  desired  reproduction  is  the  same 
size  as  the  original.  If  it  is  to  be  enlarged 
or  diminished,  other  methods  must  be  sought. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by  marking  the  copy 
to  be  transferred  into  squares,  and  the  paper 
upon  which  the  reproduction  is  to  be  made  into 
corresponding  squares,  enlarged  or  diminished 


according  to  the  change  desired  from  the  size  of 
the  original  copy.  The  same  change  is  accom- 
plished very  readily  by  the  use  of  proportional 
dividers,  with  which  every  draftsman  should  be 
provided,  or  by  the  use  of  the  pantograph. 

MATERIALS  ADAPTED  TO  ARTISTIC  PEN- 
WORK. 

Use  a  fine  quality  of  Bristol  board  or  What- 
man's hot-pressed  drawing-paper,  and  a  fine 
quality  of  black  India-ink,  freshly  ground  from 
a  stick,  in  a  tray  containing  rain-water.  Ink  of 
any  desired  shade  may  thus  be  made.  If  work 
is  intended  for  reproduction  by  any  of  the  pho- 
tographic processes,  the  ink  must  be  ground 
until  jet  black,  and  then  the  pencil  guide-lines 
must  be  removed  with  a  soft  gum  or  sponge 
rubber,  so  as  to  remove  as  little  of  the  ink  as 
possible.  Hard  rubber  will  not  only  remove 
much  of  the  ink,  but  will  tear  up  the  fibre  of  the 
paper,  and  thus  break  or  make  ragged  the  deli- 
cate hair-lines,  which  will  therefore  fail  of  a  good 
result  when  photo  -  engraved.  It  should  be 
specially  noted  that  all  lines  to  reproduce  must 
be  clear,  smooth,  continuous  and  black ;  if  so, 
no  matter  how  fine,  they  will  answer  the  pur- 
pose. Copy  should  also  be  made  at  least  twice 
the  dimensions  of  the  desired  reproduction. 

PENS. 
For  script  writing,  use  Gillott's  "  303 "  or 
Spencerian  Artistic  No.  14.  For  fine  drawing 
or  tinting,  use  the  "  303  "  or  Crow  Quill.  For 
flourishing,  use  Spencerian  No.  1  or  Ames' 
Penman's  Favorite.  For  lettering,  especially 
Old  English,  German  and  Church  Text,  the 
Sonnecken  pen,  both  broad  and  double-pointed, 
may  be  used  to  advantage. 


i 


A 


K 


140 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL   PENMANSHIP. 


/ 


V. 


At 


K~ 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


T? 


141 


/■ 


A 


"■ s  \  , 


fOI^ 


7t» 


>*a 


m 


-■<-*' 


Wm& 


•SttSBRJZ 


U .'  - 


>)- 


4*- 


- —    > 


# 


aftrfofgljtjMronajtqrsftt 


-  > 


PRACTICAL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PENMANSHIP. 


147 


Z5 


>^ 


-^-<- 


r-1 


148 


~7ff 


SHORT-HANL,  ANI)  TYPE-WRITING. 


pSoit*  to  Require  cmb  p^otu  to  practice  ttjese  ^rts. 


-i-f*^^*^ 


HORT-HAND  is  the  general  term  applied  to 
all  styles  of  brief  or  rapid  writing,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  ordinary  writing,  or 
long-hand.  Numerous  systems  of  abbre- 
viated writing  under  various  names,  the 
principal  of  which  were  "Short-hand"  and  "Sten- 
ography," have  been  used  and  recommended  by 
prominent  men  from  the  times  of  Socrates  and 
Cicero  down  to  the  present  day.  It  is  commonly 
conceded  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  first  system  of 
short-hand  which  has  been  preserved  to  the  invention 
of  Tiro,  a  freedman  of  Cicero,  in  the  year  65  B.C., 
although  it  is  recorded  that  Xenophon,  the  Greek 
philosopher  and  historian,  used  abbreviated  charac- 
ters for  noting  down  the  sayings  of  Socrates,  and 
that  these  characters  were  adopted  by  the  Romans 
and  reduced  by  Ennius  to  a  methodical  scheme, 
about  150  B.C.  Herodotus  also  informs  us  that 
traces  of  abbreviated  writing  were  found  among  the 
Persians  480  B.C.,  at  the  time  of  the  expedition  of 
Xerxes  into  Greece.  The  Tironian  characters  were 
used  for  the  preservation  of  speeches  as  delivered  in 
the  Roman  Senate.  Plutarch  says  that  the  oration 
of  young  Cato  of  Utica,  delivered  in  the  Roman 
Senate  on  December  5th,  63  B.C.,  was  reported  at 
Cicero's  request.  In  the  year  52  B.C.,  professional 
short-hand  writers  in  Rome  are  mentioned  for  the 
first  time. 

Besides  the   use  of  short-hand  by  Tiro  and   his 
pupils  in  the  Roman  Senate,  Cicero  was  accompanied 


by  Tiro,  as  short-hand  writer,  in  many  of  his  travels, 
and  many  of  his  letters  were  written  from  dictation. 
Pliny  is  represented  as  never  being  abroad  without 
a  short-hand  writer  at  his  elbow ;  and  St.  Paul  dic- 
tated to  Tychicus,  his  amanuensis,  some  of  his 
epistles.  Under  the  Emperor  Constantine,  imperial 
or  official  reporters  were  among  the  court  attaches. 
Mention  is  also  made  of  them  in  other  courts,  and 
references  to  the  quality  of  their  work  and  the  inci- 
dents connected  with  it,  such  as  severe  punishments 
for  betrayal  of  professional  secrets,  and  misreporting. 
All  the  facts  collected  from  history  clearly  indicate 
the  practical  uses  of  short-hand  as  at  the  present 
time.  From  the  verses  of  the  Latin  poet  Ausonius, 
written  about  the  year  380,  we  learn  something 
of  the  manner  of  writing,  in  the  following  words: 
"  Fly,  young  and  famous  reporter ;  prepare  the 
tablets  on  which  you  express,  with  small  dots,  whole 
speeches  as  rapidly  as  others  would  trace  one  single 
word." 

These  early  characters  were  called  notte  non 
literce,  and  the  short-hand  writers  were  called  notarii. 
They  were  a  numerous  and  respectable  profession, 
including  many  of  the  well  known  names  of  hi-' 
such  as  Cicero,  Augustus,  Vespasian.  Julius  Caesar 
and  Cassienus. 

Tracing  short-hand  from  these  earliest  times,  we 
find  it  under  the  titles  of  Brachygraphy,  Charactcrie, 
Tuc  hygraphy,  Semigraphy,  Criptographv.  Bodio- 
graphy,     Zeiglography,     Polygraph)-,    Zeitography, 


/ 


^ 


V 


SHORT-HAND  AND  TYPE-WRITING. 


149 


~7[ 


L 


Radiography,  Thoography  and  Stenography.  The 
last  name  is  still  applied  to  nearly  all  systems  of 
short-hand  writing  in  use  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope. 

By  a  careful  study  of  the  history  and  characters  of 
the  systems  of  short-hand,  we  find  that  they  were  based 
upon  the  common  spelling,  or  ordinar^  alphabet,  fol- 
lowing the  ABC  order,  until  1837,  when  Isaac  Pit- 
man, of  Bath,  England,  invented  a  system  of  sound- 
writing  based  upon  an  analysis  and  philosophical 
arrangement  of  the  different  sounds  of  the  English 
language,  and  in  the  year  1840  issued  a  small  sheet 
entitled  "  J'honography ;  or,  Writing  by  Sound:  a 
New  and  Natural  System  of  Short-hand,"  which  sold 
for  a  penny  a  copy. 

One  of  these  original  sheets  is  in  the  possession 
of  Brown  &  Holland,  of  Chicago,  who  have  had  pho- 
tographic copies  made  of  it.  The  system  of  Isaac 
Pitman  has  passed  through  many  editions,  undergone 
frequent  changes  and  improvements,  and  is  now  used 
more  than  any  other  system  in  England,  although 
several  others  have  been  invented  and  published 
there. 

In  the  United  States,  Mr.  Pitman's  system  was 
republished  as  early  as  1845.  ^n  I^53>  Mr-  Benn 
Pitman,  a  brother  of  Isaac  Pitman,  who  had  been 
teaching  phonography  in  England  for  ten  years, 
came  to  this  country  and  commenced  the  publica- 
tion of  phonographic  works,  which  he  has  carried  on 
ever  since,  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  The  early  and 
continued  dissemination  of  Pitman's  phonography  in 
the  United  States  has  given  to  that  system  the 
advantage  of  having  the  largest  number  of  practition- 
ers in  this  country,  although  many  other  systems  of 
short-hand  have  been  published.  Those,  however, 
having  a  phonetic  basis  have  all  been  derived  from, 
or,  rather,  are  imitations  of,  Pitman's  system.  The 
changes  made  by  Isaac  Pitman  in  the  various  edi- 
tions of  his  phonographic  works  in  England,  and  by 
Benn  Pitman  in  the  various  editions  of  his  system  in 
the  United  States,  hive  caused  these  two  systems  to 
differ.  Benn  Pitman's  system,  although  the  oldest 
phonographic  system  in  this  country,  has  kept  pace 
with  all  the  recent  improvements  in  the  art.  In 
illustrating  the  principles  of  phonography  and  its 
uses,  in  this  article,  we  have  selected  this  system, 
the  alphabet  of  which  will  be  found  on  this  page. 


SHORT-HAND   OR  PHONOGRAPHIC 
ALPHABET. 


CHAR- 
ACTER. SOUND. 


\ 


p  as  in  up. 


\  b 

I  t 

I  d 

/  ch 

/  ) 

k 

g 


be. 

it. 

do. 
each. 

joy- 
oak. 

g°- 
if. 


V.     v      "      vie. 
(        th     "      oath. 
(        th     "      thy. 


me. 

day. 

alms. 

all. 

no. 

boot. 

ice. 

oil. 


CHAR- 
ACTER. 


or   O 


or  o 


> 


J 

J 
r 
r 


*-" 


j 


Ai 


J 


SOUND. 

s  as  in  us. 


sh 
zh 
1 

y 


wish, 
azure, 
ale. 
ye. 


no. 

sing. 

he. 

it. 

pet. 

at. 


up. 

foot. 

owl. 


By  a  careful  examination  of  this  alphabet  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  forty  sounds  of  the  English  language 
are  represented  in  a  philosophical  arrangement,  con- 
sisting of  twenty-four  consonants,  twelve  vowels  and 
four  diphthongs.  The  simplest  geometric  signs,  a 
straight  line  and  a  curved  line  about  one-sixth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  written  in  -four  different  directions, 
and  made  light  and  heavy,  furnish  sufficiently  dis- 
tinct characters  for  the  representation  of  all  the 
consonants.  A  small  dot  and  dash  are  used  to  rep- 
resent the  vowels,   being   placed   in    three   relative 


/ 


A 


T>  V 


K~ 


'5° 


;•■■ 


SHORT-HAND   AND   TYPEWRITING. 


positions  to  the  consonant  strokes,  and,  made  light 
and  heavy,  are  adequate  for  all  practical  purposes. 
A  small  angle  placed  in  two  positions  to  the  conso- 
nants represents  the  diphthongs.     The  signs  for  the 


"/> 


"P.     ? 


v^. 


V, 


^ 


2cc, 


V 


\ 


n<- 


s 


C  \  ^ftf" 


\ 


St 


C  /O  \  £'<>oi 


HV    - 


S 


NN-» 


6  /, 


vowels  and  diphthongs  may  be  written  on  either  side 
of  the  consonant  stroke.  For  example,  write  the 
vertical  shaded  line  d  and  make  the  second  vowel, 
a  heavy  dot,  on  the  left-hand  side  near  the  middle 
of  the  letter,  for  a,  which  will   be  read  a-d,  and 


represents  the  word  aid.  Make  the  same  sign  d 
and  place  the  second-place  vowel  a  on  the  opposite 
of  right-hand  side  of  the  letter  near  the  centre, 
and  you  have  d-a,  representing  the  word  day. 
Write  the  horizontal  consonant  stroke  «,  and 
make  a  short  dash  above  the  centre  of  it,  thus 
representing  o-n,  and  spelling  the  word  own. 
Write  n  and  put  the  dash  for  the  vowel  o  be- 
neath it,  and  you  spell  the  word  know. 
This  illustrates  one  of  the  principal  features  of 
phonographic  writing  or  sound-writing,  repre- 
senting only  the  sounds  in  words  as  spoken. 
By  the  use  of  the  above  alphabet  any  word  in 
the  English  language,  and,  indeed,  in  almost 
any  other  language,  may  be  written  much  more 
briefly  than  in  ordinary  long-hand.  By  the 
combination  of  letters,  writing  all  the  conso- 
nants of  a  word  without  lifting  the  pen,  and 
by  the  use  of  abbreviating  principles,  such  as 
hooks  and  circles  on  the  consonants  and  the 
combining  of  words  into  phrases,  a  sjx;ed  in 
writing  sufficient  to  keep  pace  with  a  rapid 
speaker  may  be  attained.  This  is  termed  the 
"  reporting  style  "  of  short-hand,  in  which  the 
appended  letter  is  written. 

TYPE-WRITING. 

It  is  not  probable  that  any  system  of  short- 
hand writing  will  ever  be  brought  into  common 
use  and  supplant  the  ordinary  handwriting. 
The  attainment  of  this  end  has  been  the  fond 
delusion  of  many  authors  of  short-hand  systems, 
but  years  of  labor  and  thought  have  as  yet  failed 
to  produce  such  a  system.  The  opinion  held 
by  some,  that  no  short-hand  writer  can  read 
the  writing  of  another,  is  not  a  corre<  t  one,  as 
there  are,  at  the  present  time,  hundreds  of  short- 
hand writers  who  read  each  other's  writing  in 
correspondence  and  in  actual  work,  so  that  it 
is  altogether  ]>ossible  that  short-hand  may  be 
so  written  by  one  person  as  to  be  read  by 
■         others.     However,  in  the  practical  use  of  the 

art,  this  question  is  of  little  important 
nearly  all  short-hand  writing  is  transcribed,  that 
is,  written  in  onlinar  ■  long-hand,  by  the  writer, 
in  order  to  adapt  it  to  the  various  uses  now  made 
of  it.  This  transcribing  has,  in  past  years,  been 
done  by  the  tedious  method  of  long-hand  writing. 


VL 


• 


K 


— 9 


A    SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


I<U 


~7\ 


A  COMPLETE  COURSE,  IN  TWELVE  PRACTICAL  LESSONS, 

Base4  on  tie  Benn  Pitman  System  of  Plonograply. 


Arranged  ly  Brown  &  Holland,  and  nsed  by  tnem  in  Heir 
Sclool  anting  tie  past  eleven  years. 


3333333^J.w:T5TrT&,j.jj^j.j:il^,j5,j^;^;[i^^ 


*g* 


LESSON    I.-THE   ALPHABET. 


Name. 

Sign. 

Sound. 

Name. 

Sign. 

Sound. 

pe 

\  as 

in  up. 

es 

)  or  o  as  in  us. 

be 

\ 

'     boy. 

ze 

)or  o 

"    zero. 

te 

1       ' 

'      it. 

esh 

J 

"    ash. 

de 

1       ' 

'     day. 

zhe 

J 

"    azure 

che 

/      ' 

'     each. 

el 

r 

"     oil. 

jay 

/ 

'     joy- 

ye 

r 

"    yet. 

kay 

—     ' 

oak. 

ar 

"Vv 

"    air. 

gay 

—     ' 

'     go. 

we 

> 

"     way. 

ef 

Vs.      ' 

'     if. 

em 

•^ 

"    me. 

ve 

V*     ' 

'     vote. 

en 

x-/ 

"     no. 

eth 

(  ' 

'     oath. 

ing 

>^ 

"    sing. 

the 

(   ■ 

'     they. 

he 

j*s 

"    hat. 

ee 

*1                ' 

'     me. 

i 

•  1 

"    sit. 

ay 

•1 

'     aim. 

e 

.j 

"    let. 

ah 

J   ' 

'     car. 

a 

"     cat. 

aw 

-1       ' 

'     all. 

o 

-. 

"    not. 

oh 

-j 

'     old. 

u 

_l 

«'     nut. 

ooh 

J    ' 

'     boot. 

oo 

"    foot. 

eye 

VI                  ( 

'     pile. 

ow 

A! 

"    now. 

oi 

fit       ' 

'     toy. 

ew 

J 

"    you. 

LEARN  the  names,  by  repeating  them  over  several 
times,  tracing  the  signs  with  a  dry  pen  as  you  pro- 
nounce each  name.  Trace  the  short-hand  signs  several 
times,  naming  each  as  you  trace  it,  according  to  the 
following  directions:  The  signs  pe,  be,  ef,  ve,  ar,  we, 
slope  from  left  to  right,  and  are  written  downward ;  the 
signs  te,  de,  elh,  the,  es,  ze  (stroke  form),  are  upright,  and 
are  always  written  downward;  the  signs  che,  jay,  esh, 
zhe,  ye,  slope  from  right  to  left,  and  are  written  down- 
ward ;  the  signs  el,  he,  slope  from  right  to  left,  and  are 
written  upward,  commencing  at  the  line;  the  signs  kay, 
gay,  em,  en,  ing,  are  horizontal,  and  are  written  from  left 
to  right,  the  lower  part  of  the  letter  touching  the  line. 

WRITING  EXERCISE  I. 

Write  the  consonant  signs  ten  times  on  double-ruled 
paper,  the  lower  part  of  each  sign  touching  the  line, 
according  to  the  alphabetical  arrangement  — pe,  be,  te,  de, 
che,  jay,  giy,  ef,  ve,  elh,  the,  es,  ze,  esh,  zhe,  el,  ye,  ar,  we, 
em,  en,  ing,  he.  The  shaded  straight  letters  are  made 
heavy  throughout.  The  shaded  curve  letters  are  made 
heavy  in  the  center,  tapering  toward  each  end. 

The  vowels  and  diphthongs  are  written  in  three  posi- 
tions, beginning,  middle  and  end  of  the  consonant,  and 
are  called  first-place,  second-place,  third-place.  When 
written  on  the  left  hand  of  upright  or  sloping  consonants, 
they  are  read  before  the  consonant. 

Write  before  the  letter  te  the  first-place  vowels  ee,  i,  aw, 
o,  eye,  oi ;  also  write  them  before  pe,  che.  When  vowels 
are  written  above  a  horizontal  letter  they  are  read  first. 
Write  the  first  place  vowels  before  the  letter  kay.  Write 
before  the  letters/^,  te,che  and  kay  the  four  second-place 
vowels,  ay,  e,  oh,  u.  Write  before  these  four  consonants 
the  six  third-place  vowels — ah,  a,  ooh,  oo,  <nv,  no. 

When  the  vowels  are  written  on  the  right-hand  side  of 
upright  and  sloping  consonants,  and  below  horizontal 
ones,  they  are  read  after  the  consonants.  Write  after  the 
consonants  pe,  te,  che  and  kay  all  the  first,  second  and 
third  place  vowels. 

The  student  must  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
names  and  forms  of  the  short-hand  signs.  '  He  may  then 
try  how  many  words  he  can  write  containing  one  conso- 
nant with  a  vowel  either  before  or  after.  Spell  words  in 
short  hand  as  they  are  pronounced,  that  is,  represent  by 
the  short-hand  sign  the  sounds  as  heard  by  the  ear.  For 
example,  the  word  though  is  not  spelled  t-h-o-u-g-h,  but 
the  sounds  are  represented  by  the  sign  the  and  the  second 
place  heavy  dash,  oh. 

The  use  of  the  second  sign  given  in  the  alphabet  for 
es,  ze,  ar  and  he  will  be  explained  in  future  lessons. 


V 


[Copyright,  1884,  by  Brown  &:  Holland.] 


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'52 


A   SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN   SHORT-HAND. 


LESSON   II.— POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


TN  short-hand,  words  are  written  in  three  positions  —  those    "~ 

^containing   first-place  vowels  in   the  first  position,  those    

containing  second-place  vowels  in  the  second  position,  and    J_ 
those  containing  third-place  vowels  in  trie  third  position. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  study,  and  until  the  hand  is  trained    "J 
to  an  accurate  and  uniform  style  of  writing,  double-ruleO 
paper  should  be  used,  that  is,  paper  ruled  with  lines  about    — 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  apart,  and  twice  that  distance  between    — 
the  lines.     The  lower  lire  of  double-ruled  paper  corresponds 
to  the  one  line  of  single  ruled  paper,  and  is  the  one  referred    J_ 
to  when  "  the  line  "  is  spoken  of.     On  double-ruled  paper 
upright  and  sloping  letters  in  the  first  position  are  written    — 
through  the  uppe:  line,  second  position  between  the  lines,    — 

and  third  position  through  the  lower  line.    Horizontal  letters   

in  first  position  immediately  below  the  upper  line,  second   _£_ 
position  resting  on  the  lower  lir.e,  thi.-d  position  immediately 
below  the  lower  line.     When  single-ruled  paper  is  used,  the   ~r 
first  position  is  above  the  line,  second  position  resting  on  the 

line,  third  position  through  the  lower  line,  and  horizontal  let-    

ters  under  the  line.     The  consonants  form  the  basis  or  out-    — 
line  of  a  word,  and  must  always  be  written  first,  and  the 
vowels  inserted  afterward.     When  a  vowel  occurs  before  a     \> 
consonant,  it  must  be  written  on  the  lelV  hand  side  of  upright 
and  sloping  letters,  and  above  horizontal  letters.     When  it  is    — 
desired  to  represent  a  vowel  after  a  consonant,  it  must  be    — 
placed  on  the  right-hand  side  of  upright  and  sloping  letters,     _ 
and  beldw  horizontal  letters.     All  dash  vowels  are  made  at   _ii 
right  angles  with  the  direction  of  the  consonant  to  which 
they  are  placed.  "ii; 

When  vowels  are  inserted  in  words,  the  writing  is  called 
"  vocalized,"  or  "corresponding  style; "  when  the  vowels  are    — 
omitted,  it  is  called  "unvocalized,"  or  "  reporting  style." 

In  the  short-hand  lesson  words  are  placed  in  three  positions,    

according  to  the  vowel  used.     Read  aloud  lines  i  to  8  in-    21 
elusive,  tracing  each  word  with  a  dry  pen  as  you  read  it. 

Consonants  which  are  written  upward — el,  ray,  he — are    "15 
vocalized  from  the  bottom,  which  is  the  beginning  of  the  let- 
ter.    The  first  word  in  line  9  is  eel.     Read  aloud  and  trace    — 
lines  9,  10,  II  and  12.  — 

The  object  of  writing  words  in  three  positions,  according 
to  the  accented  vowel,  is  to  indicate  the  vowels  in  unvocalized 
words.  Each  of  the  letters  in  lines  13,  14  and  15  represents  a 
word.  Read  these  lines  aloud,  using  one  of  the  vowels  indi- 
cated by  the  position  of  the  letter,  making  a  common  word,  and 
tracing  each  character  as  read.  For  example,  the  first  word  in 
line  13  may  be  read  air,  ore,  or  err.  When  words  are  grouped 
together  in  sentences,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  determining  what 
word  is  intended  to  be  represented  by  the  consonant  outlines,  as 
the  context  will  indicate  the  same. 

When  vowels  alone  are  used  to  represent  words,  they  are 
called  vowel  word  signs.  The  vowel  word  signs  in  line  16 
represent  the  following  words :  The,  of,  all,  or,  already,  on, 
aught,  and,  to,  two,  but,  before,  should,  who,  how,  you,  ah, 
oh,  I. 


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WRITING  EXERCISE  II. 

Copy  lines  1  to  16  inclusive  ten  times,  and  transcribe  the  lines 
into  long-hand.     Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand  : 

Ate,  at,  awed,  ape,  Abe,  ache,  aid,  add,  are,  am,  an,  all,  air, 
aim,  ale,  age,  ago,  allow,  alloy,  allay,  airy,  arrow,  away,  Annie, 
annoy,  anew,  Anno,  aha.  Be,  by,  boy,  bough,  bow,  bay.  Cow, 
cue,  coy,  chew,  chaw.  Die,  do,  due,  day,  dough.  Eat,  each, 
eve,  eel,  car,  ebb,  Edd,  etch,  edge,  err,  eyes,  ell,  echo.  Era,  era, 
easy,  Erie,  Emma.  Foe,  fay,  few,  fee,  fie.  Go,  gay,  gnaw. 
.High,  hue,  how,  he,  hay.  It,  itch,  if,  ill,  ice,  icy,  in,  issue. 
Jaw,  jew,  Joe.  Key,  knee.  Lay,  low,  lee,  law,  lieu,  lie.  May, 
me,  mew,  mow.  New,  now,  nay,  no.  Ought,  oat,  out,  odd, 
off,  of,  or,  oath,  ope,  ode,  oak,  ooze,  oil,  oily,  owl,  own,  owes, 
obey,  our.  Pew,  pea,  paw,  pie,  pay,  pshaw.  Row,  row,  raw, 
rue,  rye,  ray.  Say,  so,  show,  see,  sigh,  shoe,  she,  sue,  saw,  shy. 
Tie,  toe,  toy,  tea,  to,  the,  they,  though,  thaw,  thigh,  thy,  thou. 
Up,  use,  use.  View,  vow.  Way,  woe,  we,  woo,  who.  Yea, 
your,  youth,  ye,  you. 


A 


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A   SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN   SHORT-HAND. 


'53 


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LESSON  III— WORDS  CONTAINING  ONE  OR  MORE  CONSONANTS. 


the  direction.  When  el  begins  a  word  followed  by  kay  or 
em,  use  the  upward  ///  when  a  vowel  precedes  it,  use  the 
downward  el;  when  el  is  the  last  letter  in  a  word,  write  the 
el  downward,  if  it  joins  conveniently ;  when  there  is  a  final 
vowel  after  it,  write  el  upward,  if  it  joins  conveniently.  See 
lines  5  and  6. 

The  curved  sign  ar  is  written  downward,  and  should  al- 
ways be  used  before  em.  The  straight  sign  for  ar  (called 
ray)  is  always  written  upward,  and  should  be  used  before 
ef,  ve,  ith,  en,  ing.  In  other  cases,  when  preceded  by  a 
vowel,  use  ar;  when  followed  by  a  vowel,  use  ray.  When 
it  is  the  last  letter  of  a  word,  use  ar;  when  followed  by  a 
final  vowel,  use  ray.     See  lines  8  and  9. 

When  words  contain  more  than  one  vowel,  the  primary  or 
accented  vowel  determines  the  position.  When  any  doubt 
exists,  write  the  word  in  the  second  position,  it  being  the 
most  convenient. 

In  the  alphabet  there  is  no  shaded  letter  corresponding  to 
em.  This  sign  represents  the  double  consonant  mp  or  ml/, 
Called  emp. 

The  reporting  style  of  short-hand  is  writing  consonant  out- 
lines in  three  positions,  without  vowels  (or  "unvocalized"), 
and  the  use  of  word-signs  and  phrases.  Each  of  the  conso- 
1  nants  in  lines  11,  12,  13,  represents  a  common  word. 

A  word-sign  is  one  or  more  letters  written  in  other  than 
the  position  of  the  leading  vowel,  or  a  contraction  represent- 
ing the  word.  The  single  consonant  word  signs,  lines  15 
and  16,  represent  the  following  words;  Party,  dollar,  do, 
had,  be,  to  be,  time,  it,  which,  much,  advantage,  large,  com- 
mon, come,  give,  together,  for,  ever,  have,  however,  think, 
thank,  them,  was,  shall,  issue,  usual,  will,  are,  thing,  language, 
your,  important,  improvement. 

Read  and  copy  exercise  3  ten  times,  and  transcribe 
it  into  long-hand,  numbering  each  line  of  transcript. 


TN  combining  consonants  to  form  words,  they  are  written  in 
*■  the  same  direction  as  when  standing  alone,  the  second  begin- 
ning where  the  first  ends,  the  third  where  the  second  ends,  etc. 

First-place  vowels  occurring  between  two  stroke  consonants 
must  be  placed  after  the  first  consonant,  and  third-place  vowels 
before  the  second  consonant. 

The  first  upright  or  sloping  letter  in  a  combination  determines 
the  position  of  the  word.  In  first-place  words  this  upright  or 
sloping  letter  is  written  halfway  through  the  upper  line  (see  line 
1) ;  second  place  words  between  the  lines  (see  line  2) ;  third-place 
words  through  the  lower  line  (see  line  3).  In  combinations  con- 
taining two  upright  or  sloping  letters  the  first  one  determines  the 
position  of  a  word,  as  in  line  4. 

When  the  letter  el  is  joined  to  other  letters,  it  may  be  written 
either  upward  or  downward,  convenience  in  joining  determining 


WRITING    EXERCISE    III. 


Write  the  following  words  three  times  vocalized,  and  three 
times  unvocalized : 

Acute,  arm,  ask,  alum,  arrive,  abode,  abide,  ambush,  am- 
ple, advantage,  are,  army.  Beam,  bought,  babe,  bell,  bale, 
bellow,  body,  bump,  bit,  bite,  bait,  boat,  bet,  body,  boot,  bat, 
beauty,  be,  book,  bake,  become.  Cheek,  coat,  code,  cage,  cud, 
cash,  copy,  camp,  common,  come,  chalk.  Date,  dolly,  dare, 
dish,  dash,  duly,  decay,  damp,  dairy,  dollar,  do.  Elm,  error, 
earth,  embark,  embellish,  ever,  early  Fame,  full,  feed,  foot, 
fill,  folly,  fully,  fair,  fairy,  fish,  fob,  fire,  far,  fury,  for.  Genuine, 
give,  hourly,  have,  however,  half,  had.  Into,  it,  issue,  improve- 
ment, important.  Keep,  kneel.  Like,  love,  look,  lamb,  long, 
lamp,  lump,  large,  language.  Mouth,  mule,  male,  meal,  Mary, 
many,  money,  manual,  much.  Nail,  namely.  Occupy.  Peak, 
pick,  peep,  pope,  pure,  pale,  page,  pull,  purely,  pump,  party, 
pout,  pile,  pale,  pier.  Room,  roam,  roof,  rainy,  rebuke,  revoke, 
redeem,  repair,  romp,  ring,  rosy.  Shame,  shade,  shape,  sheep, 
shore,  sheer,  share,  shall.  Talk,  team,  time,  tame,  take,  took, 
taught,  toad,  tool,  tide,  to  be,  together,  think,  thank,  them,  thing. 
Vowel,  very.     Usual.     Which,  was,  will.     Your. 


V 


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A    SELF  INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


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LESSON    IV.-THE  HALVING   PRINCIPLE. 


in 


T>y  the  mastery  of  lessons  :,  2  and  3  the  student  has  al- 
**  ready  learned  short-hand  sufficiently  to  write  any  word 
in  the  English  language,  and  has  made  all  the  progress  that 
is  claimed  for  any  of  the  "  shortest,  easiest-to-be-learned  " 
systems  which  have  ever  been  invented.  A  study  and  prac- 
tice in  writing  of  what  has  al»eady  been  learned  equal  to 
that  which  is  devoted  to  learning  long-hind  writing,  would 
enable  the  pupil  to  write  sixty  words  a  minute,  or  three 
times  as  fast  as  ordinary  long-hand  writing.  This,  however, 
would  not  be  sufficient  for  reporting  speeches  in  which  the 
speed  varies  from  100  to  200  words  a  minute.  In  order  to 
attain  this  higher  rate  of  speed  in  writing  it  is  necessary  to 
use  abbreviating  principles.  The  simplicity  of  the  primary 
principles  of  short-hand,  as  already  given,  allows  the  applica- 
tion of  a  variety  of  abbreviating  principles,  by  the  employ- 
ment of  which  the  highest  possible  rate  of  speed  in  writing 
may  be  attained.  These  principles  will  be  introduced  ac- 
cording to  our  own  arrangement  in  this  and  subsequent 
lessons. 

The  halving  principle  is  used  as  frequently  as  any  other, 
and  is  always  difficult  to  learn.  We,  therefore,  give  it  as  the 
first  principle  of  abbreviation. 

Each  stroke  consonant  may  be  made  half  its  usual  length 
to  add  /  or  d.  When  a  vowel  is  written  after  a  half-length 
letter  it  is  read  between  the  consonant  and  the  added  /  or 
d,  as  in  "pet,"  first  word  line  I.  When  a  vowel  is  written 
before  a  half-length  letter  it  is  read  first,  as  in  "  apt,"  first 
word  line  2.  The  first  position  for  half-length  letters  is  im- 
mediately under  the  upper  line,  second  position  resting  on 
the  lower  line,  third  position  below  the  lower  line. 

As  either  t  or  d  is  added  by  the  halving  principle,  the 
half  length  letter  pe,  followed  by  the  vowel  ay,  may  repre- 
sent either  pale  or  paid,  and  similarly  with  many  other 
simple  words. 

Read  aloud  and  trace  lines  I  to  4,  inclusive. 

In  consonant  combinations  either  one  or  all  of  the  conso- 
nants may  be  made  half-length.     When  a  half-length  letter  is 
followed  by  another  consonant  the  /  or  d  is  read  before  the 
additional  consonant.      See  first  word  in  line   13,  "intellect." 
Read  aloud  and  trace  lines  6  to  13,  inclusive. 

The  halving  principle  can  be  used  only  in  combinations 
where  a  distinct  angle  is  formed  at  the  joining  of  letters.  In 
some  words  it  is  better  to  write  the  half-length  letter  disjoined, 
as  in  line  14,  the  first  word  in  which  is  "  doubted."  In  other 
cases  it  is  necessary  to  write  the  full  consonant  outline,  as  in  line 
15.     Read  aloud  and  trace  lines  14  and  15. 

The  half-length  word  signs  given  in  line  16  represent  the  fol- 
lowing words:  Could,  good,  feature,  after,  fact,  that,  without, 
astonish,  establish,  wished,  immediate,  nature,  under,  read. 
Read  aloud  and  trace  line  16. 

WRITING   EXERCISE   IV. 
Copy  short-hand  lesson  IV.  ten  times,  and  transcribe  it  in  long- 
hand.    Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand  : 

Art,  apt,  about,  aged,  added,  ached,  arrived,  acted,  avoided. 


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alphabet,  assert,  awaited,  affect,  after,  astonish.  Bet,  boat,  bait, 
bad,  boot,  begged,  belt,  backed,  better.  Chat,  cut,  cat,  coat,  cot, 
caged,  captivate,  could.  Date,  dead,  doubted,  dated,  deeded, 
dotted.  East,  end,  ended,  editor,  evident,  effect,  evoked,  estab- 
lish. Fight,  foot,  failed,  filed,  fold,  fitted,  faded,  feature,  future. 
Get,  got,  gate,  good.  Hate,  height,  hat,  hot,  hated,  hunted, 
habit.  Invite,  induct,  indeed,  individual,  imitated,  intellect, 
intend,  intended,  immediate.  Knocked,  kicked,  l.ct,  light, 
lot,  lit,  load,  laid,  loved,  laughed,  lived,  lighted,  legitimate, 
little,  lately,  locate,  locked,  looked.  Met,  meat,  mode,  moved, 
mailed,  mold,  mild,  mended,  middle,  model,  mutual,  meditated. 
Not,  night,  note,  noted,  nature.  Oft.  Pet,  pad,  paid,  port, 
paged.  Rout,  robbed,  relieved,  removed,  repeated,  radiated, 
read.  Shut,  sheet,  shot.  That,  talked,  toiled.  Used,  un- 
packed, untold,  under.  Vote,  viewed.  Wait,  weighed,  written, 
writing,  without.     Yacht. 


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A  SELF-INSTRUCTOR   IN  SHORT-HAND. 


'55 


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LESSON  V.-THE  CIRCLE  "S"  AND  "Z. 


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THE  frequently  recurring  sounds  es  and  2^  are  provided  for 
in  short-hand  by  a  small  circle  joined  on  the  right-hand  of 
upright  and  sloping  straight  letters,  and  above  horizontal  straight 
letters.  The  student  must  observe  carefully  the  side  of  straight 
letters  on  which  this  circle  is  used,  as  by  confining  it  uniformly 
to  one  side,  we  have  the  use  of  it  on  the  opposite  side  for  the 
representation  of  other  abbreviating  principles.  This,  however, 
does  not  apply  to  curved  letters,  as  the  circle  s  is  always  made 
inside  the  curve.  The  circle  s  at  the  beginning  of  a  lettar  is 
always  read  first. 

As  there  is  no  beginning,  middle  or  end  to  the  circle,  it  can- 
not be  vocalized.  The  vowels  must,  therefore,  be  placed  to  the 
consonant  to  which  the  circle  is  joined,  and  read  either  before 
or  after  that  consonant ;  if  before,  between  the  circle  j  and  the 
consonant.     See  first  word  in  exercise  5 — s-u-p,  "  sup."    When 


the  circle  is  at  the  end  of  a  letter,  it  is  read  last,  after  the 
vowels.  The  circle  may  be  used  both  initial  and  final, 
as  in  the  lines  5  and  6. 

By  making  the  circle  double  its  usual  size,  it  represents 
the  syllables  sts  and  sez,  as  in  "pieces."  See  lines  7,  8 
and  9.  When  the  circle  s  occurs  between  two  straight 
letters  forming  an  angle,  the  circle  is  made  outside  the 
angle,  which  is  the  shortest  direction  for  writing.  If  both 
letters  are  written  in  the  same  direction,  the  circle  ts  must 
retain  its  position  on  the  right-hand  side  of  upright  and 
sloping  straight  letters,  and  above  horizontal  straight 
letters.  See  line  2.  The  application  of  this  principle 
makes  it  necessary,  in  placing  the  es  on  the  outside  of  the 
angle,  to  join  the  circle  on  either  side.     See  line  12. 

The  circle  s  used  on  half-length  letters,  is  read  after  the 
added  t  or  d.  When  s  or  2  are  the  only  consonants  in  a 
word,  or  when  s  or  2  is  the  first  consonant,  preceded  by 
a  vowel,  or  the  last  consonant,  followed  by  a  vowel,  use 
the  stroke  form  for  s  and  2,  as  in  line  14. 

The  word  signs  in  lines  15  and  16  represent  the  follow- 
ing words  :  Is,  as,  speak,  special,  subject,  satisfy,  sig- 
nature, several,  salvation,  similar, single,  simple,  somewhat, 
objects,  religious,  because,  those,  impossible,  influence, 
system,  United  States. 

When  a  sign  represents  more  than  one  word  it  is  called 
a  phrase,  as  in  line  16.  The  large  circle,  first  position, 
represents  is-as :  second  position,  as-is.  The  remaining 
phrases  in  line  16  are :    Is-the,  as-the,  is-a,  as-a. 

WRITING  EXERCISE  V. 


Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand:  Assays, 
arise,  arouses,  accuses,  amuses,  accept,  ask,  asp,  also,  arts, 
as,  as-is,  as-the,  and-is  and-as.  Boys,  basis,  bestow, 
besides,  boots,  busy,  because,  bask.  Cheese,  choose,  case, 
custody,  ceases,  chooses,  cask,  choosing,  chats,  cuts,  cosy, 
causing,  cities.  Does,  doses,  dusty,  decide,  desk,  dismay, 
designs,  dots.  Eggs,  exist,  exercise,  except,  easy.  Face, 
faces,  fights.  Goes,  ganes,  gossip,  goods.  Hou.:e,  hours, 
hisses,  husk,  hasten.  Insist,  induce,  icy,  is,  impossible, 
influence,  is-as,  is-the.  Joys,  Jesus,  jots.  Kisses.  Lace,  lessons, 
listens,  loosens,  loses,  loves,  lazy,  lights.  Mass,  mazes,  misses, 
musty,  meets.  Nice,  noses,  necessary,  necessity,  notes.  Oozes, 
owns,  opposite,  objects.  Pays,  pieces,  possess,  possessor,  passage, 
pets.  Rose,  reasons,  rises,  rosy.  Sup,  sob,  sorrow,  sway,  sighs, 
sash,  stay,  soar,  shoes,  suppose,  series,  speak,  speedy,  special, 
said,  sale,  sake,  says,  sobs,  siezes,  sways,  sashes,  supposes, 
systematic,  spoke,  shoots,  several,  signs,  system,  such,  sum, 
seeds,  souls,  seems,  success,  snake,  saying,  salvation, 
sieges,  signs,  songs,  sages,  soars,  sense,  since,  smoke,  seeing, 
similar,  simple,  sky,  sip,  sex,  stays,  scheme,  subject,  single, 
somewhat,  sage,  safe,  soap,  sacks,  suspect,  saves,  snare,  sauce, 
sat,  suffices,  seek,  signify.  Toes,  thaws,  thus,  tosses,  thesis, 
task,,  thoughts.  United  States.  Upset.  Voice,  vices,  votes. 
Wise,  ways,  waits.     Yes,  yachts. 


VL 


-» s 


'5° 


A  SELF-INSTRUCTOR  IN  SHORT-HAND. 


LESSON  VI.-LOOPS  "ST"  AND  "STR." 

V 


1 1 


A  LOOP  the  width  of  the  circle  s,  and  one-half  the  length 
■*"*•  of  the  consonant  to  which  it  is  joined,  represents  the 
combination  st.  This  loop  is  governed  by  the  same  rules  as 
the  circle  s,  and  is  made  on  the  right-hand  side  of  upright 
and  sloping,  and  above  horizontal,  straight  letters,  and  on  the 
inside  of  curved  letters.  See  lines  I  to  4.  A  large  loop  the 
width  of  the  circle  set,  represents  the  combination  str.  See 
line  5.  The  circle  s  may  be  made  after  the  st  and  str 
loops,  as  in  line  6.  These  loops  may  be  used  in  the  middle 
of  words,  as  in  line  7.  The  circle  s  sometimes  represents 
st,  where  the  loop  cannot  be  conveniently  made,  as  in  line 
8.  The  ending  st  is  occasionally  represented  by  the  half- 
length  s,  written  upward,  as  in  the  first  four  words  of  line  11. 

The  circle  s  represents  the  prefix  self  and  the  affix  self ; 
the  large  circle  ses  represents  the  affix  selves,  as  in  line  12. 
The  circle  s  in  phrases  represents  is,  as,  his,  or  has.  The 
phrases  in  line  13  are  :  as-good-as,  as-much-as,  is-not,  is-to- 
be,  this-is,  which-is,  as-large-as,  for-his,  have-his,  is-ever. 
The  circle  s  is  used  to  represent  the  plural  of  nouns  the 
singular  of  verbs,  and  the  possessive  case.  The  word  signs 
inline  14  are:  Parties,  times,  dollars,  does,  advertisements, 
advantages,  because,  comes,  gives,  thinks. 

The  words  and  phrases  in  line  15  are :  Of-his,  all-is,  to-his, 
or-is,  already-has,  luit-as,  before-his,  on-his,  should-his, 
whose,  thoughts,  facts,  that-is,  astonishes,  establishments. 
The  word  signs  in  line  16  are:  First,  largest,  commonest, 
extraordinary,  influenced,  next,  stenography,  stenographer, 
yesterday,  history. 

Read  aloud  lines  1  to  16  several  times. 


WRITING  EXERCISE  VI. 


Copy  exercise  VI.  ten  times.  Transcribe  it  into  long- 
hand. Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand :  Atheist, 
assayist,  arrest,  amazed,  amused,  announced,  antagonist, 
abstract,  analyzed,  as-good-as,  as-much-as,  as-large-as,  adver- 
tisements, advantages,  all-his,  already-has,  astonishes,  answer. 
Beastly,  before-his,  best,  boaster,  boasts,  but-has.  Castor, 
castors,  castle,  caucuses,  chaste,  chests,  chorister,  coast, 
coaster,  coasts,  costly,  comes,  commons,  commonest.  Distinct, 
distinguish,  does,  dollars,  dust,  duster,  dusters.  Embarrass, 
embezzle,  establishments,  extraordinary.  Faced,  facts,  fast, 
Cuter,  feast,  feastcrs,  festers,  first,  for-his,  foster,  guest,  gives. 
1  lands,  haste,  has-not,  have-his,  his-has,  history,  honest,  honesty. 
Influenced,  invest,  investigate,  is-ever,  its,  itself,  is-not,  is-to-be, 
imposter.  Jest,  jester,  jesters,  joist,  justify,  justified.  Largest, 
last,  lastly,  lists,  luster.  Master,  midst,  most,  mostly,  muster, 
must,  myself.  Orchestra,  ourselves,  obstruct,  of-his,  on-his, 
or-his,  ought-Ms.     Parties,  past,  pester,  posts,  postal,  postage, 


X 


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post-office,  poster.  Raised,  raciest,  revised,  received,  rosiest, 
rooster.  Stab,  stack,  stabbed,  state,  stage,  stag,  staff,  stake,  stare, 
starry,  start,  stamp,  stain,  stairway,  stamina,  step,  stead,  stem, 
steam,  stealthy,  steamed,  stenographer,  stenography,  stamped, 
sting,  stove,  stole,  story,  stock,  stoop,  store,  storm,  stuff,  stung, 
stitch,  study,  stuffed,  songsters,  sincere,  selfish,  selfsame,  self- 
made,  self-esteem,  self-education,  self-possessed,  should-his, 
sometimes,  style.  Taste,  tastes,  testify,  testified,  times,  this-is, 
thinks,  thanks,  thoughts,  that-is,  themselves,  thyself,  to-his. 
Vast,  vaster,  vastly,  vest.  Waste,  west,  westward,  which-is, 
whose.    Yesterday,  yourself,  yourselves.    Zest 


'Ju—r 


^r 


=4f 


A    SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


157 


LESSON   VII.- 


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16 


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AND   "YE"  DIPHTHONGS. 

ti       sen\s,yaio,yo,yoo;  an  ««  curve  in  the  position  of  the  tliree 

~^^___    short   dash   vowels   represents  yo,  yu,  yoo.     Read   line  2. 

These  coalescent  diphthongs  in  the  first  and  third  positions 

~        may  be  joined  to  the  consonant  when  they  will  form  a  dis- 

—£■  tinct  angle.     Read  lines  3  and  4. 

We  Hooks. — A  small  initial  hook  on  /,  ray,  m,  emp  and  « 

L —   represents  the  letter  w,  the  hook  is  read  first.     Read  lines 

5  and  6.  A  large  initial  hook  made  above  the  letter  i  also 
represents  the  letter  w  ;  this  hook  is  used  in  the  class  of 
words  commencing  with  qu,  pronounced  kw.  This  hook  is 
read  after  the  k.     Read  lines  7  and  8. 

He  Signs. — In  addition  to  the  stroke  form  for  he,  given 
in  the  alphabet,  it  is  also  represented  by  a  che  tick,  that  is,  a 
small  tick  written  downward  in  the  direction  of  the  letter 
che.  The  stroke  form  for  he  should  be  used  in  all  words 
where  he  is  the  only  consonant,  and  in  many  others  begin- 
ning with  the  letter  he.  Read  line  9.  The  tick  he  is  only 
used  before  those  consonants  with  which  it  will  form  a  dis- 
tinct angle,  as  k,  gay,  r,  m,  2  and  we.  Read  lines  10  and 
II.  The  last  five  words  in  line  II,  when  written  in  long- 
hand, commence  with  the  letters  wh ;  but  as  the  he  in  this 
combination  is  pronounced  first,  in  short-hand  it  is  written 
first.  When  a  word  beginning  with  hw  can  be  most  con- 
veniently written  with  the  w  hook  on  /,  ray,  m  and  «,  the 
he  may  be  omitted.  Read  line  12,  commencing  each  word 
with  hw. 

Double- Length  Letters. —  Any  curved  letter  made 
double  its  usual  length,  represents  the  addition  of  (her,  ter 
or  der.  Double-length  ing  also  represents  an  added  ger, 
and  double-length  emp  an  added  per  or  ber.  Read  lines  1 3 
and  14. 

Line  15  contains  the  following  word-signs:  We,  with, 
were,  what,  would,  ye,  yet,  beyond,  you,  while,  where,  where- 
with, when,  he,  their.  With  and  we  may  be  represented  by 
a  we  hook  in  phrases.  Line  16  contains  the  following 
phrases :  With-me,  with-him,  with-whom,  with-him-you-will, 
we-will,  we-are,  we-may,  we-may-be,  we-might,  we-met. 


WRITING    EXERCISE   VII. 


TN  addition  to  the  consonant  signs  for  the  coalescents  we  and 
*■  ye,  when  these  letters  are  used  in  connection  with  any  of  the 
vowels  or  diphthongs,  they  form  what  is  called  a  coalescent  diph- 
thong, which  is  represented  as  follows :  A  small  the  curve, 
that  is  the  curved  sign  resembling  the  letter  the,  but  only  about 
one-fourth  the  length  of  the  letter,  placed  in  the  position  of  the 
three  long-dot  vowels,  represents  we,  wa,  ivah  ;  an  eth  curve, 
written  in  the  position  of  the  three  short  dot  vowels,  represents 
■wi,  we,  wa;  a  ze  curve  in  the  position  of  the  three  long  dash 
vowels  represents  wau,  wo,  woo ;  an  es  curve  in  the  position  of 
the  three  short  dash  vowels  represents  wo,  wu,  woo  ;  a  small 
right  angle  in  the  position  of  the  diphthongs  represents  wi,  woi, 
wow.  Read  line  I.  A  small  ing  curve  in  the  position  of  the 
three  long  dot  vowels  represents  yee,ya,  yah  ;  an  en  curve  in  the 
position  of  the  three  short  dot  vowels  represents  yi,  ye,  ya  ;  an 
emp  curve  in  the  position  of  the  three  long  dash  vowels  repre- 


Copy  lines  I  to  16  ten  times.  Write  the  following  words 
in  short-hand :  Aha,  another.  Betwixt,  beyond.  Curious.  Due, 
dwell.  Father.  High,  highly,  hip,  hay,  hate,  hat,  height, 
hung,  hang,  hasten,  house,  harmony,  horse,  harm,  hearsay,  her, 
here,  hug,  hog,  hack,  hook,  home,  hazy,  hymn,  huzzy, hymeneal. 
Inquiry.  Leather,  letter,  latter,  longer.  Mother.  Neither. 
One,  once.  Quick,  quote,  quake,  quarrel,  queer,  quartz,  "quo," 
quire,  query,  quack,  quest,  quilt,  quit,  qualify.  Smoother,  Sep- 
tember, Swede,  sweat,  swift,  swiftest,  swing,  superior.  Twice, 
twill,  timber,  twist.  Use.  Weave  wound,  wave,  walk,  waif, 
wag,  wove,  wit,  wooed,  woof,  widow,  weed,  wide,  walked, 
wife,  want,  war,  wanted,  warm,  Wabash,  wardrobe,  washing, 
worship,  wall,  weary,  wilt,  worse,  wealth,  work,  well,  wool, 
wear,  went,  wigwam,  Winchester,  wampum,  window,  win,  wine, 
whimper,  while,  when,  wheel,  whale,  whim,  whence,  wharf, 
where,  whine,  whither,  weather,  wander,  winter,  wonder,  Walter, 
we,  what,  wherewith,  would,  with,  were,  with-me,  with-whom, 
with-him-you-will,  we-will,  within,  with-him,  we-are,  we-may-be, 
we-may,  we-might,  we-met.  Year,  young,  yoke,  yet,  yon,  youth, 
Yankee,  you,  ye. 


_iJ 


c 


K 


i58 


A  SELF-INSTRUCTOR  IN  SHORT-HAND. 


=fr 


LESSON  VIII.-THE    «'L" 
-^ 


HOOK. 


HTIIE  letter  /  occurs  frequently  in  connection  with  all  other 
-*-  consonants,  forming  in  many  words  a  consonantal  diph- 
thong. It  is  conveniently  represented  by  a  small  initial  hook 
made  on  the  right-hand  side  of  upright  and  sloping,  and 
above  horizontal  straight  letters,  as  in  line  I .  To  distinguish 
the  /  hook  series  of  letters  from  the  single  consonants,  the 
latter  are  called  pe-el,  be-el,  and  the  former  pel,  bel,  etc. 
Although  the  /  hook  is  made  on  the  beginning  of  a  conso- 
nant, it  is  read  aftjr  it. 

A  vowel  after  an  /  hook  consonant  is  read  last ;  the  first 
word  in  line  1  is  plea.  A  vowel  before  an  /  hook  conso- 
nant is  read  first ;  the  second  word  in  line  I  is  idle.  Read 
line  I.  The  /  hook  on  the  esh  and  zhe  cannot  be  made 
on  the  back  of  the  letter,  or  on  the  right  hand  side,  these 
letters  are  therefore  struck  upward,  and  are  never  used  ex- 
cept when  joined  to  other  letters.  The  /  hook  on  ray,  m, 
mp,  n,  ing  is  made  large  to  represent  rel,  mel,  empl,  nel, 
ingl,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  the  we  hook  on  those  letters. 
The  initial  hook  of  he  is  also  made  large  to  represent  hel. 
Read  line  2.  In  half-length  consonants  on  the  /  hook 
series,  the  added  t  or  d  is  read  after  both  consonants.  Read 
line  3. 

A  vowel  may  be  represented  between  the  double  conso- 
nants by  making  a  small  circle  in  the  position  of  the  vowel 
before  the  double  consonant  for  the  long  dot  vowels  ee,  ay 
ah,  and  by  a  small  circle  after  the  double  consonant  for  the 
short  dot  vowels  1,  e,  a.  The  dash  vowels  are  struck  through 
the  stem  of  the  letter,  except  when  they  would  interfere  with 
a  hook  or  circle,  when  they  are  written  immediately  before 
the  consonant,  if  first-place;  and  immediately  after  it,  if 
third-place.  Read  line  4.  When  a  double  consonant  of 
the  /  hook  series  is  preceded  by  the  circle  s,  the  circle  is 
slightly  flattened  and  made  inside  the  hook,  and  is  always 
read  first.  Read  lines  5  and  6.  Curved  Consonants  of  this 
series  may  be  made  double  length  for  adding  /her,  ter,  der. 
Read  line  7.  In  a  few  words,  where  the  /  hook  is  preceded 
by  another  consonant  and  a  circle  s,  the  hook  cannot  be 
made  complete,  but  there  is  no  difficulty  in  reading  those 
words.     Read  lines  8  to  12. 

The  frequently  recurring  prefixes  corn  and  eon  are  repre- 
sented by  a  dot  made  before  the  beginning  of  the  letter.     Read 
line  13.     The  affix  ing,  when  the  consonant  ing  cannot  be  con- 
veniently joined,  is  represented  by  a  dot  made  after  the  end  of 
the  letter.     Read  line  14. 

The  word  signs  in  lines  15  and  16  are:  Comply,  complete, 
people,  belong,  build,  until,  deliver,  delight,  children,  child, 
angel, equal,  difficult,  collect,  glory,  follow,  value,  theology,  only. 

The  curved  word  signs  may  be  made  double  length  for  the 
addition  of  their-there  in  phraseography.  The  last  three  signs 
in  line  16  represent  the  phrases:  Follow-their,  value-their,  only- 
there. 

WRITING  EXERCISE  VIII. 

Transcribe  exercise  VIII.  and  copy  lines  1  to  16  ten  times. 
Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand:  Able,  agile,  angle, 


/ 


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A^ 


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V 


ankle,  applied,  apple,  April,  awful.  Beautiful,  belong,  Bible, 
blame,  blot,  build.  Call,  camel,  calling,  canal,  casual,  casual- 
ties, child,  children,  civil,  clay,  clot,  clothed,  clouded,  close, 
circle,  connect,  commencing,  complacent,  complete,  compel, 
completing,  complex,  comply,  conclude,  concluding,  conflict, 
consonant,  context,  cultivate.  Dangle,  delight,  deliver,  de- 
veloping, difficulty,  double.  Enable,  enclose,  equal,  evil,  ex- 
ample, exclude,  explicit,  explode,  explore,  explosive.  Fangle, 
family,  female,  final,  flat,  flight,  flutter,  fly,  follow,  follow-their, 
fulfill,  funnel.  Glad,  girl,  glory,  glue,  gold.  Halifax,  healing, 
help,  helping.  Idle,  imperial,  initial,  initialed,  including,  in- 
volved. Melancholy,  military.  Oblige,  official,  only,  oral. 
Pearl,  people,  peopled,  pickled,  place,  plat,  plea,  please,  pleas- 
ing. Railway,  reality,  relent,  reply,  rule.  Saddle,  sable,  serial, 
settle,  school,  shouldered,  simplicity,  skill,  stable,  supple,  supply, 
supplying.  Table,  talc,  tell,  theology,  till,  titled,  told,  tolerable, 
tunnel.  Unable,  uncle,  unhealthy,  until.  Value,  value-their, 
vocalize.     Yale,  yellow,  yield. 


/ 


K 


A    SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


»59 


V 


LESSON  IX. 


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R"  HOOKS. 

letters  are  therefore  reversed  to  bring  the  hook  on  the  left 
side  and  inside  the  curve.  These  forms  will  not  be  mis- 
taken for  the  similar  letters  r,  we,  s  and  z,  as  the  initial  r, 
hook  is  not  used  on  these  four  letters.  The  stem  of  the 
letter  is  shaded  in  mer  and  nerto  distinguish  them  from  wem 
and  wen.     Read  lines  I  and  2. 


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A  SMALL  initial  hook  on  the  left-hand  side  of  upright  and 
sloping  and  below  horizontal  straight  consonants  represents 
r.  This  is  called  the  per  series  of  double  consonants.  When 
speaking  of  them  we  use  the  one-syllable  name  per  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  single  consonants  pe-ar  etc.  Vowels  are  written 
either  before  or  after  double  consonants  of  the  per  series,  or  may 
be  expressed  between  the  two  consonants,  the  same  as  in  the  pel 
series,  as  follows :  For  the  long  dot  vowels  make  a  small  circle 
in  the  position  of  the  vowel  before  the  double  consonant ;  for 
the  short  dot  vowels  a  small  circle  in  the  position  of  the  vowel 
after  the  double  consonant.  Write  the  first-place  dash  vowels 
just  off  the  beginning  of  the  consonant ;  the  second-place  dash 
vowels  through  the  consonant,  and  the  third-place  dash 
vowels  just  off  the  end  of  the  consonant.  The  student  will  soon 
become  familiar  with  the  outlines  of  words,  and  full  vocalization 
will  not  be  necessary.  It  would  not  be  convenient  to  make 
a  hook  on  the  back  of  the  curved  letters  /,  v,  ith,  the.    These 


On  eight  straight  consonants  of  the  per  series  the  hook  is 
made  into  a  circle  on  the  left  side  to  represent  the  sir  series 
of  treble  consonants.     Read  line  3. 

When  the  circle  is  used  on  the  curved  letters  of  the  per 
\  ^i  series  it  is  made  inside  the  r  hook,  and  is  always  read  first. 
Read  line  4. 

When  j  occurs  before  the  double  consonant  in  the  middle 
of  a  word,  both  the  circle  and  the  hook  must  be  made. 
Read  line  5. 

When  ker  and  ger  follow  Is  and  ds,  the  circle  only  is  used 
and  is  written  on  the  right  side  of  /  and  d  and  below  the  k 
and  gay.     Read  line  6. 

After  p  and  b  the  circle  and  hook  cannot  be  distinctly 
made,  but  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  reading  this  class  of 
words.     Read  line  7. 

The  prefixes  in  and  ««  before  the  spr  series  of  conso- 
nants is  represented  by  a  small  backward  hook;  also  before 
ser,  set  and  sent.     Read  line  8. 

When  double  consonants  of  the  per  series  are  made  half- 
length,  the  added  t  or  d  is  read  after  both  consonants. 
Observe  that  although  the  hook  representing  r  is  initial,  it  is 
always  read  after  the  consonant  on  which  it  is  used.  Read 
lines  9  to  13  inclusive. 

The  word-signs  in  line  14  are :  Principle,  practice,  ex- 
perience, surprise,  express,  suppress,  particular,  opportunity, 
liberty,  remember,  number,  truth. 

Inline  15;  Strength,  external,  instruct,  doctor,  during, 
consider,  charity,  danger,  larger,  according,  accurate, 
Christian. 

In  line  16:  Correct;  character,  from,  over,  virtue,  other, 
short,  sure,  pleasure,  measure,  Mr.  or  remark. 

WRITING  EXERCISE  IX. 

Copy  exercise  IX.  ten  times,  and  transcribe  either  in  long- 
hand or  on  the  type-writer. 

Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand :  Archer, 
azure.  Brow.  Cedar,  charming,  charity,  cheerful,  christian, 
character,  color,  court,  comprise,  consider,  correct,  criminal, 
cry,  culture.  Danger,  destroy,  descry,  discried,  disgrace, 
disagree,  describer,  disagreeable,  discursive,  dear,  doctor,  dray, 
during.  Either,  energy,  every,  everywhere,  extra,  extreme, 
examiner,  expert,  express,  expressive.  Farmer,  figures,  former, 
forgot,  from,  fraternal,  free,  further.  Greet,  grow.  Honor, 
humor.  Instruct,  instructor,  inscribe,  insert.insult,  inseparable, 
invulnerable.  Labor,  larger,  learner,  lover,  liberty.  Masterly, 
Mr.  measure,  more,  maternal,  minor,  murder.  Number.  Obscure, 
occurs,  opportunity,  over,  other,  owner.  Pray,  present,  prescribe, 
practice,  particular,  prosper,  proscribe,  principle  pleasure. 
Remember,  roller,  rumor.  Saber,  sadder,  seeker,  surely,  sober, 
spray,  strew,  striver  screw,  suitor,  supper,  suffer,  swimmer, 
sooner,  sever,  sinner,  sailor,  seizure,  safer,  suffering,  subscribe, 
subscriber,  scribe,  severed,  secure,  short-hand,  spry,  strong, 
strength,  sure,  strung,  spring,  separate,  suppress,  surprise.  Try, 
treasure,  true,  there,  truth,  through,  toward.  Unscrupulous,  un- 
seemly, unsalable,  unsociable.  Virtue.  Wager,  wager,  westerly, 
writer,  wrestler. 


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A  SELF  INSIRTCTOR  IN  SHORT-HAND. 


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LESSON    X.-"F," 

A  SMALL  final  hook  on  the  right  hand  side  of  upright 
•**■  and  sloping  and  alx>ve  horizontal  and  straight  letters 
represenst  either/or  v.  On  ray  and  he,  which  are  written 
upward,  this  hook  is  made  above.  The  /  and  v  hook  is 
only  on  straight  letters.  Read  line  I.  S  may  be  added 
after  the  /or  v  hook  by  making  .the  circle  inside  the  hook. 
Read  line  2. 

The /and  v  hooks  may  1«  used  in  the  middle  of  words. 
Read  lines  3  and  4. 

A  large  final  hook  made  on  the  right  hand  side  of  upright 
and  sloping  and  above  horizontal  straight  letters  (the  same 
side  as  the  /  and  v  hook)  represents  Hon  or  sion.  This 
hook  is  also  used  on  the  inside  of  curved  letters.  Read  lines 
5  and  6. 

To  represent  lions  and  sion;  make  the  small  circle  s  inside 
the  hook.     Read  line  7. 

The  syllable  Hon  is  represented  after  the  circle  s  and 
loops  st  and  sir  by  a  small  hook  made  on  the  opposite  side 
of  a  consonant.  This  s-lion  hook  is  vocalized  by  writing 
first  place  vowels  before  the  end  of  the  consonant,  and  second 
place  vowels  after  it.     Read  line  8. 

When  s  follows  this  s-Hon  hook  the  circle  is  made  inside 
the  small  hook.     Read  lines  9  and  10. 

The  prefixes  inter,  intro,  and  enter,  are  represented  by  half- 
length  n  joined  to  the  remainder  of  the  word.    Read  line  II. 

The  prefixes  contra,  contro,  counter,  are  represented  by  a 
disjoined  che  tick ;  that  is  a  short  tick  made  downward  in 
the  direction  of  che  at  the  beginning  of  a  word.     Read  line  1 2. 

The  prefixes  Magni  and  Magna  are  represented  by  a  dis- 
joined m,  the  remainder  of  the  word  being  commenced 
under  and  near  the  center  of  the  m.     Read  line  13. 

The/  and  v  hook  word  signs  in  line  14  are:    Perfea, 
whatever,  divine,  difference,  advance,  whichever,  Jehovah,    M 
descriptive,  careful,  government,  reverend. 

The  Hon  hook  word  signs  in  line  15  are:  Option,  objec- 
tion, contribution,  tuition,  condition,  generation,  imagination, 
description. 

The  word  signs  in  line  16  are:  Correction,  glorification 
signification,  revelation,  revolution,  information,  justification, 
jurisdiction,  investigation.     Read  lines  14,  15  and  16. 

WRITING   EXERCISE   X. 

Achieves,  approve?,  adventure,  advocate,  advocacy,  advent, 
addition,  ambition,  aversion,  actions,  acquisitions,  UTCSUtloM, 
accusations,  annexation,  attestation,  advance.  Beef,  braves, 
brevity,  briefest,  bravest.  Cessation,  cuff,  craft,  cover,  contriv- 
ance, contrive,  confusion,  consummation,  constitution,  consecra- 
tion, conclusion,  confessions,  centralization,  civilization,  connec- 
tions, contradict,  counterfeit,  counterfeited,  controversy,  contra- 
distinction, contravention,  counteraction,  counter-irritation, 
counterpart,  countersign,  creative,  construction,  condition,  cor- 
rection, chief.     Dive,  drove,  drives,  derives,  differ,  descriptive. 


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directions,  description.  Kdition,  exhibition,  emulation,  exception 
enterprise.  Fashion.  Gave,  gifts,  govern,  generation,  glorifica- 
tion. Hive,  half,  hallucination,  heaven.  Intervention,  intro- 
duce, interline,  introduction,  intercept,  interfered,  intercourse, 
interview,  intercede,  interest,  imagination,  investigation,  informa- 
tion, illustration.  Jove,  Jehovah,  jurisdiction.  Mission,  mani- 
festations, molestations,  moralization,  magnify,  Magna  Charta, 
magnitude,  magnetic,  magnificent,  magnanimous,  magnetize, 
mention.  Notions.  Oration,  obligation,  omissions,  occasion!, 
oppositions.  Pave,  proves,  prefix,  profanity,  prevent,  position, 
possession,  procession,  persuasion,  physician.  Reverend,  reve- 
lation, revolutions.  Strives  session,  stations,  suggestion,  sym- 
bolization.  Tough,  tuition,  twelve.  Version,  vision.  What- 
ever, whichever. 


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A   SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAND. 


-« 9 


161 


LESSON.  XI —THE  "N"  HOOK. 


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The  «  hook  is  used  to  advantage  in  the  middle  of  many 
words.     Read  line  6. 

On  straight  letters,  the  «  hook  may  be  followed  by  the  st 
and  the  sir  loops  by  making  the  hook  into  a  small  or  large 
loop.     Read  line  7. 

The  ns  circle  on  straight  letters  may  be  followed  by  the 
back  hook  Hon.     Read  line  6. 

A  large  final  hook  on  the  «  side  of  straight  letters  repre- 
sents the  termination  n-tion.  The  first  word  in  line  9  is 
"pension."     Read  lines  9,  10  and  II. 

The  n  hook  and  halving  principle  are  conveniently  used 
to  represent  not  in  phrases.  The  phrases  in  line  12  are: 
Will-not,  was-not,  did-not,  do-not,  had-not,  have-not,  are-not, 
shall-not,  may-not,  am-not,  cannot. 

The  final  n  hook  logographs  in  line  13  are  :  Upon,  pun- 
ish, been,  at-length,  eternal,  circumstance,  denomination, 
providential,  denominations,  audience,  providence. 

The  logographs  in  line  14  are :  Darken,  darkens,  religion, 
general,  imagine,  religionist,  generalized,  generalization, 
gentlemen,  gentleman,  imagined. 

Those  in  line  15  are:  Question,  signify,  significance, 
begin,  begun,  began,  organize,  organization. 

Those  in  line  16  are:  Often,  phonography,  philanthropy, 
herein,  alone,  men,  man,  human,  women,  woman,  opinion. 

WRITING   EXERCISE  XI. 


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A  SMALL  final  hook  on  the  left-hand  side  of  upright  and 
**■  sloping  and  below  horizontal  straight  letters  and  on  the 
inside  of  curved  letters,  represents  n.     Read  lines  1  and  2. 

When  the  »  hook  is  used  on  half-length  letters,  the  added  / 
or  d  is  read  after  the  hook.  The  first  word  in  line  3  is 
"point."     Read  line  3. 

The  hook  being  on  the  opposite  side  from  the  circle  s,  it  is  made 
into  a  circle  on  the  left-hand  side  of  upright  and  sloping  and 
below  horizontal  straight  letters  to  represent  ns.     Read  line  4. 

When  the  «  hook  is  followed  by  the  circle  s  on  curved  letters 
the  s  is  made  inside  of  the  hook.  In  order  to  do  this,  do  not 
enlarge  the  hook,  but  flatten  the  circle.     Read  line  5. 


Copy  short-hand  Exercise  XI.  ten  times  and  transcribe  it 
once.     Write  the  words  in  Exercise  XI.  in  position,  unvocal- 

—  ized. 

—  Write  the  following  words  in  short-hand :  Abandoned,  ab- 
scond,  adamant,   against,  alone,   am-not,   around,  are-not, 

—  argument,  apprehansion,  attends,  attention,  at-length,  audi- 

—  ence,  assign,  assigns,  assistant.    Balanced,  been,  beans,  begin, 
begun,  began,  bound,  bonds,  bounced,  brain,  brown.     Cane, 

5~  canst,  canister,  carbon,  cannot,  chain,  circumstance,  circum- 

—  stances,   chant,  chance,  chanced,  counts,  conscience,  com- 
pensation, condensation,  condensations,  combinations,  con- 

3?"  sequence,     consequential,     comprehension,     consternation, 

—  Danced,  darken,   darkness,   denomination,  denominations, 
dine,  dined,  dispensation,  dispensations,  did-not,  donations, 

dunce.  Earn,  eternal,  event,  extend,  extension.  Fan,  find, 
finds,  finish,  finance,  financial,  furnish.  Gained,  general, 
generalization,  gentlemen,  gentleman,  gone.  Had-not,  hence, 
have-not,  hen,  heathen,  herein,  hints,  Holland.  Imagine, 
imagined,  infant,  infantry,  irons.  Joints,  joined,  June.  Kind, 
known.  Land,  line.  Man,  may-not,  men,  mind,  mine,  minds, 
monument.  Nouns.  Often,  one,  ocean,  opinion,  organize, 
organization,  ordination,  outline.  Pain,  pens,  paints,  pension, 
phonography,  philanthropy,  point,  providence,  providential, 
punish,  punster,  punsters,  question.  Rain,  return,  returned, 
runs,  religion,  religionist.  Shall-not,  shown,  spinster,  spinsters, 
suspicion,  swoon.  Then,  thin,  tent,  tendency,  thence,  town, 
towns,  torment,  turn,  transition,  transitions,  transitional.  Upon. 
Vagrancy,    vanish,  veins,  vine.     Was-not,    will-not,    women, 


11 


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162 


A    SELF-INSTRUCTOR    IN    SHORT-HAXD. 


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LESSON   XII. 


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AS  in  long-hand  contractions  are  often  used,  so  it  is  found 
that  principles  of  contraction  can  be  employed  in  short- 
hand writing,  which  will  materially  increase  the  speed  of 
writing,  without  sacrificing  legibility.  These  principles  need 
to  be  understood.  As  a  general  rule,  many  derivatives  may 
be  represented  by  the  short-hand  form  adopted  for  the  root 
of  the  word.  As  derivatives  usually  form  different  parts  ot 
speed),  there  is  no  difficulty  to  the  experienced  phonog- 
rapher  in  readily  deciphering  them.  A  few  special  direc- 
tions in  regard  to  abbreviations  is  all  that  will  be  found 
necessary  in  this  connection. 

The  letter  or  letters  representing  the  portion  of  the  prefix 
preceding  con,  com,  cog,  may  be  joined  to  the  remainder  of 
the  word.  The  words  in  lines  I  and  2  are:  accommodate, 
accommodation,  accompany,  incomplete,  incompatible, 
inconceivable,  recommend;  recommendation,  unconcern, 
unconditional,  unconscious,  magnanimous,  magnificent. 
Read  lines  I  and  2. 

The  letter  A  following  ing  may  be  omitted  in  many  words. 
The  words  in  line  3  are :  Anxious,  anxiety,  bank,  bank- 
able, banking,  bankrupt,  sanction.     Read  line  3. 

The  letter  k  may  be  omitted  in  many  words  commencing 
with  ex.  The  words  in  line  4  are  :  Expression,  expressive, 
explain,  explicit,  explore,  explode,  explanation,  expiration, 
extension.     Read  line  4. 

The  prefixes  con,  com,  are  frequently  omitted.  The 
words  in  line  5  are :  Condition,  condensation,  combine, 
combination,  contend,  comprehend,  consideration,  incon- 
sideration,  construction,  instruction,  completion.  Read 
line  5. 

The  dot  for  the  affix  ing  is  generally  omitted.  The 
words  in  line  6  are  :  Doing,  trying,  combining,  compound- 
ing, craving,  crossing,  explaining,  banking,  recommending, 
buying.     Read  line  6. 

Many  words  which  would  make  lengthy  and  difficult 
forms,  if  written  in  full,  are  represented  by  two  or  more 
consonants  of  the  word.  Word  signs  may  lie  joined  either 
as  prefixes  or  as  affixes.  The  words  in  line  7  are: 
Acknowledge,  acknowledged,  assemble,  auspicious,  become,  to 
become,  cabinet,  captain. 

Line  8 :  Change,  common-sense,  dignity,  downward,  hereto- 
fore, hereafter,  knowledge,  legible,  illegible. 

Line  9  :  Peculiar,  especially,  examination,  cross-examination, 
rc-t\amination,  direct -examination,  mistake. 

Word*  and  phrases  in  line  10:  Nevertheless,  notwithstanding, 
temperance-society,  humane-society,  in-reply-to-yours,  inreply- 
to-your  favor,  in-refcrence. 

Line  1 1  :  In-rcference-to-your,  inherit,  inheritance,  in-reccipt, 
in-receipt  of-your,  I-am-in-receipt-of-your,  short-hand,  short- 
hand-writer. 


CONTRACTIONS,   ETC. 


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Line  12:  What  is  your  name,  age,  and  occupation?  Where 
do  you  reside  ? 

Line  13:  This  finishes  a  course  of  12  lessons  in  short-hand, 
giving  the 

Line  14:  Benn  Pitman  system  at  a  glance, arranged  by  Brown 
&  Holland, 

Line  15  :  Chicago,  and  successfully  taught  by  them  for  more 
than  ten  years,  with  the  result  of 

Line  16:  educating  hundreds  of  short-hand  writers,  who  are 
now  occupying  good,  paying  positions. 

Read  lines  7  to  16. 


* 


V 


THE    LOISETTE    MEMORY    SYSTEM. 


163 


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lOISETTE  ]V(EMORYj^YSTEM.  I 

**<|&e:  •  Qrt  •  of  ®  Eleuer  •  f^raettiner.** 


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^g^O  MUCH  has  been  said  about  the 
Loisette  memory  system,  the  art  has 
been  so  widely  advertised,  and  so 
carefully  guarded  from  all  the  pro- 
fane who  do  not  send  five  or  many 
dollars  to  the  Professor,  that  a  few 
pages  showing .  how  every  man  may  be  his 
own  Loisette,  may  be  both  interesting  and 
valuable. 

In  the  first  place,  the  system  is  a  good  one, 
and  well  worth  the  labor  of  mastering,  and  if 
the  directions  are  implicitly  followed  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  memory  will  be  greatly 
strengthened  and  improved,  and  that  mnemonic 
feats  otherwise  impossible  may  be  easily  per- 
formed. Loisette,  however,  is  not  an  inventor 
but  an  introducer.  He  stands  in  the  same  rela- 
tion to  Dr.  Pick  that  the  retail  dealer  holds  to 
the  manufacturer :  the  one  produced  the  article ; 
the  other  brings  it  to  the  public.  Even  this 
statement  is  not  quite  fair  to  Loisette,  for  he 
has  brought  much  practical  common  sense  to 
bear  upon  Pick's  system,  and,  in  preparing  the 
new  art  of  mnemonics  for  the  market,  in  many 
ways  he  has  made  it  his  own. 

If  each  man  would  reflect  upon  the  method 
by  which  he  himself  remembers  things,  he  would 
find  his  hand  upon  the  key  of  the  whole  mys- 
tery.    For  instance,  the  author  was  once  trying 


to  remember  the  word  blythe.  There  occurred 
to  my  mind  the  words  "  Bellman,"  "  Belle," 
and  then  the  verse : 

" the  peasant  upward  climbing 

Hears  the  bells  of  Buloss  chiming." 

"  Barcarole, "  "  Barrack,"  and  so  on  until  finally 
the  word  "blythe"  presented  itself  with  a 
strange  insistance,  long  after  I  had  ceased  try- 
ing to  recall  it. 

On  another  occasion  when  trying  to  recall  the 
name  "  Richardson "  I  got  the  words  "  hay- 
rick," "  Robertson,"  "Randallstown,"  and  finally 
"wealthy,"  from  which,  naturally,  I  got  "rich" 
and  "  Richardson  "  almost  in  a  breath. 

Still  another  example :  trying  to  recall  the 
name  of  an  old  schoolmate,  "  Grady,"  I  got 
"Brady,"  "grave,"  "gaseous,"  "gastronome," 
"  gracious,"  and  I  finally  abandoned  the  attempt, 
simply  saying  to  myself  that  it  began  with  a 
"  G,"  and  there  was  an  "  a  "  sound  after  it.  The 
next  morning,  when  thinking  of  something  en- 
tirely different,  this  name  "Grady"  came  up  in 
my  mind  with  as  much  distinctness  as  though 
someone  had  whispered  it  in  my  ear.  This  re- 
membering was  done  without  any  conscious 
effort  on  my  part,  and  was  evidently  the  result 
of  the  exertion  made  the  day  before  when  the 
mnemonic  processes  were  put  to  work.  Every 
reader    must   have   had   a  similar   experience 


fv 


164 


THE    LOISETTE    MEMORY    SYSTEM. 


-" 


which  he  can  recall,  and  which  will  fall  in  line 
with  the  examples  given. 

It  follows,  then,  that  when  we  endeavor,  with- 
out the  aid  of  any  system,  to  recall  a  forgotten 
fact  or  name,  our  memory  presents  to  us  words 
of  similar  sound  or  meaning  in  its  journey 
toward  the  goal  to  which  we  have  started  it. 
This  goes  to  show  that  our  ideas  are  arranged 
in  groups  in  whatever  secret  cavity  or  recess  of 
the  brain  they  occupy,  and  that  the  arrange- 
ment is  one  not  alphabetical  exactly,  and  not 
entirely  by  meaning,  but  after  some  fashion 
partaking  of  both. 

If  you  are  looking  for  the  word  "  meadow  " 
you  may  reach  "  middle  "  before  you  come  to 
it,  or  "  Mexico,"  or  many  words  beginning  with 
the  "  m  "  sound,  or  containing  the  "  dow,"  as 
"  window,"  or  "  dough,"  or  you  may  get  "  field  " 
or  "  farm  " — but  you  are  on  the  right  track,  and 
if  you  do  not  interfere  with  your  intellectual 
process  you  will  finally  come  to  the  idea  which 
you  are  seeking. 

How  often  have  you  heard  people  say,  "  I 
forgot  his  name,  it  is  something  like  Beadle  or 
Beagle — at  any  rate  it  begins  with  a  B."  Every 
one  of  these  were  unconscious  Loisettians,  and 
they  were  practicing  blindly,  and  without  proper 
method  or  direction,  the  excellent  system  which 
he  teaches.  The  thing,  then,  to  do — and  it  is 
the  final  and  simple  truth  which  Loisette  teaches 
— is  to  travel  over  this  ground  in  the  other  direc- 
tion— to  cement  the  fact  which  you  wish  to 
remember  to  some  other  fact  or  word  which  you 
know  will  be  brought  out  by  the  implied  con- 
ditions— and  thus  you  will  always  be  able  to 
travel  from  your  given  starting  point  to  the 
thing  which  you  wish  to  call  to  mind. 

To  illustrate  :  let  the  broken  line  in  the  annexed  dia- 
gram represent  a  train  of  thought.  If  we  connect  the 
idea  "«  "  with  "e"  through  the  steps  b,  c  and 
d.  the  tendency  of  the  mind  ever  afterwards 
will  be  to  get  to  e  from  a  that  way,  or  from 
any  of  the  intermediates  that  way.  It  seems 
as  though  a  channel  were  cut  in  our  mind- 
stuff  along  which  the  memory  flows.  How 
to  make  it  flow  this  way  will  be  seen  later  on. 
Loisette,  in  common  with  all  the  mnemonic 
teachers,  uses  the  old  device  of  representing  numbers  by 
letters — and  as  this  is  the  first  and  easiest  step  in  the  art, 


this  seems  to  be  the  most  logical  place  to  introduce  the  ac- 
cepted equivalents  of  the  Arabic  numerals  : 

0  is  always  represented  by  j,  rort  soft. 

1  is  always  represented  by  /,  th  or  d. 

2  is  always  represented  by  n. 

3  is  always  represented  by  m. 

4  is  always  represented  by  r. 

5  is  always  represented  by  /. 

0  is  always  represented  by  sh,j,  eh  soft  or^-  soft. 

7  is  always  represented  by  g  hard,  t,  c  hard,  q  or  final  ng. 

8  is  always  represented  by  f  or  v. 

9  is  always  represented  by  /  or  b. 

All  the  other  letters  are  used  simply  to  fill  up.  Double 
letters  in  a  word  count  only  as  one.  In  fact  the  system 
goes  by  sound,  not  by  spelling — for  instance  "  this "  or 
"dizzy"  would  stand  for  ten;  "catch"  or  "gush"  would 
stand  for  76,  and  the  only  difficulty  is  to  make  some  word 
or  phrase  which  will  contain  only  the  significant  letters  in 
the  proper  order,  filled  out  with  non-significant  into  some 
guise  of  meaning  or  intelligibility.*  Suppose  you  wished 
to  get  some  phrase  or  word  that  would  express  the  num- 
ber 3685,  you  arrange  the  letters  this  way: 


3 

0*. 

6 

^* 

8 

^"» 

5 

a 

m 

a 

sh 

a 

f 

a 

1 

e 

e 

J 

e 

V 

e 

i 

i 

ch 

1 

i 

0 

0 

K 

0 

0 

u 

u 

u 

u 

h 

h 

h 

h 

w 

w 

w 

w 

X 

X 

X 

X 

V 

y 

y 

y 

You  can  make  out  "image  of  law,''  "my  shuffle," 
"  matchville,"  etc.,  etc.,  as  far  as  you  like  to  work  it  out. 

Now,  suppose  you  wish  to  memorize  the  fact  that 
$1,000,000  in  gold  weighs  3.685  pounds,  you  go  about  it 
in  this  way,  and  here  is  the  kernel  and  crux  of  Loisette's 
system: 

"How  much  does  $1,000,000  in  gold  weigh?" 

"  Weigh— scales." 

"  Scales — statue  of  Justice." 

"Statue  of  Justice — image  of  lav.'." 

The  process  is  simplicity  itself.  The  thing  you  wish  to 
recall,  and  that  you  fear  to  forget,  is  the  weight;  conse- 
quently you  cement  your  chain  of  suggestion  to  the  idea 
which  is  most  prominent  in  your  mental  question.  What 
do  you  weigh  with  ?  Scales.  What  doe6  the  mental  pic- 
ture of  scales  suggest  ?  The  statue  of  Justice,  blindfolded 
and  weighing  out  award  and  punishment  to  man.  Finally, 
what  is  this  statue  of  Justice  but  the  image  of  law  ?  and 
the  words  "  image  of  law,"  translated  back  from  the  sig- 
nificant letters  m,  g  soft,  f  and  /.  give  vou  3-6-8-5.  the 
number  of  pounds  in  $1,600,000  in  gold.  You  bind  to- 
gether in  your  mind  each  separate  step  in  the  journey,  the 
one  suggests  the  other,  and  you  will  find,  a  year  from 
now,  that  the  fact  will  be  as  fresh  in  your  memory  as  it  is 


•You  can  remember  the  equivalents  bv  noting  the  fact  that  t  is 
the  first  letter  of  "  «rn,"  and  c  of  "  cipher,"  /  has  but  one  stroke,  a 
has  two,  m  three.  The  script/  is  very  like  8,  the  script  f  lik< 
the  last  letter  ot  four,  /  is  the  roinan  numeral  for Jf/tY*  which  sug- 
gests JSrt.  The  others  may  be  retained  as  memorising  these  two 
nonsense  lines: 

Six  sky Jewesses  c Aase  George 
Seven  Great  A'ings  came  fuarrcliajf. 


-75 


K 


THE    LOISETTE    MEMORY    SYSTEM, 


to-day.  You  cannot  lose  it.  It  is  chained  to  you  by  an 
unbreakable  mnemonic  tie.  Mark,  that  it  is  not  claimed 
that  "weight  "will  of  itself  suggest  "scales"  and  "scales" 
"statue  of  Justice,"  etc.,  but  that,  having  once  passed  your 
attention  up  and  down  that  ladder  of  ideas,  your  mental 
tendency  will  be  to  take  the  same  route,  and  get  to  the 
same  goal  again  and  again.  Indeed,  beginning  with  the 
weight  of  $1,000,000,  "  image  of  law  "  will  turn  up  in  your 
mind  without  your  consciousness  of  any  intermediate  sta- 
tion on  the  way,  after  some  iteration  and  reiteration  of  the 
original  chain. 

Again,  so  as  to  fasten  the  process  in  the  reader's  mind 
even  more  firmly,  suppose  that  it  were  desired  to  fix  the 
date  of  the  battle  of  Hastings  (A.  D.  1066)  in  the  mem- 
ory; 1066  may  be  represented  by  the  words  "the  wise 
judge"  (M  =  1, .«  =  o,/ =  6,  rf§- =  6;  the  others  are  non- 
significants);  a  chain  might  be  made  thus: 

Battle  of  Hastings — arbitrament  of  war. 
Arbitrament  of  war — arbitration. 
Arbitration — judgment. 
Judgment — the  wise  judge. 

Make  mental  pictures,  connect  ideas,  repeat  words  and 
sounds,  go  about  it  any  way  you  please,  so  that  you  will 
form  a  mental  habit  of  connecting  the  "battle  of  Hast- 
ings "  with  the  idea  of  "  arbitrament  of  war,"  and  so  on 
for  the  other  links  in  the  chain,  and  the  work  is  done. 

Loisette  makes  the  beginning  of  his  system  unnecessa- 
rily difficult,  to  say  nothing  of  his  illogical  arrangement  in 
the  grammar  of  the  art  of  memory,  which  he  makes  the 
first  of  his  lessons.     He  analyzes  suggestion  into— 

1.  Inclusion. 

2.  Exclusion. 

3.  Concurrence. 

All  of  which  looks  very  scientific  and  orderly,  but  is 
really  misleading,  and  badly  named.  The  truth  is  that 
one  idea  will  suggest  another. 

1.  By  likeness  or  opposition  of  meaning,  as  "house" 
suggests  "room"  or  "door,"  etc.;  or  "white"  suggests 
"black,"  "cruel,"  "kind,"  etc. 

2.  By  likeness  of  sound,  as  "harrow"  and  "barrow"; 
"Henry"  and  "Hennepin." 

3.  By  mental  juxtaposition,  a  peculiarity  different  in 
each  person,  and  depending  upon  each  one  s  own  experi- 
ences. Thus,  "  St.  Charles  "  suggests  "  railway  bridge  "  to 
me,  because  I  was  vividly  impressed  by  the  breaking  of 
the  Wabash  bridge  at  that  point.  "  Stable"  and  "broken 
leg"  come  near  each  other  in  my  experience,  so  do 
"cow"  and  "shot-gun"  and  "licking." 

Out  of  these  three  sorts  of  suggestion  it  is  possible  to 
get  from  any  one  fact  to  any  other  in  a  chain  certain  and 
safe,  along  which  the  mind  may  be  depended  upon  after- 
wards always  to  follow. 

The  chain  is,  of  course,  by  no  means  all.  Its  making 
and  its  binding  must  be  accompanied  by  a  vivid,  method- 
ically directed  attention,  which  turns  all  the  mental  light 
gettable  in  a  focus  upon  the  subject  passing  across  the 
mind's  screen.  Before  Loisette  was  thought  of  this  was 
known.  In  the  old  times  in  England,  in  order  to  impress 
upon  the  mind  of  the  rising  generation  the  parish  boun- 
daries in  the  rural  districts,  the  boys  were  taken  to  each 
of  the  landmarks  in  succession,  the  position  and  bearings 
of  each  pointed  out  carefully,  and,  in  order  to  deepen  the 
impression,  the  young  people  were  then  and  there  vigor- 
ously thrashed,  a  mechanical  method  of  attracting  the  at- 
tention which  was  said  never  to  have  failed.  This  system 
has  had  its  supporters  in  many  of  the  old-fashioned 
schools,  and  there  are  men  who  will  read  these  lines  who 
can  recall,  with  an  itching  sense  of  vivid  expression,  the 


144  lickings  which  were  said  to  go  with  the  multiplication 
table. 

In  default  of  a  thrashing,  however,  the  student  must  cul- 
tivate as  best  he  can  an  intgnse  fixity  of  perception  upon 
every  fact  or  word  or  date,  that  he  wisties  fb  make  perma- 
nently his  own.  It  is  easy.  It  is  a  matter  of  habit.  If 
you  will  you  can  photograph  an  idea  upon  your  cerebral 
gelatine  so  that  neither  years  nor  events  will  blot  it  out  or 
overlay  it.  You  must  be  clearly  and  distinctly  aware  of 
the  thing  you  are  putting  into  your  mental  treasure-house, 
and  drastically  certain  of  the  cord  by  which  you  have  tied 
it  to  some  other  thing  of  which  you  are  sure.  Unless  it  is 
worth  your  while  to  do  this,  you  might  as  well  abandon 
any  hope  of  mnemonic  improvement,  which  will  not  come 
without  the  hardest  kind  of  hard  work,  although  it  is  work 
that  will  grow  constantly  easier  with  practice  and  reitera- 
tion. 

You  need,  then  : 

1.  Methodic  suggestion. 

2.  Methodic  attention. 

3.  Methodic  reiteration. 

And  this  is  all  there  is  to  Loisette,  and  a  great  deal  It 
is.  Two  of  them  will  not  do  without  the  third.  You  do 
not  know  how  many  steps  there  are  from  your  hall  door 
to  your  bed-room,  though  you  have  attended  to  and  often 
reiterated  the  journey.  But  if  there  are  twenty  of  them, 
and  you  have  once  bound  the  word  "nice,"  or  "nose,"  or 
"news,"  or  "hyenas"  to  the  fact  of  the  stairway,you  could 
never  forget  it. 

The  Professor  makes  a  point,  and  very  wisely,  of  the 
importance  of  working  through  some  established  chain,  so 
that  the  whole  may  be  carried  away  in  the  mind — not 
alone  for  the  value  of  the  facts  so  bound  together,  but  for 
the  mental  discipline  so  afforded. 

Here,  then,  is  the  "  President  Series,"  which  contains 
the  name  and  the  date  of  inauguration  of  each  president 
from  Washington  to  Cleveland.  The  manner  in  which  it 
is  to  be  mastered  is  this:  Beginning  at  the  top,  try  to  find 
in  your  mind  some  connection  between  each  word  and  the 
one  following  it.  See  how  you  can  at  some  future  time 
make  one  suggest  the  next,  either  by  suggestion  of  sound 
or  sense,  or  by  mental  juxtaposition.  When  you  have 
found  this,  dwell  on  it  attentively  a  moment  or  two.  Pass 
it  backward  and  forward  before  you,  and  then  go  on  to 
the  next  step. 

The  chain  runs  thus,  the  names  of  the  presidents  being 
in  small  caps,  the  date  words  in  italics: 

President  -  -  -  -  Chosen  as  the  first  word  as  the  one  most  apt 
to  occur  to  the  mind  of  any  one  wishing  to 
repeat  the  names  of  the  presidents. 

Dentists  -----    President  and  dentist. 

Draw-    -----    What  does  a  dentist  do? 

To  give  «/---•  When  something  is  drawn  from  one  it  is 
given  up.     This  is  a  date  phrase   meaning 

Self-sacrifice    -    •    -    There  is  an  association  of  thought  between 

giving  up  and  self-sacrifice. 
Washington      -    -    Associate  the  quality  of  self-sacrifice  with 

Washington's  character. 
Morning  wash     -    -     Washington  and  -wash. 
Dew    ------    Early  wetness  and  dew. 

Flower  beds    -    -    -    Dew  and  flowers. 

Took  a  bouquet     -    -    Flowers  and  bouquet.    Date  phrase  (1797). 

Garden    -----    Bouquet  and  garden. 

Eden       -----    The  first  garden. 

Adam      -----    Juxtaposition  of  thought. 

Adams  -----    Suggestion  by  sound. 

Fall    ------    Juxtaposition  of  thought. 

Failure    -----    Fall  and  failure. 

Deficit     -----    Upon  a  failure  there  is  usually  a  deficit.  Date 

word  (1801). 
Debt    ------    The  consequence  of  a  deficit. 

Bonds      -----     Debt  and  bonds. 

Confederate  bonds  -  Suggestion  by  meaning. 
Jefferson  Davis  •  -  Juxtaposition  of  thought. 
Jefferson. 


I 


KT 


166 


THE    LOISETTE    MEMOKV    SYSTEM. 


"7 


Now  follow  out  the  rest  for  yourself,  taking  about  ten 
at  a  time,  and  binding  thou  you  do  last  lo  those  you 
nave  done  before  each  time,  before  attacking  the  next 
bunch. 


1 

9 

3 

.SON 

the  fraud 

the  heavy  shell 

lodge  Jeffreyi 

painted  clay 

mollusk 

1  v  assize 

baked  clay 

unfamiliar  word 

ivement 

tiles 

dictionary 

too  /irii-jv  a  Job 

Tyler 

-on's 

parental  grief 

Wat  Tyler 

Johnson 

mad  son 

poll  tax 

son 

Madison 

compulsory 

bad  son 

Madeira 

free  will 

dishonest  b 

first-rate  wine 

free  offering 

thievish  boy 

frustrating 

burnt  offering 

take 

defeating 

poker 

feet 

Polk 

Grant 

toe  the  line 

end  of  dance 

award 

row 

termination  "  ly" 
adverb 

school  premium 

Monroe 

examination 

row 

part  of  speech 

cramming 

boat 

part  of  a  man 

fagging 

steamer 

Taylor 

laborer 

the  funnel 

measurer 

hay  field 

windpipe 

theodolite 

11  AYES 

throat 

Theofhiltis 

hazy 

quinzy 

fill  us 

clear       Hv 

Quincy  Adams 

Fillmore 

vivid 

quince 

more  fuel 

brightly  lighted 

fine  fruit          .1. 

the  flame 

camp  fire 

the  fine  bov 

flambeau 

war  field 

sailor  boy 

bow 

Garfield 

sailor 

arrow 

Guiteau 

jack  tar 

Pierce 

murderer 

Jackson 

hurt 

prisoner 

stone  wall 

feeling 

prison  fare 

indomitable 

wound 

half  fed    V 

tough  make 

soldier 

well  fed 

oaken  furniture 

cannon 

well  read 

bureau 

Buchanan 

author 

Van  Buren 

rebuke 

Arthur 

rent 

official  censure 

round  table 

side-splitting 

to  officiate 

tea  table        - 

tea  cup      ,V 
half  full 

divert 

wedding 

annoy 

linked 

harassing 

Lincoln 

divide 

Harrison 

link 

cleave 

Old  Harry 

stroll 

Cleveland 

the  tempter 

sea  shore 

It  will  be  noted  that  some  of  the  date  words,  as  "free 
will,"  only  give  three  figures  of  flic  date,  S45;  but  it  is  to 
be  supposed  that  if  the  student  knows  that  many  figures 
in  the  date  of  Polk's  inauguration  he  can_  guess  the  other 
one. 

The  curious  thing  about  this  system  will  now  become 
apparent.  If  the  reader  has  learned  the  series  so  that  he 
can  say  it  down,  from  President  to  Cleveland,  he  can  with 
no  effort,  and  without  any  further  preparation,  sav  it 
backwards  from  Cleveland  up  to  the  commencement ! 
There  could  be  no  better  proof  that  this  is  the  natural 
mnemonic  system.     It  proves  itself  by  its  works. 

The  series  should  he  repeated  backwards  and  forwards 
eveVy  day  for  a  month,  and  it  should  lie  supplemented  bv  .1 
series  of  the  reader's  own  making,  and  by  this  one,  which 
gives  the  numbers  from  a  to  100.  and  which  must  In- 
chained  together  before  they  can  be  learned. 


O — hoes 

1 — wheat 

34 — mare 

67 — hockey 

2 — hen 

35— mill 

68 — kh 

3 — home 

30 — image 

69 — ship 

4 — hair 

37— mug 

'," — eggs 

5 — °" 

3S — muff 

71— -ate 

6 — shoe 

39 — mob 

"1-— '- 

7 — hook 
8— off 

40— race 

73— comb 

41 — hart 

74 — hawker 

9 — bee 

42 — horn 

75— coal 

10 — daisy- 

43 — armv 

70— cage 

II — tooth 

44 — warrior 

77— cake 

12— dine 

4S — roval 

78— coffee 

13 — time 

4I) — arch 

79 — cube 

14 — tower 

47 — rock 

15— dell 

.;S — wharf 

81— feet 

16— ditch 

4') — rope 

sj — \xin 

1 7 — duck 
iS — dove 

go — "heels 

:ine 

51—  lad 

s4— fire 

19 — tabby 

52 — lion 

85— vial 

20— hvenas 

?3 — lamb 

21 — hand 
22 — nun 

54— liar 
5e— lily 

23 — name 

iage 

So— fib 

24— owner 

^7 — lake 

00 — pies 

Ji — nail 

91 — putty 

z>> — hinge 

59 — t  i 

02 — pane 

27 — inkf 

(0— <  -l 

93 — bomb 

28— knife 

Oi — cheat 

94 — bier 

29 — knob 

62 — chain 

95 — bell 

30 — muse 

63 — sham 

31 — mayday 

f>4 — chair 

07 — book 

32 — hymen 

65— jail 

.  >s— beef 

33 — mama 

60 — judge 

yr-pope 

IOO — ii; 

By  the  use  of  this  table,  which  should  be  committed  as 
thoroughly  as  the  President  series,  so  that  it  can  be  re- 
peated backwards  and  forwards,  any  date,  figure  or  num- 
ber can  be  at  once  constructed,  and  bound  by  the  usual 
chain  to  the  fact  which  you  wish  it  to  accompany. 

When    the   student   wishes    to   go   farther   and   attack 
larger  problems  than  the  simple  binding  of  two   facts   to- 
.   there   is   little   in    I  m    that   is   new, 

although  there  is  much  that  is  good.  If  it  is  a  book  that 
is  to  be  learned  as  one  would  prepare  for  an  examination, 
each  chapter  is  to  be  considered  separately.  Of  each  a 
precis  is  to  be  written  in  which  the  writer  must  exercise- 
all  of  his  ingenuity  to  reduce  the  matter  in  hand  to  its 
final  skeleton  of  fact.  This  he  is  to  commit  to  memory 
both  by  the  use  of  the  chain  and  the  old  system  of  interro- 
gation. Suppose  after  much  labor  through  a  wide 
of  language  one  boils  a  chapter  or  an  event  down  to  the 
final  irreducible  sediment:  "Magna  Charta  was  exacted 
by  the  barons  from  King  John  at  Runnvmede." 

You  must  now  turn  this  statement  this  way  and  that 
way;  asking  yourself  about  it  every  possible  and  impossi- 
ble question,  gravely  considering  the  answers,  and,  if  you 
find  any  part  of  it  especially  difficult  to  remember,  chain- 
ing it  to  the  question  which  will  bring  it  out.  Thus, 
"  What  was  exacted  by  the  barons  from  King  John  at 
Runnvmcdcr"  "Magna  Charta."  "By  whom  w.i* 
Magna  Charta  exacted  from  King  John  at  Runnvmede?" 
"By  the  barons."     "  From  whom  wa 

John."      "From    what    king."    etc..    etc.?      "  King  John. 
"Where    TO    Magna   Charta,"  etc.,  etc.?     "At   Runnv- 
mede  " 

And  so  on  and  so  on,  as   long  as  your  ingenuity  can 
t  questions  to  ask,  or  points  of  view  from  which  to 


THE    LOISETTE    SYSTEM    OF    MEMORY. 

*r 


167 


consider  the  statement.  Your  mind  will  be  finally  satu- 
rated with  the  information;  and  prepared  to  spill  it  out  at 
the  first  squeeze  of  the  examiner.  This,  however,  is  not 
new.  It  was  taught  in  the  schools  hundreds  of  years  be- 
for  Loisette  was  born.  Old  newspaper  men  will  recall  in 
connection  with  it  Horace  Greeley's  statement  that  the  test 
of  a  news  item  was  the  clear  and  satisfactory  manner  in 
which  a  report  answered  the  interrogatories,  "What?" 
"When?"  "Where?"  "Who?"  "Why?" 

In  the  same  way  Loisette  advises  the  learning  of  poetrv, 

"The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold.1* 

"  Who  came  down?" 

"  How  did  the  Assyrian  come  down?" 

"  Like  what  animal  did?"  etc. 

And  so  on  and  so  on.  until  the  verses  are  exhausted  of 
every  scrap  of  information  to  be  had  out  of  them  by  the 
most  assiduous  cross-examination. 

Whatever  the  reader  may  think  of  the  availibilitv  or 
value  of  this  part  of  the  system,  there  are  so  many  easily 
applicable  tests  of  the  worth  of  much  that  Loisette  has 
done,  that  it  may  be  taken  with  the  rest. 

Few  people,  to  give  an  easy  example,  can  remember  the 
value  of  IT— the  ratio  between  the  circumference  and  the 
diameter  of  the  circle — beyond  four  places  of  decimals,  or 
at  most  five — 3.  1415924-."  Here  is  the  value  to  108  deci- 
mal places: 

3.  I4i59-6.V35S979323S-46264338;>J705OjSS4I97i6939937 
5-i05S20974944592307Si -6406286208 -i^)S62So34S-J5342i 
170679S2 148086+ 

By  a  very  simple  application  of  the  numerical  letter 
values,  these  108  decimal  places  can  be  carried  in  the  mind 
and  recalled  about  as  fast  as  you  can  write  them  down. 
All  that  is  to  be  done  is  to  memorize  these  nonsense  lines: 

Jlother  Day  will  bV  any  shawl. 

My  love  pick  up  my  new  muff. 

A  Russian  jeer  may  move  a  woman. 

Cables  enough  for  Utopia. 

Get  a  cheap  ham  pie  by  my  cooley. 

The  slave  knows  a  bigger  ape. 

I  rarely  hop  on  my  sick  foot. 


Cheer  a  sage  in  a  fashion  safe. 
A  baby  fish  now  views  my  wharf. 
Annually  Mary  Ann  did  kiss  a  jay. 
A  cabby  found  a  rough  savage. 

Now  translate  each  significant  into  its  proper  value  and 
you  have  the  task  accomplished.  "Mother  Day,"  in  =  3, 
///  =  1,  >-=  4,  rf=  1,  and  so  on.  Learn  the  lines  one  at  a 
time  by  the  method  of  interrogatories.  ''Who  will  buy 
any  shawl?"  Which  Mrs.  Day  will  buy  a  shawl?"  "Is 
Mother  Day  particular  about  the  sort  of  shawl  she  will 
buy?"  "Has  she  bought  a  shawj?"  etc.,  etc.  Then  ce- 
ment the  end  of  each  line  to  the  beginning  of  the  next 
one,  thus,  "Shawl" — "warm  garment" — "warmth" — 
"love" — "my  love,"  and  go  on  as  before.  Stupid  as  the 
work  may  seem  to  you,  you  can  memorize  the  figures  in 
fifteen  minutes  this  way  so  that  you  will  not  forget  them 
in  fifteen  years.  Similarly  you  can  take  Haydn's  Dic- 
tionary of  Dates  and  turn  fact  after  fact  into  nonsense 
lines  like  these  which  you  cannot  lose. 

And  this  ought  to  be  enough  to  show  anybody  the 
whole  art.  If  you  look  back  across  the  sands  of  time  and 
find  out  that  it  is  that  ridiculous  old  "Thirty  days  hath 
September  "  which  comes  to  you  when  you  are  trying  to 
think  of  the  length  of  October — if  you  can  quote  your  old 
prosody, 

"O  datur  ambiguis,'1  etc., 

with  much  more  certainty  than  you  can  serve  up  your 
Horace;  if,  in  fine,  jingles  and  alliterations,  wise  and  other- 
wise, have  stayed  with  you,  while  solid  and  serviceable  in- 
formation has  faded  away,  you  may  be  certain  that  here 
is  the  key  to  the  enigma  of  memory. 

You  can  apply  it  yourself  in  a  hundred  wavs.  If  you 
wish  to  clinch  in  your"mind  the  fact  that  Mr.  Love  lives 
at  4S5  Dearborn  Street,  what  is  more  easy  than  to  turn 
4S5  into  the  word  "  rifle "  and  chain  the  ideas  together, 
say  thus:  "Love — happiness — good  time — picnic — forest 
— wood  rangers — range — rifle  range — rifle — fine  weapon 
— costly  weapon — dearly  bought — Dearborn." 

Or  if  you  wish  to  remember  Mr.  Bowman's  name,  and 
you  notice  he  has  a  mole  on  his  face  which  is  apt  to  at- 
tract your  attention  when  you  next  see  him,  cement  the 
ideas  thus:  "  Mole,  mark,  target,  archer,  Bowman."    yr*-*- 


K 


168 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


ftfE  ART  op 


^^  AMD  DOUBUe  ^ 


The  Two  Systems  Compared  Side  by  Side. 


00K- KEEPING  is  the 
art  of  recording  business 
transactions  in  a  system- 
atic manner,  so  that  the 
results  will  be  readily  ap- 
parent, and  so  that  the  con- 
dition of  the  business,  as 
to  its  resources  and  liabil- 
ities, losses  and  gains, 
may  be  ascertained  with  ease  and 
exactness.  A  knowledge  of  the 
science  of  accounts  is  necessary  to 
all  men,  no  matter  in  what  business 
they  may  be  engaged.  It  is  especially 
valuable  as  it  is  demanded  in  every 
position  in  life.  There  are  two  sys- 
tems of  Book-keeping,  Single  Entry 
and  Double  Entry.  The  former  is 
mainly  used  where  transactions  are 
limited  to  the  business  of  retail  dealers,  and 
where  it  is  only  necessary  to  record  the  details 
of  purchases  and  sales  for  cash  or  credit.  A 
single  entry  of  the  account  in  the  Ledger  is  am- 
ple for  the  purpose  of  a  record.  But  where 
business  is  done  on  a  large  scale,  such  as  per- 
tains to  a  wholesale  house,  it  becomes  necessary 


to  have  recourse  to  the  more  satisfactory  though 
more  intricate  system  of  Double  Entry.  Instead 
of  making  only  one  entry  of  a  transaction,  as 
in  the  simpler  method,  two  are  made — first  on 
the  Dr.  or  Cr.  side  of  one  account,  and  again  on 
the  contrary  side  of  some  other  account.  The 
advantage  of  this  double  entry  is  that  the  mer- 
chant can  always  inform  himself  of  the  exact 
state  of  each  account,  and  not  alone  of  the 
goods  sold,  but  of  what  he  has  on  hand,  without 
the  inconvenience  of  often  taking  an  account  of 
stock.  Then  again  it  is  a  check  by  which  errors 
may  be  easily  detected. 

Books  Used  in  Single  Entry. 

In  Single  Entry  only  three  books  are  neces- 
sary— Cash-Book,  Day-Book  and  Ledger.  All 
moneys  received  or  paid  out  are  entered  in  the 
Cash-Book.  If  goods  are  purchased  for  cash, 
the  money  being  paid  away,  the  entry  is  made 
on  the  Cr.  side,  "  By  Merchandise  per  Day- 
Book."  The  cash  should  be  balanced  as  soon 
after  the  last  day  of  the  month  as  possible. 

A  record  of  the  transactions  of  each  and 
every  day  in  the  order  in  which  they  take  place 
should  be  entered  in  the  Day-Book.   The  name 


-r 


BOOK-KEEPING. 

_k 


169 


of  the  customer  is  entered  in  full,  with  the  term 
Dr.  or  Cr.  annexed,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  transaction — Dr.  when  goods  are  sold  to 
him,  and  Cr.  when  goods  are  bought  or  received 
from  him.  The  date  of  each  entry  must  be  in- 
serted, and  the  names  and  addresses  of  custom- 
ers written  in  full.  Goods  purchased  or  received 
on  credit  are  entered  under  Cr.,  and  the  entry 
preceded  by  the  word  "  By."  When  goods  are 
sold  on  credit  add  "  Dr."  to  the  person's  name 
and  residence,  and  begin  the  entry  with  the 
word  "  To."  When  abatement  for  discount  or 
short  measure  is  allowed  by  you,  enter  the 
person  Cr.,  and  when  similar  allowance  is 
made  to  you,  enter  the  person  Dr. 

Every  transaction  is  entered  in  the  Ledger 
from  all  other  books,  with  certain  references, 
indicating  the  sources  from  which  the  items  are 
derived.  Each  customer's  name  has  a  certain 
space  allotted  to  it,  in  which  the  goods  sold  ap- 
pear on  the  Dr.  side  and  the  cash  received  on 
the    Cr.  side. 

Books  Used  in  Double  Entry. 

In  Double  Entry  the  principal  books  used  are 
the  Day-Book,  Cash-Book,  Journal  and  Ledger. 
The  first-named  book  should  contain  the  prin- 
cipal transactions  occurring  in  the  various  stages 
of  business.  Entries  should  be  fully  intelligible, 
from  the  fact  that  it  contains  the  greater  portion 
of  the  matter  from  which  the  other  books  are 
made.  All  transactions  in  which  cash  has  any 
part  must  be  entered  in  the  Cash-Book  at  the 
time  they  occur,  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
entries  are  made  in  the  Day-Book.  In  the 
Journal  are  entered  and  methodically  arranged 
the  scattered  items  of  the  Cash-Book  and  Day- 
Book. 

The  Ledger  is  the  most  important  of  all  the 
books  in  the  series,  and  into  it  are  transferred 
the  entries  from  the  Journal,  under  their  separ- 
ate heads.  To  facilitate  the  finding  of  particu- 
lar accounts,  an  index-book  is  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Ledger,  in  which  the  names  are 
alphabetically  arranged,  with  the  number  of  the 


page  of  the  Ledger  opposite  each.  The  very 
important  fact  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  that 
every  item  is  entered  twice,  once  on  the  Dr. 
side  of  one  account,  and  or^ce  on  the  Cr.  side  of 
another  account. 

How  Entries  are  Ifcade. 

If  a  person  buys  merchandise  to  the  amount 
of  $1,000,  for  which  he  pays  cash,  the  entry 
would  be  made  as  follows : 


Merchandise,  Dr. 


To  Cash 


$1,00000 


$1,00000 


The  first  entry  shows  what  the  merchandise 
has  cost  him,  and  the  second  shows  that  he  has 
paid  away  cash  amounting  to  #1,000.  Accounts 
are  opened  with  Cash,  Merchandise,  Bills  Paya- 
ble, Bills  Receivable,  Interest,  Commission,  etc., 
in  the  same  manner  as  personal  accounts  are 
treated  in  the  Single  Entry  Ledger,  all  items 
received  or  disbursed  being  debited  and  credit- 
ed to  their  account.  To  make  it  still  plainer, 
suppose  George  Smith  sells  a  quantity  of  goods 
to  Peter  Aylmer,  and  charges  him  $50  commis- 
sion ;  the  entry  would  be  made  in  this  fashion  : 


Peter  Aylmer,  Dr. 


To  Commission 


$5000 


$5000 


If  the  same  party  owed  Aylmer  the  same  sum 
of  money  and  gave  him  a  note  for  the  amount 
with  #5.00  interest  added,  it  would  be  entered 
thus: 


Sundries 

Peter  Aylmer 
Interest 


To  Bills  Payable 


$5000 
500 


$SS'oo 


There  are  two  styles  of  accounts,  Real  and 
Representative.  The  latter  class  embraces  such 
as  Commission,  Interest,  etc.,  and  should  be  deb- 
ited and  credited  for  what  they  cost  or  pro- 
duce. By  doing  this,  when  the  books  are  bal- 
anced a  person  can  tell  at  once  exactly  what 
these  representative  accounts  have  cost  or  pro- 
duced. 

How  to  Detect  Errors. 

It  is  customary  among  merchants  to  have  a 
set  time  for  the  adjustment  of  their  account 


7. 


o  "V 


170 


HOOK-KEEPING. 


t. 


. 


books,  and  for  this  it  is  necessary,  before  tak- 
ing a  general  balance,  to  prove  the  posting  of 
the  Ledger  by  taking  a  trial  balance.  To  do 
this  the  accountant  adds  all  the  Dr.  sides  into 
one  sum,  and  all  the  Cr.  sides  into  another. 
When  the  Ledger  has  been  correctly  posted 
these  two  sums  will  be  equal ;  but  if  they  do 
hot  balance  the  cause  of  the  difference  must  be 
looked  up  at  once.  Sometimes  a  sum  is  enter- 
ed to  a  different  account  than  the  one  to  which 
it  belongs,  but  on  the  same  side,  and  the  sums 
will  still  agree.  To  find  such  an  error  as  this, 
the  Journal  and  Ledger  should  be  compared  by 
two  persons,  the  one  reading  from  the  Journal, 
and  the  other  scanning  the  accounts  in  the 
Ledger,  and  checking  them  when  correct. 
When  a  Journal  entry  is  omitted  or  twice  en- 
tered in  the  Ledger,  the  summing  up  of  the 
latter  will  not  show  the  error.  To  find  it,  how- 
ever, it  is  necessary  to  foot  up  the  Cash  re- 
ceived, Cash  paid,  Bills  Receivable,  Bills  Payable 
and  Day-Book  entries,  and  the  sum  will  always 
agree  with  that  side  of  the  Ledger  which  is  cor- 
rect, leading  easily  to  the  detection  of  the  error. 

How  Errors  are  Made. 

Very  frequently  errors  are  made  in  journal- 
izing the  subsidiary  books  and  in  posting  the 
Ledger,  such  as  debiting  or  crediting  one  per- 
son or  account  in  place  of  another;  omitting 
entries ;  making  the  sum  too  large  or  too  small, 
etc.  Immediate  attention  should  be  paid  to  er- 
rors of  this  kind,  not  by  an  erasure  or  interlin- 
eation, but  an  explanatory  entry  in  the  Day- 
Book.  That  is  then  to  be  journalized  like  a 
regular  transaction  and  posted  in  the  Ledger. 
For  instance,  in  the  Ledger  of  May  ioth,  Rich- 
ard Klotz  is  debited  to  Bills  Payable,  but  on  the 
30th  of  May  it  is  found  that  this  entry  should 
have  been  posted  to  John  Dobbins'  account. 
John  Dobbins  is  therefore  debited  to  Richard 
Klotz  in  the  Day-Book,  and  the  mistake  is 
thereby  explained.  If,  any  account  has  been 
overposted,  it  must  be  either  debited  or  credited 
for  the  excess;  and  if  it  has  been  underposted, 


a  new  entry  must  be  made  upon  the  same  side 
for  the  deficiency.  When  an  entry  has  been 
entirely  omitted,  it  must  be  made  as  soon  as 
discovered,  mentioning  when  omitted.  When 
an  entry  has  been  posted  twice,  it  may  be  cor- 
rected by  entering  the  amount  on  the  other  side, 
noting  the  fact  of  its  being  twice  posted.  The 
greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  mak- 
ing original  entries,  as  they  are  the  1 
dangerous  of  all.  Balancing  books  should  not 
be  delayed  beyond  a  specified  time,  for,  the 
longer  the  time,  the  more  difficult  the  correction 
of  an  error.  Where  an  account  has  been  under- 
paid for  a  year  or  so  the  person  may  have  sub- 
sequently died,  failed,  retired  from  business,  or 
otherwise  become  inaccessible.  Thus  a  positive 
loss  is  sustained  which  might  otherwise  have 
been  avoided. 

Subsidiary  Books. 

Among  the  subsidiary  books  generally  used 
is  the  Petty  Cash-Book,  in  which  a  record  is 
kept  of  the  various  charges  incurred  in  trade, 
too  trifling  to  be  entered  separately  in  the  Cash- 
Book.  This  book  is  balanced  monthly,  and  the 
total  amount  of  expenditures  transferred  to  the 
Cash-Book  under  the  head  of  Petty  Cash.  The 
Bill-Book  is  used  in  the  same  manner  in  Single 
and  Double  Entry.  A  separate  book  should  be 
kept  for  Bills  Receivable  and  Bills  Payable. 
When  a  note  is  received  it  should  be  imme- 
diately entered  under  the  head  of  Bills  Receiv- 
able and  duly  numbered ;  and  when  a  draft  is 
accepted,  or  note  paid  away,  it  should  be  en- 
tered as  Bills  Payable. 

In  some  cases  merchants  keep  a  Cash  account 
and  Bank  account  separately.  Thus,  if  they 
have  $5,000  on  hand  in  cash  and  should  deposit 
$1,000  of  it  in  the  First  National  Bank,  they 
would  debit  or  charge  the  bank  with  the  amount 
and  credit  Cash  for  the  amount  paid  away,  and 
when  they  draw  any  portion.from  the  bank  they 
credit  the  bank  with  the  amount  and  debit  Cash 
with  it ;  or,  if  it  is  paid  away  to  any  person,  he  is 
charged  with  it.      In  large  establishments  the 


/* 


NT 


V 


X 


OOK-K.EEPING. 


171 


Bank  account  is  frequently  kept  in  a  separ- 
ate book. 


-em}    THE  TWO  SYSTEMS. 


In  the  following  pages  are  given  three  sets  of 
accounts,  exemplifying  thoroughly  the  theory 
and  practice  of  Single  Entry  and  Double  Entry 
Book-keeping. 

Of  the  Double  Entry  sets,  the  first  is  a  very 
simple  one,  and  designed  to  prepare  the  student 
for  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  second,  in 
which  has  been  introduced  the  feature  of  com- 
bining the  Journal  and  Day-Book,  and  which 
also  presents  two  methods  of  closing  the  Led- 
ger, as  will  be  explained  further  on. 

The  Cash-Book,  in  Double  as  well  as  in  Sin- 
gle Entry,  shows  on  the  debit  side  all  cash  re- 
ceived and  on  the  credit  side  the  cash  paid  out, 
and  the  excess  of  debit  consequently  shows  the 
exact  amount  of  cash  on  hand.  The  form  used 
in  both  systems  is  the  same,  with  this  exception, 
that  in  Double  Entry,  where  the  posting  is  done 
direct  from  the  Cash-Book,  a  column  is  ruled  off 
next  to  the  date  column  to  show  the  folio  of  the 
Ledger.  The  balances  may  be  brought  down 
weekly,  but  when  the  entries  are  numerous  it 
would  be  better  to  balance  the  Cash  account 
daily.  Money  received  or  paid  on  account  is 
entered  in  the  Cash-Book  as  well  as  the  Day- 
Book. 

The  first  and  last  thing  to  remember  in  study- 
ing Book-keeping  is  that 

The  thing  received  is  Dr. 
The  thing  delivered  is  Cr. 


Or, 


What  you  owe  is  Cr. 
What  owes  you  is  Dr. 

Debit  what  costs  value. 
Credit  what  produces  value. 


Book-Keeping  by  Single  Entry. 

In  the  pages  immediately  following  we  pre- 
sent to  the  student  a  set  of  books  kept  by  Single 
Entry. 

The  Day-Book  affords  a  regular  daily  history 
of  every  transaction,  giving  details  and  particu- 
lars. The  entries  in  the  book  are  direct 
and  simple,  first  stating  the  name  of  the  person 
to  be  debited  or  credited  on  the  Ledger,  ex- 
pressed, respectively,  by  "Dr."  and  "  Cr.,"  and 
giving  the  consideration  and  amount.  These 
entries  are  transferred  under  the  proper  heads 
in  the  Ledger,  which  in  Single  Entry  exhibits 
the  relation  in  which  persons  with  whom  we 
deal  stand  to  the  business.  An  account  in  the 
Ledger  should  be  transferred  to  a  new  folio  be- 
fore it  crowds  upon  the  one  below  it. 

The  Day-Book  and  Ledger  contain  only 
transactions  relating  to  persons.  A  prudent 
business  man,  however,  will  feel  the  necessity  of 
keeping  a  record  of  receipts  and  disbursements 
of  cash,  the  issue  and  redemption  of  his  own 
notes  and  the  receipt  and  disposition  of  the 
notes  of  others,  and  for  this  purpose  will  keep  a 
Cash-Book  and  a  Bill-Book.  The  Cash-Book  is 
here  given  in  full.  In  view  of  the  thorough  ex- 
planations appended,  the  form  of  the  auxiliary 
books  is  not  given. 

The  words  and  figures  in  italics  would  in 
practice  be  entered  in  red  ink,  as  illustrated  in 
the  Double  Entry  sets. 


^J 


:72 


SINGLE    ENTRY    CASH-BOOK. 


SINGLE  ENTRY  CASH-BOOK. 


Dr. 


Cash. 


iss3. 

Nov. 


Nov. 


To  Charles  Evans,  invested  by  him 
"   Thomas  J  effers,       "        "    " 
"    Edgar  Hatch,  on  « 


To  Balance  on  hand  from  3d  inst, 
"    I  Bureau,  Mahogany  Veneered 

"   Bills  Receivable,  Martin  Stevens'  Note,  Evans'  favor. 
"  John  Roberts,  Arm  Chair  fo*  Office 


$  V>  00 

6»StoS 

60  00 

&  at 

»  CO 

IJ500 
500 


Nov. 


Nov. 


>4 
16 


'7 


To  Balance  on  hand  from  loth  inst. 
"    1  Pint  of  Varnish 
"   Standing  Cupboard 
"    1  Reclining  Chair 
"  3  Ottomans 
"   1  Walnut  Bedstead. 


19         To  Balance  on  hand  from  17th  inst. 

aa  "   Steamboat  Vint  Shlnkle,  part  Bill  of  data 


M  ,- 

64S60 

5» 

7S 

J5  00 

7  OS 

45° 
6S63S 

R)  --3 

15000 


74- 


•3 


Nov. 


ISS3- 
Dec. 


26 


30 


To  Balance  on  hand  from  24th  inst. 

*'  a   Mahogany  Bocking  Chairs  Walnut,  ®  $u. 50 

"  1   Walnut  Bedsteads,  ®      4.50 

"  1  Doz.  Cane-Seat  Walnut  Chairs  24JJ0 

«  t  Child's  High  Chair  1.15 

"         "        Rocking    "  i.»S 

"  Edgar  Hatch,  in  full 

"  Repairing  Tables 
■  "         Chair* 


To  Balance  from  Nov.  30th,  iSSj 


474  83 
«5  00 

900 


»«50 


6J 

a 
■ 

tea  1 

47" 


SINGLE    *NTRY    CASH-BOOK. 


173 


:^ 


~A 


SINGLE  ENTRY  CASH-BOQK. 


Cash. 


Cr. 


1883. 

Nov. 


Nov. 


24 


By  C.  R.  George,  Bill  of  Lumber 
"  Bill  of  Coal 
"  Balance  in  Bank  $650,  in  Safe  $24.98 


By  Joseph  Maynes,  Bricklayer,  Repairs  to  House 
"  James  Wright,  Painting  House 
"  Samuel  Hudson,  in  full  of  0 
"  One  pair  of  Pinchers 
"  Wages  paid  hands 
"  Balance  in  Bank  $620,  in  Safe  $18.60 


16  By  Samuel  Hudson,  part  Bill  of  Paints,  etc. 

17  "  Wages  paid  hands 
"  Balance  in  Bank  $jaj.J0,  in  Safe  $72.73 


By  Bills  Payable,  Evans'  Note,  Smith's  favor, 
Less  Discount  from  date  to  J  an.  6thf  1S83 
"  Charles  Evans  on  <t 
"  Bill  of  Varnish 
"  Gas  Bill 

"  Drayage  of  Furniture 
"  Wages  paid  hands 
"  Balance  in  Bank  $470,  in  Safe  $4.83 


$200.00 
'■5° 


27        By  Bill  of  Veneering 
29  "  Thomas  Jeffers,  on  f 

"  Glazing  one  Light  of  Glass 

"  Rent  of  Shop,  one  month 

"  Wages  paid  hands 

'*  Balance  in  Bank  $ 460.JO,  in  Safe  $11.48 


$75(«° 

7  5° 
67/9S 

75S,°S 


5' 5° 
21  00 
6700 
3« 
Sl\S° 
64860 


82698 


So.oo 

38  u 

SQ&'3 


686  35 


198S0 


»3 
>4 

36 

474 


74S,23 


25  60 

2S|oO 

25 

40  CO 

39!25 
47' OS 


602  oS 


K" 


'74- 


SINGLE    ENTRY    DAY-BOOK. 


. 


fe- 


SINGLE  ENTRY  DAYBOOK. 

St.  Louis,  November  istt  1883. 


Charles  Evans,  Cabinet-Maker,  associates  with  himself  Thomas  J  enters  —  Evans  transferring  to  the  firm  such  portion 
of  his  resources  and  liabilities  as  is  mutually  agreed  upon,  and  Jeffcrs  investing  their  equivalent  in  Cu>h. 
The  parties  are  to  share  alike  in  gains  and  losses. 


Charles  Evans, 

By  Cash  invested 

"    Sundry  Notes  he  holds  against  others,  per  B.-B. 
"    BaJ.  of  Edgar  Hatch's  f 
11      "     Maurice  Perry's  f 

H    Materials  and  Unfinished  work,  as  per  Inventory 
"  Stock  of  Furniture,  "  " 

"         **         Tools,  "  " 


To  Sundry  Notes  he  owes,  per  B.-B, 
11    Bal.  due  Samuel  Hudson,  on    $ 
**  "        Richard  Kelso  &  Co.,  on  f 


Dr. 


Thomas  Jeffcrs, 
*  By  Cash  invested 


Edgar  Hatch, 

To  Bal.  of  his  f  due  Charles  Evans 

Maurice  Perry, 

To  Bal.  of  his  Jf  due  Charles  Evans 

Samuel  Hudson, 

By  Bal.  of  Charles  Evans*  ^  assumed  by  us 

Richard  Kelso  &  Co., 

By  Bal.  of  Charles  Evans*  ^  assumed  by  us 

Edgar  Hatch, 

To  1  Hair  Cloth  Mahogany  Sofa 

By  Cash  on  * 


3& 

Cr. 

5th 


Peter  Fowler, 

To  9  Mahogany  Chairs,  Cane-Seats,  (cb  $1.25 
"   6         "  "        Hair-Cloth  Seats,  (3  3.00 

"    2  Cherry  Dining  Tables,  (cb  6.00 
M    I  Maple  French  Bedstead 
"    1      "       Low-Post  Bedstead 
^ _^_^__-_^       •< 
Osmond  K;iy, 

To  1  doz.  Windsor  Chairs 

li       1  <«  H  H 

"  4    "         "  " 

"    1  Spring-Seat  Black  Walnut  Sofa 


Samuel  Hudson, 

To  Cash  in  full 


Richard  Kelso  &  Co., 

By  Bill  of  Lumber 

To  our  Note  ®  30  days  In  full  of  their  0 

Edgar  Hatch, 

To  1  Ash  Footstool 


Andrew  Cummins, 

To  3  Patent  Office  Chairs  «  5.00 


Sth 
9th 
Dr. 


Cr. 


Cr. 


Dr. 


Cr. 


Cr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


50.00 

350.00 

SS-73 

37-+0 

356.50 

a>o-« 
151.20 

421.00 
67.00 
75*> 


11.25 
1S.00 
12.00 
4-»5 
»-7S 


Dr. 

J 12. 00 
« $15.00  7.50 
•*     10^0       5.00 

21.00 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


1,21! 
5«3 

6+8 
55 

37 
67 
75 

JO 

60 


75 


t> 


>S 


45 


jo 


■35 

210 


V_ 


-X 


hi 


SINGLE    ENTRY    DAY-BOOK. 


Li- 


175 


7f 


SINGLE  ENTRY  DAY-BOOK. 

5A  Lotas,  Nwember  I2th%  1883. 


Edgar  Hatch, 

To  1  Red  Walnut  Dining  Table 

Francis  Watkins, 

To  2  Children's  Low  Chairs,  <d>  $2.00 

John  A.  Crowe, 

To  3  do*.  Windsor  Chairs,  ®  $n.od 
'*    1  Hocking  Chair 

Edgar  Hatch, 

To  4  of  Osmond  Ray,  assumed  by  him 

Osmond  Ray, 

By  transfer  of  f  to  Edgar  Hatch 

Samuel  Hudson, 

By  Bill  of  Paints,  Varnish,  etc. 

To  Cash  In  part 

Francis  Watkins, 

To  1  Walnut  Book-case 

Edgar  Hatch, 

To  1  Hat-stand,  Mahogany  Veneered 

Francis  Watkins, 

To  Varnishing  i  Table 

Steamboat  Vint  Shinkle, 

To  3  Mahogany  Sofas,  <cb  $15.00 

w     2           "            Tete-a-Tetes,  "  16.00 
"      1             '*             Rocking  Chair 

'*     4           "            Arm  Chairs,  '*  8.00 

M     2  doz.  u            Chairs,  M  30.00 

"    14  Cherry  Wash-stands,  M  2.00 

"    14  Looking-glasses,  "  2.00 

By  Cash  in  part  payment 

Charles  Evans, 

To  Cash  on  4 

A.  E.  Ford, 

By  Bill  of  Lumber 

Edgar  Hatch, 

To  1  Mahogany  Bureau,  with  Glass 

Thonuis  Jeffers, 

To  Cash  on  4 


13th 


15th 


16th 


Dr. 


19th 


20th 


22  d 


Cr. 

23d 


26th 


—     29th 


John  A.  Crowe, 

To  1  Mahogany  Bureau 


Francis  Watkins, 

To  1  Black  Walnut  Centre  Table 


30th 


John  A.  Crowe, 

By  1  Mahogany  Bureau,  returned  because  it  was  too  large  for  the  room 


Edgar  Hatch, 

By  his  Note  f3>  60  days 
"    Cash  to  Bal.  i 


Dr. 


Cr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Cr. 


0.00 


$45.00 
32.00 
12.00 
32.00 
60.00 
2S.00 
2S.00 


$75.00 
62.75 


42 


50 


26 


50 


J37 


75 


7- 


rK 


176 


SINGLE    ENTRY    LEDGER. 


" 


Dr. 


SINGLE  ENTRY  LEDGER. 

Charles  Evans. 


Cr. 


ISS3. 

Nov. 

: 

To  Sundries 
"  Met  Capital  at  starting 

I 
2 

|63 
04S 

20 

18S3. 
Nov. 

1883. 
Nov, 

1883. 
Dec. 

■ 

By  Sundries 

By  Net  Cap.  brought  down 
"  j  Net  Gains 

I 

1,111 

- 

1883. 

1,211 

1,111 

2J 

Nov. 

M 

»3 
30 

To  Cash  on  0 
"  Ntt  Cap.  to  New  f 

lO 

77* 
78S 

00 

38 

I 

3° 

14030 

J* 

fi 

I 

By  Net  Cap.  from  old  * 

77'  3^ 

Dr. 


Thomas  Jeffers. 


Cr. 


I8S3. 

Nov. 

H 

29 
3° 

To  Cash  on  t 
"    JVtt  Cap.  to  Nra  f 

2 

»5 
703 

00 

38 

18S3. 
Nov. 

1883. 
Dec. 

3° 

By  Cash  Invested 
■*.  4  Ntt  Gain* 

By  Net  Cap.  from  old  < 

1 

648'  oS 
14030 

7* 

7~*3i_ 

1 

J63J3S 

n 

r. 

Edgar 

Hatch. 

Cr 

x883. 

Nov. 
m 

1 
3 
9 
12 

>5 

To  Charles  Evans 
**  Sofa 
"  Footstool 
"  Dining  Tablo 
"  Osmond  Ray 

Am't  to  folio 

55 
20 
1 
4° 
45 

75 

00 

50 

00 

50.^ 

7S 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

1 

By  Cash 

Am't  to  folio 

1 
* 

6000 

ibs 

00 

00 

Dr. 


Maurice  Perry. 


Cr. 


Nov. 


To  Charles  Evans 


37 


Dr. 


Samuel  Hudson. 


Cr. 


1883. 

Nov. 

8 

To  Cash 

To  Cash 
"  Sal.  to  New  i 

1 

67 

00 
00 

26 

1883. 

Nov, 
1S83. 
Nov. 

1S83. 
Dec. 

I 

By  Charles  Evans 
By  Bill  of  date 

By  Bal.  from  Old  1 

t 
1 

67 

00 

1883. 

Nov. 

16 
3° 

J 

So 
»S 

16 

'75 

26 

■75 

'7; 

20 

t 

»5 

26 

Dr. 


Richard  Kelso  &  Co. 


Cr. 


1883. 

Nov. 

9 

To  Bills  Payable 

1 

210 

.•0 

.'0 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

1 
9 

By  Charles  Evans 
•'  Bill  of  data 

1 
1 

75 

SO 

0 

•U 

tic 

20 

Dr. 


Peter  Fowler. 


Cr. 


1883. 

Nov. 


To  Sundries 


V 


1 

<?         - 

-            « 

^ 

1 
1 

\ 

y 

SINGLE    ENTRY    LEDGER.                                                                                          '77 

» 

Dr. 

SINGLE  ENTRY   LEDGER. 

Osmond  Ray.                                                                 Cr. 

.833. 
Mov. 

s 

To  Sundries 

1 

45  50 

18S3. 
Nov. 

■S 

By  Edgar  Hatch 

2 

45 

SO 

Dr. 

Andretv  Cummins.                                                          Cr. 

iss3. 

Nov. 

9 

To  Office  Chairs 

1 

■5°° 

ZV. 

Francis  Watkins.                                                              Cr. 

ISS3. 

Nov. 

lo 

20 

To  Children's  Chairs 
**  Book-case 
**  Varnishing 

2 
2 
2 

4;oo 

i>  00 

fag 

18S3. 
Nov. 

20 

By  Bal.  to  folio 

2 

"9 

50 

'9  50 

■9 

50 

1 

Dr. 

John  A.  Crowe.                                                               Cr. 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

1SS3. 
Dec. 

•3 
29 

1 

To  Sundries 

"    Bureau 

To  Bal.  from  Old  * 

2 

2 

42 
'9 

0O 
OO 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

30 
3" 

By  Bureau 
''  Bal.  to  New  y 

2 

"9 
42 

00 
00 

00 

61 

00 

61 

4* 

z>. 

Edgar  Hatch.                                                                 Cr. 

< 
.  a 

ISS3. 

Nov. 

'5 
*9 
26 

To  Am't  from  folio 
"  Hat-stand 
"  Bureau 

1 
2 

2 

162 
10 

25 

75 
00 
00 

18S3. 
Nov. 

15 
30 

By  Am't  from  folio 
Sundries 

1 

2 

60 
'37 

00 

75 

■97 

75 

■97 

75 

Dr. 

Steamboat  Vint  Shinkle.                                                           Cr. 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

1SS3. 
Dec. 

22 

1 

To  Sundries 

To  Bal.  from  Old  * 

2 

23700 

1S83. 
Nov. 

22 
30 

By  Cash 
'•  Bal.  to  New  i 

2 

% 

CO 

00 
00 

237  00 

237 

S7 

00 

Dr. 

A.  E.  Ford.                                                                   Cr. 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

23 

By  Bill  <A  date 

2 

96 

40 

Dr. 

Francis  Watkins.                                                              Cr. 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

1SS3. 
Dec. 

20 

30 

1 

To  Bal.  from  folio 
"  Centre  Table 

To  Bal.  from  Old   t 

2 

2 

'9 

'5 

5° 

00 

50- 

1SS3. 
Nov. 

30 

By  Bal.  to  New  f 

\ 

34 

50 

34 

34 

SO 



34I50 

> 

k 

a 

15                ~ 

12 

:^=5 

V 


i7» 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


4 


DEDUCTIONS. 


UNSETTLED  BALANCES  ON  THE  LEDGER. 


DEBTS  DUE  THE  FIRM. 


Maurice  Perry 
Peter  Fowler 
Andrew  Cummins 
John  A.  Crowe 
Steamboat  Vint  Shinkle 
Francis  Watkins 


37  40 
4825 

'5 

4> 
87 
34  50 


264 


1$ 


DEBTS   THE    FIRM   OWE. 


Samuel  Hudson 
A.  E.  Ford 


»5 
9640 


221  66 


The  above  Ledger  balances,  together  with  the  auxiliary  books,  furnish  the  material  for  the  following  statement  i 

ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES. 


ASSETS. 

LIABILITIES. 

Cash  on  hand  per  C.-B. 
Debts  due  the  firm  per  Ledger 
Bills  Receivable  per  B.-B. 
Furniture  per  Invt.  Book                9 
Materials,  etc.,  per  Invt.  Book 
Tools,  per  Invt.  Book 

47. 

*4 
300 
776 
»39 
14' 

9S 
«J 

75 
79 
95 

Debts  the  firm  owe  per  Ledger 
Bills  Payable  per  B.-B. 

Total  liabilities 

m 

43' 

66 

Total  assets 
Deduct  liabilities 

»."94°» 

65*86 

6p 

Firm's  net  capital  or  present  worth 

■.54' 

76 

ASSETS,  INCLUDING  PARTNERS'  DEBITS. 


Total  assets  per  above  stati-im-nt 
Cash  paid  Charles  Evans 
"  Thomas  Jcffers 


Firm's  net  gains 

Each  partner's  *,' k=  $  1 40.30. 


Deduct 


2,104:61 

,0 
»5 


2,22o62 

>.949!°» 


2S060 


LIABILITIES,  INCHDIM;  PARTNERS'  INVESTMENTS. 


Total  liabilities  per  above  statement 
Cli.irli-s  Kvans'  investment 
Thomas  Jcffers'  investment 


652 
64S 

64S 


>,•*■ 


• 


K" 


■71 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


179 


HE  distinguishing  feature  of  Double  Entry 
is  in  carrying  out  a  mathematical  principle 
of  equilibrium,  under  the  titles  of  debtor  and  cred- 
itor, or  debits  and  credits.  To  preserve  this 
equilibrium,  every  debit  must  have  a  credit  or 
credits  to  balance  the  amount,  and,  vice-versa, 
every  credit  must  be  balanced  equally  by  a 
debit  or  debits.  In  Single  Entry  a  record  is  kept 
of  resources  and  liabilities  only ;  in  Double  En- 
try is  added  a  record  of  gains  and  losses. 

The  Day-Book  is  the  original  book  of  entry 
and  should  contain  in  a  concise  and  unequivocal 
form  a  consecutive  history  of  transactions,  in 
the  order  and  on  the  date  of  their  occurrence. 

The  purpose  of  the  Journal  is  to  decide  upon* 
the  proper  debits  and  credits  in  each  transac- 
tion, preparatary  to  entering  them  in  the  Led- 
ger. The  process  of  thus  classifying  transac- 
tions by  debits  and  credits  is  called  journalizing. 
Very  often  the  Day-Book  and  Journal  .'.re  com- 
bined in  a  "Journal  Day-Book,"  as  in  Set  II. 

The  Ledger  is  the  final  book  of  entry,  and  in 
it  are  arranged,  under  the  proper  accounts,  all 
facts  necessary  for  a  full  statement  of  the  busi- 
ness. Each  of  these  accounts  exhibits  one 
of  the  four  following  results,  viz. :  A  resource, 
a  liability,  a  loss,  or  a  gain.  The  process  of 
transferring  accounts  from  the  Journal  to  the 
Ledger  is  called  posting. 


To  close  an  account  in  the  Ledger,  add  the 
debit  and  credit  sides  separately  on  a  slip  of 
paper,  and,  if  the  totals  thus  obtained  are  not 
equal,  subtract  the  smaller  from  the  greater. 
This  difference  is  entered  in  red  ink  to  make  up 
the  deficiency  of  the  smaller  side.  Then  rule 
with  red  ink  and  enter  the  totals  in  black.  The 
red  ink  entry  is  then  transferred  in  black  to  the 
opposite  side  of  the  account  into  which  it  is 
closed.  When  both  columns  are  equal  the  to- 
tals are  simply  entered  in  black,  and  this  indi- 
cates that  the  account  is  cancelled.  When  there 
are  more  entries  on  one  side  of  an  account  than 
on  the  other,  a  line  is  drawn,  after  closing  the 
account,  obliquely  across  the  vacant  space. 
This  line  commences  at  a  double  rule  opposite 
the  double  rule  under  the  totals,  and  extends 
thence  in  the  direction  of  the  last  figure  in  the 
column. 

The  Key  to  Journalizing. 

Remember  that  the  key  to  all  journalizing  is 
stated  in  the  two  old  lines  which  the  student 
would  do  well  to  memorize  : 

"By  Journal  laws  what  you  receive 
Is  Dr.  made  to  what  you  give,'' 

By  referring  constantly  to  this  rule  and  ex- 
amining each  entry  in  the  Journal  or  Journal 
Day-Book  by  its  light,  the  whole  mystery 
of  Double  Entry  Book-keeping  will  become 
clear. 


•r 


180 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


-.':     :— 


THE  PRINCIPLES. 


•-:-■-  *- 


--.;    :  - 


An  account  is  a  statement  of  facts  and  figures 
relating  to  some  person,  property  or  cause,  so 
arranged  as  to  show  a  specific  result.  As  stated 
on  a  preceding  page,  there  are  two  classes  of 
accounts,  Real  and  Representative.  In  other 
terms,  accounts  showing  resources  and  liabilities, 
and  accounts  showing  losses  and  gains.  The  for- 
mer are  closed  "  To  Balance  "  or  "  By  Balance," 
and  the  latter  "  To  Loss  and  Gain  "  or  "  By  Loss 
and  Gain."  Some  accountants  use  the  words 
"  Profit  and  Loss,"  instead  of  "  Loss  and  Gain." 

The  following  rules,  embodying  the  principles 
of  Double  Entry  Book-keeping,  will  be  found 
to  cover  in  a  concise  form  all  points  which  gen- 
erally confuse  the  student  groping  through  a 
voluminous  treatise : 

The  proprietor  or  the  partners  in  a  business  should  be  cred- 
ited for  all  investments  and  for  the  gain  or  share  of  the  gain, 
and  debited  for  liabilities  assumed,  for  all  sums  withdrawn  from 
the  business  and  for  the  loss  or  share  of  the  loss  incurred. 
Where  there  is  only  one  proprietor  he  is  represented  on  the 
books  by  Stock,  but  in  a  partnership  business  each  partner's  ac- 
count is  kept  under  his  own  name.  The  Stock  account  and 
partners'  accounts  are  closed  "  To  Balance  "  or  "  By  Balance." 

The  Cash  account  is  credited  for  all  disbursements  and 
debited  for  all  receipts  of  cash.     It  always  closes  "By  Balance." 

A  Bank  account  shows  on  the  debit  side  the  amount  deposit- 
ed, and  on  the  credit  side  the  amount  withdrawn,  and  closes 
"  By  Balance,"  unless  the  account  is  overdrawn. 

The  Merchandise  account  is  credited  with  the  proceeds  and 
debited  with  the  cost  of  merchandise  on  hand  at  commencing 
and  purchased  in  the  course  of  business.  When  the  merchan- 
dise has  all  been  sold,  as  in  Set  I.,  the  difference  between  the 
sides  will  show  a  gain  if  the  credit  side  is  the  greater,  and  a  loss 
if  the  debit  side  preponderates.  Real  estate,  personal  property 
and  speculative  accounts  come  under  this  rule. 

The  Bills  Receivable  account  is  credited  when  the  notes, 
acceptances  or  obligations  of  others  are  disposed  of  or  paid, 
and  debited  when  such  obligations  are  acquired.  This  account 
always  closes  "  By  Balance." 

The  Bills  Payable  account  is  credited  when  notes,  etc,  of 
the  firm  or  business  are  issued,  and  debited  when  they  are  paid 
or  redeemed.     It  always  closes  "  To  Balance." 

Personal  accounts,  including  the  names  of  persons,  banks 
and  corporations  or  institutions  competent  to  sue  or  be  sued, 
are  credited  when  we  become  indebted  to  them  or  they  get  out 
of  our  debt,  and  debited  when  they  become  indebted  to  us  or 
we  get  out  of  their  debt.  These  accounts  are  closed  "By  Bal- 
ance" or  "To  Balance." 


The  Expense  account  is  debited  for  liabilities  incurred  and 
cash  paid  out  for  which  no  direct  return  is  expected  —  such  as 
salaries,  rent,  etc.    This  account   closes  "  By  Loss  and  Gain." 

The  Loss  and  Gain  account  is  debited  with  losses  and  credit- 
ed with  gains,  and  closes  "To  Stock"  or  "By  Stock." 

Under  the  head  of  Interest  and  Discount  are  debited  and 
credited  all  allowances  for  the  use  of  money  on  notes,  drafts, 
etc  Credit  the  account  when  it  produces  value ;  debit  the  ac- 
count when  it  costs  value.  This  account  closes  "To  Loss  and 
Gain"  or  "  By  Loss  and  Gain." 

SET  I. 

By  way  of  initiation  into  the  principles  and 
practice  of  Double  Entry  Book-keeping  we 
present  in  Set  I.  the  record  of  simple  business 
transactions.  It  will  be  observed  that  all  trans- 
actions are  first  entered,  in  the  order  of  their 
occurrence,  in  the  Day-Book,  from  which  th£y 
are  transferred  to  the  Journal,  or  journalized, 
and  thence  they  are  posted  to  the  Ledger.  The 
established  form  of  Journal  entries  requires  the 
debit  expression  to  precede  the  credit.  There- 
fore, in  applying  the  preceding  principles  to  the 
first  entry  in  the  Day-Book,  using  the  word 
Stock  to  denote  the  proprietor,  we  have  as  our 
first  Journal  entry,  "  Cash,  Dr.,  to  Stock,  $2,- 
ooo."  When  one  person  or  account  is  indebted 
to  another  in  a  certain  sum,  the  latter  is  the 
creditor  of  the  former  to  the  same  amount.  This 
is  the  foundation  of  Double  Entry  Book-keep- 
ing, the  most  important  characteristic  of  which 
we  now  encounter  in  transferring  the  first  trans- 
action to  the  Ledger,  where  it  will  be  doubly 
entered,  on  the  Dr.  side  of  the  Cash  account, 
and  on  the  Cr.  side  of  the  Stock  account. 

The  check-mark  (1/ )  in  the  Day-Book  is  to 
indicate  that  the  transaction  has  been  carried  to 
the  Journal,  and  the  figure  in  the  first  column  of 
the  Journal  shows  the  page  of  the  Ledger  to 
which  the  account  is  posted.  The  number  in 
the  Ledger  column  immediately  preceding  the 
amount  refers,  in  turn,  to  the  Journal  page. 

How  to  Close  the  Ledger. 

The  purpose  of  closing  the  Ledger  is  to  show 
the  state  of  each  account  in  a  single  amount, 
to  do  away  with  the  unused  accounts,  and  to 
ascertain  clearly  the  general  results  of  the  busi- 


_se 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


181 


ness.  In  this  process  all  the  losses  and  gains  are 
gathered  together  in  the  Loss  and  Gain  account, 
and  there  compared,  the  gains  being  placed  upon 
the  credit,  and  losses  on  the  debit  side.  When 
the  credit  side  is  the  greater  the  account  is  closed 
"To  Stock"  and  shows  a  net  gain.  The  oppo- 
site entry,  "  By  Loss  and  Gain,"  is  made  in  the 
Stock  account  and  increases  the  capital.  When 
the  debit  side  is  the  greater,  the  account  shows  a 
net  loss  and  is  closed  "  By  Stock,"  and  the  op- 
posite entry  in  the  Stock  account,  "To  Loss 
and  Gain,"  indicates  a  decrease  in  capital. 

The  first  step  in  closing  the  Ledger  is  to  take  a  Trial  Balance, 
that  is,  to  make  a  systematic  arrangement  of  the  Ledger  accounts, 
with  their  proper  debit  and  credit  totals  and  differences.  If  the 
Ledger  is  correct,  the  total  debits  will  equal  the  total  credits. 

The  next  thing  in  order  is  to  ascertain  by  an  inventory  the 
value  of  all  goods  and  property  unsold  and  credit  the  amounts 
in  red  ink  to  the  proper  accounts,  "By  Balance,  Inventory." 
The  opposite  entry  is  afterwards  made  on  the  debit  side  of  the 
Balance  account  in  black  ink.  Thus,  if  the  Merchandise  ac- 
count has  in  red  ink  the  entry,  "  By  Balance,  Inventory,  $  1, 600," 
the  corresponding  entry  in  black  in  the  Balance  account  will 
read,  "To  Mdse.,  $1,600."  In  Set  I.  the  entire  stock  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  sold,  and  consequently  no  entry  of  this  kind 
will  be  found. 

Now  a  Loss  and  Gain  account  is  opened,  if  this  has 
not  been  done  previously,  and  also  a  Balance  account 
In  the  first  are  to  be  entered  in  black  ink  all  accounts  closing 
"To  Loss  and  Gain"  or  "By  Loss  and  Gain,"  showing  the 
profit  and  loss  on  each  account.  In  the  second  are  to  be  enter- 
ed all  accounts  closing  "To  Balance"  or  "By  Balance,"  show- 
ing the  resources  and  liabilities. 

Close  first  all  accounts  to  which  inventory  balances  have  been 
carried.  The  differences  between  the  sides  of  these  accounts 
will  show  gain  or  loss,  and  the  closing  entry,  in  red  ink,  will 
express  the  difference — "By  Loss  and  Gain"  or  "To  Loss  and 
Gain." 

Having  finished  these  accounts,  the  other  accounts  in  the  Led- 
ger, excepting  Stock  and  partners'  accounts,  are  closed  in  red 
ink— "To"  or  "By  Loss  and  Gain,"  or  "To"  or  "By  Bal- 
ance." 

The  "Loss  and  Gain"  and  "Balance  "  red  ink  entries  are 
now  carried  in  black  ink  to  the  opposite  sides  of  the  Loss  and 
Gain  and  Balance  accounts. 

The  Loss  and  Gain  account  is  now  closed,  in  red  ink,  "To 
Stock"  or  "  By  Stock."  In  a  partnership  business  each  partner 
is  credited  or  debited  with  his  share. 

The  process  of  closing  the  Ledger  is  now  completed  by  tak- 
ing the  difference  between  the  sides  of  the  Stock  account  and 
entering  in  red  ink  "To  Balance  "  or  "  By  Balance,"  which  is 
transferred  in  black  to  the  Balance  account. 


Balance  Sheets. 

The  balance  sheet  given  for  Set  II.  is  the  most  condensed 
form  for  a  partnership  business.  The  style  and  symmetry 
will  commend  it  to  all  accountants,  while  the  fulness  of  the 
illustrations  must  satisfy  alL  The  form  has  been  used  for  a  long 
time,  but  has  never  been  adopted  to  any  great  extent  by  busi- 
ness men,  the  objection  being  its  inadequacy  to  contain  long 
lists  of  personal  accounts.  This  objection  can  be  overcome  by 
using,  instead  of  persons'  names,  the  general  titles  Accounts 
Receivable  and  Accounts  Payable.  In  nearly  all  kinds  of  busi- 
ness this  will  reduce  the  number  of  accounts  within  the  limits  of 
this  form. 

The  following  rules  should  be  used  in  preparing  this  form : 
First  rule  the  parallel  head-lines,  leaving  space  for  the  double 
captions.  Then  ascertain  the  number  of  Ledger  accounts  to  be 
represented.  This  will,  of  course,  embrace  all  the  accounts  in 
the  Trial  Balance  that  do  not  cancel.  If  the  business  is  that  of 
a  single  proprietor,  rule  in  pencil  as  many  lines  as  will  contain 
all  the  accounts,  and  five  additional.  If  it  be  a  partnership  busi- 
ness, with  two  or  more  partners,  rule  three  additional  lines  for 
each  partner.  Next  lay  off  proper  spaces  for  debit  and  credit 
money  columns  :  first,  for  the  footings  of  Ledger  accounts  ;  sec- 
ond, for  Gains  and  Losses  ;  third,  for  Stock ;  and  fourth,  for  Re- 
sources and  Liabilities ;  also,  for  a  single  money  column  for  in- 
ventories, and  for  the  Ledger  titles  and  their  Ledger  folios. 
After  denoting  the  proper  space  for  each  heading,  commence  to 
rule  with  red  ink  at  the  right  hand  and  bring  all  the  lines  of  the 
first  two  captions,  Real  accounts  and  Stock,  or  one  of  the  part- 
ners, down  to  the  lower  pencil  line.  For  the  other  partner  drop 
two  lines.  For  Losses  and  Gains  drop  two  lines,  for  Stock 
business ;  and  an  additional  line  for  each  partner.  Then  rule 
the  foot-lines  as  shown,  and  the  schedule  will  be  ready  to  receive 
the  accounts. 


Auxiliary  Books. 


All  accountants,  where  the  business  is  any  way  large,  keep 
what  are  termed  auxiliary  books.  Among  these  is  the  Inventory- 
Book.  It  is  used  to  enumerate  the  different  articles  of  unsold 
merchandise,  at  such  times  as  may  be  deemed  desirable.  In- 
ventories are  frequently  copied  into  Invoice-Books. 

An  Invoice  is  a  statement  in  detail  of  goods  sold,  shipped 
abroad  or  consigned  to  another  to  be  sold.  The  Invoice-Book 
is  used  for  taking  copies  of  the  invoices  which  accompany 
goods  purchased  or  received  on  consignment.  Some  houses, 
instead  of  copying,  paste  their  invoices  in  a  blank  Invoice-Book 
prepared  for  this  purpose.  This  book,  while  showing  the  entire 
cost  of  merchandise,  will  also  exhibit  the  separate  credits  pro- 
ducing merchandise.  If  a  lot  or  package  is  distinguished  by 
a  peculiar  mark,  that  mark  is  transferred  to  the  invoice,  thus 
serving  an  important  purpose  in  checking  the  articles,  adjusting 
disputes,  etc. 

Bills  Receivable  and  Bills  Payable  are  usually  bound  in  op- 
posite ends  of  the  same  book,  termed  a  Bill-Book.  This  book 
should  never  be  omitted,  and  especially  is  it  important  to  keep 
a  record  of  the  amount  and  condition  of  notes  payable. 

The  Sales-Book  contains  all  the  regular  sales,  either  for  cash 
or  on  time.  In  houses  doing  a  mixed  Dusiness  the  Sales-Book 
and  Commission  Sales-Book  can  with  equal  propriety  be  kept 
together  or  separate,  as  convenience  may  dictate. 


-< 


^J 


V 


K" 


182 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 

SET  I.     DAY-BOOK.    (I.) 

St.  Louis,  December  ist,  188 j. 

Commenced  business  this  day  with, Cash  to  the  amount  of 

Bought  of  Armstrong  &  Co.,  on  f  , 

1,000  brls.  Flour,  ®  $6.00, 

1 3    

Sold  Jesse  Jameson,  for  Cash, 

300  brls.  Flour,  ®  $6.50, 

" 5    

Sold  John  Williams,  on  ^, 

250  brls.  Flour,  ©  $7.00, 

7    

Sold  Wm.  Moore,  on  his  Note  <d)  30  days, 

150  brls.  Flour,  f&  $7.00,  

'  ■  ■ '  10 ' ■ — 

Bought  of  Joseph  Wheelock,  on  our  Note  <®  60  days, 

500  bu.  Wheat,  <cb  $1.00, 

"■'  1  a    —  ■   ■■.■■■■■  — — 

Sold  Albert  St.  John,  for  Cash, 

loobu.  Wheat,  ®  $1.25, $125.00 

100  brls.  Flour,  (S>  $6.75, 675.00 

H ' 

Paid  Cash  for  Stationery  and  Books  for  use  of  Store, 

. ,5    

Bought  of  Edwin  Ellerton,  for  C:ish, 

300  brls.  Flour,  ®  $5.00, 

'7    

Sold  Peter  Potts,  for  Cash, 

100  brls.  Flour,  ®  $6.00, 

,g    

Bought  of  W.  L.  George,  on  Jf , 

1,000  bu.  Oats,  ®  750, 

1 ' " ~~ — ■"  ao    *■" — ^— — — ^ — — — — — 

Sold  Sellers  A  Bro.,  on  their  Note  <cb  5  d;iys, 

500  bu.  Oats,  @  So#, $400.00 

100  bu.  Wheat,  ®  $1.15, 115.00 

—■■—■■■—■■         '     '  ~"  "  ■  —  22  —  '—  ' 

Sold  Bernard  Blair,  for  Cash, 

400  brls.  Flour,  <9  $6.00, $2,400.00 

300  bu.  Wheat,  f&  $1.10, 330.00 

26    — — — — — — — — — ^_ _— 

Bought  of  Howard  Harrison,  on  <  , 

1,500  brls.  Flour,  @  $5.50, 

27    

Sold  A.  A.  McIIatton,  on  f , 

1,000  brls.  Flour,  *8  $6.00, 

_______^_^^_^__^^__  2S 

Received  Cash  in  full  for  Sellers  &  Bro.'s  Note, 

_ _^ _  29    — ^ — — — — - 
Sold  Patrick  Connolly,  for  Cash, 

500  brls.  Flour,  O  $5.75, $2,875.00 

500  bu.  Oats,  @  oo0, 450.00 

3,  

Paid  Clerk  Hire,  in  Cash,  fnaoo 

Paid  Store  Kent,  .      , 40.00 


V 
V 
Y 

V 

V\ 

V 

V 

V 
V 

V 
V 

V 

V 

V 
V 
V 

V 
V 


I..,- J 
".750 
1,050 

Soo 

Soo 

S° 

1,500 

600 

750 

5'5 

'.7.3° 

8,JS0 

6,000 
5'5 

3J*J 
>o* 


*7~ 


*i. 

5 

--— 

■ 

£~ 

61 

1 

< 

\ 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 

183 

» 

SET  1.    JOURNAL    (1.) 

St.  Louis,  December  i,  1883. 

2>.        Cr. 

a 
t 

Cash, 

2,000 
6,000 

1,950 

".750 

",05° 

Sro 

800 

So 

>,5°° 
600 

750 

"    5>i 

2.730 

8,250 

6,000 

5'5 
3.3*5 

100 

2,OOC 

6,00c 

".95( 
>.7.« 
1,05c 

5°o 

800 

So 

1,500 

600 

75o 

5'5 

2,730 

8,250 

6,000 

5>5 

3.3*5 

100 

Merchandise, 

Cash, 

—  —     ■■  -      '           3    —    -   -       ■  •  ■ 

John  Williams, 

Bills  Receivable, 

Merchandise, 

Cash, 

Expense, 

14 

Merchandise, 

'S 

Cash, 

■7 

Merchandise, 

Bills  Receivable,. 

Cash, 

Merchandise, 

A.  A.  McHatton, 

*>      — 
To  Merchandise 

Cash, 

Cash, 

To  Merchandise,    ..••...,, 

Expense, 

-     J» 

3S,385 

1    38.3S5 

1 

f 

v 

Is 

' 

a         "■ 

-^ 

1 

NT* 

vr. 


»a ^ 


184 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


A 


Z>r, 


SET  I.    LEDGER.     (I.) 

Stock. 


Cr. 


Dk. 

31 

To  Balanct, 

3JTO 

1 88 j. 

Dec. 
it 

1 
3' 

By  Cash, 

"    Loss  and  Gala, 

By  Balance, 

1 
L> 

1,000 

3,570 

3.5TO 

1884. 
Jan. 

1 

3J7« 

Dr. 


Cash. 


Cr. 


■883. 

Dec. 


18S4. 
Jan. 


To  Stock, 
"  Mdse., 


"   Kills  Receivable, 
'•  Mdse., 


To  Balance, 


1 

a, coo 

1. 950 
800 
600 

2,730 
5iS 

3,3« 

18S3. 
Dec. 

•« 

11 

■4 

'5 

3' 
3i 

»i9*> 

10,270 

By  Expense 
"    Md»e., 


1,500 

100 

10*70 


>»*■ 


Dr. 

Merchandise. 

Cr. 

1883, 

18S3. 

Dec. 

I 

To  Armstrong  &  Co., 

6,000 

Dec. 

3 

By  Cash, 

•«S«> 

■« 

10 

"    Bills  Payable, 

500 

i 

5 

"    John  Williams, 

>.7S« 

•• 

>5 

**      Clbii. 

>,5oo 

' 

7 

"    Bills  Receivable, 

1,090 

" 

18 

"    W.  L.  George, 

750 

' 

ia 

"    Cash, 

800 

SJ 

36 
31 

"..Upward  Harrison, 
"    Lost  and Gain,    ' 

L> 

8,250 
/,7*> 

1 
1 

1 

>7 
ao 
21 

»7 
29 

11        •• 

"    Bills  Receivable,    ■ 

"    Cash, 

"    A.  A.  McHatton, 

"    Cash, 

600 

S'5 
».7J0 
6,000 
3vJ'5 

>8.7»o 

= 

.?.:*> 

Dk 

Armstrong  &  Co. 

Cr. 

1883. 

Dk. 

3' 

To  Balanxt, 

U 

6,000 

1SS3. 
Dec. 

I 

1 

By  Mdse., 
By  Balance, 

1 

6,oop 

1SS4. 
Jan. 

6,000 

Dr. 

John 

Williams 

Cr. 

1883. 

Utt. 

I 

To  Mdse., 
To  Balance, 

* 

«.7So 

= 

Dk. 

3> 

Bjf  Bmtmmtt, 

La 

tsm 

1884. 

Jan. 

1 

j « — »»• 


■ 


XiUFORt*^ 


Ps" 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


185 


~~A 


Dr. 


Dr. 


SET  I.    LEDGER.    (2.) 

Bills  Receivable. 


Bills  Payable. 


Cr. 


•883. 

Dec. 

7 

20 

To  Mdse., 
To  Balance, 

I 

I 

1,050 
S'5 

■883. 

Dec. 

H 

28 
3> 

By  Cash, 
"  Bmlemte, 

I 
Li 

5'S 

t.oji 

^',565 

i,S"S 

1884. 
Jan. 

I 

lfi&> 

Cr. 


1883. 

Dec.         31  To  Balance, 


Li 


s°° 


Dec. 


1884. 
Jan. 


By  Mdse., 
By  Balance. 


_5_oo 
500 


Dr. 


Expense. 


Cr. 


1S83. 

Dec. 


To  Cash, 


I 
I 

50 

100 

1883. 

Dec. 

3' 

By  Loss  and  Gain,, 


La 


Dr. 

W.  L.  George. 

Cr 

1883. 

Dec. 

_JT_ 

To  Balance, 

Li 

75° 

18S3. 

Dec. 

|8 

By  Mdse., 
By  Balance, 

z     J 

75° 

1884. 
Jan. 

I 

1 

7S> 

Dr. 


Howard  Harrison. 


Cr. 


1883. 

Dec. 


$1 


Dr. 


18S3. 

Dec. 


To  Balance, 


To  Cash, 
"  John  Williams, 
11  Bills  Receivable, 
"  A.A.  McHatton, 


k. 


Li 


8,250 


1883. 
Dec.         26 


Jan. 


By  Mdse., 
By  Balance, 


Balance. 


I8S3. 

Li 

10,270 

Dec. 

3> 

Li 

1.7S0 

31 

L2 

1,050 

** 

3< 

La 

6,000 

M 

3< 
3' 

19,070 

B 


3y  Armstrong  &  Co., 
«'  Bills  Payable, 
"  W.  L.  George, 
"  Howard  Harrison. 
"  Balance  (ntt  capital), 


-Las? 


8,250 


Dr. 

A.  A 

.  McHatton. 

Cr. 

1883. 

Dec. 

*l 

To  Mdse., 
To  Balance, 

1 

6,000 

188',. 

Dec. 

3' 

By  Balance, 

Li 

6,000 

1884. 
Jan. 

1 

6,000 

Cr. 


Li 

5,000 

Li 

500 

La 

750 

La 

8.250 
3S7° 

19.070 

Dr. 

Loss  and  Gain. 

Cr 

1883. 

Dec. 
it 

3' 
3< 

To  Expense, 

"  Stock  (net gnin) , 

La 
Li 

150 

•J7° 

— 

1883. 

Dec. 

3« 

B*y  Mdse., 

Li 

1,720 

1,720 

1.720j 

'.^ 


K~ 


186 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


Dr. 


SET  I.    TRIAL  BALANCE— FACE  OF  LEDGER. 


Cr. 


11,920 

17,000 

'.75° 
'.565 

150 


6,000 


3S.38; 


Stock 

Cash     . 

Merchandise 

Armstrong  &  Co. 

John  Williams 

Hills  Kfcu: 

Bills  Payable 

Kxpcnsc 

\V,  L,  George 

Howard  Harrison 

A.  A.  McIIatton 

EifuililriuM 


;.  ■■ 
ifoy. 

6,oo< 

5>! 
5« 

75t 
8,25c 


,W; 


TRIAL  BALANCE— DIFFERENCES. 


Dr. 


Cr. 


Stock, 
Cash, 

Merchandise,     . 
Armstrong  &  Co., 
John  Williams, 
Bills  Receivable, 
Bills  Payable, 
KxjHnse,    . 
W.  L.  George, 
Howard  Harrison, 
A.  A.  McHafton, 


10,270 


1.750 
1,050 


150 


IfeMO 


tpa» 


500 

750 
S,»5o 


l„,."o 


•7 


" 


— 9 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE   ENTRY. 


I87 


DOUBLE  «ni.    ENTRY. 


.-0.-3. 


DAY-BOOK  AND  JOURNAL  COMBINED. 


J  N  the  system  given  in  the  following  pages, 
the  main  feature  is  the  combination 
of  the  Day-Book  and  the  Journal.  This 
form  is  the  most  practical  in  use  for  general  pur- 
poses, and  has  been  adopted  by  accountants  in 
all  branches  of  business.  Its  chief  advantage  is 
in  dispensing  with  a  separate  Journal,  and  in 
bringing  the  Day-Book  and  Journal  entries  into 
such  immediate  connection  as  to  leave  no  doubt 
of  their  identity.  In  this  set  by  Merchandise 
Companies  is  meant  the  temporary  copartnership 
existing  between  the  consignor  and  the  con- 
signee, having  reference  to  the  sale  of  particular 
consignments.  In  Merchandise  Company  busi- 
ness, one  of  the  partners,  the  consignee,  is  the 
commission  merchant,  and,  in  that  capacity,  re- 
ceives and  disposes  of  the  property  as  he  would 
of  a  simple  consignment,  the  only  difference  be- 
ing that  he  is  interested  in  the  losses  and  gains. 
This  species  of  copartnership  differs  from  that 
of  a  general  partnership  only  in  its  duration  and 
the  manner  of  conducting  its  sales.  In  the  first 
method,  exemplified  by  the  three  Merchandise 
Company  accounts  A,  B  and  C,  in  the  month  of 
April,  the  principle  recognized  is  that  the  holder 
of  the  property  is  responsible  for  it.  Thus,  when 
we  receive  from  James  A.  Wright  &  Co.  an  in- 
voice to  be  sold  on  joint  account,  we  debit 
Mdse.  Co.  A  with  the  invoice  and  expenses, 
and  credit  the  consignor  with  the  cost  of 
the  invoice,  thus  making  ourselves  responsible 
for  the  property  as  if  it  were  all  our  own.     The 


consignor's  entry,  if  recognizing  the  same  prin- 
ciple, will  be  to  debit  us  for  the  entire  cost  of 
the  merchandise.  In  the  second  method,  shown 
by  the  three  Mdse.  Co.  accounts  D,  E  and  F, 
the  principle  recognized  is  that  the  owner  of  the 
property  is  responsible.  For  example,  when 
we  receive  from  George  Allen  &  Co.  merchan- 
dise to  be  sold  on  joint  account,  we  debit  Mdse. 
Co.  D  with  our  own  share  only,  and  credit  the 
consignor.  The  consignor's  entry  in  this  case, 
if  made  to  correspond  with  ours,  would  be  to 
debit  us  for  our  share,  and  "Shipment  in  Co.,  to 
St.  Louis,"  for  his  share.  However,  the  final 
result  is  the  same  in  both  cases.  So  far  as  ab- 
solute right  and  responsibility  is  concerned,  the 
second  method  is  correct,  the  principle  recog- 
nized being  that  the  owner  of  the  property  is 
responsible.  The  only  advantage  possessed  by 
the  first  method  is  that  (the  Mdse.  Co.  account 
shows  its  entire  cost. 

For  the  month  of  April  the  Ledger  is  closed 
without  the  use  of  a  balance  account  by  bring- 
ing down  the  resources  and  liabilities  under  their 
proper  accounts.  This  is  the  business  method, 
and  if  each  month  is  supposed  to  represent  a 
year,  this  would  be  a  good  instance  of  the  man- 
ner of  closing  books  at  the  end  of  each  year. 
The  method  of  closing  by  Journal  entries  as 
shown  in  the  month  of  May  is  used  frequently, 
though  requiring  more  labor  and  possessing  no 
advantage  over  the  other.  The  books  used  in 
this  set  are  the  Journal  Day-Book  and  Ledger. 


7. 


1 


K 


188 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


~7 


SET  II.  JOURNAL  DAYBOOK.    (I.) 

St.  Louis,  April  2,  1883. 


John  Adams  and  Arthur  Astor  have  this  day  entered  into  copartnership,  under  the  style  and  firm  of  Adams 
&  Astor,  In  the  prosecution  of  a  general  Commission  and  Grocery  business;  to  invest  in  equal  amounts 
and  participate  alike  in  gains  and  losses. 

Cash,  Dr 

To  John  Adams, 
lor  amount  of  his  investment. 


First  National  Bank,  Dr 

To  Arthur  Astor, 
For  amount  of  his  investment. 


Store  and  Fixtures,  Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Bo't  of  John  Adams  his  store  and  fixtures. 
To  Mortgage  Payable,  Assumed  mortgage  on  the  property,       . 
"    Interest,  Due  on  mortgage  to  date, 

"    Cash,  For  balance, 

'  3 


Merchandise, 


Dr. 


To  John  A.  Fargo  &  Co., 
Bo't  on  J, 

5  casks  Brandy,  300  gals,  (a)  $2, 

200  brls.  Mess  Pork,  (a)  $9,  .        . 

30,000  lbs.  Bacon  Sides,  @  5^, 


*   600 

1,800 
1,500 


Expense, 


To  Cash, 
Paid  for  set  of  Books. 


Mdse.  Co.  A, 


Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Received  from  James  A.  Wright  &  Co.,  Pittsburg,  to   be  sold  on  our  joint  4 
and  risk,  each  1, 

Soo  kegs  Nails,  ©  $3 ■ $2,400 

20,000  lbs.  Lead,  ®  1$ ...  1,400 

To  James  A.  Wright  &  Co.,  Their  invoice  as  above, 

"    Cash,  Paid  freight 

Mdse.  Co.  B,  Dr . 

To  Butler  &  Carlton, 

Kcceivcd  from  B.  &  C,  Sedalia,  Mo.,  to  be  sold  on  our  joint  f  and  risk,  each  |,   , 
500  brls.  Flour,  ©  $S, 

S 


Cash, 


Dr. 


To  Mdse.  Co.  A., 
Sold  George  Cooper,          .... 
400  kegs  Nails,  (S)  $3.50, 
6        


Bills  Receivable, 


To  Mdse.  Co.  A, 
Sold  Joseph  Stanton,  on  his  note  <d>  30  days, 
30,000  lbs.  Lead  <2>  otf  .... 

400  kegs  Nails  la  $3.75         . 


*i,Soo 

1.500 


Mdse.  Co.  A,  Dr.  To  Sundries 

Closed  Company  sales  with  Jamoi  A.  Wright  &  Co.,  and  rendered  them  an  f 
of  tho  same. 

To  Storage  and  Adv 

"    Commission,  Our  charges  ©  2\  %  on  $4,700, 

"    J.  A.  Wright  A  Co.,  Their  i  net  gain, • 

"    Loss  and  Gain,  Our       "  "  


■0,000 


10,000 


12.500 


3.9°° 


75 


3.900 


4,000 


1.400 


MM 


«Ai 


10,000 


CsOOO 

84 

3.4'° 


MOO 


75 


100 


'.400 


3k1« 


10 

117  jo 

33"  -5 


4o.<75 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


189 


-/' 


Y_ 


SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.    (2.) 

Saint  Lotas,  April  6,  1883. 


Amounts  brought  forward, 


Butler  &  Carlton, 


To  Bills  Payable, 
"    Cash. 


Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Shipped  them,  to  be  sold  on  our  joint  f  ,  each  l, 

20  hhds.  Sugar,  24,000  lbs.  ®  5(J $1,200 

100  bags  Coffee,  14,000  lbs.  (S3  io<p i,4°° 

100  boxes  Raisins  ®  $3 300 

Bo't  of  J.  Wills  &  Co.,  on  our  Note  (2)  yo  days 

For  above  Note, 

Paid  Insurance,  \  4  on  $3,000 

7 — ■ 


James  Scott, 


Dr. 


To  Mdse.  Co.  B, 
Sold  him  (3>  30  days, 

500  brls.  Flour  ®  $9,  . 


Mdse.  Co.  B, 


To  Storage  and  Adv. 
"   Commission, 
"    Butler  &  Carlton,  Their  J  net  gain 
"    Loss  and  Gain,  Our       "  " 


Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Closed  sales  in  Company  with  Butler  &  Carlton,  of  Sedalia,  Mo.,  and  rendered 
them  an  f  of  sales. 

Our  Charges 

2J  *  on  $4,500 


Sundries, 


Cash, 

Bills  Receivable, 


To  Merchandise, 


Dr. 

Sold  John  Tyler, 

30,000  lbs.  Bacon  (St  6$ 

Received 

His  Note  Ot  30  days,  for  balance, 


James  A.  Wright  &  Co., 


Dr 


To  Bills  Payable 

Accepted  their  draft  on  us  <S>  thirty  days  sight,  favor  F.  B.  Morse  &  Co.,  in  full  of 
their  j. 


Mdse.  Co.  C, 


To  Peter  Curtis, 
"  J.  G.  Holland, 
"  Cash, 


Dr.  To  Sundries 

Received  per  Anchor  Line,  from  Peter  Curtis,  Cairo,  to  be  sold  on  joint  f  of  him  - 
self,  J.  G.  Holland,  Memphis,  and  ourselves,  each  J,  as  per  contract, 
1,000  brls.  Flour,  ®  $S.so $S,5oo 

For  his  and  our  |  above  invoice, 


Paid  Freight 


Str.  Missouri  Belle  St'k,  Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Bo't  of  John  Dunn,  J  Steamer  Missouri  Belle,  for 

To  Cash,  Paid  in  hand 

"  Bills  Pa yable,  Gave  our  note  ©  ninety  days,  for    .... 

'3 


Sundries, 


Bills  Receivable, 
Cash, 


Dr.  To  Mdse.  Co.  C, 

Sold  William  Cook,  Sedalia, 

1,000  brls  Flour,  <S>  $10 
His  note  (3t  forty  days,  for 
For  Balance 


Mdse.  Co.  C,  Dr.  To  Sundries 

Closed  sales  in  Company  with  Curtis  &  Holland,  and  rendered  them  each  an  Ac- 
count  of  the  same. 

Adver.,  Our  charges, 

z\  it  on  $10,000 

His  J  net  gain, 


To  Storage 
'•  Commission, 
"  Peter  Curtis, 
"  J.  G.  Holland, 
"  Loss  and  Gain 


Our 


49,875 
».9'5 


-4,500 


500 


800 

1,000 

4,136 


5,700 


7,000 
3,000 


',300 


93,7*° 


^5 


-<S 


49,875 


2,900 


4,5oc 


112 
■83 


75 
iS3)7S 


1,800 


4,136  25 


5,66667 
2,S33  ii 


5,ooo 
5,ooo 


30 
350 
340 
340 
340 

93,7*6 


-5 


V 


*& 

■= 

m 

| 

£* 

1 

\ 

190 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 

: 

3 

SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.    (3.) 

Saint  Louis,  April  14.,  i88j. 

'.! 

1       3 

Amounts  brought  1 
Cash, 

*>.       93.7* 
9" 

8a 

i/xs 

M 

'/*» 

73 

'7 

300 

3+ 
«. 

»-95t 

5t 

sec 

11 

955 

1,500 

»S° 

•59 
"5 

H 

75 

9* 

'•Sot 

150 

995 
3« 

'.333 
66t 

sac 

9« 

1.50c 
150 
'59 
"5 

3 

3 

2 
6 

a 
3 
6 

4 

a 

3 
3 

6 

5 
3 

a 

a 

3 

a 

a 
1 

(. 
6 

3 
a 

3 
6 

To  Merchandise, 
Sold  J.  Collins,  East  St.  Louis, 

16 

Merchandise, 

To  Cash, 
"  J.  Wills  &  Co., 

Dr.                       To  Sundries, 
Bo'tofJ.  Wills  &  Co., 

'3     . 

Sundries, 
Expense, 
Arthur  Astor,  Priv. 

Dr.                       To  Cash 

30 

Sundries, 

Cash, 
Interest, 

John  Tyler  has  discounted  his  note  in  our  favor,  due  May  lath. 

isi'tler  &  Carlton, 

Dr 

Received  on  Account  Sales  of  the  Mdsc.  sent  them  to  be  sold  on  joint  account 
on  the  7th  inst.     Our  \  net  gain  as  above. 

•*                                      .    ,, 

Sundries, 

J.  G.  Holland, 
Peter  Curtis, 
To  Merchandise, 
"  Cash, 

Dr.                       To  Sundries, 
Shipped  J.  c;.  Holland,  Memphis,  to  be  sold  on  joint  »  of  J.  G.  Holland 
Curtis,  of  Cairo,  and  ourselves,  each  }, 
33  hhds.  Sugar,  30,000  lbs.,  ®  6Jj> 

Peter 

$'.95° 
SO 

S  -•.'-■«  ■ 

"      "     j                     "            " 

M 

John  Adams,  Priv., 

Dr 

To  First  National  Hank, 

Drew  on  Private  f. 

Butler  &  Carlton, 

Paid  their  draft  on  us  in  favor  of  James  Flood. 

Cash, 

Received  rent  for  upper  floors  to  date. 

Steamer  Missouri  II 

ILLE,       Dr 

For  our  share  of  earnings  of  last  trip,  as  par  sutcment  rendered  this  day. 

1,                                     '" 

T.Xl'KNSK, 

Dr "    .  -   V 

Sundry  expenses  to  date,  as  per  Expense-Hook. 

Loss  and  Gain, 

Dr 3 

To  J.  G.  Holland 

For  our  |  net  lost  i>n  shipment  of  Sugar  for  ioint  i  <>f  Holland.  Curtis  and  our- 
selves, of  the  aad  inst.,  as  per  Account  Sales  this  day  received. 

1 

ioj."9 

»03."9, 

fc- 

k 

.  » 

/ 

L 

r? 

r- 

BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


s 

4 


I9I 


SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.    (4.) 

St.  Louis,  April  30,  1 88 j. 

Amounts  brought  forward. 

Cash,  Dr.  - 

To  John  Adams 

Amount  invested  this  day. 

St.  Louis,  May  ist,  1883. 

Mdse.  Co.  D,  Dr.  To  Sundries 

Received  from  George  Allen,  St.  J  oseph,  to  be  sold  on  our  joint  j  ,  each  \t 

100  brls.  Cider  Vinegar,  (d)  $7  $700 

50     do.    Linseed  oil,   @  $40 2,000 

40  h'f  kegs  White  Lead,  fa)  $3 120 

$J,320 

To  George  Allen,  For  our  £  above  invoice 

"  First  National  B'k,    Paid  freight  per  check 

First  National  Bank,  Dr 

To  Cash 

Deposited. 

-  — ——      2      — ^ . 

Sundries,  Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Shipped  Watson  Weed,  Springfield,  111.,  to  be  sold  on  joint  f  ,  each  \, 

200  brls.  Mess  Pork  (a)  $9 $i,Soo 

Drayage  charges, iS 

$I,SlS 

Watson  Weed,  For  his  \  above  invoice 

Shipment  in  Co.  1.  "  ourj       "  " 

To  Merchandise,  As  above,  

"  Cash,  Paid  Drayage,    ....  

. _      3      

Cash,  Dr 

To  Mdse.  Co.  D 

Sold  to  Richard  Pratt, 

100  brls.  Vinegar  ®  $7.50 

Insurance,  Dr 

To  Cash 

Kffectcd  Insurance  for  $5,000  on  any  property  that  may  be  in  our  Warehouse. 

Henry  Green  &  Co.,  Dr 

To  Mdse.  Co.  D, 
Shipped  them  to  Chicago,  as  per  their  order, 

50  brls.  Linseed  Oil  ©  $45 $2,25o 

40  h'f  kegs  White  Lead  (d>  $3. 120 

Payable  fa)  Sixty  Days. 

Mdse.  Co.  D,  Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Closed   Sales   in    Company   with   George   Allen,  and   rendered  him  an  Account 
Sales. 

To  Charges,  Storage,  Advertising  and  Insurance 

"  Commission,  21  *  $3,120 

"  George  Allen,  For  his  !  invoice  $1,410  and  net  gain  $/ii 

"  Loss  and  Gain,  "    Our  J  net  gain, 


103,1  >c 
2.6SS 


105,807 


V 


103,11c 
2,68!  90 


105,80;  90 


.,46c 


8,500 


009 
009 


750 


W 


2.370 


i°>595 


50 


i° 


1,41c 

5' 


S,5oc 


1, 80c 


7SC 


37 


5" 


»,37<J 


S4 

71 
i,47^ 

61] 

I6.59S 


JO 


/• 


^ 


F. 


92 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


7 


SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.    (5.) 

St.  Louts,  May  j,  1883. 


-*' 


Amounts  brought  forward,  

Expense,  Dr 

To  First  National  Bank, 
Paid  advertising  bills  per  check, 
7 


Mdse.  Co.  E, 


Dh.  To  Sundries 

Received  of  George  Emerson  &  Co.,  of  Vicksburg,  to  be  sold  on  joint  1  of  them- 
selves, M.  S.  Clay  &  Co.  and  ourselves,  each  J, 

loo  hhds.  Sugar  <cb  $60 56,000 

To  Geo.  Emerson  &  Co.,      For  our  }  Invoice 

'  First  National  Bank,    Paid  freight  per  check 


■6,595  po 
ISO 


1,500 


Mdse.  Co.  F, 


Dr.  To  Sundries 

Received  from  Hugh  Spencer,  Topeka,  to  be  sold  on  our  joint  0 ,  each  J, 

500  brls.  Pork,  ®  $9.  $4,500 

350  do  Lard,  50,000  lbs.,  (da  5^ 2,500 


To  Hugh  Spencer,  Our  4  above  invoice, 

"  First  National  Bank,     Freight  per  check, 


J7.000 


S 


Sundries, 


Hills  Receivable, 


Interest, 
Cash, 


Dr.  To  Mdse.  Co.  E, 

Sold  George  Jenks, 

100  hhds.  Sugar,   IS)  $75 

Received  in  payment,  Frank  H.  Wells'  note,  dated  January  1,  1883,  due  one  day 

after  date, 

Due  to  date  on  above  note 

For  balance, 


Mdse.  Co.  E, 


Dr.  To  Sundries 

Closed  Mdse.  Co.  E. .  and  rendered  Account  Sales  of  the  same  to  George  Emer- 
son, and  M.  S.  Clay  &  Co.,  of  Vicksburg. 

To  Charges,  Storage,  Advertising,  etc 

"    Commission,  21*  on  $7,500 

11    Geo.  Emerson  &  Co.  Their  net  proceeds 

"    M.  S.  Clay  &  Co.,        Their  net  proceeds 

"    Loss  and  Gain,  Our  J  net  gain 


Cash, 


Dr. 


To  Bills  Receivable, 
Joseph  Stanton  has  paid  his  note,  due  this  day. 


First  National  Bank,  Dr. 

Deposited. 


To  Cash, 


Sundries, 


Dr.                       To  First  National  Bank, 
Paid  on  mortgage,  favor  of  Patrick  Fields. 
Mortgage  Payable,       Amount  applied  on  mortgage,       .... 
Interest,  In  full  to  date 


Hills  Payablb, 


Dr. 


To  First  National  Bank,    . 
Paid  our  acceptance,  favor  James  A.  Wright  A:  Co.,  due  this  day. 


John  A.  Fargo  &  Co.,  Dr. 

To  Bills  Payable, 

Accepted  their  draft  on  us  payable  ®  ten  days  sight. 
14      


Cash, 


Dr. 


To  Mdse.  Co.  F. 
Sold  Adam  Kauffman, 
500  brls.  Pork,  13  $9.50 


4,000 


5,000 

"3 
».37° 

5,000 


3.300 


4,000 


4.SUO 
'57 


5° 
♦.13*  »S 


3.000 


4,75" 


60,, 


■'-.--;  )n 


.50 


s.ooo 

500 


MM 

500 


7.500 


SO 
1 
M54 


4J9B 


-:  f> 


16 

M5«|»7 
»54"7 


3.3O0 
4,°rx 


— 


*»  <S_ 


r^ 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


A 


193 


SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.    (6.) 

St.  Louis,  May  ij,  1883. 


~r 


V 


Amounts  brought  forward, 

j  Henry  Green  &  Co.,      Dr 

To  Loss  and  Gain, 

Received  advice  from  H.  G.  &  Co.,  Chicago,  of  an  error  in  an  Account  Sales  of 
last  year's  business,  in  which  we  were  credited  too  little  by  the  above  amount. 


Sundries, 

Cash, 
Interest, 


Dr.  To  Henry  Green  &  Co., 

Sold  our  draft  on  them  @  thirty  days  sight. 

Net  proceeds, 

Discount  and  exchange  off,      .... 
>7     


6o,4So 
*75 


Cash, 


Dr. 


3,60^05 
44  95 

2,000 


-5 


60,43925 

*7J 

».°4i 


To  Mdse.  Co.  F, 
Sold  John  W.Welsh, 

250  brls.  Lard,  50,000  lbs.,  fal  40. 


Sundries, 


Mdse.  Co.  F., 
Loss  and  Gain, 
To  Charges, 
11  Commission, 
"  Hugh  Spencer, 


Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Closed  "Mdse.  Co.  F,"  and  rendered  Hugh  Spencer,  Topcka,  an  Account  Sales 
of  the  same. 

To  close    f j 

Our  4  net  loss t 

Storage,  cooperage,  etc.,  .        • 

2\$  on  sales 

His  \  invoice, ■  ?3>5°° 

Less  J  net  loss 4°4  33 

Leaves  net  proceeds •        •        • 


2.75° 
4S41 


Hugh  Spencer, 


Dr. 


To  Cash, 

Remitted  him  in  full  of  f. 


Cash, 


Dr. 


To  Bills  Receivable, 
Received  payment  in  full  for  William  Cook's  note  of  April  13th. 
' »3 , 


First  National  Bank,  Dr. 

Deposited. 


To  Cash, 

_      25    _ 


6.515 


7,000 


Watson  Weed, 


Dr. 


To  Shipment  in  Co.  No.  1 

Received  an  Account  Sales  of  200  brls.  Mess  Pork,  shipped  on  the  2d  inst.      Our 
net  proceeds  as  above. 
s6    


George  Allen, 


Dr. 


To  Bills  Payable, 
Accepted  his  draft  on  us  (a)  thirty  days  sight,  favor  of  W.  H.  Walker,  for  amount 
his  due. 


;  Bills  Pay'able, 


Dr 


To  Cash 

Paid  our  acceptance  favor  of  John  A.  Fargo  &  Co.,  due  this  day. 

sS  , 


Cash, 


Dr.      . 

To  balance  0. 


To  James  Scott, 
_      30   


J.  Wills  &  Co., 


Dr.      . 

To  balance    ^ . 


To  Cash, 


Sco 


2.SS 


3.900 


4.500 


1,000 


& 


5< 
16S 


3.oi! 
6,5i. 


75 


(a 


105,24 


4024 


Soo 


2, S3 


3.90  > 


4.50  > 


105,24^  24 


13 


-a  V 

7 


1 

s 

— *k 

01 
1 

s 

194 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE   ENTRY. 

A 

0 

> 

SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.    (7.) 

St.  Louis,  May  j  1,  1883. 

I 
6 

1 
6 

3 

8 
1 

3 

1 

8 

S 

2 

8 

2 
2 

8 

8 

a 

3 
3 

3 
3 

8 

4 

5 

3 

Amounts  brought 
John  Adams, 

1 

For  amount  charged  to  J.  D.'s  Private  Jf ,  now  carried  to  his  Stock  f. 

,   • 

»4 

* 

m 

105 ,34c  14 

SCO 

\ 

IO£^«t 

an 

'S* 

AUTHUR  ASTOR, 

** 
For  amount  chargcj  to  Pfrivatf  J,  n  >w  carrlad  to  g£ock  y  . 

Interest, 

M 

Allowed  7  *  on  his  additional  investment  of  April  30. 

« 

89 

■05/05 

iq 
$0 

'5 

CLOSING    ENTRIES. 

15,00a 
».5« 
4.5« 
4.57$ 

»>J37 
IS 

»3 

IJC 
5,000 

434 

Balance, 

Store  and  Fixtures 

Valuation  of  property. 

iSfica 

4JO0 

4.575 

»<J3J 

IS 

>4« 
"2 
150 

SO 

Dr.      .        .      • 

To  Loss  and  Gain, 

Tor  increase  in  value  of  property. 

Mortgage  Payable, 

Amount  due  on  Mortgage. 

Balance, 

H 

Dr 

Amount  on  hand. 

Balance, 

!'.:'  in.   .     .,,1   deposit. 

Interest, 

D' •           ' 

Amount  due  from  us  to  dute  on  Mort^    .:    - 

Balance,- 

Amount  due  us  on  ♦  I'.  II.  Wills'  nof  ■ 

Loss  and  Gain, 

Cost  over  proceeds  of  Interest. 

Loss  and  Gain, 

Balance  of  Expense  Account. 

Balance, 

Note  on  hand  ^F.  U.  Walla). 

5.000 

Commission, 

Gain  on  Commission. 

' 

sj.-;5 

1 

i 

< 

N 

t 

! 

1 

• 

•^ 

>           6 

1 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


SET  II.    JOURNAL  DAY-BOOK.    (8.) 

St.  Louis,  May  ji,  i88j. 


Amounts  brought  forward 

5        Bills  Payable,  Dr 

8  To  Balance, 

Our  outstanding  Xotes. 


5       Peter  Curtis, 


Dr. 


To  Balance, 


Amount  due  him. 


6       J.  G.  Holland, 


Dr. 


To  Balance, 


Amount  due  him. 


8       Balance, 
6 


To  Steamer  Missouri  Belle  Stock, 
Valuation  of  our  interest  in  Steamer  Missouri  Belle. 


8       Balance, 
6 


Dr. 


To  Steamer  Missouri  Belle, 


Amount  due  us. 


8       Balance, 
7 


Dr. 


To  Watson  Weed, 


Balance  due  us. 


Dr, 


3       Loss  and  Gain, 

7  To  Shipment  in  Co.  i,     . 

Our  loss  on  shipment. 


Dr. 


4       Loss  and  Gain, 
7  To  Insurance, 

Cost  of  insurance. 


7       Charges, 

3 


Dr 


To  Loss  and  Gain, 
Gain  on  storage,  advertising,  etc. 


Geo.  Emerson  &  Co.,  Dr. 


To  Balance, 


Amount  due  them. 


M.S.  Clay  &  Co., 


Dr. 


To  Balance, 


Amount  due  them. 


3       Loss  and  Gain,  Dr.  To  Sundries, 

Net  gain  carried  to  Partners'   $ . 
To  John  Adams,  His  £  net  gain,    .        .        ... 

1  Arthur  Astor,  •#  «  «      h 


John  Adams, 


Dr. 


To  Balance, 

For  amount  his  net  capital. 


Arthur  Astor,  Dr 

To  Balance, 
For  amount  his  net  capital. 


■*>  ■■' 


195 


=7? 


53.S75   S 
10,781 


5.34°  P1 


1.954  99 


10,000 


350 


1.709 


109 


53.S7S 
io,7Si 

5.34°  |« 

".954  9° 


350 


1.709 


IOQ 


37  50 


>50 


4.354 


3,354 


16 


3,6So 


40 


>5,7S5 


■3.'3° 


133,311 


57 


37  50 


■50 


4.354  16 


3^54  17 


■  ,34030 

1,34020 


■S.7S5 


■3,'30 


"3,311 


57 


VTs^ 


o 

J- 

0j 
1 

S 

196 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 

. 

> 

Dr. 

SET  II.     LEDGER.    (1.) 

John  Adams. 

Cr. 

• 

as3. 

Jlfr. 

3' 

To  JJalafi.-e, 

To  J.  A.,  Private, 
"  Balance, 

1 

Li 

7 
8 

'</>*> 

ib 

IS83. 

Apr. 

14 

M 

2 
3° 
3° 

By  Cash, 

"    Loss  and  Gain, 

By  Balance, 
"     Interest, 
"     Loss  and  Gain, 

1 
4 
L3 

10,0a 

s,68 

1  JO 

14,6*3 

* 

14/a 

May 

41 

20c 
'5.7S5 

>4 

May 

(1 
l< 

1 
3' 
3' 

Li 

7 
S 

•4*4* 

15  fl 

'5.9S5 

'4 

IS. 

* 

Dr. 

Arthur  Astor. 

Cr. 

iSSj- 

jo 

To  Tlalanct,     s 

To  A.  A.,  Private, 
"    Balance, 

Li 
7 

s 

",«o 

iSSj. 

Apr. 

4. 

a 
3° 

1 

3' 

By  First  National  Bank, 
"    Loss  and  Gain, 

By  Balance, 

"    Loss  and  Gain, 

I 

L3 
Li 

• 

10,000 

->37 

"W 

37 

»*• 

=  37 
5  37 

J  JO 

'57 

r. 

May 

1* 

3' 
3' 

'5c 
13,  '3^ 

57 

May 

"J* 

■3.28c 

. 

■3^8, 

Dr. 

Store  and  Fixtures. 

c 

1SS3. 

Apr. 

si 

3' 

"   Loss  amrGain. 

To  Balance, 
M    Loss  and  Gain, 

1 

Li 

7 

...50O 

1SS3. 
Apr. 

3' 

^  Z>SW*tV,  Inimtory, 
By  Balance, 

1 

7 

> 

14,000 

14,00c 

May 
11 

12,500 
15,000 

May 

15,000 

15.000 

r 

Dr. 

11 

3i 

Mortgage  Payable 

■ 

c 

1S83. 

May 

41 

To  First  N  i-.i.m.il  Hank, 
"    Balance, 

s 

7 

4.500 
4i5°° 

Apr. 

1 

By  Store  and  Fixtures, 

9,00c 

! 

0.00a 

*Q0< 

J 

> 

(!• 

' 

«     ■■ 

^ 

^ 

*r 

i& 


\ 


~A 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


I97 


Dr. 


1SS3. 
Apr. 


SET  II.     LEDGER.    (2.) 

Cash. 


Cr. 


Dr. 


First  National  Bank. 


To  A.  Astor, 


1SS3. 
Apr. 


*5 
25 


,  Way 

I 

" 

s 

7 

" 

7 

" 

11 

M 

13 

■  • 

3' 

By  John  Adams, 
M    Butler  &  Carlton, 

"    Balance t 


By  Mdse.  Co.  D, 

"  Expense, 

"  Mdse.  Co.  E, 

"  Mdse.  Co.  F, 

M  Sundries, 

"  Bills  Payable, 

"  Balance, 


Dr. 


Interest. 


1 


I8S3. 

iS*$. 

1 

Apr. 

2 

To  John  Adams, 

1 

10,000 

Apr. 

2 

By  Store  and  Fixtures, 

1 

3.4'° 

u 

s 

"    Mdse.  Co.  A, 

1 

M°o 

M 

3 

"    Expense, 

1 

75 

u 

9 

"    Mdse., 

2 

800 

" 

3 

"    Mdse.  Co.  A, 

1 

100 

" 

>3 

■    Mdse.  Co.  C, 

2 

3.ooo 

6 

"    Butler  &  Carlton, 

2 

'5 

*« 

>4 

"    Mdse., 

3 

900 

9 

"    Mdse.  Co.  C, 

2 

200 

" 

JO 

"    Bills  Receivable, 

3 

995  73 

12 

'*    Str.  Missouri  Belle  Stock, 

2 

5,000 

M 

2S 

11    Store  and  Fixtures, 

3 

1,500 

16 

"    Mdse., 

3 

800 

U 

30 

"    John  Adams, 

4 

2,68890 

iS 
23 
30 

"    Sundries, 
"    Expense, 

3 
3 
3 

200 
50 
'59 

^^^ 

30 

**    Balane*, 

Li 

j/,2ot]p3 

21,28463 

'        i       1 

2.^4. 

>3 

May 

1 

To  Balance, 

La 

11,26963 

May 

I 

By  First  National  Bank, 

4 

8,500 

" 

3 

"    Mdse.  Co.  D, 

4 

750 

•  • 

2 

"    Sundries, 

4 

iS 

" 

8 

"    Mdse.  Co.  E, 

5 

2,37"  53 

1      " 

3 

"    Insurance, 

4 

37.0 

M 

8 

"    Bills  Receivable, 

s 

3,300 

1* 

10 

"    First  National  Bank, 

5 

4,000 

" 

'4 

"    Mdse.  Co.  F, 

5 

4,750 

" 

17 

"    Hugh  Spencer, 

6 

6,;i5'0 

" 

>s 

"    Henry  Green  &  Co., 

6 

2,600  05 

M 

23 

"    First  National  Bank, 

6 

10,000 

M 

■7 

"    Mdse.  Co.  F, 

6 

2,000 

H 

26 

"    Bills  Payable, 

6 

3,9°° 

" 

'7 

"    Bills  Receivable, 

6 

7,000 

■  ( 

30 

"    J.  Wills  &  Co., 

6 

1,000 

" 

28 

"   James  Scott, 

6 

4,5oo 

31 

"    Balance, 

7 

4,575 

19 

38,546  *' 

li 

1! 

Cr. 


Cr. 


.S33. 
Apr. 

20 

30 

8 
11 

■5 
3' 
3' 

To  Bills  Receivable, 
•*    Lass  and  Cain, 

To  Mdse.  Co.  E, 
"    First  National  Bank, 
"    Henry  Green  &  Co., 
**    John  Adams, 
"    Balance, 

3 
13 

4*7 

71\73 

;   18S3. 
Apr. 

2 

By  Store  and  Fixtures, 

By  Balance, 

M    Loss  and  Gain, 

I 

84 

84 

**[ 

May 

S 

5 
6 

7 
7 

123 
'57 
44 
'5 
iS 

47 

50 
95 
68 

37 
97 

May 
11 

3' 

31 

7 
7 

i4r» 
213 

n 

V.9 

97 

=3 

1 

-M 


IT- 


■ 

aA 

I 

» 

«•■ 

1 

198 

BOOK-KEEPING    BV    DOUBLE   ENTRY. 

7*  ' 

< 

' 

SET  II.     LEDGER.    (3.) 

Dr. 

Expense. 

Cr. 

1883. 

iSKj. 

Apr. 

3 

To  Cash, 

i 

7S 

A,r. 

3» 

77k  Loss  and  Gam, 

u 

■3 

11         <i 

* 

5° 

n 

*> 

«(         11                          • 

3 

'59 

*34 

»H 

May 

5 

To  First  National  Bank, 

s 

ISO 

May     ;  ji 

By  Loss  land  Gala, 

150 

Cr. 

Dr. 

Butler  &  Carlton. 

1883. 

1 

1883. 

Apr. 

6 

To  Sundries, 

s 

»,9'5 

Apr. 

4 

B)  Mdse.  Co.  B, 

I 

spoo 

n 

30 

"    Loss  and  Gain, 

3 

300 

11 

7 

U              14                     44 

s 

'SJ7S 

•t 

25 

"    First  National  Bank, 

1 

3 

y-.S; 

5 

♦.'S3  i 

' 

f  S3  75 

.LV. 

Merchandise. 

• 

Cr. 

1 

1SS3. 

18S3. 

Apr. 

3 

To  John  A.  Fargo  &  Co., 

i 

2*oo 

Apr. 

9 

By  Sundries, 

s 

vfm 

11 

10 

"    Sundries, 

h 

'.Soo 

11 

'4 

"    Cash, 

3 

900 

J3 

"    Loss  and  Gain, 

7S<> 

" 

13 

"    Sundries 

3 

ugfB 

• 

•lanct,  Invtntory, 

6r»50 

6,450 

May 

1 

To  Balance, 

Li 

I,SoO 

May 

! 

By  Sundries, 

4 

«rS00 

Z/r. 

1SS3, 

Loss  and  Gain. 

Cr. 

'SSj. 

Apr. 

jo 

To  J.  G.Holland, 

1 

H5                Apr. 

6 

By  Mdse.  Co.  A, 

i 

33615 

11 

1° 

"    Expense, 

H, 

aS* 

7 

'•    Mdie.  Co.  B, 

a 

■ 

3° 

'*     John  Adams  {tut gain). 

1,940  & 

II 

U 

••    Mdse.  Co.  C, 

s 

30 

"    Arthur  Aslor  (■>/  gain) , 

Li 

1.040 

J7 

II 
II 

M 

30 

"    Butler  &  Carlton, 
M    Store  and  Fixtures, 

3 
ti 

300 

<■:-  •■ 

jS^ 

II 

30 

"    Interest, 

Lj 

79  73 

s^ 

II 

30 

"    Mdse., 

Li 

^r 

II 

30 

"    Storage  and  Adver., 

L4 

60 

'  .XT 

II 

30 

"    Commission, 

LS 

4S0 

X 

II 

3 

30 

"    Str.  Missouri  Belle  Stc  jk, 

^ 

m 

4.. 

4^79  7 

May 

'7 

To  Mdse.  Co.  F, 

6 

*S43 

7           May 

3 

By  Mdse.  Co.  D, 

4 

11 

3< 

"    Interest, 

7 

•  131 

5 

•  • 

8 

"    Mdse.  Co.  E, 

5 

«7$| 

" 

3< 

"    Expense, 

7 

150 

" 

'5 

"    Henrv  Green  *  Co., 

6 

■1 

3< 

"   Shipment  In  Co.  1, 

8 

too 

ii 

3' 

"    Store  and  Fixtures, 

7 

j.=  «i 

11 

3' 

M    Insurance, 

8 

373 

0 

* 

3' 

n  Commission, 

7 

«M  '5 

H 

3' 

"    Sundries, 

8 

a/Bos 
3.674  4 

0 

a 

3' 

"    Chafes, 

S 

I$0 

3-"74  41 

1 

1 

1 

\ 

.   V 

s 

_J 

» 

*J 

<r-     » 

■•  -t>K 

f 

* 

K 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


I99 


SET  II.     LEDGER.    (4.) 


Dr. 


John  A.  Fargo  &  Co. 


Cr. 


I&3.    1 

May         12 

To  Bills  Payable, 

5 

3,900 

I»3- 
Apr. 

3 

By  Mdse., 

■1 

3,900 

-sra 

Dr. 

Mdse.  Co.  A. 

Cr. 

ISS3. 

Apr.         3  To  Sundries, 

6  "         " 


3AOO 
Soo 


4.70O 


1SS3. 
Apr. 


By  Cash, 
"  Bills  Receivable, 


■■400 
3.300 

4.700 


Dr. 


James  A.  Wright  &  Co. 


Cr. 


1SS3. 

Apr.         9 


To  Bills  Payable, 


Dr. 


4,130"  »S 
4,'3°  *S 


1SS3. 
Apr. 


By  Mdse.  Co.  A, 

4f  H  I*        II 


Mdse.   Co.  B. 


3,So0j 
336  25 

4.'3<>25 


1SS3. 
Apr.         4 

7 


To  Butler  &  Carlton, 
"  Sundries, 


I 

2 

4,000 
500 

i 

4,5"" 

ISS3. 

Apr. 


By  J  ames  Scott, 


4.S0O 


Dr. 


Bills  Receivable. 


Cr. 


1883. 

Apr. 

M 

9 
13 

To  Mdse.  Co.  A, 
"   Mdse., 
"   Mdse.  Co.  C, 

To  Balance, 
"  Mdse.  Co.  E, 

I 
1 

a 

3,300 
1,000 
7.000 

1SS3. 
Apr. 

30 

3" 

By  Sundries, 
"  Balancf, 

By  Cash, 
"  Balance, 

3 

1,00c 

•0,300 

11,300 



May 

41 

1 
s 

s 

10,300 
5,000 

May 

8 
>7 
3' 

5 
6 

7 

3,300 
7,oco 
5.ood 

«S,3°o 

15,300 

Dr. 


Storage  and  Advertising. 


Cr. 


18S3. 

Apr. 


To  Loss  and  Gain, 


/_ 


L3 


"60 


■s%. 

Apr. 

6 

7 

By  Mdse 

Co 

A, 

N 

n 

««        (i 

It 

C, 

30 


- 


K" 


200 


BOOK-KEEPING     BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


Mf 


1 


Dr. 


SET  II.     LEDGER.    (5.) 

Commission. 


Cr. 


1883. 

Apr. 

jo 

To  Lost  and  Gain, 
To  Loss  and  Gain, 

7 

*&> 

I8S3. 

Apr. 

M 

6 
7 
'3 

By  Mdsc.  Co.  A, 
B. 

c, 

By  Mdse.  Co.  D, 

E. 

"       "        "    F, 

1 
* 
a 

"'7 
in 

5° 

480 

May 

3» 

434 

IS 

May 

H 

3 
8 
'7 

4 
5 
6 

73 

1S750 

434 

'5 

434  »5 

Z?r. 


Bills  Payable. 


Cr. 


IBB3. 

Apr. 

3° 

TV  Balanct, 

To  First  National  Bank, 
"    Cash, 
"    Balance, 

LS 

I2f>3b 

a* 

1SS3. 
Apr. 

u 

6 

9 
■  a 

By  Butler  &  Carlton, 
"    J  as.  A.  Wright  A  Co., 
"    Str.  Missouri  Belle  Stock, 

By  Balance, 

"   John  A.  Fargo  &  Co., 

"    Geo.  Allen, 

a 
a 

1 

a, 900 

4.>36  >S 
5.000 

",036 

»S 

ia,036  aj 

May 
it 

la 

j6 
3' 

5 

6 

8 

4.'3° 
3.900 

10,781 

»s 

>5 

.May 

11 
M 

1 

■  a 
a6 

t 

6 

11,03635 
3.900 

a,SSi 

iS,Si7 

iS,Si;  a5 

Z?r. 


James  Scott. 


Cr. 


1883. 

Apr. 


To  Mdse.  Co.  B, 


4.500 


18S3. 
May 


■a 


By  Cash, 


6 


4J00 


Dr. 


Mdsc.  Co.  C. 


Cr. 


I8S3. 

Apr. 

•1 

9 
>3 

To  Sundries, 

M                 (t 

a 
2 

8,700 

■  .3'"' 

1 883. 
Apr. 

'3 

By  Sundries, 

• 

10,000 

10,000 

= 

10,00c 

Dr. 


Peter  Curtis. 


Cr. 


1883. 

Apr. 

»3 
f 

3' 

To  Sundries, 
■    Balanct^ 

To  Balance, 

£ 

666 

66 

01 

I8S3. 

Apr. 
11 

9 
'3 

By  Mdse.  Co.  C, 
11       11        ii    « 

By  Balance, 

* 
1 

s/wSer 

6,006 

«7 

0,00667 

May 

S 

5.34o 

CH 

May 

I 

L5 

1 

-L 


T 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


4- 


SET  II.     LEDGER.    (6.) 


Dr. 


J.  G.  Holland. 


Cr. 


ISS3. 

Apr. 

23 

3' 

To  Sundries, 
"  Balance, 

To  Balance, 

3 
Lb 

i,333 
',<bV 

99 

18S3. 

Apr. 

9 
13 
3° 

By  Mdse.  Co.  C, 
"  Loss  and  Gain, 

By  Balance, 

a 
2 
3 

2,S33|» 

3,*SS 

a 

■       3.^33 

May 

8 

«,954  99 

May 

I 

L6 

J,  9:; 

1 

Dr. 


Steamer  Missouri  Belle  Stock. 


Cr. 


18S3. 

Apr. 


May  1 


To  Sundries, 
"  Loss  and  Gain. 


To  Balance, 


• 

10,000 
ISO 

1SS3. 
Apr. 

M 

2S 
JO 

10,250 

L6 

10,000 

May 

3,l 

By  Steamer  Missouri  Belle, 
"  Balance,  Inventory, 


By  Balance, 


3 
£6 

250 
/o,ooo 

io,;jo 

8 

10,000 

Dr. 

J.   Wills  &  Co. 

• 

Cr. 

1SS3. 

May        30 

To  Cash, 

6 

1,000 

18S3. 

Apr. 

16 

By  Mdse. 

3 

1,000 

Dr. 


1SS3. 

Apr. 


18 


To  Cash, 


Arthur,  Astor,  Private. 


'50 


Cr. 


1SS3. 

May        31         By  A.  A.,  Stock, 


>5< 


/v. 

John  Adams,  Private. 

Cr. 

1SS3. 

Apr. 

H 

To  First  National  Bank, 

3 

200 

II  1SS3. 

May 

3' 

By  J.  A.,  Stock, 

7 

200 

Dr. 


Steamer  Missouri  Belle. 


1SS3. 

Apr.        »S         To  Str.  Missouri  Belle  Stock, 


Dr. 


250 


1SS3. 

May 


31         By  Balance, 


Mdse.  Co.  D. 


V 


Cr. 


_*Soj 


Cr. 


IS83. 

May 

1 
3 

To  Sundries, 

4 
4 

1,660 

18S3. 

May 

•  f 

3 
3 

By  Cash, 
"  Henry  Green  &  Co., 

. 

4 
4 

750 
».37<> 

3i"o| 

3,'2d 

• 



V 


1 

rs 

- 

£~ 

1 

202 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 

/ 

■ 
> 

Dr. 

SET  II.     LEDGER.    (7.) 

• 

George  Allen. 

Cr. 

.883.     j 
May    !   16 

To  Bills  Payable, 

6 

2,881 

.883. 
May 

41 

I 

3 

By  Mdse.  Co.  D, 

!•             HUM 

j. 

M7> 

■gn 

«* 

Dr. 

Watson  Weed. 

Cr. 

1SS3. 
May 

M 

4 

To  Sundries, 
"  Shipment  in  Co.  No.  1, 

4 

6 

909 

Soo 

May 

3« 

By  Balance, 

8 

>.7°9 

>.7°9 

..709 

Dr. 

Shipment  in  Co.  No.  i. 

Cr. 

18S3. 

May         a 

To  Sundries, 

4 

909 

■«3. 
May 

" 

»5 
3' 

By  Watson  Weed, 
"  Loss  and  Gain, 

0 

8 

800 

.09 

9°9 

V*. 

=» 

Z>r. 

Insurance. 

• 

Cr. 

:883. 
May 

3 

; 

To  Cash, 

4 

37  5° 

1SS3. 
May 

3« 

By  Loss  and  Gain, 

8 

37 

50 

1 

zv. 

Henry  Green  &  Co. 

Cr. 

.8S3. 

May 

M 

3 

To  Mdse.  Co.  D, 
"  Loss  and  Gain, 

4 

6 

».37° 

■"75 

iMj. 

May 

«S 

By  Sundries, 

6 

>^»s 

a.645 

»*4S 

Dr. 

Charges. 

Cr 

18S3, 

May 

3' 

To  Loss  and  Gain, 

8 

ISO 

May 

H 

.1 

s 

»7 

By  Mdse.  Co.  D, 
•■       «       ••    s> 

F, 

♦ 
S 
6 

J 

150 

_J» 

1 

| 

> 

/ 

\ 

•■ 

-*7 

3 

*             6 

v' 

1 

BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


SET  II.     LEDGER.    (8.) 


203 


Dr. 


Mdse.  Co.  E. 


Cr. 


1SS3. 
May 

7 
8 

To  Sundries, 

5 
5 

|        I 

».500 

5.000 

,SS, 

May 

8 

By  Sundries, 

5 

7.5oo 

7o-oo 

7.S00 

Dr. 


■ss3. 

May        31      1   To  Balance, 


Geo.  Emerson  &•  Co. 


s 

4.254 

16 
16 

1SS3. 
May 

II 

7 
8 

*r»S4 

By  Mdse.  Co.  E, 


G. 


5  2,000 

5  2.2S4  16 

4.254  '6 


Dr. 


Mdse.  Co.  F. 


Cr. 


IS83. 

May 

(I 

■77 

To  Sundries, 

M              M 

I 

4.000 

2,750 

1883. 

May 

II 

«4 

•7 

By  Cash, 

5 
6 

4.75o 

2,000 

6,750 

6.750 

Dr, 


Hugh  Spencer. 


Cr. 


ISS3. 

May 

>7 

To  Cash, 

6 

6,515 

62 

1SS3. 
May 

u 

7 
'7 

By  Mdse.  Co.  F, 
>•        <■       11     •■ 

5  3.5oo 

6  3,015  6a 

6,515 

6a 

6,5=5  62 

Dr. 


1SS3. 

-May 


31  To  Balance, 


M.  S.  Clay  &  Co. 


»,254 


1883. 

May 


By  Mdse.  Co.  E, 


Cr. 


2,254 -7 


Dr. 


18S3. 

May 


Balance. 


Cr. 


i3S3. 

*     " 

V. 

To  Store  and  Fixtures, 

15,000 

May 

3' 

By  Mortgage  Payable, 

7 

4.S0C 

3' 

1  Cash, 

4,575 

00 

M 

3> 

"  Interest  Payable, 

7 

18 

37 

i' 

11  First  National  Bank, 

2 '.337 

50 

" 

3> 

"  Bills  Payable, 

8 

10,7s  1 

.V 

"  Interest  Receivable, 

146 

S2 

M 

31 

11  Peter  Curtis, 

S 

5,340 

01 

Ji 

M  Bills  Receivable, 

5,000 

i« 

3' 

"  J.  G.  Holland, 

8 

",954  99 

31 

•*  Str.  Missouri  Belle  Stock. 

8 

10,000 

M 

3i 

•*  Geo.  Emerson  &  Co., 

S 

4-2?4  '6 

3< 

a  Str.  Missouri  Belle, 

8 

25a 

■i 

3' 

"  M.  S.  Clay  &  Co., 

8 

2,254  17 

3' 

'  Watson  Weed, 

8 

1,709 

M 

3" 

"  John  Adams, 

8 

15,783,  '4 

TT— rl 

M 

3' 

"  Arthur  Astor, 

8 

■3,"30 
5S.0.S 

57 

58.018 

41 

4L_ 

~7 


/_ 


-H 


■^ 


FT 


204 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


A 


SET  II.    TRIAL  BALANCE,  APRIL 


8,831  »S 


284 

1,050 


10,300 


♦.500 


9.75o 

aoo 
■50 
250 


TOTAL 
FOOTINGS. 


12,500 

21,284 
l'J,0O0 

A 
4,i»3 
5.7°° 

"5 

4,7<» 
4,'36 
4,5oo 
•  ',300 


4.500 
10,000 
666  do 


1.333 
10,000 

200 

>5o 
250 


M 


57.5S4  83  105,80790 


John  Adams  (Stock) 

Arthur  Astor  (Stock) 

Store  and  Fixtures 

Mortgiuje  Payable 

Cash 

First  National  Bank 

Interest 

Expense 

Butler  &  Carlton 

Merchandise 

•  Loss  and  Gain   - 
John  A.  Fargo  A  Co. 

-  Mdse.  Co.  A.     . 
J  as.  A.  Wright  &  Co. 

.     Mdse.  Co.  B.     • 

Bills  Receivable 

Storage  and  Advertising 

Commission 

•  Bills  Pavable     • 
James  Scott 

•  Mdse.  Co.  C.    • 

Peter  Curtis 

.    J.  G.  Holland    . 

Steamer  Missouri  Belle  Stock 

-  J.  Wills  &  Co.    - 
John  Adams  (Private) 
Arthur  Astor  (Private) 
Steamer  Missouri  Belle 


Inventory. — Property  Unsold,  April  jo. 


Store  and  Fixtures,  rained  at  cost . 

M dse.  on  hand 

Steamer  Missouri  Belle,  at  cost  .... 


SET  II.    TRIAL  BALANCE,  MAY. 


BALANCES. 

FOOTINGS.* 

• 

FOOTINGS. 

BALANCSS. 

200 

•              •                                   John  Adams     • 

14,64404 

I4444  04 

150 

Arthur  Astor 

".94037 

>>  1790  37 

12,500 

12,500 

, 

Store  and  Fixtures 

4.500 
38,546 

Mortgage  Payable 
Cash 

o,oorj 

4.5O0 

4.575P9 

31 

J3W7i  ■» 

2i,337i|o 

31,331 

a* 

First  National  Bank 

SAW  75 
5°a>7 

34160 

341 

60 

•          Interest 

150 

484 

» 

Expense 
Loss  and  Gain 

" 

»°! 

80  . 

5.000 

15.30O 

Bills  Receivable 

10,300 

•     Commission      * 

iS.3.7  -15 

i*  '5 

8,036 

a? 

Bills  Payable 

•      Peter  Curtis 

- 

5.340  01 

5.340  oi 

250 

2C.0 

Steamer  Missouri  Bi-l'e 

1.709 

>.709 

•    Watson  Weed    - 

• 

109 

9°9 

Shipment  in  Co.  * 

80c 

37 

5° 

37 

50 

•        Insurance 
Charges 

>5« 

ffl   < 

1     ■ 

* 

Geo.  Emerson  ft  Co. 

4.»5- 

16 

4.354  ■* 

M.  S.  Clav  ft  Co. 

».»5- 

■7 

MM  '7 

.     J.G.Holland     - 

«r95- 

99 

■.954  99 

10,000 

69 

10,000 

Steamer  Mi-«»uri  Belle  Stock 

; 

50,009 

124445  18 

™4rf45  18 

(0,00969 

1 

*  The  amounts  In  this  column  do  not  comprise,  like  those  in  the  preceding  balances,  the  footings  of  all  the  Ledger  accounts 
as  do  not  balance  or  cancel.  The  footings  of  this  column  and  its  opposite  will  not,  therefore,  tally  with  the  footings  of  the 
method  ban  adopted  is  the  one  most  in  use  with  accountants,  but  docs  not  afford  so  sure  a  test  of  the  correctness  of  the  Ledger. 


but  such  only 
J'-urnsl.     The 


■f    <* *- 


K" 


BOOK-KEEPING    BY    DOUBLE    ENTRY. 


205 


i 


s 

«3 
"1 

s 


os; 


I 

•5 

5     I 


M 

*fi  rrS; 

«** 

n 

j* 

8 

In 

0  «1 

N-  N-  ^ 

% 

a 

§ 

.itmt 

. 

- 

a 


21 

■Sals 

8—  c  » 
£0  »^ 
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c  i-u  a 

<  r. 
gllj 

SS?  8 


UJ 
CO 
UJ 

o 


< 

CO 
CO 

cc 

o 
I- 
co 

< 

CO 

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a 
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:  :  : 


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: '-  :  * 


if",  i-r.  - 


•   Q   Q   n-r>.0     1 

!       o"     cows  ! 


^  '--  ?  : 


2  ■£&  £  I?  •  **  •     "" 


ft  <■> 

It 

si 

31 


•«/*>/  -7 


■  «  N  W  f3fO^-VlU]Vi\0  NNNNOOCChQnO 


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206 


-- 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY 


OLUMNAR 


OURNAL. 


Combining  in  one  book  the  Day-Book,  Journal,  Cash-Book  and  Sales-Book, 


AND  INTRODUCING  THE 


COMBINED   STATEMENT, 

SHOWING,  ON  ONE  SHEET,  TRIAL,  BALANCE,  LOSSES  AND  GAINS,  ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES. 


A  GREAT  saving  of  space  and  time  is  effected  by  the  use 
of  the  Columnar  Journal.  This  plan  essentially  com- 
bines four  books  in  one :  Day-Book,  Journal,  Cash-Book 
and  Sales-Book,  and  the  classification  of  the  entries  obviates  the 
necessity  of  carrying  a  multiplicity  of  items  to  the  Ledger.  In 
the  pages  immediately  following,  the  transactions  of  Set  I.  are 
presented  in  the  shape  of  a  Six-column  Journal  —  so  called 
because  it  has  six  columns  for  figures  —  three  debit  and  three 
credit  columns.  Merchandise  and  Cash,  being  the  principal 
items  in  this  set,  are  given  special  columns,  and  are  posted  to 
the  Ledger  in  totals  at  the  end  of  the  month,  or  as  often  as  the 
Journal  is  to  be  posted.  All  the  amounts  that  pass  immediately 
to  the  Ledger  are  placed  in  the  General  column,  and  to  this 
column  must  be  added  the  footings  of  the  special  columns  when- 
ever the  Journal  is  to  be  fully  posted.  This  plan  may  be 
extended  to  suit  the  requirements  of  any  business,  and  instead 


of  six  columns,  eight,  ten,  or  even  twenty,  may  be  employed, 
the  most  frequently  occurring  items  being  given  special  columns. 
Besides  the  advantages  mentioned  above,  the  Columnar  Journal 
presents  a  monthly  summary,  by  which  the  business  of  a  month 
or  quarter  may  be  compared  with  that  of  others,  and  the  in- 
crease or  decrease  in  trade  may  thus  be  more  easily  and  defin- 
itely calculated. 

By  way  of  practice,  the  student  of  the  science  of  accounts 
will  do  well  to  write  up  a  Ledger  conforming  to  the  Six-column 
Journal  here  presented.  The  results  will  be  identical  with  the 
Ledger  of  Set  I.,  except  that  the  Cash  and  Merchandise  entries 
will  be  posted  in  totals  at  the  end  of  the  month,  "  By  Sundries" 
and  "  To  Sundries,"  when  the  footings  of  the  special  columns 
have  been  added  to  the  General  column.  When  this  set  is 
completed  Set  II.  will  furnish  material  for  further  study  and 
practice. 


.    Pew  T0  Cotge  gipicE  Entity  BeoKg  ijto  Double  Entity. 


THE  difference  in  the  two  systems.it  should  be  remembered, 
is  that  in  Double  Entry  you  introduce  Representative 
Accounts,  representing  the  firm  or  business  in  every 
transaction  under  some  one  or  other  of  the  subdivisions 
adopted,  as  Stock,  Cash,  Merchandise,  Expense,  Bills  Payable, 
Bills  Receivable,  Interest,  Profit  and  Loss,  etc.  In  changing 
single  entry  books  into  double  entry  the  first  step  should  be  to 
make  an  inventory  of  stock,  etc.,  and  a  statement  of  all  accounts 
due  to  or  by  you,  on  separate  sheets  of  paper.  When  this  is 
done  proceed  to  make  the  following  entries  in  your  Journal, 
entering,  of  course,  the  proper  amounts  in  the  debit  and  credit 
columns  : 


STOCK,  DR. 
Bills  Payable, 

John  Jones, 

Piter  Smith, 


TO  SUNDRIES. 
For  my  Notes  due  as  per  schedule  hereto. 
For  amount  due  him  as  per  schedule  hereto. 


For  amount  due  him  as  per  schedule  hereto. 
(And  so  continue  the  list  0/ parties  you  owe  anything  Iff.) 

SUNDRIES,  DR.  TO  STOCK. 

Merchandise, 

For  amount  of  stock  on  hand  as  per  Inventory. 


Bills  Receivable, 

For  notes  due  me  as  per  schedule  hereto. 
Charles  Grey, 

For  amount  due  me  as  per  schedule  hereto. 
Robert  Brown, 

For  amount  due  me  as  per  schedule  hereto. 
(Ami so  continue  the  whole  list.) 
Property  account  in  the  same  way,  if  you  have  any  ;  also  Mortgages  sad 
Stocks. 

When  this  has  been  accurately  done  and  the  amounts  posted 
to  the  Ledger,  the  accounts  will  produce  a  positive  balance- 
sheet — that  is,  the  total  credits  will  be  equal  to  the  total  debits, 
for  the  following  reasons  : 

1 .  Sundries  is  no  actual  account,  but  is  used  of  necessity, 
meaning  that  n  plurality  is  intended. 

2.  Stock  Dr.  to  Sundries  means  that  it  is  Dr.  to  all  the 
accounts  named,  which  are  respectively  Cr.'s,  and  therefore 
must  be  equal. 

3.  Sundries  Dr.  to  Stock  means  that  all  the  names  and 
accounts  stated  are  Dr.,  and  Stock  is  Cr.  for  the  aggregate  of  the 
several  Debtors,  and  therefore  must  be  equal. 

Note. — The  balance  of  Stock  account  will  show  what  you 
are  worth,  or  have  in  your  business. 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


207 


A  SIX-COLUMN  JOURNAL,    (i.) 

(The  transactions  of  Set  I.    Written  up  in  the  form  of  a  Columnar  Journal.) 


Mdse. 


Cash.     General. 

2,000  bo 


6,000 


00 


1,95000 


50000 


(,50000 


75000 


80000 


60000 


8,75000 


5,350 


VL 


1,75000 


1,05000 


5000 


L.F, 


51500 


3.365  bo 


St.  Louis,  December  /,  1883. 


L.F.  General.     Cash.        Mdse. 


Cash,  To  Stock 

Commenced  business  this  day  with  $2,000  cash  on  hand. 


Merchandise,  To  Armstrong  &  Co.,  . 

Bought,  on  acc't,  1,000  brls.  Flour,  @  $6.00. 
3   


Cash,  To  Merchandise,    . 

Sold  to  Jesse  Jameson,  300  brls.  Flour,  @  {6.5a 

5   

John  Williams,        To  Merchandise,    .     .     . 
250  brls.  Flour,  @  $7.00. 
7   

Bills  Receivable,    To  Merchandise,    .     .     . 
Sold  Wm.  Moore,  on  his  Note  @  30  days, 

150  brls.  Flour,  @  {7.00. 


OO 


Merchandise,  To  Bills  Payable,  .... 

Bought  of  Joseph  Wheelock,  on  our  Note  @  60  days, 
500  bu.  Wheat,  @  $1.00. 


Cash,  To  Merchandise,    .... 

Sold  Albert  St.  John, 

100  bu.  Wheat,  @  $1.25,      .      .      $125.00 
100  brls.  Flour,  "     6.75,      .      .        675.00 

14 ~ 


Expense,  To  Cash,  .     .     . 

Stationery  and  Books  for  use  of  Store. 
_ r5-« 


Merchandise,  To  Cash, 

Bought  of  Edwin  Ellerton,  300  brls.  Flour,  @  $5.00. 

17 


Cash,                         To  Merchandise,    .     . 
Sold  Peter  Potts,  100  brls.  Flour,  @  $6.00. 
, 18 


Merchandise, 


To  W.  L.  George,     .     .     . 
1,000  bu.  Oats,  @  75c. 
20  — ■ 


Bills  Receivable,    To  Merchandise,    .... 
Sold  Sellers  &  Bro.,  on  their  Note  @  5  days, 

500  bu.  Oats,  @  80c.,    .     .      $400.00 
100  bu.  Wheat,  @  $1. 15,    .        115.00 


2,000 


6,00000 


50000 


1,95000 


1,75000 


1,050  00 


80000 


5000 


1,50000 


750  00 


600  00 


51500 


9,25000     1,550:00     6,665  00 


£- 

V 


\ 


208 


BOOK-KEEPING  BY   DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


-7 


A  SIX-COLUMN  JOURNAL.    (2.) 


KIdsb. 


8,75600 


Cash.     General.  L.F. 


St.  Louis,  December  22,  /8Sj. 


8,253 


17,000 


5.350O0     3.36^00 
2.730  o<J 


S«S 


3.32500 


11,920)00 


00 


6,00000 


9,465  oc 
11,920,0c 
17,0000c 


38.385 


.     Amounts  brought  forward,  .... 

Cash,  To  Merchandise,  .... 

Sold  Bernard  Blair, 

400  brls.  Flour,  @  $6.00,  .   $2,400.00 

300  bu.  Wheat,    "     1.10,  .        330.00 

26 


Merchandise,  To  Howard  Harrison, 

Bought,  on  acc't,  1,500  brls.  Flour,  (nj,  55.50. 

*7 

A.  A.  McHatton,     To  Merchandise,    .     . 

1  000  brls.  Flour,  @  $6.00. 

28 


Cash,  To  Bills  Receivable,  .     .     . 

Sellers  &  Bro.'s  Note  paid  in  full  this  day. 

29 1 

Cash,  To  Merchandise 

Sold  Patrick  Connolly, 

500  brls.  Flour,  @  $5.75,    .  $2,875.00 
500  bu.  Oats,       "        .90,     .        450.00 

3, 

Expense,  To  Cash, 

Paid  Clerk  Hire $60.00 

"     Store  Rent, 40.00 


Dr.  Cash,  Cr. 

Dr.   Merchandise,  Cr. 


L.F.  General 


9.250 


8,2500c 


5iS 


18,015 
1,650 
18,720-00! 


38.385 


00 


00 


00 


Cash. 


1,55000 


100  TO 


1,65000 


V:.-; 


6,665 

2,73000 


6,00000 


3.325  00 


18,72000 


COMBINED  STATEMENT.— Trial  Balance,  Assets  and  Liabilities,  Gains  and  Losses,  all  in  one. 


15000 


3M° 

3,22<  oct 


Gains. 


3,220  CX 


3,22600 


Debit 
Face  op      L.  F 
Ledger. 


11,92600 

17,000  CXI 

1,565011 

I5(OII 

1,75c  ex  1 
6,006  a  1 


38.383  00 


Credit. 
Face  or  | 

l.HM.m 


.     Stock, j     ^ 

Cash 1,65000 

Merchandise 18,72006 


Asse 


Sttek  Investment, 

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Bills  Payable,    . 
.    Expense,   . 

Armstrong  &  Co., 
JOKH   Williams,    . 

"W.  L.  George,  . 
Howard  Harrison, 
A.  A.  McHatton, 


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A  COMPENDIUM   OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


209 


rf?ST  ^ 


IOGRAPHY • 


-040c         i^sh         -cw>o»'  :=S)=?  -*o4o- 


-o^o- 


'<  lf»Mj/e<J.  o^p  <j/i/e<ifc  noon.  «/C  -vevyxlwdi  ma 
V? ©  <vet/n.  *rva.&-o  a*vi/  tUt>e<s.  a-u/fiCt/m/B, 

£K»«<tp/M/>atcJ.  o-ru  tA/o  (Kvntl.i  <a>f  tirvve." 

—  Longfellow/ s  Psalm  0/ Lift. 


\ 


<m&&- 


©KB  eMINENT   F?ISIP0I^IGAL   l!?EI^SONAGES  OP  ALL  flGBS. 


N  the  following  Biographical  Diction- 
ary the  most  salient  points  in  each 
career  have  be<*n  touched,  and  par- 
ticular attention  has  furthermore  been 
paid  to  adapting  it  to  the  wants  of 
American  readers  and  of  the  present 
time.  It  will  be  found  that  many 
names  are  included  of  persons  recently  brought 
into  prominence,  which  are  the  subject  of  daily 
enquiry  in  this  country,  but  of  which  no  men- 
tion can  be  found  in  the  more  pretentious  and 
bulky  volumes  devoted  exclusively  to  biogra- 
phy. The  great  extent  of  the  work  has  made 
it  impossible  within  the  pages  allotted  to  this 
department  to  do  more,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
than  answer  about  each  individual  named  the 
following  questions:  "Who  was  he?"  "What 
was  he?"  "Where  did  he  live?"  "What  did 
he  do?"  "When  was  he  born?"  "When  did  he 
die?"  These  queries  have  been  replied  to  in 
the  shortest  possible  manner.     It  has  been  the 


endeavor  of  the  editor  to  make  the  collection 
so  complete  that  this  biographical  information 
will  answer  eve>y  demand  made  upon  it  by  the 
reader.  It  is  confidently  believed  that  no  name 
at  all  apt  to  be  met  with  in  an  ordinary  course 
of  English  reading  has  been  omitted. 


EXPLANATION! 

The  figures  following  the  name  indicate  the  years  of  birth  and  death. 
After  the  names  'of  some  of  the  Popes,  -where  the  date  of  birth  is  un- 
known, the  first  figure  shows  the  year  of  accession  to  the  pontificate. 

An  interrogation  mark  indicates  that  the  date  is  doubtful  or  approx- 
imate. 

Assumed  names  or  sobriquets  are  printed  in  italics  immediately fol- 
lowing  the  name. 


Fl. — Flourished  or  lived. 

B.  C. — Before  the  Christian  era. 

Am. — American. 

Van. — Danish. 

Eng. — English. 

Fr. — French. 

Ger. — German. 

Gr. — Greek. 


It.— Italian. 
Nor. — Norwegian. 
Port. — Portuguese. 
Prus. — Prussian. 
Scot. — Scottish. 
Sw. — Swedish. 


H^  ACHEN,  Johann  van.     1552-1620      German  painter. 

Aaron.     1574-1451   B.c.      First  high  priest  of   the   Israelite*. 

Brother  of  Moses. 
Aarschot,  Philippe  de  Croi,  Duke  of.     ....-1595.      Flemish 

general  and  statesman. 

Aarssens,  Franz  Van.     1572-1641.    Dutch  diplomatist. 


+• 


14 


I 


IV 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


r  f — ' 


Abati,  Bocco  degli.  Florentine  traitor  mentioned  in  Dante's 
Inferno. 

Abbas  Pasha,  1874-. . . .  Khedive  of  Egypt.  Suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Mohammed  Tewfik  Pasha,  in  1893. 

Abbas  I.      Tie  Great.     1 557-1628.     Shah  of  Persia. 

Abbassides.  Fl.  749-1258.  The  most  famous  dynasty  of 
Caliphs  at  Bagdad  and  Damascus. 

Abbot,  George.     1562-1633.     English  prelate. 

Abbot,  Rev.  Jacob.     1803-1879.    Am.  author.     Hollo  Books. 

Abbott,  John  Stevens  Cabot.    1805-1877.    American  historian. 

Abd-el-Kader.  1807-1883.  Emir  of  Algeria.  Led  the 
Arabians,  about  1830,  in  hostilities  against  the  French,  then  beginning 
to  invade  his  country.  After  a  brave  struggle  he  was  vanquished  in 
1847  and  imprisoned  in  France.  In  i860,  risking  his  own  life,  he  averted 
the  massacre  of  thousands  of  Christians  in  Syria. 

Abdur  Rahman  Khan.    1845-.  .  . .    Amir  of  Afghanistan. 

Abdul-Aziz.     1830-1876.     Sultan  of  Turkey. 

Abdul-Hamid  II.     1842- Sultan  of  Turkey. 

Abelard,  Pierre.     1079-1 142.     French  orator  and  philosopher. 

Abercrombie,  James.     1706-1781.    British  general  in  America. 

Abercrombie,  John.     1781-1844.     Scottish  metaphysician. 

Abercromby,  Sir  Ralph.     1734-1801.     British  general. 

Abernethy,  John.    1764-1831.    Eng.  physician  and  anatomist. 

About,  Edmond  Francois  Valentin.      1828-1885.    Fr.  author. 

Abraham,  or  Abram.  Born  about  2000  B.C.,  and  died  at  the 
age  of  175.     Hebrew  prince  and  patriarch. 

Acier,  Michel  Victor.     1736-1799.     French  sculptor. 

Acilius  Glabrio,  Manius.     Fl.  191  B.C.  Consul  of  Rome. 

Acosta,  Jose  de.  i539?-l6co.  Spanish  Jesuit,  missionary  and 
author. 

Adair,  John.     1757-1840.     American  general  and  statesman. 

Adam.     4000  B.C.     Father  of  the  human  race. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis.  1807- 1888.  American  statesman 
and  diplomatist.     Son  of  J.  Q.  A.     Negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Geneva. 

Adams,  John.  Born  at  Braintree,  Mass.,  1735;  died,  1826. 
American  statesman  and  diplomatist.  First  vice-president  and  second 
president  of  the  United  States  ;  one  of  the  negotiators  of  the  treaty  of 
peace  with  Great  Britain,  1782.  Defeated  by  Jefferson  for  the  presi- 
dency in  1800,  he  retired  to  private  life,  disliked  by  both  prevailing 
parties.  His  talents,  patriotism  and  public  services,  however,  entitle 
him  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
republic. 

Adams,  John  Quincy.  1 767-1848.  Son  of  J.  A.  American 
statesman  and  diplomatist.  Sixth  president  of  the  United  States,  being 
elected  by  the  House,  not  one  of  the  four  candidates  in  1824  —  Adams, 
Clay,  Jackson  and  Crawford,  all  members  of  the  same  party — having  a 
majority.  Defeated  by  Jackson  in  1828.  Elected  to  the  House  in 
1830,  his  oratory  gained  for  him  the  title  "  Old  Man  Eloquent,"  and  he 
was  distinguished  for  his  unremitting  devotion  to  public  business.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  House  until  1848,  in  which  year,  while  in  his  seat 
at  the  Capitol,  he  received  a  stroke  of  paralysis,  which  caused  his  death. 

Adams,  Samuel.  1722-1803.  Governor  of  Massachusetts; 
one  of  the  popular  leaders  of  the  Revolution  ;  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence. 

Adanson,  Michel.    1727-1806.     French  naturalist. 

Addison,  Joseph.  1672-1719.  English  poet,  moralist  and 
dramatist.  Requested  by  Lord  Godolphin  to  write  a  poem  on  the  battle 
of  Blenheim,  Addison  composed  "  The  Campaign,"  which  procured 
for  him  a  great  public  applause  and  a  lucrative  government  position.  He 
became  under-secretary  of  state  in  1705,  and  was  elected  to  Parliament 
In  1708.  Dr.  Johnson  says  of  him  :  "  He  not  only  made  the  proper  use 
•f  wit  himself,  but  taught  it  to  others.  *  *  *  He  has  restored  virtue 
to  its  dignity,  and  taught  innocence  not  to  be  ashamed."    His  contribu- 


tions to  the  Toiler  and  the  Spectator  are  examples  of  his  graceful  style 
and  genial  spirit. 

Adelaide.     1792-1849.     Consort  of  William  IV.  of  England; 

Adelung,  Johann  Christoph.    1732-1806.    German  philologist 

Adrian  I.  Pope,  from  772-795.  II.',  867-872.  III.,  884-885. 
IV.,  1154-1 159.     V.,  1276  ;  died  same  year.    VI.,  1521-1523. 

/Bschines.  398-314  B.c.  Athenian  orator;  rival  of  De- 
mosthenes. 

/Esop.  6i9?-5&4  B.C.  Greek"  fabulist.  Being  a  slave,  he 
was  liberated  by  his  master  on  account  of  his  talents. 

iEsopus.     Fl.  1st  century  B.C.     Roman  tragedian. 

xEtion.     Fl.  end  of  4th  century.     Greek  painter. 

Afire,  Denis  Auguste.  1793-1848.  Archbishop  of  Paris. 
Killed  during  the  insurrection  of  June,  1848,  In  an  effort  to  arrest  the 
carnage. 

Aga,  Mohammed.  1734-1797.  Founder  of  the  reigning  Per- 
sian dynasty ;  assassinated. 

Agamemnon - Generalissimo  of  the  Greek  forces 

during  the  Trojan  war. 

Agassiz,  Louis.  1807-1873.  Swiss  naturalist;  professor  at 
Harvard;  founder  of  museum  of  comparative  zoology,  Cambridge. 
Research**  on  Fossil  Fishes. 

Agatharchus.  Fl.  480  B.C.  Greek  painter,  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  adopt  the  rules  of  perspective. 

Agnesi,  Maria  Gaetana.  17 18-1799.  Italian  lady  possess- 
ing rare  talents  for  languages  and  mathematics. 

Agricola,  Cnxus  Julius.  37-93.  Roman  general ;  built  a  line 
of  fortresses  across  Scotland. 

Agrippa,  Marcus  Vipsanius.  63-12  B.C.  Roman  soldier  and 
statesman. 

Agrippina  Augusta -60  A.D.     Mother  of  Nero;  noted 

for  her  cruelty  and  immorality ;  poisoned  her  uncle  and  second  hus- 
band, the  Emperor  Claudius  ;  executed  by  order  of  Nero. 

Aiken,  John.  1 747-1822.  English  writer.  General  Biog- 
raphy. 

Ains worth,  Robert.     1 660-1 743.     English  classical  scholar. 

Ainsworth,  William  Harrison.  1805-1882.  English  novelist. 
Jack  Sheppard,  Guy  Fawkes,  etc. 

Airy,  Sir  George  Biddell.     1801- Astronomer  Royal  of 

England. 

Akbar.     1542- 1605.     Most  illustrious  of  the  Mogul  emperors. 

Akenside,  Mark.  1 721-1770.  English  physician,  poet  and 
classical  scholar.    Pleasures  of  the  Imagination. 

Aladdin.  Fl.  1375.  Son  of  Osman  and  organizer  of  the 
Janissaries. 

Alaric.     350?-4io.     King  of  the  Visigoths;  conquered  Rome. 

Albert,  or  Albert  Francis,  Augustus  Charles  Emmanuel,  Prince 
ofSaxe-Coburg-Gotha.     1819-1861.    Consort  of  Queen  Victoria. 

Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales.     1841- Heir-apparent 

to  the  British  Crown. 

Alboin -573-     King  of  the  Lombards.     Assassinated  si 

the  instigation  of  his  wife,  whom  he  had  requested  to  drink  wine  from 
the  skull  of  her  father. 

Alboni,     Marietta.       1824- Italian    vocalist;    married 

Count  Pepolo  ;  retired  from  the  stage,  1863. 

Albuquerque,  Alfonso,  Marquis  de.  Tie  Great.  !453-'5l5- 
Portuguese  conqueror. 

Alcibiades.     450-404  B.C.     Athenian  general.      Assassinated. 

Alcott,  Amos  Bronson.  1 799-1888.  American  philosopher 
and  teacher. 

Alcott,  Louisa  May.  1833-1888.  American  authoress;  acted 
as  hospital  nurse  during  the  civil  war.  Little  Women:  Am  Old-Fash. 
tone  J  Girl,  eu  . 


^ 


~A 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


211 


Aldrich,    Thomas    Baily.     1836-....      American    poet   and 

novelist.      Story  of  a  Bad  Boy ;    Margery  Daw  ;    Baby  Bell ;     Pru- 
dence Palfrey ,  etc. 

Alembert,  Jean  le  Rond  d'.     1717-1783.     French  geometer. 

Alexander.  The  Great.  356-324  B.C.  King  of  Macedon. 
"  The  youth  whoall  things  but  himself  subdued." — Pope.  Taughtby 
Aristotle.  Ascended  the  throne  of  Macedon  336,  destroyed  Thebes  and 
was  chosen  commander  of  the  Greeks  against  Persia.  He  invaded  Asia 
Minor  in  334,  defeating  Darius  on  the  banks  of  the  Granicus.  In  333 
he  almost  annihilated  the  Persian  army  at  the  battle  of  Issus.  Cut  the 
Gordian  knot  and  caused  the  Ammonian  oracle  to  declare  him  the  son 
of  Jupiter  Ammon.  Captured  Tyre  in  33a,  and,  having  invaded  Egypt, 
founded  Alexandria.  In  331  he  defeated  Darius  at  the  decisive  battle 
of  Arbcla.  Becoming  elated  by  his  successes,  he  claimed  the  homage 
due  to  a  god,  stabbing  his  foster-brother  Clitus,  for  refusal  to  pay  such 
homage.  Invaded  India  in  327,  advancing  as  far  as  the  Hyphasis.  Died 
at  Babylon  of  a  fever  said  to  have  been  aggravated  by  excessive  drinking. 

Alexander  I.  1777-1825.  Emperor  of  Russia.  II.,  1818-1881; 
assassinated  by  the  Nihilists.     III.,  1845-.... 

Alexander  I.  Pope  from  108  to  117.  II.,  1061-1073.  III., 
1159-1181.    IV.,  1254-1261.    V.,  1409-1410.    VI.,  1492-1503, 

Alexander  I -1124.   King  of  Scotland.    II.,  1 198-1249. 

III.,  1241-1286. 

Alexander,  Archibald.     1772-1851.     Am.  author  and  divine. 

Alexander,  James  Waddell.  1804-1859.  SonofA.  A.  Ameri- 
can author  and  divine. 

Alexander,  Joseph  Addison.  1809-1859.  SonofA.  A.  Ameri- 
can theologian  and  orientalist. 

Alexander,  William.  Lord  Stirling.  1726-1783.  American 
Revolutionary  general. 

Alfieri,  Vittorio.     1749-1803.     Italian  poet. 

Alfonso  XII.    1857-1885.   King  of  Spain.  XIII.,  1886-.... 

Alfred.  The  Great.  849?-90i.  King  of  the  West  Saxons. 
Established  schools  and  a  system  of  police,  and  founded  a  navy. 

Algardi,  Alessandro.     i6oo?-i654.     Italian  sculptor. 

Alger,  William  Rounseville.   1823- Am.  author  and  divine. 

Allen,  Ethan.  1742-1789.  American  Revolutionary  com- 
mander. With  only  eighty-three  men,  in  1775,  he  captured  Ticonderoga 
and  Crown  Point. 

Abraham  a  Sancta  Clara.     (Ulrich  Megerle).     1642-1709. 

Ger.  pulpit  orator  ;  chaplain  at  the  court  of  Vienna. 
Abt,  Franz.     1819-1885.  Ger.  musician  and  composer.      When 

thi  Swallows  Homeward  Fly ;     Oh,  Ye  Tears;     Over    The  Stars 

is  Your  Rest. 

Albani,  Emma.     1850- American  vocalist. 

Allen,  William  F.    1847- American  perfecter  of  the  new 

system  of  standard  time. 
Allen,  William  Henry.     1784-18 1 3.     Am.  naval  commander. 
Allibone,  Samuel  Austin.    1816- Am.  author.    Critical 

Dictionary  of  English  Literature. 

Allison,  William  R.     1829  - Am.  lawyer  and  statesman. 

Allston,  Washington.     1779-1843.     American  painter. 
Alma-Tadema,  Lawrence.     1836- .  . .  .     Belgian  painter. 
Alva,  Fernando   Alvarez  de   Toledo,  Duke  of.     1508-1582. 

Spanish  commander  in  the  Netherlands,  infamous  for  his  cruelties. 

Ambrose,  Saint.  34Q?-397-  One  of  the  fathers  of  the 
church. 

Ames,  Fisher.     1758-1808.     Am.  orator  and  statesman. 
Amherst,     Jeffrey.     Lord    Amherst.       1717-1797.       British' 
general  and  field-marshal  and  governor  of  Virginia. 

Ampere,  Andre  Marie.  1775-1836.  French  mathematician 
and  natural  philosopher. 


Many  of  his  poems 
'The 


Cyclops.     B.C.  382?-30i.     General  of  Alexander 


Anacreon.     B.C.  5607-478.     Greek  poet. 

have  been  rendered  into  English  by  Moore. 
Anaxagoras.      B.C.    500-428.      Greek   philosopher. 

father  of  modern  science." 

Andersen,  Hans  Christian.  1805-1875.  Danish  author  and 
novelist. 

Anderson,  Maj.  Robert.  1805-1861.    Defender  of  Ft.  Sumter. 

Anderson,  Mary.     (Mme.  Navarro).    1859-.  .  .  .     Am.  act. 

Andrassy,  Julian,  Count.     1823-1890.     Hun.  statesman. 

Andre,  John.  1 751- 1780.  English  spy ;  hanged  for  his  con- 
nection with  the  contemplated  treason  of  Arnold. 

Andrew,  John  Albion.  1818-1867.  American  statesman  and 
abolitionist ;  governor  of  Massachusetts. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund.  1637-1714.  British  colonial  governor 
of  New  England. 

Anjou.     Famous  noble  house  of  France. 

Anne  of  Austria.     1601-1666.     Queen  of  France. 

Anne.     1664-1714.     Queen  of  England  ;  last  of  the  Stuarts. 

Anthon,  Charles.     1797-1867.     American  classical  scholar. 

Anthony,  St.      251-356?     Egyptian  founder  of  monachism. 

Anthony,  Henry  B.     181 5- 1884.   U.  S.  Senator. 

Anthony  of  Padua,  St.    11 95-1 231.    Monk  of  Franciscan  order. 

Anthony,  Susan  B.  1820-. . . .  American  "  woman's  rights" 
advocate. 

Antigonus. 

the  Great. 

Antiochus  I.      King  of  Syria  and  Babylonia;   reigned   B.C. 

280-261.     II.,  reigned  B.C.  261-246;  poisoned  by  his  queen,  Laodice. 

III.  {The  Great),  reigned  B.C.  223-187. 
Antisthenes.    Fl.    400  B.C.     Greek  philosopher ;  regarded  as 

the  founder  of  the  Cynic  school. 
Antoinette,  Marie.      1755-1793.    Queen  of  Louis  XVI.   ot 

France ;  guillotined. 

Antonelli,  Giacomo. 

Antonius,    Marcus, 
general  and  statesman. 

Applegarth,  Robert.  1831-. ...  Leader  of  the  workingmen 
of  England. 

Aquinas,  Thomas.  Saint.  The  Angelic  Doctor.  1224-1274. 
Theologian,  teacher  and  writer;  member  of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic. 

Arabi  Pasha.     1834- Egyptian  revolutionist. 

Aram,  Eugene.  1704-1759.  English  scholar;  noted  for  his 
learning  no  less  than  for  his  tragic  fate.  Executed  for  the  murder  of  one 
Daniel  Clark,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  killed  to  procure  means  for  prose- 
cuting his  studies.    The  chief  character  in  one  of  Bulwer's  novels. 

Arbuthnot,    John.       1675-1735.       Scottish     physician. 

Archimedes.  B.C.  287  ?-2l2.  Greek  mathematician  and 
natural  philosopher. 

Argyll  (or  Argyle),  Archibald  Campbell,  eighth  earl.  1598- 
1661.  Scottish  Covenanter ;  defeated  by  Montrose ;  executed  for  treason. 

Argyll  (or  Argyle),  George  Douglas  Campbell,  seventh  duke. 
1823- English  statesman  and  author.     The  Reign  of  Law. 

Ariosto,    Ludovico.      1474-1533.      Italian    poet.      Orlando 

Furioso. 

Aristides.     B.c -468  ?     Athenian  general  and  statesman. 

Aristophanes.     B.C.  444  ?-38o  ?     Greek  comic  poet. 
Aristotle.     The  Stagirite.    B.C.  384-322.    Greek  philosopher; 

tutor  of  Alexander  the  Great.    Ethics. 

Arius.     2557-336?     Patriarch  of  Alexandria  and  founder  of 

the  Arian  schism. 
Arkwright,  Sir  Richard.     1732-1792.     English  manufacturer 

and  inventor  of  the  spinning -jenny. 


1806-1876.     Italian  cardinal. 
Mark  Antony.     B.C.  93?-3Q. 


Roman 


i 


7 


212 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


J 


Arminius.     B.C.  16-21  A.D.     Ger.  hero.      See  Hermann. 
Arminius,  Jacobus   (Jacob   Harmen).      1 560-1609.      Dutch 
founder  of  the  Arminian  theology. 

Armitage,  Edward.     1817- Eng.  historical  painter. 

Armstrong,  John.     1 709-1 779.     Scottish  poet  and  physician. 
Armstrong,  William  George,  Baron.    1810-.  .  .  .     English 

inventor  of  the  Armstrong  gVO* 

Arnaud,  Henri.     1641-1721.     Leader  of  the  Waldenses. 

Arndt,  Ernst  Moritz.      1 769-1860.      German  poet  and  writer. 

Arnheim,  Johann  Georg  von.  1581-1641.  German  general 
and  diplomatist. 

Arnim,  Harry  Carl  Edward  von.  1824-1879  Prussian 
diplomatist. 

Arnold,  Benedict.  1 740-1801.  American  general  and  traitor. 
His  plot  to  betray  West  Point,  one  of  the  most  important  of  American 
fortresses,  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  was  betrayed  by  the  capture  of 
Major  Andre,  and  he  barely  escaped.  He  became  a  colonel  in  the 
British  army,  and  is  said  to  have  received  ,£6,315  from  the  British  at 
indemnity  for  the  loss  he  sustained  by  his  treachery. 

Arnold  of  Brescia  (or  Arnaldo) -1 155.  Italian  re- 
former, orator  and  popular  leader. 

Arnold,    Edwin.      1832- English  journalist   aad  poet. 

Light  of  Asia.    Light  of  the  World. 

Arnold,  Matthew.  1822-1888.  English  author,  poet  and  critic. 
God  and the  Bible  ;   The  Strayed  Reveller  ;  Essays  on  Criticism,  tie. 

Arnold,  Thomas.     1795-1842.     English  historian  and  master 

of  Rugby.     History  of  Rome. 

Arnold  von  Winkelried -1386.     Swiss  patriot,  who 

broke  the  Austrian  phalanx  at  the  battle  of  Sempacb  by  throwing  him- 
self against  the  points  of  their  spears,  gathering  in  his  arms  all  the  spears 
within  reach.  He  was  mortally  wounded,  but  his  brave  action  decided 
the  fate  of  the  battle  in  favor  of  his  countrymen. 

Artemisia.  Fl.  480  B.C.  Queen  of  Halicarnassus.  Joined 
the  fleet  of  Xerxes  against  Greece,  and  commanded  her  own  ship  in  the 
battle  of  Salamis  with  courage  and  ability. 

Artemisia.  Fl.  350  B.C.  Consort  of  Mausolus,  Prince  of 
Caria,  and  after  his  death  erected  in  his  honor  a  tomb  numbered  among 
the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 

Artevelde,  Jacob  van.  I300?-I345.  Leader  of  the  people  of 
Ghent. 

Artevelde,  Philip  van,  son  of  J.  v.  A.  1340-1382.  Leader 
of  the  insurrection  in  Flanders. 

Arthur,  Chester  Allan.  1831-1886.  Twenty-first  President  of 
the  United  States.  Born  at  St.  Albans,  Vermont ;  read  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  and  began  practice  in  New  York  city  ;  i860,  quarter* 
master-general  on  the  staff  of  Gov.  Morgan  ;  1871,  collector  of  the  port 
of  New  York,  but  superseded,  1878,  by  Gen.  Merritt ;  1880,  placed  in 
nomination  for  vice-president  by  the  republican  party  and  elected  ;  sue* 
cceded  to  the  presidency  on  the  death  of  Garfield,  Sept.  19,  1881. 

Arthur,  Timothy  Shay.  1 809-1 841.  American  author. 
Lights  and  Shadows  of  Real  Life;   Ten  Nights  in  a  Bar-Roem,  etc. 

Ascham,  Roger.     15 15-1568.     English  scholar  and  author. 

Ashburton,  Alexander  Baring,  Lord.  1774-1848.  English 
diplomatist.    (Ashburton  treaty.) 

Aspasia  of  Miletus,     r.c -432  ?      Mistress  of  Pericles,  the 

Athenian  law  not  permitting  a  citizen  to  marry  a  foreigner.  Socrates 
called  himself  one  of  her  disciples. 

Astor ,  John  Jacob.  1 763-1 848.  Wealthy  American  merchant, 
native  of  Heidelberg,  Germany.  Settled  in  New  York  city,  and  entered 
the  fur  trade  with  great  success,  establishing  trading  posts  in  the  north- 
west as  far  as  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  founding  Astoria  in  1811.  He 
next  made  extensive  investments  in  real  estate,  and  when  he  died  his 
property  was  estimated  at  twenty  millions.     Founded  the  Astor  Library. 

Atahualpa -1533-     Las*  Inca  of  Peru. 


Athanasius.     2967-373.     Greek  father  of  the  church. 

Athelstan.     8o5?-94i.     King  of  England. 

Athenagoras.     Fl.  168.     Greek  Christian  philosopher. 

Atterbury,  Francis.     1662-1732.     Eng.  prelate  and  politician. 

Attila.     The  Scourge  of  God.     . . .  .-453.     King  of  the  Huns. 

Attucks,   Crispus -r77°-     Mulatto  leader    of  mob   in 

Boston  massacre. 

Auber,  Daniel  Francois  Esprit.  1784-187 1.  French  com- 
poser.    Fra  Diavolo  ;  Afasaniello. 

Audubon,  John  James.     1 780-1851.     American  ornithologist. 

Auerbach,  Berthold.  1812-1882.  German  Jewish  author 
and  poet.     The  Country  House  on  the  Rhine. 

Augereau,  Pierre  Francois  Charles,  Due  de  Cast  igli  one.  1757— 
1816.  French  general?  The  son  of  a  mechanic,  he  received  but  little 
education.  Enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  French  army  in  179a,  but  was 
rapidly  promoted,  and  at  the  end  of  a  year  had  attained  to  the  rank  of 
general  of  division.  Throughout  his  successful  military  career  he  ex* 
hibited  remarkable  valor  and  ability. 

Augustine,  Sa^nt.     354-430.     Latin  father  of  the  church. 
Augustus  I.     1670-1733.     King  of   Poland   and   elector  of 

Saxony. 

Augustus  Caesar.      B.C.63-A.D.  14.     First  Emperor  of  Rome. 
Aumale,   Henri   Eugene   Philippe  Louis  d'Orleans,  Due  d'. 

1822 French  general.     Son  of  King  Louis  Philippe. 

Aurelianus.     212-275.     Roman  emperor. 

Aurelius  Antoninus,  Marcus.     Marcus  Aureliw.      121-180. 

Roman  em|>eror  and  philosopher 
Aurung-Zebe.     1618-1707.     Emperor  of  Kindostan. 
Ausonius.     310-394?      Latin  poet. 
Austen,  Jane.     1775-1817.     English  author. 
Austin,  Saint.     Fl.  597.     The  apostle  of  England. 

Austin,  Stephen  F -1836.     Founded  the  first  colony  in 

Texas. 
Avicenna.     980-1037.     Arabian  physician. 
Aytoun,  William  Edmondstoune.     181 3-1865.     Scottish  poet. 

^>ABER,  Mohammed.       I483?-I530.      Founder   of   the 

*^~^    Mogul  empire  in  India. 

Baccio  della  Porta.  Fra  Bartolommeo  di  San  Marco. 
1469-1517.  Italian  painter  .  member  of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic  Last 
Judgment;  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine;   Virgin  on  a  Throne. 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian.  1685-1750.  German  composerand 
musical  director,  distinguished  also  for  his  skill  as  a  performer  on  the 
organ  and  the  piano.     The  Nativity. 

Bache,  Alexander  Dallas.  1806-1867.  American  philoso- 
pher and  savant ;  great-grandson  of  Dr.  Franklin. 

Bache,    Franklin.      1 792-1864.      Am.  physician  and  chemist. 

Back,  Sir  George.     1 796-1878.     English  Arctic  navigator. 

Bacon,  Francis,  Baron  Verulam,  Viscount  St.  Albans.  Lord 
Bacon.  1561*1636.  English  statesman,  jurist  and  philosopher.  Son 
of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  keeper  of  the  great  seal  under  Elizabeth.  His 
youthful  precocity  caused  Queen  Elizabeth  to  call  him  her  "  little  lord 
keeper."  Studied  at  Trinity  College,  and  at  15  began  to  oppose  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle.  Called  to  the  bar,  and  nude  queen's  counsel 
at  98.  Solicitor-general,  1607;  judge  of  the  marshal's  court.  1A11; 
attorney-general,  1613;  lord  keeper,  1617;  lord  high  chancellor,  1619. 
Charged  with  gross  bribery  and  corruption  in  Parliament,  1671,  he 
pleaded  guilty,  and  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  ,£40,000,  and  to  be 
imprisoned  during  the  royal  pleasure,  and  incapacitated  from  holding 
public  office.  He  regained  his  liberty  after  two  days*  imprisonment,  his 
fine,  too,  being  remitted  hy  King  James,  who  also  allowed  him  a  pernio* 
of  j£i,soopcr  annum.  He  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retirement, 
diligently  pursuing  the  study  of  literature  And  science.     The  belief 


**■*■ 


K~ 


*f- 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


213 


that  Bacon  is  the  real  author  or  at  least  the  principal  author  of 
the  plays  attributed  to  Shakespeare  has  of  late  years  found  many 
adherents,  and  numerous  books  on  the  subject  have  been  published. 
The  Wisdom  0/ the  Ancients  :  Novum  Organum. 
Bacon,  Nathaniel.      l630?-l677.      Virginia  patriot,  bom  in 

England. 

Bacon,  Roger.  The  Admirable  Doctor.  1214-1292.  Eng- 
lish philosopher.     Opus  Ma/us. 

Baconthorp,   John.       The    Resolute  Doctor.        -1346? 

English  monk  and  philosopher. 

Baffin,  William.  1580-1622.  English  navigator.  (Baffin's  Bay.) 

Bailey,  Philip  James.      1816- English  lawyer  and  poet. 

Festus:  The  Mystic. 

Baillie,  Joanna.  1762-1851.  Scottish  poetess.  The  Family 
Legend  :  Plays  on  the  Passions. 

Baillie,  Matthew.      1761-1823.     Scottish  physician. 

Baillie,  Robert.  1602  ?-i662.    Scottish  theologian. 

Bailly,  Jean  Sylvain.  1736-1793.  French  astronomer  and 
philosopher.  1789,  first  president  of  the  States-General ;  mayor  of  Paris 
same  year.  Endeavoring,  with  Lafayette,  to  curb  the  violence  of  the 
revolutionists,  he  caused  the  National  Guard  to  fire  on  a  riotous  mob  in 
the  Champ  de  Mars,  in  1791,  thus  incurring  the  enmity  of  the  people. 
Executed  by  the  Jacobinsr 

Baily,  Edward  Hodges.     1788-1867.     English  sculptor. 
Baily,  Francis.     1774-1844.     English  astronomer. 
Bainbridge,  William.     1774-1833.     Am.  naval  commander. 
Baird,  Sir  David.     1757-1829.     Scottish  general. 

Baird,  Spencer  F.     1823- American  naturalist. 

Bajazet  (or  Bayazeed).     1347-1403.      Sultan  of  the  Ottomans. 

Subjugated  Bulgaria,  Asia  Minor,  and  a  portion  of  Greece,  and  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Hungarians,  French  and  Poles  at  Nicopolis,  in  1396. 
Defeated  and  captured  in  1401  by  Tamerlane,  by  whom  he  is  said  to 
have  been  confined  in  an  iron  cage. 
Baker,  Sir  Samuel  White.  1821-....  English  African 
explorer,  and  author  of  geographical  and  literary  works.  In  1847  he 
established  a  sanatorium  and  prosperous  agricultural  settlement  in  the 
mountains  of  Ceylon,  6,200  feet  above  sea  level,  whither  he  conveyed 
emigrants  and  the  best  breeds  of  sheep  and  cattle.  In  1861-4  explored, 
at  his  own  expense,  the  region  lying  around  the  sources  of  the  White 
Nile  ;  discovered  and  named  Lake  Albert  N'yanza,  and  found  the  exit  of 
the  Nile.  In  1869,  the  sultan  of  Turkey  placed  at  his  disposal  1 ,500 
troops,  with  which  another  expedition  was  made  to  the  great  African 
lakes. 

Baker,  Valentine,  Pasha.  English  officer  and  commander  of 
Egyptian  troops  in  the  Soudan. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de.  I475?-I5I7.  Spanish  discoverer. 
Discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean,  1513.  The  jealousy  of  his  superior  offi- 
cers caused  his  conviction  on  a  charge  of  treason,  for  which  he  was 
executed. 

Baldwin  I.  1058-1118.  King  of  Jerusalem;  brother  of 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon. 

Balfe,  Michael  William.     1808-1870.     Irish  composer.       The 

Bohemian  Girl. 

Baliol,  Edward -'303-     King  of  Scotland. 

Baliol,  John.     ....-1269.     English  baron;  father  of  Edward 

Baliol. 

Baliol,  John  de.  I259?-I3i4.  Son  of  the  preceding.  King 
of  Scotland ;  rival  of  Bruce. 

Ballou,  Hosea.  1771-1852.  American  theologian;  founder 
of  the  denomination  of  Universalists. 

Balmaceda,  Jose  Manuel.    1840-1891.    President  of  Chili. 

Deposed  and  committed  suicide. 

Balzac,  Honore'  de.     1 799-1850      French  novelist. 


Bancroft,  George.  1800- 1891.  American  historian  and  diplo- 
matist. Minister  to  Germany  and  to  England  ;  secretary  of  the  navy. 
History  0/  the  United  States,  which  has  been  translated  into  all  the 
principal  languages  of  Europe. 

Baner  (or  Banier),  Johan.     1595-1641.     Swedish  general. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  Prentiss.     1816- American  general  and 

politician.  Native  of  Massachusetts;  worked  during  boyhood  in  a  cot- 
ton factory ;  learned  the  machinist's  trade ;  edited  a  country  newspa- 
per ;  admitted  to  the  bar ;  elected  to  Legislature  of  his  native  state  in 
1849,  and  three  years  later  became  speaker.  Sent  to  Congress  in  1852  as  a 
Democrat,  and  in  1854  re-elected  by  the  American  and  Republican  par- 
ties. Speaker  of  House  in  1855.  Served  three  terms  as  Governor  of 
Massachusetts,  and  in  1861  was  appointed  major-general  of  volunteers. 
After  the  war  was  sent  to  Congress  in  1866,  1868  and  1870.  Supported 
Horace  Greeley  for  presidency  in  1872.  Re-elected  to  Congress  in  1876 
by  Democrats  and  disaffected  Republicans. 
Banks,  Thomas.     1 735-1805.     British  sculptor. 

Banneker,  Benjamin.  1731-1806.  American  negro  mathe- 
matician. 

Barbarossa,  Hadher.     I476?-I546.      Corsair  king  of  Algiers. 

Barbaroux,  Charles  Jean  Marie.  1 767-1 794.  French  rep- 
resentative and  Girondist;  beheaded  by  the  Jacobins. 

Barbauld,  Anna  Letitia.     1 743-1825.     English  authoress. 

Barbour,  John.     13207-1395?     Scottish  poet.      The  Bruce. 

Barclay    de   Tolly,    Michael,  Prince.     1755-1818.     Russian 

field-marshal. 
Barclay,  Robert.     1648-1690.     Scottish  Quaker  author. 
Barham,    Richard  Harris.     1788-1845.     English  divine  and 

humorist.     Ingoldsby  Legends. 

Barebone,  Praise  God -1680.     English  fanatic. 

Baring,  Sir  Francis.     1740-18 10.     English  capitalist. 
Barlow,  Joel.     7755-1812.     American  patriot  and  poet. 
Barnard,  John 'j.      1815-1882.     American  general  and  writer. 
Barmecides.     Famous  Persian  family,  noted  for  its  tragic  fate. 

Barnes,  Albeit.  1798-1870.  American  theologian  and  com- 
mentator. 

Barneveldt,  Johan  van  Olden.    1549-1619.    Dutch  statesman. 

Barnum,  Phineas  T.  1810-1891.  American  showman;  na- 
tive of  Connecticut.    Humbugs  of  the  World. 

Barras,  Paul  Francois  Jean  Nicola,  Count  de.  1 755-1829. 
French  statesman. 

Barry,  James.     1741-1806.     Irish  painter. 

Barry  Cornwall.     See  Procter. 

Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire,  Jules.  1805- French  states- 
man and  writer. 

Baxter,  Richard.  1615-1691.  English  Dissenting  minister 
and  writer.     The  Saints' Everlasting  Rest ;  Call  to  the  Unconverted. 

Bayard,  Pierre  du  Terrail  de.  1475-1524.  French  warrior, 
whose  bravery  earned  f«r  him  the  sobriquet  "The  cavalier  without 
fear  and  without  reproach."  Francis  I.  showed  the  universal  reverence 
for  Bayard's  character  by  choosing  to  be  knighted  at  his  hands.  Mor- 
tally wounded  at  Romagnano,  Bayard  would  not  allow  himself  to  be 
carried  from  the  field  of  battle,  refusing  to  "  turn  his  back  to  the  enemy 
for  the  first  time." 

Bayle,  Pierre.     1647-1706.     French  philosopher  and  critic. 

Bazaine,  Francois  Achille.  181 1- 1888.  French  general.  Made 
general  of  division  during  the  Crimean  war ;  held  a  command  in  the 
French  expedition  to  Mexico,  in  1862,  with  great  distinction,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  supreme  command  in  1863.  Created  a  marshal  of  France  in 
1864.  In  the  Franco-German  war  he  surrendered  the  fortress  of  Metz.with 
173,000  men,  6,000  officers,  50  generals  and  3  marshals,  and  fled  to  Eng- 
land. He  was  court-martialed  and  sentenced  to  degradation  and  death, 
but  the  sentence  was  commuted  to  twenty  years'  imprisonment.  Con- 
fined at  the  isle  Sainte  Marguerite,  he  escaped  in  nine  months  and 
settled  in  Madrid. 


-M 


"71 


2I4 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Beaconsfield,  Benjamin  Disraeli,  Earl  of.  1804-1880.  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  novelist.  His  first  novel,  Vivian  Grey,  was  pub- 
lished at  the  age  of  21.  Entered  Parliament  in  1837,  and  became  the 
leader  of  the  Conservative  party.  Acted  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
a  number  of  years,  and  in  1868  was  prime  minister  of  England  for  a  lew 
months.  Was  again  called  to  the  premiership  in  1874,  and  was  raised 
to  the  peerage.     Was  succeeded  in  1880  by  William  E.  Gladstone. 

Beaton  (or  Beatoun),  David,  Cardinal.  1494-1546.  Primate 
of  Scotland. 

Beattie,  James.     1735-1803.     Scottish  poet  and  philosopher. 

Beauharnais,  Eugene  de.  .1781-1824.  French  general ;  son 
of  Alexander  de  Beauharnais  ard  Josephine,  afterward  Empress  of 
France. 

Beaumarchais,  Pierre  Auguste  Caron  de.   1732-1799.  French 

dramatist. 

Beaumont,  Francis.     1586-1615.     English  dramatic  writer; 

associate  of  John  Fletcher. 

Beauregard,  Peter  Gustavus  Toutant.     1816-....     American 

Confederate  general.    Born   in   Louisiana;    graduate  of  West   Point; 
served  in  Mexico.  Entered  Confederate  army  in  i86t,and  commanded  at 
Fort  Sumter  and  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  ;  defeated  at  Shiloh  by 
Gen.  Grant  in  1862  ;  defended  Charleston  in  1863.   Mgr.  La,  loti  1 
Becket,  Thomas  a.     1117-1170.     Archbishop  of  Canterbury ; 

high  chancellor  of  England.  Having  excommunicated  two  bishops  for 
complying  with  the  king's  will,  he  was  assassinated  byfour  barons  of  the 
royal  household.     Canonized  in  1172. 

Bede.  The  Venerable.  673  ?-735-  English  monk  and 
ecclesiastical  writer.    Ecclesiastical  History  0/  the  English  Nation. 

Bedford,  John  Plantagenet,  Duke  of.  1390-1435.  English 
general.  Regent  of  France  and  protector  of  England  during  the 
minority  of  Henry  VI.     Defeated  by  Joan  of  Arc. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward.  1813-1837.  American  divine  and  lec- 
turer. Born  in  Connecticut.  Pastor  of  Plymouth  Congregational  Church, 
Brooklyn,  since  1847.  Powerful  advocate  of  the  abolition  movement. 
Star  Papers :  Sermons. 

Beecher,  Lyman.     1775-1863.     American  divine.     Father  of 

H.  W.  B.     Views  on  Theology. 
Beethoven,   I.udwig  von.      1770-1827.      German  composer. 

Sin/onia  Eroica  :  Lenore  ;  Fidelio  :  Ninth  Symphony. 

Behring,  Vitus.  1680-1742?  Danish  navigator.  Discovered 
Behring's  Strait :  suffered  shipwreck  while  commanding  an  expedition 
to  the  northern  seas  and  died  on  Behring's  Island. 

Belisarius.     505  ?~565.     Byzantine  general. 

Bell,  Sir  Charles.     1774-1842.     Scottish  physiologist. 

Bellini,  Vincenzo.  1802-1835.  Italian  composer.  La  Son- 
namSula  ; ■ /  Puritani :  Norma. 

Belvedere,  Andrea.     1646-1732.     Italian  painter. 

Belzoni,  Giovanni  Battista.     1778-1823.     Italian  traveller. 

Bendemann,  Edward.     181 1- German  painter. 

Benedek,  I.udwig  von.     1804-1878.     Hungarian  general. 

Benedict  I.  Pope  from  575  to  578.  II.,  684-685.  III.,  855- 
858.  IV.,  900-903.  V.,  chosen  pope  964  but  driven  from  Rome  by  Otho 
I.,  died  at  Hamburg 965.  VI.,  972-974;  killed  by  the  people  of  Rome. 
VII.,  975-984.  VIII.,  1012-1034.  IX.,  ascended  the  pontifical  chair  in 
1034,  but  was  driven  from  Rome.  X.,  1058-1059,  when  he  was  deposed 
on  account  of  being  irregularly  elected.  XI.,  1303-1304.  XII.,  1334- 
134a.     XIII.,  1724-1730.     XIV.,  1740-1758. 

Benedict  XIII.  1334-1424.  Anti-Pope.  Original  name, 
Pedro  de  Luna.  Chosen  pope  at  Avignon  in  1394,  while  Boniface  IX. 
reigned  at  Rome.  Both  were  deposed  in  1415  by  the  council  of  Con- 
stance. 

Benedict,   Sir    Julius.      1804-1858.      Ger.    musician    and 

COinpOMI    111    I-  Hi*.      Coli'lniti'.l    at    Jenny    I.iml  u    Ami. 

Benezet,  Anthony.     1713-1784.     French  philanthropist. 


£ 


Bennett,  James  Gordon.  1800-1872.  American  journalist ; 
native  of  Scotland  ;  founded  the  New  York  Herald. 

Benjamin,  Park.     1809-1864.     Am.  journalist  and  poet 

Bentham,  Jeremy.  1748-1832.  English  jurist  and  utilitarian 
philosopher. 

Bentinck,  William  Charles  Cavendish,  Lord.  1774-1839. 
British  general ;  governor-general  of  India. 

Bentley,  Richard.  1662-1742.  English  classical  scholar  and 
divine.     The  Epistles  of  Phalaris. 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart.  1782-1858.  American  statesman. 
Born  at  Hillsboro,  N.  C. ;  removed  to  Tennessee,  where  he  studied 
law,  and  commenced  practice  at  29.  Commanded  a  regiment  under 
Gen.  Jackson,  who,  in  a  quarrel,  attempted  to  strike  Benton  with  a  horse- 
whip, causing  Benton's  brother  to  severely  wound  Gen.  Jackson  with  a 
pistol.  Benton  shortly  after  removed  to  St.  Louis,  where  he  published 
a  political  paper.  Elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1820,  he  con- 
tinued a  member  of  that  body  for  thirty  years,  being  defeated  in  1850  by 
a  division  in  the  Democratic  party  on  the  slaver)*  question.  His  advo- 
cacy of  a  gold  and  silver  currency  during  his  second  term  in  the  Senate 
earned  for  him  the  sobriquet  of  *'  Old  Bullion."  Elected  in  185a  to 
the  National  House  of  Representatives,  he  earnestly  opposed  the  repeal  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise.  Defeated  for  the  governorship  of  Missouri  in 
1856.  Favored  Buchanan  for  the  presidency  in  opposition  to  his  son- 
in-law,  Fremont.     A    Thirty   Years'    Virtu, 

Beranger,  Pierre  Jean  de.  1 780-1 857.  French  lyric  poet. 
Bergerac,  Cyrano  de.  1620-1655.  Fr.  dramatist  and  duelist. 
Beriot,  Charles  Auguste   de.       1802-1870.      Belgian  violinist 

and  composer. 
Berkeley,  George.     1684-1753.      Irish  Protestant  prelate  and 

metaphysician.      The  Principles  of  Human  Knowledge. 

Berlichingen,  Gotz  von.     Of  the  Iron  Hand.      1480-1562. 

German  warrior  ;  hero  ef  one  of  Goethe's  dramas. 
Berlioz,  Louis  Hector.     1803-1869.     French  composer.     The 

Damnation  of  Faust :  symphonies,  Harold,  Romeo  and  Juliet. 

Bernadotte,  Jean   Baptiste  Jules.      1764-1844.      Marshal  of 

France  ;  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway  as  Carl  XIV.  Johan. 

Bernard,  Saint.  1091-1153.  French  ecclesiastic,  canonized 
1174.  Abbot  at  Clairvaux,  refusing  other  ecclesiastical  preferment,  but 
exerting  great  power  over  Europe.   - 

Bernard  de  Menthon,  Saint.      923-1008.      Founder  of   the 

hospices  of  St.  Bernard. 

Bernardo  del  Carpio.      Fl.  9th  century. .   Spanish  soldier. 

Bernhardt,  Sara  (Mme.  Damala).   1850- Fr.  tragedienne. 

Bert,  Paul.     1833-1886.     French  physician  and  politician. 
Berthier,  Ix>uis  Alexandre,   Prince  of  Wagram.      1753-1815. 

Marshal  "f  France. 
Berthollet,  Claude  Louis.     1748-1822.     French  chemist. 
Berwick,  James  Fitz-James,  Duke  of.     1660-1734.      Marshal 

of  France  ;  natural  son  of  James  II.  of  England. 

Bessel,  l'riedrich  Wilhelm.  1784-1846.  Prus.  astronomer. 
Bessemer,  Henry-    1813- English  engineer.     (Bessemer 

process.)    Knighted   1S7U. 

Beust,  Friedrich  Ferdinand  von.  Count.    1809-1886.   German 

statesman. 
Beza,  Theodore.      1519-1605.     Fr.  Calvinistic  theologian. 
Biddle,  John.     The  father  of  English  Unitarians.     161 5-1662. 
English  theologian. 

1786-1844.     American  financier. 

1 829- 1 882.     American  landscape  painter , 


Biddle,  Nicholas. 

Bierstadt,  Albert. 
native  of  Germany 

Billings,  Wiiliam. 

Binney,  Amos.      1803-1847. 

Binney,  Horace.     1780-1875 


1746-1800.     American  musical  composer. 

American  naturalist. 

American  lawyer. 


^ 


1 


^JL 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


2I5 


Birney,  James  G.     1792-1857.     American  politician. 

Bird,  Robert  Montgomery.     1803-1854.     American  author. 

Bismarck-Schonhausen,  Karl  Otto,  Prince.  1815-.... 
German  statesman;  chancellor  of  the  German  Empire.   Retired  i8yo. 

Bjornson,  Bjornstjerne.  1832-. .  .  Norwegian  poet  and 
novelist. 

Black  Hawk.     1 767-1838.     American  Indian  chief. 

Black,  William.     1841- Scottish  author.     A  Princess  of 

Tkule;  MacLeod  of  Dare;  A  Daughter  of  Heth. 

Blackburn,  Joseph  Clay  Stiles.     1838- Am.  statesman. 

Blackstone,  Sir  William.  1723-1780.  English  jurist.  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Laws  of  England, 

Blackwood,  William.  1776-1817.  Scottish  publisher.  Black- 
wood's  Magazine. 

Blaine,    James  Gillespie.     1830-....     American  statesman. 

Born  in  Pennsylvania;  removed  to  Maine,  whtre  he  edited  the  Port- 
land Adve*  User;  served  four  terms  in  the  Legislature;  in  Congress 
from  1862  to  1876,  and  speaker  for  three  terms.  Prominent  candidate  for 
the  Republican  nomination  for  the  presidency  in  1876  and  1S80.  Chosen 
Uniied  States  senator  in  1877,  but  resigned  to  accept  the  secretaryship 
of  state  under  Garfield. 

Blair,   Hugh.     1718-1800.     Scottish  divine  and  rhetorician. 

Blake,  Robert.  1599-1657.  British  admiral,  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  England's  naval  supremacy. 

Blake,  William.     1757-1828.     English  poet  and  artist. 

Blanc,  Jean  Joseph  Louis.  1813-1883.  French  jcurnalist, 
historian  and  politician. 

Hlavatsky,  Helena.   1831-1891.   Fo'nder  Theosophical  So. 

Blennerhasset,  Harman.  1770-1831.  Friend  and  accom- 
plice of  Aaron  Burr. 

Blessington,  Margaret,  Countess  of  [nee  Power).     1789-1849. 

Beautiful  and  accomplished  Irish  lady. 

Blind,  Carl.     1820- German  radical. 

Bloomfield,  Robert.     1766-1823.     English  poet.     A  tailors 

son  and  a  shoemaker's  apprentice.     The  Farmer's  Boy. 
Blucher,  Gebhard  Lebrecht  von.     Marschall  Vonodrls.     1742 
-1819.     Prussian  field-marshal.    Decided  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

Blumenthal,  Leonard  von.     1810- Prussian  general  and 

strategist. 
Boabdil -1536?     Last  Moorish  king  of  Granada. 

Boadicea -62.     British  queen. 

Bobadilla,   Francisco  de.     Fl.  1500.     Spanish   administrator 

who  sent  Columbus  in  chains  to  Spain. 
Boccaccio,  Giovanni.     1313-1375.     It.  novelist.    Decameron. 
Bodenstedt,  Friedrich  Martin.     1819- German  poet  and 

author. 
Boerhaave,   Herman.       1668-1738.      Dutch   physician   and 

philosopher. 
Boethius,  Anicius  Manlius  Torquatus  Severinus.     475-525  ? 

Roman  statesman  and  philosopher.    Falsely  charged  with  treason,  he 

was  beheaded.    De  Consolatione  Philosophic. 
Bogardus,  James.     1S00-1874.     American  inventor. 

Bohn,   Henry  George.     1800- English  publisher. 

Boileau-Despreaux,  Nicolas.     1636-1711.     French  poet  and 

satirist. 

Boleyn,  Anne.     1507  ?-I536.     Second  queen  of  Henry  VIII. 

of  England.     Beheaded.  * 

Bolingbroke,  Henry  St.  John,  Viscount.  1678-1751.  English 
author,  orator  and  politician.     Dissertation  on  Parties. 

Bolivar,  Simon.  1 783-1 830.  Liberator  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can colonies. 


Bonaparte,  Charles  Louis  Napoleon.     Napoleon  III.     1808- 

1873.  Son  of  Louis  Bonaparte.  Emperor  of  the  French.  As  claimant 
to  the  throne  of  France,  he  attempted  in  1836  to  take  Strasburg,  but 
was  banished.  In  i8*ohe  was  imprisoned  in  Havre  for  an  attempted 
insurrection  at  Boulogne,  but  escaped  to  England  in  1846.  Returning  to 
France  after  the  revolution  of  1848,  he  was  elected  president.  He  gained 
the  support  of  the  army,  and  abolishing  popular  representation  by  the 
coup  d'etat  of  1851,  was  declared  emperor.  In  1853  he  married  Eugenie, 
Countess  de  Teba,  Having  surrendered  at  Sedan,  after  the  decisive 
battle  of  the  Franco-German  war,  he  was  deposed  and  retired  to  Chisel- 
hurst,  in  England,  where  he  died. 

Bonaparte,  Jerome.  1784-1-860.  Youngest  brother  of  Napo- 
leon I.    King  of  Westphalia. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph.  1768-1844.  Eldest  brother  of  Napoleon 
I.    King  of  Spain. 

Bonaparte,  Louis.  1778-1846.  Brother  of  Napoleon  I. 
King  of  Holland. 

Bonaparte,  Lucien,  Prince  de  Canina.     1775-1840.     Brother 

of  Napoleon  I. 

Bonaparte,   Napoleon.     Napoleon  I.     1769-1 821.     Emperor 

of  the  French.  Born  at  Ajaccio,  Corsica.  Attended  a  military  school 
from  1779  to  1784,  and  showed  particular  aptitude  for  history  and  mathe- 
matics. Entered  the  army  as  sub-lieutenant  in  1785,  ana  in  179a  had 
risen  to  the  rank  of  captain  of  artillery.  In  1793  he  submitted  a  plan 
for  the  reduction  of  Toulon,  held  by  the  English  and  Spaniards,  and  was 
entrusted  with  its  execution.  His  success  in  this  undertaking  won  for 
him  a  commission  as  brigadier-general.  In  1794,  on  the  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre, Napoleon  was  suspended  and  put  under  arrest,  his  detention, 
however,  being  of  short  duration.  In  the  spring  of  1795,  on  the  remodel- 
ling of  the  army,  he  was  again  suspended,  and  placed  upon  half-pay,  the 
only  reason  g;ven  by  the  authorities  being  that  be  was  too  young  to  com- 
mand the  artillery  of  an  army.  In  the  fall,  on  the  breaking  out  of  a  for- 
midable insurrection  led  by  the  National  Guard,  the  whole  force  of 
insurgents  numbering  more  than  30,000,  the  convention  recalled  Napo- 
leon, who,  with  only  5,000  regulars  and  1,500  volunteers,  gained  a 
brilliant  victory  after  a  brief  but  sanguinary  engagement.  This  victory 
made  him  virtually  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  interior.  In 
1706  he  was  appointed  to  the  command-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Italy,  and 
in  the  same  year  married  Josephine  de  Beauhamais.  In  his  very  first 
campaign  Napoleon  appeared  a  consummate  general.  His  peculiar 
mode  of  attack  consisted  in  precision  of  movement,  concentration  of 
forces  and  formidable  charges  upon  a  determinate  point.  In  a  few  weeks 
he  gained  four  victories,  conquered  Lombardy  and  laid  siege  to  Mantua, 
which  he  captured  after  almost  annihilating  three  Austrian  armies. 
Napoleon  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Pope,  compelling  him  to  pay 
30,000,000  lires  and  surrender  many  valuable  works  of  art.  After 
defeating  another  Austrian  army  sent  to  Italy,  Napoleon  cot  luded  a 
treaty  securing  his  brilliant  success.  In  1798  he  was  given  command  of 
a  powerful  expedition  into  Egypt,  the  intention  being  to  strike  at  the 
power  of  Great  Britain,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Mamelukes 
and  Turkish  auxiliaries  at  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids,  and  another  at 
Aboukir.  Returning  to  France,  he  overthrew  the  Directory  and  was 
elected  first  consul.  In  1800  he  gained  the  great  victory  of  Marengo. 
Made  peace  with  England  1802,  granted  general  amnesty,  established 
public  order,  re-established  the  Catholic  faith,  and  produced  his  Civil 
Code.  Napoleon  became  emperor  in  1804,  and  engaged  in  war  with 
England,  Russia,  Sweden  and  Prussia.     Divorced  from  Josephine  in 

1809,  he  married  Maria  Louise,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  in 

1810.  In  1812  occurred  the  ill-fated  Russian  campaign,  Napoleon's 
loss  being  estimated  at  450,000  men.  Beaten  at  Leipzig,  1813,  he  made 
a  disastrous  retreat.  In  1814  the  allies  entered  Paris,  compelled  Napo- 
leon to  abdicate,  and  sent  him  to  Elba,  granting  him  the  sovereignty 
of  that  island,  with  a  yearly  pension  of  6,000,000  francs.  Returning 
again  to  France,  he  was  enthusiastically  received  and  raised  an  army  of 
about  125,000,  but  was  completely  defeated  at  Waterloo,  1815.  He 
abdicated  again,  and,  unable  to  carry  out  his  intention  of  embarking  for 
America,  he  surrendered  to  the  captain  of  a  British  man-of-war.  Carried 
to  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  he  died  there  in  1821  after  nearly  six  years' 
confinement. 


-7T 


-M  to 


>v 


216 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


A 


Boi 


Bonaparte,  Napoleon  Joseph  Charles  Paul.  Prince  Napoleon. 
1823-1891.  Son  of  Napoleon  I.  and  Maria  Theresa. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon  Francois  Charles  Joseph.     Napoleon  II. 

1811-1833.    Son  of  Napoleon  I.  and  Maria  Theresa. 
Bonaventura,    Saint.       The    Seraphic    Doctor.     1221-1274. 

Italian  theologian. 

Bonheur,  Rosa  (or  Rosalie),  1822-....  French  painter  of 
animals. 

Boniface  I.  Pope,  ruling  from  419  to  422.  II.,  530-532. 
III.,  elected  607  and  died  same  year.  IV.,  608-615.  V.,  619-624;  dis- 
tinguished for  his  efforts  to  convert  the  Britons  VI.,  died  in  805.  fif- 
teen days  after  his  election  to  the  Papacy.  VII.  (Anti-Pope),elected 
974,  during  reign  of  Benedict  VI. ;  driven  from  Rome,  but  returned  in. 
985,  imprisoning  John  XIV.,  who  is  said  to  have  been  starved  to  death; 
died  985.    VIII.,  1294-1303.    IX.,  1389-1404. 

Boniface,  Winfred,  Saint.     Apostle  0/ Germany.     680-755? 

Bonner,  Edmund.  Bloody  Bonner.  i490?-'569.  Bishop 
of  London,  noted  for  his  persecution  of  the  Protestants. 

Bonneville,  Benjamin  L.  E.     1 795?— 1 878.    American  soldier 

and  traveller. 

Bonnivard,  Francois  de.  1496-1570.  The  hero  of  Byron's 
Prisoner  0/  Chilian. 

Boone,  Daniel.  1 735-1820?  American  pioneer.  Born  in 
Pennsylvania,  but  removed  in  boyhood  to  North  Carolina.  Visited 
Kentucky,  hitherto  unexplored,  in  1769,  and  emigrated  to  that  State 
with  his  own  and  five  other  families  in  1773,  constructing  a  fort  at 
Boonsborough  in  1775.  Captured  by  the  Indians,  he  was  adopted  by 
them,  but  escaped  and  returned  to  the  fort,  which  was  shortly  after  at- 
tacked by  Indians  under  the  British  flag.  The  fort  was  ably  de- 
fended, two  of  Boone's  sons,  however,  being  killed.  Boone  lost  his 
lands  in  Kentucky  in  consequence  of  a  defective  title,  and,  removing  10 
Missouri,  pursued  the  occupation  of  a  hunter  and  trapper. 

Booth,  Edwin.  1833-....  Son  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth. 
American  tragedian. 

Booth,  John  Wilkes.  1835-1865.  Son  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth. 
American  actor,  who  became  infamous  as  the  assassin  of  Abraham 
Lincoln,  whom  he  shot  at  the  theatre  on  the  evening  of  April  14th,  Ib6s. 
Effected  his  escape,  but  was  traced  into  Virginia,  where,  refusing  to  sur- 
render, he  was  shot. 

Booth,  Junius  Brutus.     1796-1852.     English  tragedian. 

Borden,  Simeon.     1798-1856.     American  civil  engineer. 

Borgi,    Giovanni.     1735-1802.      Italian  founder    of   ragged 

schools. 

Borgia,  Cesare,  Due  de  Valentinois.      1457-1507.     Natural 

•on  of  Alexander  VI.  Italian  cardinal  and  military  leader.  Made 
cardinal  in  1492,  but  afterwards  secularized.  Notorious  for  cunning, 
perfidy  and  cruelty. 

Borgia,  Francisco.     See  Francis,  Saint. 

Borgia,   Lucrezia,   Duchess   of    Ferrara -'523.     Sister 

of  Cesare  Borgia.  Distinguished  for^ieauty  and  talents,  and  a  patron  of 
learning,  but  contemporaneous  writers  differ  in  their  estimation  of  her 
character. 

Borromeo,  Carlo,  Saint.     1538-1584.     Italian  cardinal,  noted 

for  benevolence  and  care  of  the  sick. 
Borrow,  George.     1803-1881.     English  author  and  traveller. 
Bos,  Ilieronymus.     I450?-I5CO.     Dutch  painter. 
Boscawen,  Edward.     1711-1761.     English  admiral. 

Bossuet,  Jacques  Benigne.  1627-1704.  French  prelate,  ora- 
tor and  controversialist. 

Boswell,  James.  1740-1795.  Scottish  lawyer ;  biographer  of 
Dr.  Johnson. 


Bothwell,  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of.     1526  7-1577?    Scottish 

conspirator ;  husband  of  Mary  of  Scotland. 

Bottcber,  Johann  Friedrich.  1682-1719.  Inventor  of  Dres- 
den china. 

Boucicault,  Dion.  iSj2-iS</).  Irish  dramatist,  residing 
in  New  York  since  SS76,     (  otUtm  /!■/:  h;  Tltr  (klumm 

Boulanger,  Geo.  Ernest  Jean  Marie.    1837-1891.     Fr.  gen. 

Bouillon,  Godfrey  de.  1060 ?-i  100.  Leader  of  the  first 
Crusade. 

Bourbaki,  Charles  Denis  Sauttr.     1816- Fr.  general 

Bourbon.  The  name  of  a  famous  dynasty  reigning  in  France 
from  1589  to  1848,  excepting  the  republic  and  the  empire  of  the  first 
Napoleon. 

Bourbon,  Charles,  Due  de.     Constable  Bourbon.     1490-1527. 

French  general.     Killed  after  mounting  the  wall  of  Rome  at  the  head  of 

his  troops.      A  prominent  character  in  Byron's  Tke  Deformed  Trans- 
formed 
Bourdaloue,  Louis.     1632-1704.     French  Jesuit  orator. 
Bourdon,  Sebastien.     1616-1671.     French  painter. 
Bourne,  Hugh.      1772-1852.      English  founder  of  Primitive 

Methodism. 
Bowditch,  Nathaniel.     1 773-1838.    American  mathematician; 

son  of  a  cooper.    Navigation. 
Bowdoin,  James.    1727-1790.     American  statesman. 
Bowles,  Samuel.     1826-T878.  American  journalist. 
Bowles,  William  Lisle.     1 762-1 850.     English  poet. 
Bowring,  Sir  John.     1 792-1872.    Eng.  scholar  and  statesman. 
Boyce,  William.     1710-1779.     Eng.  organist  and  composer. 
Boydell,  John.    1719-1804.    Eng.  engraver  and  art  publisher. 
Boyle,  Robert.     1626-1691.      Irish  experimental  philosopher 

and  philanthropist.     Disquisition  on  Final  Causes. 

Bozzaris,  Marcos.  1 790-1823.  Patriotic  leader  in  the  Greek 
war  for  independence.    Slain  in  a  night  attack  upon  the  Turks. 

Braddock,  Edward.  I7I5?-I755.  English  general  in  Amer- 
ica.   Killed  by  Indians. 

Braddon,  Mary  Elizabeth.    1837- English  novelist;  editor 

of  Belgravia.     Lady  Audley  s  Secret;  Dead  Sea  Fruit:    An  Open 

Verdict. 

Bradford,  William.   1 590-1657.  Governor  of  Plymouth  colony. 

Bradford,  William.   1660-1752.    First  printer  in  Pennsylvania. 

Bradlaugh.  Charles.     1834-1891.     British  statesman. 

Bradley,  Joseph.     1813-  Judge  supreme  court  U.  S. 

Bradstreet,  John.     1711-1774.     American  major  general. 

Bragg,  Braxton.     1815-1876.     Confederate  general. 

Brahe,  Tycho.     1545-1601.     Swedish  astronomer. 

Brainerd,  David.     1718-1747.     American  missionary. 

Bramante  d' Urbino.  Donate  Lausri.  1444-1514.  Italian 
architect  of  St.  Peter's. 

Brandt,  Joseph.  Thayendanega.  !742?-l807.  Half-breed 
chief  of  the  Mohawks. 

Breckenridge,  John  Cabell.  1821-1875.  American  states- 
man and  Confederate  general.  Born  in  Kentucky.  Vice-president 
1857-61.  Democratic  candidate  for  the  presidency  In  i860.  Elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  from  Kentucky  in  lE6i,  but  resigned  to  enter 
the  Confederate  army.  Confederate  secretary  of  war,  1865. 

Bremer,  Fredrika.  1802-1865.  Swedish  novelist.  Trie  Neigh- 
bors; Toe  Homes  of  the  Mew  World. 

Brentano,  Clemens.     1777-1842.      German  novelist  and  poet 

Brenghcl,  Jan.     1 569-1625.     Flemish  painter. 

Brewster,  Sir  David.    1781-186S.    Eng.  optician  and  physicist. 


f£ 


A  COMPENDIUM   OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


217 


Brian  Boru  (or  Boroikme).      y2f?-toi4.     King  of  Ireland. 
Bridget,  Saint.     1302-1373.     Patroness  of  Ireland. 
Bridgman,  Laura.      1829-1889.     American  blind  deaf-mute, 

noted  for  her  mental  acquirements. 
Bright,  John.     181 1-18S9.    English  statesman  and  orator. 
Bright,  Richard.     1789-1858.    English  physician. 
Brillat-Savarin,  Anthelme.       1755-1826.       French  author. 

Physiology  0/  the   Taste. 

Brissot  de  Warville,  Jean  Pierre.  1 754-1 793.  French  leader 
of  the  Girondists  ;  beheaded. 

Broglie,  Charles  Jacques  Victor  Albert,  Due  de.      1821- 

French  statesman  and  writer. 

Bronte,  Charlotte.  Currer  Belt.  1816-1855.  English  novelist. 
Jane  Eyre;  Shirley;   Villette. 

Brooks,  James.     1810-1873.     American  journalist. 

Brougham,  Henry,  Lord.  1779-1868.  British  author,  states- 
man and  orator. 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden.      1771-1810.     Am.  novelist. 

Brown,  Hablot,  Knight.     Phiz.      1815-1882.     English  comic 

designer. 

Brown,  John,  Captain.    1800-1859.    Born  in  Connecticut,  and 

a  tanner  by  trade.  Removed  to  Kansas  and  became  prominent  as  an 
abolitionist,  and  gained  the  title  of  "Ossawatomie  "  by  a  victory,  in 
1856,  over  a  company  of  Missourians  vasf,.y  exceeding  his  own  force  in 
number.  In  pursuance  of  a  plan  for  the  invasion  of  Virginia  and  the 
emancipation  of  slaves,  he  surprised  Harper's  Ferry  in  1859,  and  took 
the  arsenal  and  armory  and  forty  prisoners.  Attacked  the  next  day  by 
the  United  States  marines  and  the  Virginia  militia,  two  of  his  sons.and 
most  of  his  company  oftwenty  men  were  killed,  and  he  himself  was 
wounded  and  taken  prisoner.  He  was  tried  and  hanged  at  Charlestown, 
Virginia,  the  same  year. 

Brown,  Thomas.     1778-1820.     Scottish  metaphysician. 

Browne,  Charles  F.  Artemus  Ward.  1835-1867.  Ameri- 
can humorist. 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas.  1605-1682.  English  physician,  phil- 
osopher and  author.  Religio  Medici;  Enquiries  into  Vulgar  and 
Common  Errors. 

Browning,     Elizabeth  Barrett.     1809-1861.     Wife  of  Robert 

Browning.     English  poetess.    Aurora  Leigh;   Casa  CuiJi  Windows. 
Browning,  Robert.     1812-  1S89.     English  poet.        The  Ring 

and  the  Book;  Strafford ;    Men  and  Women  ;   Fjfine  at  the  Fair  ; 

A  Soul's  Errand. 
Brownlow,  William  Gannaway.     Parson  Browniow.     1805- 

1877.      American  politician. 
Brownson,  Orestes  Augustus.     1803-1876.     Am.  theologian. 
Bruce,  James.     1730-1794.     Scottish  traveller ;  discovered  the 

source  of  the  Blue  Nile. 

Bruce,  Robert.       1274-1329.      King  of  Scotland.      Defeated 

Edward  II.  at  Bannockburn,  in  1314.      The  greatest  of  the  rulers  of 

Scotland. 
Brummel,    George    Bryan.       Beau  Brummel.       1 778-1840. 

English  man  of  fashion. 
Brunei,  Isambard  Kingdom.      1 806- 1859.     Eng.  engineer. 
Brunei,  Sir  Mark  Isambard.     1769-1849.     English  engineer, 

born  in  France.     Built  the  Thames  tunnel. 

Brunelleschi,  Filippo.       1377-1444.      Italian   architect  and 

sculptor. 

Bruno,  Saint.  I040?-U9i.  German  founder  of  the  Car- 
thusians. 

Brutus,  Lucius  Junius.  Fl.  500  B.C.  Roman  patriot;  over- 
threw Tarquin. 

Brutus,  Marcus  Junius.  80-36  B.C.  One  of  Casar's  assas- 
sins ;  committed  suicide  after  his  defeat  at  Philippi. 


Bryant,  William  Cullen,  1794-1878.  American  poet  and 
journalist;  born  in  Massachusetts.  At  13  composed  The  Spanish  /(ev- 
olution and  The  Embargo.  Entered  Williams  College,  read  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1816.  Published  Thanatopsis  in  1816.  Became 
editorof  the  New  York  Evening  Post  in  1826.  He  was  a  firm  oppo- 
nent of  slavery. 

Buchanan,  George.     1 506-1 582.     Scottish  historian  and  poet. 

Buchanan,  James.  1791-1868.  Fifteenth  president  of  the 
United  States.  Born  in  Pennsylvania.  Admitted  to  the  bar,  181a ; 
member  of  Congress,  1821-31;  minister  to  Russia,  1832-4;  U.  S.  * 
senator,  1834-5;  secretary  of  state,  1845-9;  minister  to  England, 
1853-6;  signed  Ostend  manifesto  in  1854;  president,  1857-61.  la 
his  last  message,  President  Buchanan  censured  the  Northern  people  for 
the  imminent  disruption  of  the  Union,  holding  that  neither  the  executive 
nor  Congress  had  power  to  coerce  a  state. 

Buckland,  William.     1 784-1 856.     English  geologist. 

Buckle,  Henry  Thomas.    1822-1862.    English  writer.   History 

0/  Civilization. 

Buddha  (or  Booddka),  Gautama.  624-523  B.C.  Hindoo  re- 
former ;  founder  of  Buddhism. 

Buell,  Don  Carlos.     1818?-. . ..     American  general. 
Buffon,  Georges  Louis  Leclerc  de,  Comte.  1707-1788.  French 
naturalist  and  philosopher.     Natural  History;  Epochs  of  Nature. 

Bull,  Ole  Bornemann.     1810-1882.     Norwegian  violinist. 
Bulow,  Bernhard  E/nst  von.     1815-. . . .     German  statesman. 
Bulow,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von,  Count.     1775-1816.     Prussian 

general. 
Bulow,  Hans  Guido  von.     1830-. . . .     German  pianist. 
Bulwer-Lytton,  Edward  George  Earle  Lytton,  Baron  Lytton. 

1805-1873.    English  novelist. 
Bulwer-Lytton,  Edward  Robert,   Earl  of  Lytton.     Owen 

Meredith.     1S31-1S91.     Son  of  the  preceding.     English  poet. 
Bulwer,  Sir  Henry  Lytton  Earle.     1804-1872.     English  author 

and  diplomatist. 

Bunsen,  Christian  Karl  Josias  von,  JJaron,  1791-1860.  Ger- 
man philologist  and  diplomatist. 

Bunyan,  John.     1628- 1688.     English  author.     The  son  of  a 

tinker,  he  followed  that  vocation  and  led  for  many  years  a  dissipated, 
wandering  life  ;  served  in  the  Parliamentary  army;  joined  the  Anabap- 
tists in  1654,  and  in  1655  became  a  Baptist  minister  ;  sentenced  to  trans- 
portation for  life  on  a  charge  of  promoting  seditious  assemblies,  but 
sentence  not  enforced ;  was,  however,  imprisoned  for  more  than  twelve 
years,  and  during  this  time  wrote  his  Pilgrim's  Progress. 

Bun-Lan.     1879- King   of    Siam.     Succeeded    his 

father,  Tu-Duc,  1889. 

Burckhardt,  Johann  Ludwig.     1784-1817.     Swiss  traveller. 
Burdett-Coutts,    Angela    Georgina,   Baroness.       1814-. . . . 

English  philanthropist. 

Burger,  Gottfried  August.  1748-1794.   German  poet. 

Burgoyne,  John.  1 730-1 792.  English  general  and  dramatist. 
Surrendered  at  Saratoga. 

Burke,  Edmund.  1730-1797.  English  (Irish)  orator,  states- 
man and  writer.  Prominent  as  the  ablest  member  of  the  Commons  to 
oppose  the  ministry's  American  policy.  Impeached  Warren  Hastings 
in  1 788.    Rejections  on  the  Revolution  in  France. 

Burke,  Thomas  N.     1 830-1 883.     Irish  Dominican  orator. 

Burleigh,  William  Cecil,  Lord.    1520-1598.     Eng.  statesman. 

Burlingame,   Anson.      1822-1870.      American  diplomatist; 

negotiator  of  treaty  between  the  United  States  and  China. 
Burnet,   Gilbert.     1643-1715.     British  prelate  and  historian. 

HisUry  0/  My  Own  Times. 


A\ 


2l8 


=7?f 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Burns,  Robert.  1759-1796.  Scotch  lyric  poet.  Born  at 
Ayr ;  the  son  of  a  poor  fanner.  Burns  worked  hard  on  his  father'* 
farm  and  had  little  opportunity  for  education.  Began  rhyming  at  the 
age  of  16,  and  studied  mensuration  and  surveying.  His  poems  brought 
him  into  society,  where  he  acquired  dissipated  habits.  Formed  a  liai* 
ton  in  1785  with  Jean  Armour,  whom  he  married  in  1788.  Intended  to 
emigrate,  but  the  popularity  of  his  poems,  published  in  full  in  1787,  in- 
duced him  to  remain  in  Scotland.  He  afterward  became  an  officer  of 
the  excise.  The  principal  characteristics  of  Burns'  poems  are  beauty 
and  independence  of  thought  and  intensity  of  feeling.  The  Cotter's 
Saturday  Night ;  Tarn  O' Shunter;  To  the  Unco*  Guid ;  Halloween  ; 
Holy  Willie's  Prayer, 

Burnside,  Ambrose  Everett.     1824-188 1.     American  general. 

Burr,  Aaron.     1756-1836.     American  statesman  and  lawyer. 

In  r8oo  Burr  and  Jefferson  were  the  Democratic  candidates  for  presi- 
dent and  vice-president.  Receiving  the  same  number  of  votes,  the 
House  gave  the  higher  office  to  Jefferson.  Burr's  course  in  endeavor- 
ing tosupplant  Jefferson  lost  him  the  regard  of  his  party.  Unsuccessful 
as  candidate  for  governor  of  New  York  in  1804,  Burr  attributed  his 
defeat  to  Alexander  Hamilton,  whom  he  killed  in  a  duet.  After  the  ex- 
piration of  his  term  as  vice-president,  Burr  was  tried  for  treason, 
charged  with  the  subversion  of  federal  authority,  and  with  raising  an 
expedition  for  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  but  acquitted. 

Burritt,  Elihu.  The  Learned  Blacksmith.  1810-1879.  Am- 
erican scholar  and  journalist.  The  son  of  a  shoemaker,  and  appren- 
ticed to  ablacksmith,  he  devoted  all  his  spare  time  to  study,  and  event- 
ually mastered  eighteen  foreign  languages.  He  became  a  successful 
lecturer  and  advocated  many  reforms. 

Burton,  Sir  Rich.  Francis.  1821-1890.  Irish  traveller  in 
Africa. 

Burton,  Robert.     1 576-1640.    English  philosopher.    Anatomy 

0/  Melancholy. 

Bushnell,  Horace.     1802-1876.     American  divine. 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin.     1818- American  politician, 

lawyer  and  general.  Born  in  New  Hampshire.  Butler  applied  the 
term  "contraband  of  war"  to  the  slaves  who  sough';  .jrrtcction  at 
Fortress  Monroe  while  he  was  in  command  there.  Military  governor 
of  New  Orleans  in  1862,  rrtling  with  vigor  and  efficiency  and  preserving 
the  city  from  the  yellow  fever.  Went  to  Congress  as  a  Republican  in 
1866,  and  was  re-elected  for  several  terms.  Elected  governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts in  1882  by  the  Democrats,  but  defeated  for  the  same  office  a 
year  later. 

Butler,  Joseph.     1692-1752.     English  theologian. 

Butler,  Samuel.     i6i2?-ifc8o.      English  poet.     Hudibras. 

Byng,  John.     1704-1757-     Eng.  admiral,  shot  for  cowardice. 

Byron,  George  Gordon  Noel,  Lord.  1788-1824.  English 
poet.  Born  in  London  and  educated  in  Scotland.  Travelled  1809-11, 
and  on  returning  produced  the  first  cantos  of  Child*  Harold.  Giaour 
and  Bride  of Ahydos,  1S13;  Corsair,  181 4.  In  1815  he  married  Anne 
Isabel  Millbank,  but  separated  from  her  and  left  England  in  1816.  In 
Italy  he  formed  a  liaison  with  the  beautiful  Countess  Ouiccioli.  Espous- 
fng  the  cause  of  the  Greeks  in  their  struggle  for  liberty,  he  left  for 
Greece  in  1823,  and  died  the  following  year  at  Missolonght  from  the  ef- 
fects of  exposure  while  preparing  for  the  siege  of  Lepanto.  Byron's 
poetry  is  characterized  by  intense  emotion,  and  by  rare  taste  and  mar- 
vellous felicity  in  composition.  Child*  Harold's  Pilgrimage;  Don 
JuAn . 


/TfABAj-LERO,  Fernan.     1787-1877.     Pseudonym  of  the 
Tr-*>     Spanish  novelist  Cecilia  Bohl  de  Faber. 

Cabanel,  Alexandre.     1823-. . . .     French  historical  painter. 

Cabanis,  Pierre  Jean  George.     1 757-1 808.     French  physician 
and  philosopher. 

Cabot,  (icorgc.     1751-1823.     President  of  the  Hartford  Con- 
vention. 


Cabot,  John -1498?     Venetian  navigator  in  the  service 

of  England.     Discovered  North  American  continent  in  1497. 
Cabot,  Sebastian.     1477?— 1557.     Son  of  preceding.      English 

navigator. 

Cade,  John.    Jack  Cad* -1450.     Irish  rebel. 

Cadoudal,  George.  1769-1804.  French  Bourbon  general. 
Executed  for  plotting  the  dethronement  of  Napoleon  I. 

Cadwalader,  George -'879.     American  general. 

Cadwalader,  John.     1 743- 1786.     American  general. 

Caedmon -680?     Anglo-Saxon  poet.      The  Creation. 

Caesar,  Caius  Julius.  100-44  B.C.  Roman  general  and 
statesman.  Elected  Consul  60  B.C.;  formed  a  secret  alliance  with 
Pompcy  and  Crassus  known  as  the  first  triumvirate.  It  is  said  that 
during  his  Gallic  wars  a  million  of  men  were  stain,  eight  hundred  cities 
and  towns  captured  and  three  hundred  tribes  subdued.  Pompcy  having 
become  Caesar's  enemy  through  jealousy,  the  latter  crossed  the  Rubicon, 
49  B.C.,  and  in  a  short  time  became  master  of  Italy.  Having  conquered 
all  his  enemies,  and  subdued  Spain  and  Africa,  Caesar  was  made  per- 
petual dictator,  and  received  from  the  Senate  the  title  •(  Imperator. 
Although  beloved  by  the  masses,  the  patricians  fc...ed  and  hated  him, 
and  the  result  of  a  conspiracy  of  Ca&sius,  Brutus  and  others  was  his 
assassination. 

Cagliari,    Paolo.       Paul     Veronese.     I530?-I588.       Italian 

painter. 

Cagliostro,  Alexandra  (Joseph  Balsamo).  1743-1795.  Italian 

impostor  and  adventurer,  physician  and  alchemist. 
Caille,  Nicolas  Louis  de  la.     1713-1762.     French  astronomer. 

Caillet,  Guillaume -,359-     French  insurgent  leader. 

Cajetan,  Thomas  de  Vio.     1469-1534.     Italian  prelate. 

Calderon  de  la  Barco,  Don  Pedro.  1600-1683.  Spanish 
poet  and  dramatist.  Produced  his  first  drama  at  the  age  of  13. 
Served  as  a  soldier,  but  took  orders  in  165a,  after  which  he  wrote  only 
sacred  dramas.     He  wrote  some  five  hundred  plays. 

Calhoun,  John  Caldwell.  1783-1850.  American  statesman. 
Born  in  South  Carolina;  elected  to  Congress,  1810;  secretary  of  war, 
1817;  vice-president,  1825-1833,  resigning  to  enter  the  Senate;  secre- 
tary of  state,  1844 ;  returned  to  the  Senate,  1845.  Calhoun  was  an 
avowed  champion  of  slavery  and  state's  rights. 

Caligula,   Caius  Caesar.     12-41.     Emperor  of  Rome,  noted 

for  cruelty  and  sensuality.     Built  a  temple  to  himself.    Assassinated. 

Calonne,  Charles  Alexandre  de.     1734-1802.     Fr.  statesman. 

Calvert,  Cecilius,  second  Ix>rd  Baltimore -1676.     First 

proprietor  of  Maryland,  residing  in  England. 

Calvert,  George,  first  Lord  Baltimore.  I582?-i632.  Father 
of  the  preceding.     Founder  of  Maryland. 

Calvert,  Leonard.     i6o6?-i647.      Brother  of  Cecilius.     pint 

governor  of  Maryland. 

Calvin,  John.     1509-1564.     French  theologian.     Established 

the   Presbyterian  form  of  church  government.    The  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  his  theology  Is  that  of  predestination  to  eternal  happiness  or 
misery  by  the  absolute  decree  of  God. 
Cambaceres,  Jean  Jacques  Regis  de.     1 757-1824.     French 

statesman. 

Cambyses -522  B.C.     King  of  Persia;    conqueror  of 

Egypt. 
Cameron,  Richard -1680.     Scottish  Covenanter. 

Cameron,  Simon.  1799-  1S80.  American  politician;  senator 
from  Pennsylvania,  secretary  of  war  and  minister  to  Russia. 

Camillus,  Marcus  Furius -364  B,C      Roman  general 

and  dictator. 

==H=======_^^ All 


w 


K" 


/ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


219 


Camoens,  Luis.  1517—1579.  Portuguese  poet.  Served  in 
Morocco  as  a  volunteer,  and,  failing  to  procure  advancement  at  court  on 
his  return,  went  to  India.  There  he  was  banished,  on  account  of  his 
satire.  Follies  in  India,  from  Goa  to  Macao,  where  he  wrote  the  Lusiad, 
the  greatest  of  his  works.  Recalled  to  Goa,  he  suffered  shipwreck,  and 
saved  the  Lusiad  by  holding  it  above  the  waves  as  he  swam  ashore.  He 
died  in  great  poverty. 

Campanini,  Italo.     Italian  tenor  singer. 

Campbell,  Alexander.  1788-1866.  Irish  founder  of  the  de- 
nomination of  "Christians,"  or  "  Disciples  of  Christ." 

Campbell,  Colin,  Lord  Clyde.     1792-1863.     British  General. 

Campbell,  John,  Lord.  1779-1861.  Lord  chancellor  of 
England.     The  Lives  0/  the  Lord  Chancellors. 

Campbell,  Thomas.  1 777-1844.  Scottish  poet.  Son  of  a 
Glasgow  merchant.    Published  Pleasures  0/  Hope  in  1 799. 

Camphon,  Jules.  Governor-general  of  Algeria.  Ap- 
pointed May  11,  1S91. 


Canby,    Edward 

general. 

Canisius,  Petrus. 

theologian. 
Canning,  George. 
Canova,  Antonio. 


Richard    Sprigg.      1819-1873.      American 
(De  Hondt.)     1521-1597.     Dutch  Jesuit 


English  statesman  and  orator. 
Italian  sculptor.      Venus  Vic- 


1770-1827. 
1757-1822. 

torious :   Venus  and  Adonis ;   Theseus  and  the  Minotaur:    Dtgda- 
/us  and  Icarus ;    The  Graces.    He  executed  statues  of  Washington 
and  Napoleon. 
Canrobert,   Francois    Certain.     1809-....     French    marshal 

and  senator. 
Cantacuzenus,   John -141 1?       Greek    emperor   and 

historian. 

Canute    II.     990-1035.      King    of  Denmark;    conqueror  of 

England. 
Capet,  Hugh.     9407-996.     Founder  of  the  Capetian  dynasty. 
Caracalla.     188-217.     Emperor  of  Rome,  noted  for  cruelty. 
Caracci,  Agostino.     1558-1602.     Italian  painter  and  engraver. 
Caracci,  Annibal.     1560-1609.     Italian  painter. 
Caracci,  Ludovico.     1555-1619.     Italian  painter. 
Caravaggio,  Michel  Angelo  da.     1569-1609.     Italian  painter. 
Cardigan,  James    Thomas    Brudenell,   Earl  of.     1 797-1868. 

English  general. 

Carducci,  Bartolommeo.     1560-1610.     Florentine  painter. 
Carey,  Henry  Charles.     1793-1879.     Am.  political  economist. 

Carlisle,  John  G.     1829-. American  statesman. 

Carlos,  Don,  Duke  of  Madrid.     (Carlos  Maria  de  los  Dolores 

Juan  Isidoro  Josef  Francesco  Quirino  Antonio'Miguel  Gabriel  Rafael.) 
1848-....    Claimant  to  the  Spanish  throne.    Nephew  of  Charles  VI. 

Carlyle,  Thomas.  1795-1881.  Scottish  essayist,  biographer 
and  historian.  The  son  of  a  small  farmer;  educated  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  Taught  mathematics  for  some  time,  but  resolved  to 
devote  himself  to  literary  pursuits  and  became  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  literature  of  Germany.  Married  Jane  Welch  in  1827,  and  set- 
tled on  a  farm.  Besides  his  best  known  works  and  several  translations, 
he  produced  biographies  of  Schiller,  Frederick  the  Great  and  John 
Sterling.  Sartor  Resartus  first  appeared  in  Fraser's  Magazine  in 
1833;  Freds''  ^v.'olution,  1837;  Chartism,  1839;  Heroes  and  Hero 
Worship,\%*p;  Latter-Day  Pamphlets  and  Cromwell's  Letters  and 
Speeches,  1845. 

Carnarvon,  Henry  H.  M.  Herbert,  third  Earl  of.     1831-. . . . 

English  statesman. 
Carnot,  Marie  Francois  Sadi.     1837-.  .  .  .      President  of 

the  French  Republic. 
Carroll,  Charles  (of  Carrollton).     1737-1832.     Am.  patriot. 


Cartier,  Jacques.     1494-1555?     French  navigator. 
Cartwright,  Edmund.     1743-1823.     English  inventor. 
Cary,  Alice.     1822-1870.     American  poetess. 
Cary,  Henry  Francis.     1722-1884.     Eng.  translator  of  Dante. 
Casas,  BartolomS  de  las.     1474-1566.      Spanish  missionary 

and  historian.    History  of  the  Indians. 
Casaubon,  Isaac.     1559-1614.     Swiss  scholar  and  critic. 
Casimir  I.      77i'  Pacific.      . . .  .-1058.      King    of    Poland. 

II.,  1 137-1194.    III.,  ThcGrcat,  ....-1370.    IV.,  1425-1492.    V.,  1609- 

1672. 
Cass,  Lewis.     1782-1866.     Am.  statesman  and  diplomatist. 
Castelar  y  Rissol,  Emilio.     1837- Spanish  republican 

orator  and  statesman. 
Castlereagh,  Robert  Stewart,  Viscount.     1769-1822.     Second 

marquis  of  Londonderry.  British  statesman,  prominent  in  suppressing 
the  Irish  rebellion  of  1798,  and  to  him  is  attributed  the  union  of  Ireland 
with  Great  Britain.    Opposed  Bonaparte     Committed  suicide. 

Castro,  Joao  de.     1 500-1 548.     Port,  general  and  navigator. 

Catherine,  Saint.  1347-1380.  Italian  nun  at  Siena.  Mediator 
between  the  rival  popes  in  the  great  schism. 

Catherine  I.  1682-1727.  Empress  of  Russia ;  succeeded  to 
the  throne  on  the  death  of  her  husband,  Peter  the  Great.  II.,  1729-1796; 
notoriously  immoral. 

Catherine  of  Aragon.    1486-1536.    Queen  of  Henry  VIII.  of 

England  ;  divorced. 

Catherine  de,  Medici.     15 10-1589.     Queen  of  Henry  II.  of 

France ;  opponent  of  the  Huguenots. 

Catiline,  Lucius  Sergius.     io8?-62  B.C.     Roman  conspirator. 

Cato,  Dionysius.     Fl.  3d  century.     Latin  poet. 

Cato,  Marcus  Portius.  The  Elder.  234-149  B.C.  Roman 
statesman  and  author. 

Cato,  Marcus  Portius.  The  Younger.  95-46  B.C.  Opponent 
of  Caesar;  famed  for  purity  and  nobility.    Committed  suicide. 

Catullus,  Caius  Vallerius.     77  ?-45  ?  B.C.     Latin  poet. 

Caulaincourt,  Armand  A.  L.  de.     1773-1827.      Fr.  diplomat. 

Cavaignac,  Louis  Eugene.  1802-1857.  French  general  and 
statesman.    Put  down  the  insurrection  of  1848. 

Cavour,  Camillo  Benso  di.  1818-1861.  First  prime  minister 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Caxton,  William.  I4I2?-I492.  English  scholar  and  mer- 
chant.   Introduced  printing  into  England. 

Cecil,  William,  Lord  Burleigh.  1 520-1 598.  Lord  treasurer 
of  England. 

Cecilia,  Saint.  Fl.  2d  century.  Roman  martyr;  patroness  of 
music. 

Cenci,  Beatrice.  The  beautiful  Parricide.  1583?-!  599. 
Roman  lady,  famous  for  her  beauty  and  tragic  fate. 

Cervantes  Saavedra,  Miguel  de.  1547-1616.  Spanish  novel- 
ist.   Don  Quixote. 

Cesnola,  Louis  Palma  di.     1832-. . . .     Born  in  Italy;  colonel 

in  U.  S.  army  during  the  civil  war ;  appointed  1865  consul  to  Cyprus, 
and  became  famous  for  his  excavations  in  that  island. 

Chalmers,  Thomas.     1780-1847.     Scottish  divine ;  founder  of 

the  "  Free  Church."    Astronomy  in  its  Connection  with  Religion. 
Chambers,  William.     1800-1883.     Scot,  editor  and  publisher. 

Chambord,  Henri  Charles  Ferdinand  Marie  Dieudonne  d'Artois, 
Comte.     1820-1883.    Head  of  elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons. 

Chamisso,  Adelbert  von.     1 781-1838.     German  traveller. 

Champollion,  Jean  Francois.  1791-1832.  French  Egyptolo- 
gist.   Hieroglyphic  Dictionary. 

Changarnier,  Nicolas  A.  T.     J793-1877.     French  general. 


l£ 


j4 


**? 


7^ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Charming,  William  Ellery.    1780-1842.    American  divine  and 

author;  opponent  of  slavery. 
Chantrey,  Sir  Francis.     1 782-1841.     English  sculptor. 

Chapin,  Edwin  Hubbell.     1814-1881.     American  divine. 

Charlemagne.    CharUs  the   Great,  or    Charles  I.     742-814. 

Emperor  of  Germany  and  King  of  France.  Crowned  emperor  of  the 
West,  with  the  title  of  Caesar  Augustus,  by  Pope  Leo  III.,  800.  The' 
most  powerful  and  enlightened  monarch  of  his  time.  His  empire  extended 
from  the  Elbe  to  the  Ebro,  and  from  Calabria  to  Hungary.  Founder  of 
the  Carlovingian  dynasty. 

Charles  II.  The  Bald.  (Charles  II.  of  France.)  823-877. 
Emperor  of  Germany.  Invaded  Italy  and  was  crowned  Emperor.  III., 
The  Fat,  83a?-888.  IVM  1316-1378.  Emperor  of  Germany  and  King 
of  Bohemia.  V.,  1500-1558.  Emperor  of  Germany.  King  of  Spain 
as  Charles  I.  Ascended  the  Spanish  throne  in  1516  and  became  Emperor 
of  Germany  in  1519.  In  1521  summoned  the  Diet  of  Worms  to  check  the 
progress  of  Luther's  doctrines.  In  1527,  warring  with  Francis  I.  of 
France,  and  Pope  Clement  VII.,  Rome  was  sacked  and  the  pope  made 
prisoner.  Convened  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  to  suppress  the  Reformation, 
but,  the  Protestants  having  united,  liberal  terms  were  granted  them.  In 
1535,  defeated  Barbarossa  and  captured  Tunis,  liberating  thousands  of 
Christian  slaves.  Defeated  in  155a  by  the  Protestant  forces  under 
Maurice  of  Saxony,  he  signed  the  treaty  of  Passau,  establishing  the 
Protestant  church  on  a  firm  basis.  Three  years  later  he  retired  to  the 
monastery  of  St.  Yuste.  VI.,  1685-1740.  VII.  (Kart  Albrecht), 
■697-1745- 

Charles  II.      The  Bald.  (Charles  II.  of  Germany.)    823-877. 

King  of  France.     IV.,   The  Fair.    1x294-328.     V.,  The   Wise,  1337- 

1380.     VI.,    The  Mad  or  The  Beloved,  1368-1422.      Became  insane  in 

1392.    VII.,   The  Victorious,  1403-1461 ;    expelled  the  English.     IX., 

>55o--574.    X.,  1757-1836. 
Charles  I.     Charles  Stuart.     1600-1649.     King  of  England. 

Executed  alter  ineffectually  attempting  to  subdue  his  rebellious  subjects. 

II.,  1630-1685;    witty,    but    careless    and    voluptuous,    the    Habeas 

Corpus  act  was  passed  during  his  reign. 
Charles  I.     (Charles  V.  of  Germany.)     1500-1558.     King  of 

Spain.     II.,  1661-1700.     III.,  1716-1788.     IV.,  1748-1819. 

Charles  IX.  1550-1611.  King  of  Sweden.  X.  (Gustavus), 
1622-1660.  XII.,  1682-1718;  ascended  the  throne  in  1697.  A 
league  being  formed  against  him  by  Russia,  Denmark  and  Poland,  in  1 700, 
he  besieged  Copenhagen,  forced  Denmark  to  make  peace,  and  beat  the 
Russians.  He  then  invaded  Poland,  compelling  King  Augustus  to 
resign.  Invading  Russia,  he  was  badly  defeated  at  Pultowa.  He  fled 
to  Turkey,  but  soon  returned.  Marching  into  Norway,  he  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Fredericks. ill.  XIII.,  1748-1818.  XIV.  (Bernadotte), 
1714-1844.     XV.,   1826-1872.     King  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 

Charles  Edward  Stuart.  The  Young  Pretender.  1720-1788. 
English  prince. 

Charfes  the  Bold.  1433-1477.  Duke  of  Burgundy.  While 
still  Count  of  Charolais  and  before  succeeding  to  his  dukedom,  he  led 
a  successful  revolt  of  the  nobles  against  Louis  XI.  of  France.  Aspiring 
to  enlarge  his  dominions,  he  invaded  Lorraine,  but  was  defeated  by  Duke 
Rene's  Swiss  allies  and  killed  in  battle. 

Charles  Martel.     6o4?-74i.     King  of  the  Franks. 

Charron,  Pierre.     1 531-1603.     French  moralist. 

Chartier,  Alain.     1385-1455.     French  poet. 

Chase,  Salmon  Portland.      1808-1873.     American  statesman 

and  jurist.     Secretary  of  the  Treasury;  chief  justice. 

Chateaubriand,  Francois  Auguste  de,  Viscount.      1768-1848. 

French  author.     Genius  of  Christianity. 

Chatham,  William  Pitt,  Earl   of.        The    Great    Commoner. 

1708*1778.     English  statesman  and  orator.     Opposed  taxation  of  the 

American  colonics. 
Chatterton,  Thomas.     1752-1770.     English  literary  impostor. 


Chaucer,  Geoffrey.  1340?- 1 400.  English  poet,  styled  the 
"  Father  of  English  poetry."     Canterbury  Totes. 

Cheever,  George  Barrelle.     1807-1890.  American  divine. 

Cheke,  Sir  John.     1514-1557.     English  scholar. 

Chenier,  Andre  Marie  de.  1 762- 1 794.  French  poet;  exe- 
cuted. The  young-  Captive,  written  just  before  his  death, is  caBed  by 
Lamartine   "  the  most  melodious  sigh  that  ever  issued  from  a  dungeon." 

Cherbuliez,  Victor.     1832-....   French  novelist. 

Cherubini,  Maria  Luigi  C.  Z.  S.     1 760-1842.     It.  composer. 

Chesterfield,  Philip  Dormer  Stanhope,  Earl  of.  1694-1773. 
English  orator  and  wit,  distinguished  especially  as  a  man  of  fashion. 

Chevalier,  Michael.     1806-1879.     Fr.  political  economist. 

Chiabrera,  Gabriello.     1 552-1637.     Italian  lyric  poet 

Child,  Lydia  Maria.     1802- 1880.   American  philanthropist. 

Chillingworth,  William.      1602-1644.       English  theologian. 

The  Religion  0/  Protestants  a  Sa/e  Way  to  Salvation. 

Chitty,  Joseph.     1776-1841.     English  jurist  and  writer. 

Choate,  Rufus.  1 799-1859.  American  lawyer  and  statesman, 
noted  for  his  eloquence.    Senator  from  Massachusetts. 

Choiseul,  Eticnne  Francois  de.      1719-1785.      Fr.  statesman. 

Choris,  Louis.     1795-1828.     Russian  painter  and  traveller. 

Christian  I.  1425- 1481.  King  of  Denmark.  II.,  1481-1556. 
Called  "The  Hero  of  the  North."  III.,  1503.1559.  IV.,  1577-1648.  V., 
1646-1699.  VI.,  1699-1746.  VII.,  i749-itk>8.  VIII.,  1786-1848.  IX., 
1818-.... 

Christina.  1 629-1 689.  Queen  of  Sweden.  Daughter  of 
Gustavus  A.dolphus.     Learned  and  eccentric.    Abdicated  1654. 

Chrysippus.     280-207  B.C.     Greek  Stoic  philosopher. 

Chrysostom,  John,  Saint.  350?-407.  Greek  father  of  the 
church. 

Church,  Frederick  Edwin.     1826-. . . .     American  painter. 

Churchill,  Charles.     1731-1764.     English  poet  and  satirist. 

Cialdini,  Enrico.     181 1-....     Italian  general. 

Cibber,  Colley.     1671-1757.     English  actor  and  dramatist. 

Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius.  106-43  B.C.  Roman  author,  states- 
man and  orator.  While  consul,  suppressed  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline. 
Exiled  58  B.C.,  but  recalled  and  enthusiastically  received.  Was  an  ad- 
herent of  Pompcy.but  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Julius  Caesar.  Killed  by 
the  soldiers  of  Antony.  Cicero  is  regarded  as  an  orator  second  only  to 
Demosthenes. 

Cid  Campeador.  (Ruy  Diaz  de  Bivar.)  I040?-ioo9.  Cas- 
tilian  hero. 

Cimabue,  Giovanni.     1 140-1300?     Italian  painter. 

Cimon.     500-499  B.C.       Athenian  general  and  statesman. 

Cincinnatus,  Lucius  Quintus.  520-438  B.C.  Roman  patriot 
and  Dictator.  Elected  consul  while  cultivating  a  farm,  having  lost  his 
property.  Conquered  the  jEqui.  Twice  chosen  dictator,  and  at  the 
expiration  of  each  term  of  office  he  returned  to  the  plow. 

Cinna,  Lucius  Cornelius -84  B.C.     Roman  demagogue. 

Cinq-Mars,  Henri  C.    de    Ruze,   Marquis    de.     1620-1642. 

French  conspirator. 

Civilis,  Claudius.     Fl.  70.     Chief  of  the  Batavi. 

Clarendon,  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of.  160S-1674.  English 
historian  and  statesman. 

Clarke,  Adam.  1762-1832.  Irish  Methodist  Bible  com- 
mentator. 

Clarke,  John  S.     1835-. . . .     American  comedian. 

Clarke.    Mary   Cowden.     1809-. . . .     English    writer.     C*n- 

cordance  of  Skaksyere. 

Claude  Lorraine.     1600-1682.     French  painter. 


7  «• ■»■ 


^ 


Claudian  (Claudius  Claudianus).     365  ?-4o8  ?     Latin  poet. 

Claudius  (Tiberius  Claudius  Drusus  Nero).  B.C.  10-54  A.D. 
Roman  emperor;  invaded  Britain. 

Claudius,  Marcus  Aurelius.     214-270.     Roman  emperor. 

Clay,  Henry.  1777-1852.  American  statesman  and  orator. 
Born  in  Virginia;  removed  to  Kentucky  1797;  practiced  law;  elected 
to  Kentucky  Legislature  in  1804,  and  two  years  later  chosen  to  fill  a 
short  term  in  the  U.  S.  Senate;  re-elected  to  the  Senate  1809,  and  to 
the  House  of  Representatives  1811,  of  which  body  he  was  made 
speaker;  re-elected  speaker  1813;  signed  treaty  of  Ghent,  1815;  re- 
elected speaker  four  times ;  advocated  Missouri  Compromise.  Not 
one  of  his  decisions  as  speaker  was  reversed.  In  1824,  he  was  one  of 
four  candidate*  for  the  presidency,  receiving  thirty-seven  electoral 
votes.  When  the  election  devolved  on  the  House  of  Representatives, 
his  influence  decided  the  contest  in  favor  of  Jackson.  A  bloodless 
duel  between  Clay  and  Randolph,  in  1826,  was  the  result  of  charges 
against  Clay  growing  out  of  this  election.  Re-elected  to  the  Senate  in 
1831  for  six  years ;  and  in  1832  was  defeated  for  the  presidency  as  the 
candidate  of  the  anti-Jackson  party.  Again  elected  to  the  Senate  in  1836, 
but  resigned  in  1842.  Whig  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1844.  Re- 
elected Senator  1848.  Clay  is  generally  given  credit  for  the  compro- 
mise of  1850,  believed  to  have  postponed  for  ten  years  the  civil  war. 

Clemens,  Samuel  Langhorne.  Mark  Twain.  1835-. . . . 
American  humorist.  Learned  the  printer's  trade,  and  became  a  pilot 
on  the  Mississippi.  The  Innocents  Abroad.  The  Jumping  Frog; 
Roughing  It;  The  Gilded  Age  ;  The  Tramp  Abroad. 

Clement  I.  30?-ioo.  Pope.  IV.,  ...-628.  V.,  I264?-I3I4. 
VII.  (Giulio  de  Medici),  i475?-i534-  VIII.,  1605,  XL,  1649-1731. 
XIV.,  1705-1774. 

Clement  of  Alexandria.    i50?-220?    Father  of  the  church. 

Cleon -422  b.c.     Athenian  demagogue  and  general. 

Cleopatra.  69-30  B.C.  Queen  of  Egypt,  remarkable  for 
beauty  and  accomplishments. 

Cleveland,    Grover.      1837- American     statesman. 

Born  at  Caldwell,  N.  J.,  the  son  of  a  Presbyterian  minister,  who 
removed  to  Fayetteville,  N.  Y.,  in  1840.  First  worked  in  a  country 
store,  secured  an  education  and  became  a  teacher  in  the  N.  Y.  Blind 
Asylum.  Studied  law  in  Buffalo;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1863,  and 
became  assistant  district  attorney ;  afterwards  sheriff.  Mayor  of 
Buffalo,  1881,  and  then  elected  Governor  of  New  York  by  192,00c* 
majority.    Elected  President  in  1884. 

Clinton,  De  Witt.  1769-1828.  American  statesman;  pro- 
moter of  the  Erie  Canal.  Governor  of  New  York,  United  States  Sena- 
tor, and  Federal  candidate  for  the  Presidency. 

Clinton,  George.     1 739-181 2.     Vice-president  of  the  U.  S. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry.    1738-1795.    English  general  in  America. 

Clive,  Robert,  Lord.  1725-1774.  English  general  and 
founder  of  the  British  empire  in  India.    Committed  suicide. 

Clodius,  Publius.     52  B.C.     Roman  tribune  and  demagogue. 

Clootz,  Jean  Baptiste,  Baron.  Anackarsis  Clootz.  1753-1794. 
Prussian  traveller  and  French  revolutionist.    Guillotined. 

Clough,  Arthur  Hugh.     1820-1861.     English  poet. 

Clovis  (or  Cklodwig).  465-511.  King  of  the  Franks;  con- 
queror of  Gaul. 

Cobbett,  William.     1762-1835.     English  political  writer. 

Cobden,    Richard.       1804-1865.       English     statesman    and 

economist.    Leading  orator  of  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League. 
Coke  (or  Cook),  Sir  Edward.     1552-1633.     English  jurist. 
Colbert,  Jean  Baptiste.     1610-1683.     French  statesman. 
Cole,  Thomas.     1801-1848.     English  landscape  painter. 

Colenso,  John  William.    1814-1883.  Eng.  theologian.   Bishop 

of  Natal.     The  Pentateuch  and  Book  0/ 'Joshua  Critically  Examined. 

Coleridge,  Hartley.     1796-1849.     Son  of  S.  T.  C.     Eng.  poet. 


Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor.  1772-1834.  English  poet  and 
critic.  Educated  at  Cambridge.  Intimate  friend  of  Robert  Southey, 
with  whom  he  intended  to  emigrate  to  America  for  the  purpose  of  found- 
ing a  democratic  community.  In  company  with  Wordsworth  he  studied 
German  literature  and  wrote  the  Lyrical  Ballads.  In  1807  he  took  to 
wandering  habits,  and  left  his  family  dependent  on  his  brother-in-law, 
Southey.  His  health  failing  about  1825,  he  became  addicted  to  the 
opium  habit,  but  succeeded  in  overcoming  it.      The  Ancient  Mariner. 

Colfax,  Schuyler.    1823- 1885.   Am.  politician ;  vice-president. 

Coligny,  Gaspard  de.  1517-1572.  French  admiral.  Leader 
of  the  Huguenots,  and  killed  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

Collier,  Jeremy.     1650-1726.     English  theologian. 

Collingwood,  Cuthbert,  Lord.  1750-1810.  English  lord  high 
admiral ;  second  in  command  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar. 

Collins,  Anthony.     1 676-1 729.     Eng.  author  and  free-thinker. 

Collins,  William.     1 720-1 756.     Eng.  poet.     The  Passions. 

Collins,  William  Wilkie.  1824-1889.  English  novelist. 
AJter  Dark;  Armadale;  The  Woman  in  White;  Man  and  Wife. 

Colman,  George.      The  Elder*     1 733-1 794.     Eng.  dramatist. 

Colman,  George.  The  Younger.  1762-1836.  English  dra- 
matist.  John  Bull. 

Colonna,  Vittoria.     1490-1547.     Italian  poet. 

Colt,  Samuel.    1814-1862.   Am.  inventor  ofthe  revolving  pistol. 

Columba,  Saint.     521-597.     The  apostle  of  Caledonia. 

Columbus,  Christopher.  1436-1506.  Genoese  navigator  and 
discoverer  of  America.  Became  a  sailor  at  14.  Studied  mathe- 
matics at  the  University  of  Pavia.  Removed  to  Lisbon  at  the  age  of 
thirty,  and  was  employed  in  several  expeditions  to  the  west  coast  of 
Africa.  Columbus  meditated  reaching  India  by  a  western  route.  He 
unsuccessfully  solicited  the  aid  of  John  II.  of  Portugal,  but  finally 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain  furnished  him  two  small  vessels,  and 
another  was  added  by  the  efforts  of  his  friends.  With  these  ships  and 
one  hundred  and  twenty  men  he  set  sail  from  Palos,  August  3,  1492,  and 
after  a  long  voyage,  during  which  he  was  threatened  with  death  by  his 
mutinous  crew,  he  discovered  the  island  of  San  Salvador,  October  12  of 
same  year.  Supposing  that  he  had  reached  India,  he  called  the  natives 
Indians.  After  visitingCuba  and  Hayti,  he  returned  to  Spain,  where  he 
was  received  triumphantly.  In  1493  he  again  sailed  across  the  Atlantic, 
this  time  with  seventeen  ships,  and  discovered  Jamaica  and  Porto  Rico. 
In  1498  he  made  his  third  voyage,  with  six  vessels,  discovering  the 
mainland  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  In  1499,  complaints  having  been 
made  to  the  court  of  the  conduct  of  Columbus  at  Hispaniola,  he  was 
carried  to  Spain  in  chains  by  Francisco  de  Bobadilla,  whose  action  wasf 
however,  repudiated  by  the  king  and  queen.  Columbus*  last  voyage 
to  America  was  made  in  1502,  to  Honduras.    He  died  neglected. 

Combe,  George.    1788-1858.   Eng.  educator  and  phrenologist. 

Comines,  Philippe  de.    1445-1509.  Fr.  statesman  and  historian. 

Commodus,  Antoninus.     161-192.     Emperor  of  Rome. 

Comonfort,  Ignacio.     i8io?-i863.     President  of  Mexico. 

Comte,  Auguste.    1798-1857.    French  philosopher.  Positivism* 

Conde,  Louis  II.,  Prince  de.  The  Great  Condi.  1621-1686. 
French  general.  Victorious  over  the  Spaniards  at  Rocroi,  1643,  and 
over  the  Germans  at  Nordlingen,  1645.  Again  defeated  the  Spanish  at 
Lens  in  1648,  almost  annihilating  their  infantry,  previously  regarded  in- 
vincible. Seeking  revenge  for  having  been  imprisoned  by  the  orders  of 
Mazarin  or  the  queen,  he  warred  against  the  government,  and  neitt 
entered  the  service  of  Spain.  Returned  to  France  in  1659,  and 
defeated  William  of  Orange  in  1674. 

Condillac,  Etienne  Bonnot  de.  1 715-1780.  French  meta- 
physician. 

Condorcet,  Marie  Jean  A.  N.  C.  de.  1 743-1 794.  French 
mathematician  and  philosopher.  Imprisoned  in  1794,  he  committed 
suicide  by  poison. 


*?5 


^ 


Confucius,  or  Kong-foo-tse.  551-478  B.C.  Chinese  phil- 
osopher. The  son  of  a  soldier,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  mandarin 
at  10  ;  superintendent  of  public  markets  and  public  fields.  Commenced 
public  teaching  at  22.  Became,  in  499  B.C.,  minister  of  crime,  and 
soon  after  retired  from  public  life,  devoting  his  time  to  study,  travel,  and 
the  dissemination  of  his  doctrines.  The  philosophy  of  Confucius  re- 
lates to  the  present  life  only,  the  useful  and  the  practical  forming  the 
chief  objects.  He  placed  great  importance  upon  outward  forms  of  po- 
liteness, being  the  first  to  enunciate,  in  substance,  the  Golden  Rule  His 
object  was  to  promote  human  happiness.  His  influence  upon  posterity 
has  been  truly  enormous,  his  teachings  affecting  two-thirds  of  humanity 
for  twenty-three  centuries. 

Congreve,  Sir  William.  1772-1828.  English  engineer.  (Con- 
greve  rocket). 

Congreve,  William.      1 670-1 729.     English  dramatist  and  wit. 

Conkling,  Roscoe.  1829-1888.  American  statesman,  lawyer 
and  orator.     U.  S.  senator  from  New  York. 

Conrad  I -918.    Emperor  of  Germany.    II.,  ....-1039. 

III.,  1093-1153.  IV.,  1228-1254.  V.,  1252-1268, 

Conscience,  Hendrik.     1812-1883.     Flemish  novelist. 

Constans    I.      320?~35o.     Emperor  of  Rome.     II.,  630-668. 

Constanrine  I.  7  he  Great.  272-377.  Emperor  of  Rome. 
Embraced  Christianity,  an  J  transferred  his  court  from  Rome  to  Byzan- 
tium, thenceforth  called  Constantinople.  II.,  312-340.  III.  (emperor 
of  the  East),  612-6 ji.  IV.,  ....-635.  V.,  719-775.  VI.,  771-797. 
VII.,  905-959;  poisoned  by  his  son,  Romanus  II.  VIII.,  .,..-946, 
IX.,  961-1038.  X.,  ... .-1054.  XI.,  ... .-1067.  XII.,  ... .-1071. 
XIII.  (Palaeologus),  1 394-1543  ;  killed  while  defending  Constantinople^ 
against  thfl  victorious  Mahomet  II.    Last  emperor  of  the  East. 

Constantius  I.  250-306.  Emperor  of  Rome.  II.  (emperor 
of  the  West),  317-361.     III., -421. 

Conti,  Francois  Louis  de,  Prince.      1 664-1709.     Fr.  general. 

Cook,  Eliza.      1817-. . . .     English  poetess. 

Cook,  James,  Captain.  1728-1779.  English  discoverer,  and 
circumnavigator  of  ihc  globe.  KiiUd  by  natives  in  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

Cooke,  George  Frederick.    1755-1S12.     English  actor. 

Cooper,  Sir  Astley  PastOtL     1768-1841.     English  physician. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore.  1779-185 1.  American  novelist. 
Having  studied  at  Yale  College,  he  entered  the  navy  in  1806  as  mid- 
shipman,but  left  the  service  in  1811.  His  first  novel,  Precaution,  ap- 
peared in  1809,  but  was  not  a  success.  His  next.  The  Sfiy,  was  enthu- 
siastically received.  His  sea-stories  are  considered  the  best  of  his 
numerous  productions. 

Cope,  Edward  Drinker.     1840-. . . .     American  naturalist. 

Copernicus  (Copemik  or  Kopemik") ,  Nicholas.  '473-1543- 
German  astronomer.  Disproved  the  Ptolemaic  theory.  In  his  great 
work.  The  Revolution  0/ the  Celestial  Orbs,  the  first  copy  of  which 
was  handed  to  him  on  the  day  of  his  death,  he  demonstrated  that  the 
sun  is  the  centre  of  the  universe. 

Coppee,  f'raiicou  Kdouard  Joachim.  1842-.  .  .  .  French 
poet. 

Corday,  Charlotte.  (Mariane  Charlotte  Corday  d'Armans). 
176&-1793.     French  heroine  ;  assassinated  Marat. 

Coriolanus,  Cneius  Marcius.     Fl.   490   B.C.     Roman  hero. 

Cornsille,'  Pierre.     1 606-1 684.     Founder  of  the  Fr.  drama. 

Cornelius,  Peter  von.     1787-1867.     German  painter. 

Cornell,  Ezra.     1807-1874.    American  philanthropist. 

Cornwallis,  Charles,  Earl.     1738-1805.     British  general. 

Corot,  Jean  Baptist*  Camilie.     1 796-1875.     French  painter. 

Correggio,  Antonio  Allegri  da.  1494-1534.  Italian  painter. 
Extremely  skilful  in  foreshortening  and  in  the  use  of  chiaroscuro.  The 
Assumption  of the  Virgin;  Rcce  Homo;  Penitent  Magdalen;  St. 
Jerome;  l^a  Vierge  au  Panier. 


Cortez,  Hernando.    1485-1547-    Spanish  conqueror  of  Mexico. 

Corvinus,  Matthias.     1443-1490.     King  oPHungaiy. 

Corwin,  Thomas.      1 794-1865.     American  statesman. 

Cotton,  John.      1585-1652.     Puritan  minister  in  Boston. 

Cottin,  Sophie  Ristaud.     1773-1807.     French  novelist 

Cousin,  Victor.     1792-1867.     French  philosopher. 

Cowley,  Abraham.      1618-1667.     Eng.  poet     Pindaric  Ode*. 

Cowper,  William.  1731-1800.  English  poet.  Studied  at 
Westminster  school,  and  became  a  fine  classical  scholar.  Admitted  to 
the  bar,  but  never  practiced,  his  morbid  sensitiveness,  nervousness  and 
diffidence  making  him  unable  to  occupy  a  conspicuous  position!  Became 
temporarily  deranged,  and  made  several  attempts  at  suicide.  In  17&4  he 
commenced  his  translation  ct  Homer.  The  Task  was  published  in  1785. 
Cowper**  letters  are  considered  among  the  best  in  the  language.  His 
poetry  U  by  turns  playful  and  pathetic,  tender  and  sarcastic — »omctimc* 
sublime. 

Cowper,  William.      1666-1709.     English  anatomi-t 

Cox,  Samuel  Sullivan.      1824-1889.    American  statesman. 

Coxe,  Arthur  Cleveland.     1818-. . . .      Am.  l.ishop  and  poet 

Cozzens,  Frederick  Swart  wout.      1818-1869.     Am.  author. 

Crabb,  George.      1778-1854.     Eng.  philologist.     Synonyms. 

Crabbe,  George.  1754-1832.  English  poet.  Studied  surgery, 
but  abandoned  that  profession.  Wcs  befriended  by  Edmund  Burke,  and 
published  The  Library  in  1781.  Ordained  a  minister  of  the  Church  of 
England  in  1782.      The  Village,  his  best  work,  was  produced  in  1783. 

Craik,  Dinah  Maria  (Mulock).  1826-1887.  English  authoress. 
Olive;  John  Halifax,  Gentleman;  A  Life  for  a  Life ;  A  Woman's 
Thoughts  about  Women, 

Cranch,  Christopher  Pearse.      1813-. . . .     Am.  artist  and  poet. 

Cranmer,  Thomas.  1489-1556.  English  reformer;  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.     Burned  to  death. 

Crassus,  Marcus  l.icinius.  io8?~53  B.C.  Roman  triumvir; 
immensely  wealthy.     Defeated  and  slain  by  the  Parthlans. 

Creasy,  Sir  Edward  Shepherd.    1812-1878.    English  historian. 

Fifteen  Decisive  Battles, 

Crichton,  James.  The  Admirable  Crichtan,  1 560-1 583. 
Scottish  prodigy.    Stabbed  by  his  pupil,  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua, 

Crittenden,  John  Jordon.     1786-1863.     American  statesman. 

Crockett,  David.     1786-1836.     American  backwoodsman. 

Crcesus.     590-546  B.C.     King  of  Lydia,  famous  for  wealth. 

Croly,  George.      1 780-1860.     Irish  poet  and  pulpit-orator. 

Cromwell,  Oliver.  1 599-1659.  English  general;  lord  pro- 
tector of  England.  Elected  to  Parliament  1G28.  In  1637  resolved  to 
emigrate  with  his  cousin,  John  Hampden,  but  they  were  detained  by  an 
order  of  council.  Re-elected  to  Parliament  1640.  Entered  the  Parlia- 
mentary army  in  1642  as  captain  of  cavalry.  Rapidly  promoted,  and 
led  left  wing  at  Mam  ton  Moor,  1644.  Commanded  right  wing  at  Nascby, 
1645,  and  became  leader  of  the  Independents.  Transferred  the  custody 
of  the  king  from  Parliament  to  the  army,  1647.  Won  the  battle  of 
Preston,  1648.  Signed  the  death  warrant  of  Charles  I.,  1649.  Made 
commander-in-chief,  1650,  and  defeated  the  Scotch  at  Dunbar  and 
Charles  at  Worcester.  Dissolved  Parliament  in  1653,  and  was  in  1654 
proclaimed  by  the  army  protector  of  the  commonwealth. 

Cropsey,  Jasper  Frank.     1823-. . . .     American  painter, 

Cruden,  Alexander.  1700-1770.  Scottish  bookseller  and 
author.     Concordance. 

Cruikshank,  George.     1792-1878.     Eng.  humorous  artist. 

Cumberland,  William  Augustus/Duke  of.    1721-1765.    Con- 
queror at  Culloden.  * 
Cunningham,  Allan.     1785-1S42.     Scottish  author  and  critic. 
Curran,  John  Philpot.     1750-1817.     Irish  barristerVnd  orator. 
Curtis,  George  Ticknor,     1S12-.  .  . .      Am.  law.  and  auth. 


-*£= 


^ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


-• » 


Z23 


Curtis,  George  William.     1824-. . . .     Am.  author  and  editor. 
Cushing,  Caleb.      1800-1879.      American  lawyer,  Statesman 

and  diplomatist. 
Cushman,  Charlotte  Sanders.     1816-1876.     Am.  actress. 
Custer,  George  A.     1839-1876.     American  general,  killed  by 

the  Sioux. 

Cuvier,  Georges  C.  L.  F.,  Baron.  1 769-1832.  French  naturalist. 

Cyprian,  Saint.  20O?-258.  Latin  father;  bishop  of  Car- 
thage ;  martyr. 

Cyril,  Saint.     3I5?~386.     Bishop  of  Jerusalem. 

Cyril,  Saint.     376P-444.     Bishop  of  Alexandria. 

Cyrus.  TJie  Great,  ox  The  Elder.  ...-.-529  B.C.  King  of 
Persia ;  conquered  Babylon. 

Cyrus.     The  Younger -401  B.C.     Hero  of  Xenophon's 

Anabasis. 


1750-1818.      American  mathemati- 


Y^ABOLL,  Nathan. 

Jk—f     cian. 

Dacier,  Andre.     1651-1722.     French  scholar  and  critic. 

Dacier,    Anne    Lefevre.      1654-1720.     Wife    of   preceding. 

Translated  Homer. 

Daendels,  Hermann  Willem.     1762-1818.     Dutch  general. 
Daguerre,  Louis  Jacques  Mande.     1789-1851.     French  artist; 

inventor  of  the  daguerreotype. 
Dahlberg,  Eric.     1625-1703.     Swedish  general  and  engineer. 
Dahlgren,  John  Adolph.     1809-1870.     Am.  rear-admiral. 
Dallas,  Alexander  James.     1759—1817.      Am.  statesman. 
Dallas,  George  Mifflin.     1792-1864.     Am.  statesman. 
Dalton,  John.     1766-1844.     English  chemical  philosopher. 
Damiani,  Peter.     990-1072.     Italian  ecclesiastic. 
Damiens,  Robert  F.     17 14-1757.     French  fanatic. 
Darnpier,  William.    1652-1712.    Eiig.  explorer  and  navigator. 
Dana,  Chas.  A.     1819-   . . .     Am.  journ.    Ed.  N.  Y.  Sun. 
Dana,  Francis.     1743-1811.     Am.  lawyer  and  statesman. 
Dana,  Richard  Henry.    1787-1879.    American  poet  and  writer. 

The  Buccaneer. 

Dana,  Richard  Henry.     1815-1882.     Son  of  preceding.     Am. 

author  and  lawyer.     Two  Years  Be/ore  the  Mast. 

Dancer,  Daniel.     17 16-1794.     English  miser. 

Dandelot,  Francois  de  Coligny.     1521-1569.     French  general. 

Dandolo,  Enrico.     H05?-I205.     Blind  doge  of  Venice ;  took 

Constantinople  by  storm, 

Dane,  Nathan.     1752-1835.     Am.  lawyer  and  statesman. 
Daniel.     Fl.  6th  century  B.C.     Hebrew  prince  and  prophet. 
Daniel,  Samuel.     1562-1619.     English  poet. 

1265-1321.     The  greatest  poet  of  Italy. 


Dante  Allighieri. 

Divina  Commcdia. 

Danton,  Georges  Jacques 
revolution,  and  head  of  the 


'759-'794-    A  leader  of  the  French 
Dantonists."    Guillotined. 
D'Arblay,   Mme.   (Frances   Burney.)      1752-1840.      English 

novelist.     Evelina:   Cecilia;   Camilla. 

Darboy,  Georges.     1813-1871.     Archbishop  of  Paris. 
Darius  I.    (Darius  Hystaspis.)     -435  B.C.    King  of  Persia. 

II -405  B.C.    III.    (Codomannus),    ....-330  B.C.;  defeated  by 

Alexander. 

Darius  the  Mede.     Supposed  to  be  Cyaxares  II. 

Darley,  Felix  0.  C.     1822-1888.    American  artist. 

Darling,  Grace.     1815-1842.     English  heroine. 

Darnley,    Henry    Stuart,    Lord.     IS4S?-I567.     Husband    of 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots ;  assassinated. 


Darwin,  Charles  Robert.  1809-1882.  English  naturalist  and 
originator  of  the  theory  of  evolution.  In  his  "  Origin  of  Species  by 
means  of  Natural  Selection,"  published  in  1859,  he  propounds  the 
theory  that  all  forms  of  life,  animal  or  vegetable,  past  or  present,  have 
been  produced  by  a  series  of  gradual  changes  in  natural  descent.  In 
his  "  Descent  of  Man,"  he  infers  that  "man  is  descended  from  a  hairy 
quadruped  furnished  with  a  tail  and  pointed  ears,  probably  arboreal  in 
its  habits." 

Darwin,  Erasmus.     1731-1S02.     English   physician  and  poet. 

D'Aubigne,  Jean  Henri  Merle.    1794-1872.     Swiss  historian. 

D'Aubigne,  Theodore.  1550-1630.  French  soldier,  poet 
and  historian. 

Daudet,  Alphonse.     1840-....     French  novelist.     Jack. 

Davenport,  Edward  L.     1816-1877.     American  actor. 

David.     1090-1015  B.C.     King  of  Israel;  prophet  and  poet. 

David,  Saint.     490?-544.     Patron  of  Wales. 

David,  Jacques  Louis.     1748-1825.     French  historical  painter. 

David,  Pierre  J.     1 789-1856.     French  sculptor. 

Daviess,  Joseph  Hamilton.  Jo  Daviess.  1 787-1 854.  Am- 
erican statesman. 

Da  Vinci,  Leonardo.     See  Vinci. 

Davis,  Henry  Winter.     1817-1865.     American  politician. 

Davis,  Jefferson.  1808-1889.  American  statesman  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Confederacy.  Born  in  Kentucky  ;  graduate  of  West  Point; 
served  in  the  Black  Hawk  war  and  Mexican  war;  elected  to  U.  S. 
Senate  front  Mississippi  in  1847;  secretary  of  war  1853-7;  re- 
elected senator  in  1857 ;  inaugurated  provisional  president  of  *he  Con- 
federate States  in  1861,  and  elected  for  six  years  in  1862.  Imprisoned 
in  Fortress  Monroe  for  two  years  after  the  fall  of  Richmond.  History 
0/  the  Civil  War. 

Davoust  for  Davout),  Louis  Nicholas,  Duke  of  Auerstadt  and 
Prince  or  Eckmiihl.     1770- 1823.     Marshal  of  France. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphrey.  1778-1829.  English  chemist.  Dem- 
onstrated that  the  fixed  alkalies  are  metallic  oxides.  Inventor  °f  the 
safety  lamp.    Researches  Chemical  and  Philosopliical. 

Dayton,  William  Lewis.     1807-1864.     American  statesman. 

Dearborn,  Henry.     1751-1829.     Am.  general  and  statesman. 

Decatur,  Stephen.  1779-1820.  American  naval  commander. 
Defeated  the  Algerines.    Killed  in  a  duel. 

De  Foe  (or  Defoe),  Daniel.     1661-1731.     English  novelist. 

Son  of  James  Foe,  a  butcher,  he  assumed  the  prefix  "  de."  Took  part 
in  the  insurrection  against  James  II.  Imprisoned  and  pilloried  in  1 702 
for  publishing  The  Shortest  Way  -with  Dissenters,  an  ironical 
pamphlet.  His  works  are  over  two  hundred  in  number,  and  show 
great  versatility  and  originality.^  Robinson  Crusoe:  The  True-born 
Englishman^  The  History  of  the  Union:  Memoirs  of  a  Cavalier; 
Religious  Courtship. 

De  Kalb,  John,  Baron.  1732-1780.  German  general;  ac- 
companied Lafayette  to  America  in  1777,  and  served  under  Washington. 
Killed  at  the  battle  of  Camden. 

De  Haas,  Maurice  F.  H.    1830?-. . . .     Dutch  marine  painter. 
Delacroix,  Ferdinand  V.  E.     1799-1863.     French  painter. 
De  la    Rame,  Louisa.     OuiJa.     1840?-. . . .     Eng.  novelist.- 
Delaroche,  Paul.     1797-1856.     French  painter. 
Delaware,  Thomas  West,  Lord.  . . .  .-1618.   Gov.  of  Virginia. 
Delmas,  Antoine  Guillaume.     1768-1813.     French  general. 
Delorme,  Marion.     1612-1650.  French  beauty  and  courtesan. 
Del  Sarto,  Andrea  Vannuchi.     1488-1530.     French  painter. 
Demetrius    Phalereus.     345?-284?    B.C.     Attic    orator  and 
philosopher. 

Demetrius    Poliorcetes.       3357-284?    B.C.        Macedonian 

general. 


te- 


Democritus.       The    Laughing    Philosopher.      460-361    B.C. 

Greek  philosopher. 
Demosthenes.  3857-322  B.C.  Athenian  orator.   Conquered  an 

impediment  in  his  speech,  and  by  perseverance  and  determination  be- 
came the  greatest  of  orators.  Opposed  Philip  of  Macedon,  against  whom 
he  delivered  his  Philippics.  It  being  proposed  to  reward  his  public  ser- 
vices with  a  golden  crown,  a  bitter  contest  ensued  with  his  rival  /Eschines, 
in  which  Demosthenes,  however,  was  triumphant.  This  led  to  the 
oration  On  the  Crown,  considered  his  greatest  achievement.  Con- 
demned to  death  by  Anlipatcr,  he  committed  suicide  by  poison.  He 
left  sixty  orations. 

Denis,  Saint 272.     Apostle  and  patron  of  France. 

De  Quincey,  Thomas.  1785-1859.  Eng.  author.  The  son 
of  a  wealthy  merchant.  Contracted  the  opium  habit  while  pursuing  his 
studies  at  Oxford —  a  habit  which  he  overcame,  in  1820,  after  a  severe 
and  prolonged  struggle.  His  Confessions  of  an  Opiuin-I-'atcr,  written 
as  an  autobiography,  and  published  in  1821,  created  a  great  sensation. 
De  Quincey  was  a  brilliant  writer,  and  l:ft  numerous  works. 

Derby,  Edward  Geoffrey  Smith  Stanley,  Earl  of.  1 790-1869. 
English  statesman  and  orator.     Translator  of  Homer's  Iliad. 

Derby,    Edward   Henry  Smith-Stanley,  Earl  of.       1826- 

English  statesman. 

Descartes,  Rene.  1 596-1650.  Fr.  philosopher  and  mathe- 
matician. Discourse  on  the  Metltod  of  Reasoning  Well,  and  of  In- 
vestigating Scientific  Truth  ;  Meditaliones  de  Prima  Philosophia  ; 
principles  of  Philosophy.    "  I  think,  therefore  I  am." 

Desfontaines,   Rene  Louiche.      1752-1833.     French  liotanist. 

De  Smet,  Peter  John.  1801-1873.  Jesuit  missionary  to  the 
Indians. 

Des  Moulins,  Camillc.    1762-1794. 

De  Soto,  Ferdinand.      1460-1542. 
ered  the  Mississippi  river. 

1 760- 1 806. 


Fr.  Jacobin ;  guillotined. 
Spanish  explorer ;  tliscov- 


Negro  emperor  of 


1 799-1863.    Fr.  novelist  and  poet. 

Dutch  statesman. 
President  of  Mexico. 


Dessalines,   Jean   Jacques. 

Hayti. 

De  Vigny,  Alfred,  Count. 

De  Witt,  Jan.     1625-1672. 

Diaz,  Porfirio.      1830- 

Dibdin,  Charles.     1745-1814.     English  song  writer 

Dick,  Thomas.     1772-1857.     Scottish  author. 

Dickens,  Charles.  1812-1870.  English  novelist.  After  study- 
ing at  college,  he  was  articled  to  an  attorney,  but  found  the  study  of  l.iw 
uncongenial,  and  became  a  reporter  for  the  press.  Sketches  by  Box 
appeared  in  the  London  Morning  Chronicle  in  1836.  Pickwick  Papers: 
Oliver  Twist;  Dombey  cV  Son  ;  Bleak  House :  Hard  Times  ;  Nicho- 
las Nickleby  ;  David  Copperfeld ;  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities  ;  Great 
Expectations,  etc. 

Dickinson,  Anna  Elizabeth.     1842-. . . .     Am.  lecturer. 

Diderot,  Denis.     1712-1784.     Fr.  philosopher  and  novelist 

Dilke,  Sir  Charles  Wentworth.  1843-....  English  states- 
man, editor  and  author.     Greater  Britain. 

Diocletian.      284-305.     Roman  emperor. 

Diogenes.     Died  323  B.C.     Greek  Cynic  philosopher.     Lived 

in  a  tub,  affecting  great  contempt  for  the  comforts  of  life. 
Dionysius.      The  Elder.     4307-367  B.C.     Tyrant  of  Syracuse. 
Dionysius.       The  Younger.      398-340? 
Dionysius  of  Halicarr.assus.     70?~7?  B.C. 
Disraeli,  Benjamin.     See  Beacomfield. 
Disraeli,  Isaac.     1766-1848.     Father  of  preceding.      English 

litterateur ■  born  of  a  Jewish  family.     Curiosities  of  Literal u  re. 
Dix,  John  Adams.       1798-1879.       Am.  general  and  <.(atr-.ni.in. 
Dixon,    William  Ilcpworth.      1821-1879.       English  traveller 


Tyrant  of  Syracuse. 
Greek  his(orian. 


and  historian. 
Dodge,  Mary  Abigail, 
can  authoress. 


GaiUlamiUon.     1838?- 


Amcri- 


1536-1608.     English  poet 

American  surgeon. 

.-1514?     "  The  great 


Dodsley,  Robert.     1709-1764.  English  author  and  bookseller. 

For  some  time  employed  as  a  footman.      The  footman' s  Miscellany. 

Doellinger,  John  Joseph  Ignatius.    (799-1890.  German  (heolo- 

i-i.m  and  historian  ;  leader  of  the  "  Old  Catholic     movement. 

Dom;nichino.     (Zampieri).     (58(-i64i.     Italian  painter. 

Dominic,  Saint  1170-1221.  Spanish  preacher,  and  founder  of 
the  order  of  Dominicans 

Domitian.     5i?-96.     Rom.  emperor.  Cruel  and  depraved. 

Donatus.     Fl.  300.     Founder  of  (he  Donatists. 

Donizetti,  Gae(ano.     1798-1848.       Italian  composer.     Lucia 

di  l.ammermoor;    Lucrezia  Borgia. 

Donnelly,  Ignatius.     1832-....     Am.  statesman  and  author. 

Dore,   Paul  Gustave.      1832-1883.     French  artist 

Doha,  Andrea.     1468-1560.     Genoese  patriot  and  commander. 

Dorr,  Thomas  Wilson.      1805-1854.     American  politician. 

Dorset,  Charles  Sackville,  Earl  of.  1637-1706.  English  poet 
and  wit. 

Dorset,  Thomas  Sackville,  Earl  of. 

and  statesman. 
Dorsey,  John  Syng.     1783-1818. 

Douglas,  Archibald      flelllhe-Cat. 
carl  of  Angus."     Lord  chancellor. 

Douglas,  James,  Earl  of.      ...  .-1330.     Scottish  patriot. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold.  The  Little  Giant.  (8l7?-l86l. 
American  statesman.  Native  of  Vermont ,  admitted  to  the  bar  in  New 
York  ;  removed  to  Illinois  and  gained  destinction  as  an  orator.  Judge 
of  Illinois  Supreme  Court  1841  ,  elected  to  Congress  1843  :  senator  1847. 
Supported  the  compromise  measures  of  Henry  Clay,  and  advocated  the 
doctrine  known  as  "squatter  sovereignty  "  Re-elected  to  the  Senate 
1853,  and  reported  the  bill  repealing  the  Missouri  compromise.  Candi- 
date for  the  Democratic  nomination  for  the  presidency  in  1856.  De- 
feated Lincoln  for  the  U.S.  senate  in  1858,  they  canvassing  the  state  to- 
gether. Candidate  of  one  wing  of  the  Democratic  party  for  president  in 
i860.     Supported  the  Union  party  in  1861. 

Douglass,  Frederick.       1817?-. ...     Am.  orator;  formerly  a 

slave;  native  of  Maryland  His  father  was  a  white  man  and  ha  mother 
ancgro  slave.  Sold  to  .1  shipbuilder  in  18-2.  bur  escaped  to  Massachu- 
setts and  assumed  the  name  of  Douglass.  Exhibiting  rare  powers  as  an 
orator,  he  was  aided  by  Wm.  L  Garrison  and  others,  and  employed,  in 
1841,  by  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society. 

Dow,  Lorenzo.     1777-1834.     American  preacher. 

Dow,  Neal.     1S04-  .         American  prohibition Ut. 

Draco  (or  Dracon).     Fl.  624   B.C.     Athenian  lawgiver. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis.  1540-1595.  English  naval  hero;  first 
English  circumnavigator  of  the  globe,  captured  or  destroyed  one  hundred 
vessels  in  the  port  of  Cadiz  in  1587,  and  contributed  in  1588  to  the  defeat 
of  the  Spanish  Armada. 

Drake,  Joseph  Rodman.     1795-1820.     American  poet. 

Draper,  John  William.     181 1-1882.     American  scieii; 

Drayton,  Michael.     1563-1631.     English  poet. 

Dreyse,  Johann  Nikolaus  von.  1787-1867.  Prussian  inventor 
of  the  needle-gun. 

Drusus,  Claudius  Nero.     38-9  B.C.     Roman  general. 

Dryden,  John.  1631-1700.  English  poet,  critic  and  dram- 
atist. Educated  at  Cambridge.  Wrote  some  spirited  heroic  slanras  in 
memory  of  Cromwell.  After  the  accession  of  Charles  II.,  he  became  a 
stannch  royalist.  His  first  drama.  The  Wild  Gallant,  was  published 
in  166a ;  Annus  Mirabilis  and  The  Indian  Emprrtr,  1667.  Appointed 
poet-laureate  in  1668.  He  next  wrote  his  Essay  on  Dramatic  Pe+try 
and  several  comedies  and  tragedies.  Absalom  and  Achitopkel,  1681. 
Became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1686  and  wrote  The  Hind  and  Pantkrr, 
a  poetical  allegory.  His  ode  on  Alexander's  Feast,  considered  the 
finest  English  lyric,  appeared  in  1606,  after  he  had  completed  his  trans- 
lation of  Virgil.  Lord  Macaulay  calls  Dryden  "  an  incomparable  res- 
soner  in  verse." 


kl 


4-r 


Du  Chaillu,  Paul  Belloni.     1835- French   traveller. 

Dudevant,  Mme.  Amantine  Lucille  Aurore  (  nit  Dupin). 
George  Sand.  1804-1876.  French  novelist.  Married  at  the  age  of  18 
to  a  retired  army  officer,  she  separated  from  him  ten  years  later.  She 
was  at  one  time  a  zealous  Catholic,  but  later  adopted  most  liberal  views, 
adopting  man's  attire  and  denouncing  the  marriage  system.  She  edited 
a  democratic  paper  during  the  revolution  of  1848.  She  has  left  numer- 
ous novels  and  several  dramas. 

Dudley,  Benjamin  Winslow.     1785-1870.     Am.  physician. 

Dudley,  Charles  Edward.     1780-1841.     American  senator. 

Dufaure,  Jules  Armand  Stanislas.     1798-....     Fr.  statesman. 

Dufferin,  Frederick  Temple  Hamilton  Blackwood,  Earl  of. 
1826- English  statesman.    Governor-general  of  Canada. 

Dumas,  Alexandre.     1803-1870.     French  novelist. 

Dumas,  Alexandre.     1824-.  . . .      Son  of  above.    Fr.  novelist. 

Dumouriez,  Charles  Francois.     1739-1823.     French  general. 

Duncan  I -1040.     Scottish  king.     Killed  by  Macbeth. 

Dundonald,  Thomas  Cochrance,  Earl  of.  1775-1860.  Brit- 
ish admiral. 

Dunglison,  Robley.     1 798-1869.    American  physician.  Mtdi- 

cal  Dictionary. 
Dunois,  Jean  de.  Bastard  of  Orleans.  1402-1468.  French 
national  hero.  Natural  son  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  Defeated  the 
English  at  Montargis  in  1427,  and  assisted  at  the  siege  of  Orleans  in 
1429.  Expelled  the  English  from  Normandy  and  Guienne,  and  was 
created  Count  d'Orleans. 

Duns  Scotus.     The    Subtle   Doctor.     1 265?-' 308.     Scottish 

theologian. 

Dunstan,  Saint.     925-988.     English  prelate. 

Dupanloup,  Felix  Antoine  Filibert.     1802-1878.    Fr.  prelate. 

Dupleix,  Joseph,  Marquis.    1695-1763.    Fr.  governor  in  India. 

Dupont,  Samuel  Francis.     1803-1865.     Am.  rear-admiral. 

Duquesne,  Abraham.     1610-1688.     Fr.  naval  commander. 

Durer,  Albreckt.  1471-1528.  German  painter  and  engraver. 
Crucifixion;  Adoration  of  the  Magi ;  The  Knight  and  Death:  Reve- 
lation of  St.  fohn. 

Dwight,  Timothy.     1752-1817.     Am.  author  and  divine. 


Confederate  general. 


V^ARLY,  Jubal  A.     1818?-. 

Eastlake,   Sir  Charles    Lock.     1793-1865.     English  painter. 
Eaton,  Amos.     1777-1842.     American  naturalist. 
Eaton,  William.     1764-1811.     American  soldier. 
Eble,  Jean  Baptiste.     1758-1812.     French  general. 
Edes,  Benjamin.     1732-1803.     Am.  patriot  and  journalist. 
Edgeworth,  Maria.     1767-1849.     English  novelist. 
Edgeworth,  Richard  Lovell.     1744-1817.     English    author; 

father  of  preceding. 

Edison,  Thomas  Alva.     1847- American  electrician  and 

inventor. 

Edmund  I.  9227-946.  Anglo-Saxon  king.  II.,  Ironside, 
989-1016. 

Edmunds,    George    F.     1828- American    lawyer   and 

statesman.  Born  in  Vermont ;  admitted  to  the  bar  1849  :  became  U.  S. 
senator  in  1866  to  fill  an  unexpired  term,  and  has  since  been  con- 
tinuously re-elected.    Elected  pres.  of  Senate  1883.    Retired  1891. 

Edward    I -925.     King    of   the    Anglo  Saxons.     II., 

The  Martyr,  96W-978  ;  assassinated  by  order  of  his  stepmother.  III. 
The  Confessor,  1004-1066. 

Edward  I.  Longs/tanks.  1239-1307.  King  of  England; 
conquered  Wales  and  Scotland.  H.,  1284-1327  ;  defeated  by  Bruce  at 
Bannockburn ;  dethroned    by  the  Queen  and  her   favorite,   Roger  de 


Mortimer,  in  1326;  was  murdered  the  following  year.  III.,  1312. 
1377;  son  of  Edward  II.  ;  proclaimed  king  in  1327  ;  executed  Mortimer, 
and  imprisoned  the  queen-mother;  carried  on  war  with  France  and 
won  the  great  victory  of  Crecy.  IV.,  1441-1483.  V.,  1470-1483 ; 
ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  13,  but  assassinated  two  months  later. 
VI.,  l537-'553- 

Edward,  Prince  of  Wales.  The  Black  Prince.  1 330-1 376. 
Son  of  Edward  III.  Participated  in  the  invasion  of  France,  command- 
ing the  main  body  of  the  English  at  Crecy.    Won  the  battle  of  Poitiers. 

Edward  the  Confessor.     1004-1066.     King  of  England. 

Edwards,  Amelia  Blandford.      1831- English  novelist. 

Edwards,  Jonathan.     1 703-1 758.     American  theologian   and 

metaphysician.     Freedom  of  the  Will. 

Edwin.     586P-633.     King  of  Northumbria. 

Edwy.     938-958.     King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

Effingham.     See  Howard,  Charles. 

Egbert.     The   Great.     775?-838.     Saxon  king  of  Wessex. 

Egmont,  Lamoral,  Count.  1522-1568.  Flemish  statesman 
and  soldier.    Tried  for  treason  and  executed. 

Elbee,  Gigot  d'.     1752-1794.     Vendean  general. 

Eldon,  John  Scott,  Earl   of.     1751-1838.     English  statesman. 

Elgin,  James  Bruce,  Earl  of.  1811-1863.  British  statesman. 
Governor -general  of  Canada. 

Elgin,  Thomas  Bruce,  Earl  of.  1777-1841.  British  diplo- 
matist. The  "  Elgin  Marbles,"  in  the  British  museum,  were  obtained 
by  him  at  Athens  and  sold  to  the  government  for  ^35,000. 

Eliot,  George.     See  Evans,  Marian  C. 

Eliot,  John.  Apostle  of  the  Indians.  1604-1690.  English 
clergyman.    Ttranslated  the  Bible  into  the  Indian  language. 

Eliot,  Sir  John.     1590-1632.     Eng.  orator  and  statesman. 

Elizabeth.  1533-1603.  Queen  of  England.  Daughter  of 
Henry  VIII.  Proclaimed  Queen  1558;  restored  the  Protestant  religion. 
During  her  reign  the  Spanish  Armada  was  repulsed,  and  Mary  Stuart 
executed.     Essex,  Leicester  and  Raleigh  were  among  her  favorites. 

Elizabeth    Petrovna.      1 709-1 762.       Empress    of    Russia. 

Daughter  of  Peter  the  Great.  Ascended  the  throne  in  1741;  took  up 
arms  against  Frederick  the  Great,  and  her  armies  in  1760  captured 
Berlin.     Though  unmarried,  she  was  the  mother  of  a  large  family. 

Elizabeth,  Saint.     1 207-1 231.     Queen  of  Hungary. 

Ellenborough,  Edward  Law,  Lord.  1748-1818.  English 
chief  justice. 

Ellenborough,  Edward  Law,  Earl  of.  1790-187 1.  English 
statesman. 

Ellery,  William.     1727-1820.     American  patriot. 

Elliot,  George  Augustus,  Lord  Heathfield  of  Gibraltar.  1718- 
1790.    British  commander. 

Elliott,  Ebenezer.  The  Corn  Law  Rhymer.  1 781-1849. 
English  poet. 

Elliott,  Jesse  Duncan.     1782-1845.     American  commodore. 

Ellsworth,  Ephraim  Elmer.     1837-1861.     American  officer. 

Ellsworth,  Oliver.     1 745-1807.     Am.  jurist  and  statesman. 

Ellwood,  Thomas.     1639-1713.     English  Quaker  author. 

Elssler,  Fanny.     1811-1884.    Viennese  dancer. 

Elzevir.  A  celebrated  family  of  printers  and  publishers  at 
Leyden,  1570-1680. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo.  1803-1882.  American  essayist, 
philosopher  and  poet.  Born  in  Boston ;  graduate  of  Harvard ;  or- 
dained Unitarian  minister  in  1829,  but  retired  from  the  ministry  in 
1832  ;  travelled  in  Europe,  and  on  his  return  began  lecturing.  The 
firstvolume  of  his  Essays  appeared  im84i,andhis  Representative  Men, 
regarded  by  some  as  his  greatest  work,  in  1850. 

Emmanuel.     The  Great.     1469-1521.    King  of  Portugal. 


15 


K 


226 


~7T 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Emmet,  Robert.  1780-1803.  Irish  patriot  and  orator. 
Early  in  life  became  a  leader  of  the  "United  Irishmen,"  and  in  1803 
became  implicated  in  the  killing  of  Lord  Kilwarden,  chief  justice  of 
Ireland,  and  others.  Although  defending  himself  with  great  eloquence, 
he  was  sentenced  to  death  and  executed. 

Emmet,  Thomas  Addis.  1764-1827.  Brother  of  the  preced- 
ing. A  leader  of  the  "  United  Irishmen,"  and  imprisoned  from  1798 
till  idol.  Removed  to  America  in  1804,  and  was  in  1812  elected  at- 
torney-general of  New  York. 

Empedocles.     475-. . . .  B.c.     Greek  philosopher. 

Encke,  Johann  Franz.     1791-1865.     German  astronomer. 

Endicott,  John.     1589-1665.     Colonial  governor  of  Mass. 

Enghien,  Louis  Antoine  Henri  de  Bourbon,  Due  d'.  ,  1772- 
1804.  French  prince.  Charged  with  conspiracy,  and  executed  by  order 
of  Napoleon. 

Ennius,   Quintus.     239-169  B.C.     Roman  epic  poet. 

Enoch  (or  Henoch).     3378- B.C.     Father  of  Methuselah. 

Translated  at  the  age  of  365. 

Epaminondas.  4127-362  B.C.  Theban  statesman,  orator  and 
general.  Defeated  the  Spartans  at  Leuctra ;  died  after  his  victory  at 
Mantinea,  from  a  wound  received  in  battle. 

Epictetus.     60-.  . .  .    Greek  Stoic  philosopher.    Enchiridion. 

Epicurus.  340?-270B.c.  Greek  philosopher ;  founder  of  the 
Epicurean  school. 

Erasmus,  Desiderius.     1465-1536.     Dutch  scholar. 

Erastus,  Thomas.       1524-1583.       Ger.  physician  and  writer. 

Eratosthenes.    276-196?  B.C.    Greek  geometer.     Considered 

the  founder  of  the  science  of  astronomy. 

Eric  XIII.  1382-1450.  King  of  Sweden  (VII.  or  VIII. 
of  Denmark).     XIV.,  i535f-i577- 

Eric  the  Red.  Fl.  1000.  Scandinavian  navigator;  discov- 
ered Greenland. 

Ericsson,  John.  1803-1889.  Swedish  engineer  and  inventor. 
Constructed  the  "  Monitor"  which  destroyed  the  Confederate  iron-clad 
Merrimac. 

Erigena,  Joannes  Scotus.     Fl.  850.     Irish  philosopher. 
Ernesti,  Johann  August.       1707-1781.       German    scholar. 
Erskine,  Ebenezer.     1680-1754.     Scottish  theologian. 
Erskine,  Henry.     1746-1817.     Scottish  lawyer  and  orator. 

Erskine,  Thomas,  Baron.  1750-1823.  Scottish  lawyer  and 
orator.  Recognized  as  the  greatest  advocate  of  his  time.  "  He  spoke 
as  his  clients  would  have  spoken, being  endowed  with  his  genius." 
Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1778  ;  successfully  defended  Lord  George  Gor- 
don in  1781 ;  elected  to  the  House  of  Commons  in  1783,  and  again  in 
1790 ;  secured  the  acquittal  of  Hardy  and  John  Home  Tooke  in  the 
state  trials  oi  1794:  was  made  lord  chancellor,  and  created  a  peer  in 
1806  ;  retired  from  office  in  1807. 

Escobar  y  Mendoza,  Antonio.  1 589-1669.  Spanish  Jesuit 
and  casuist.     Cases  of  Conscience. 

Espartero,  Joaquin  Baldomero,  Duke  de  la  Vittoria.  1 792- 
1879.    Spanish  statesman  and  general ;  defeated  the  Carlists. 

Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  second  Earl  of.  1567-1601.  Favor- 
ite of  Queen  Elizabeth ;  beheaded  for  high  treason. 

Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  third  Earl  of.  1592-1647.  English 
Parliamentary  general. 

Estaing,  Charles  Hector,  Count  d'.  1729-1794.  French 
admiral;  beheaded. 

Esterhazy  de  Galantha,  Paul.       '635-1713.        Hungarian 

governor-general. 

Ethelbeld -860?  King  of  Wessex. 

Ethelbert.    455  ?-6i6.  King  of  Kent. 

Ethelbert -866.  King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 


Ethelred  I -871.      King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.      II., 

The  Unready,  968-1016 ;  ordered  massacre  of  Danes  in  100a. 

Ethelwulf.     -858.     King  of  Wessex. 

Euclid  of  Alexandria.    11.  300  B.C.      Greek  mathematician. 
Eudoxie  (or  Eudocia).      394?-46i.     Roman  empress. 
Eugene  of  Savoy.      (Prince    Francois    Eugene   de   Savoie- 

Carignan).    1663-1736.   Austrian  general.    Defeated  the  Turks  at  Zenta  ; 

associated  with  Marlborough  at  Blenheim,  Oudenard  and  Malplaquet; 

defeated  the  Turks  at  Peterwaradin  in  1716,  and  at  Belgrade  in  1717. 
Eugenie  Marie  de  Montijo.       1826-. . . .       Empress  of  the 

French  ;  wife  of  Napoleon  III. 
Eugenius  I.     Pope;  ruled  from  654  to  658.       II.,  824-827, 

III.,  1145-1153.    IV.,  1431-1438;  deposed;  died  in  1447. 
Euler.Leonard.     1707-1783.     Swiss  mathematician. 
Euripides.     480-406  ?  B.C.     Greek  tragic  poet. 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia.     Fl.  325.     Arian  prelate. 
Eusebius  Pamphili.    266-340?    Ecclesiastical  historian,  and 

bishop  of  Csesarea. 

Evald,  Johannes.     1 743-1 781.     Danish  poet. 

Evans,  Marian  C.  George  Eliot.  1820-1881.  English  nov- 
elist. The  daughter  of  a  clergyman.  Lived  with  George  H.  Lewes,  as 
his  wife,  for  several  years,  and  after  his  death  married  J.  W.  Cross. 
Adam  3cdc  :  Rontola:  Middlemarch  ;  Daniel  Deronda. 

Eustachi,  Bartolommeo.     1510-1574.     Italian  anatomist. 

Evarts,  William  Maxwell.  1816-. ...  American  lawyer  and 
statesman.  Leading  counsel  for  the  defence  in  the  impeachment  trial 
of  President  Johnson ;  attorney-general  1868-9 :  counsel  for  the 
United  States  in  1872  before  the  Geneva  Arbitration  Tribunal. 

Evelyn,  John.     1620-1706      English  author.     Sylva. 

Everett,  Edward.  1 794-1865.  American  scholar,  orator  and 
statesman.  Graduated  at  Harvard,  1811,  and  ordained  a  minister  in 
1814.  Appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Harvard  1815,  but  did  not  occupy 
the  chair  until  1819,  after  completing  a  course  of  study  at  Gottingen  and 
travelling  extensively  in  Europe.  Elected  to  Congress  in  1834,  remain- 
ing in  that  body  for  ten  years,  and  in  1835  became  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts. Minister  to  England,  1841-s.  Secretary  of  state,  1851. 
Elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  1853,  but  resigned  on  account  of  ill- 
ness. Defeated  for  the  vice-presidency  in  i860.  Supported  the  Federal 
government  during  the  civil  war. 

Ewing,  Thomas.     1789-1871      American  statesman. 

Exmouth,  Edward  Pellew,  Viscount.       i757-<833-      English 

admiral 
Eyck,  van,  Hubert.     1366-1426      Flemish  painter. 

Eyck,  van,  Jan.    John  of  Bruges.     I300?-I440?     Brother  of 

preceding.     Flemish  painter     Adoration  of  Ike  Magi. 
Eyre,  Edward  John.    181 8?- Eng.  explorer  in  Australia. 

Ezekiel.     Fl.  7th  century  B.C.     Hebrew  prophet. 

Ezra.     Fl.  5th  century  B.C.     Hebrew  law-maker. 

V7ABER,  Frederick  William.     1815-1863.     English  priest 

jL.       and  writer. 

Fabius  Maximus,  Quintus.      Cunetator.     203  BC.      Roman 

consul  and  general.      As  opponent    of    Hannibal  he  inaugurated  the 

"  Fabian  "  policy,  carrying  on  only  a  defensive  war. 
Faed,  Thomas.     1826-  . . .     Scottish  painter. 
Fahrenheit,   Gabriel   Daniel.     1686-1740      German   natural 

philosopher  and  inventor  of  the  Fahrenheit  thermometer. 
Fairfax,  Thomas,  Lord.     1611-1671.     Parliamentary  general. 

As  commander-in-chief  in  164s,  won  the  battle  of  Naseby. 
Falconer,  William.    1735  ?-i 709.    Scot.  poet.    The  Shipwreck. 
Faliero  (or  Falieri),  Marino.     1278-1350.     Doge  of  Venice; 

the  hero  of  Byron's  tragedy. 


^r 


7 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


227 


£- 


Faneuil,  Peter.     1700-1743.     American  merchant. 
Faraday,  Michael.     1791-1867.     English  chemist  and  natural 

philosopher.     Founder  of  the  science  of  magneto-electricity. 
Farnese,  Alessandro,  Duke  of  Parma.  1546-1593.  It.  general. 
Farquhar,  George.    1678-1707.    Irish  dramatist.    The  Beaux' 

Stratagem:    The  Constant  Couple. 
Farragut,  David  Glascoe.     1801-1870.     American  admiral. 

Passed  the  New  Orleans  forts  and  captured  New  Orleans  in  1862,  and 

was  made  rear-admiral  same  year.    Congress  created  for  him  the  office 

of  vice-admiral  in  1864,  and  he  was  made  admiral  in  1866. 

Faust,  Karl.     1825- German  composer. 

Faust,  Dr.  Johann.     Fl.  1500.     German  necromancer. 

Faust,  Johann -1466  ?    One  of  the  inventors  of  printing. 

Fawkes,  Guy -1606.      English  conspirator;   executed. 

("  Gunpowder  plot.") 
Fearne,  Charles.      1 749-1494.     English  jurist. 
Featherstonhaugh,  George  William -1866.     American 

traveller  and  geologist. 
Fechier,  Charles  Albert.     1824-1879.     English  actor. 
Fenelon,   Francois  de   Salignac  de   la   Mothe.     1651-1715. 

French  prelate  and  author.     Telemachus. 
Ferdinand  (of  Saxe-Coburg).   1861-   ...    Prince  of  Bulga. 
Ferdinand   I.      1503-1564.      Emperor  of  Germany.       II., 

1578-1637;  king  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary.     Ill "i657« 

Ferdinand  IV.     1751-1825.      King  of  Naples.      (I.  of  the 

two  Sicilies.) 

Ferdinand  II.     1810-1859.     King  of  the  two  Sicilies. 
Ferdinand  I.     The  Great.     1000-1065.     King  of  Castile.  V., 

The  Catholic  (II.  of  Aragon,  III.  of  Naples,  II.  of  Sicily),  1452- 
1516;  founded  the  Spanish  monarchy.  VI.,  The  Wise,  1713-1759.  VII., 
1784-1833. 

1724-1816.     Scottish  philosopher. 

1 7 10-1776.     Scottish  astronomer. 
1808-1886.    Scottish  architect. 

Fl.  1446.  Portuguese  navigator. 

-1576.     Spanish  navigator. 

-1558.     French  physician  and  writer. 


Ferguson,  Adam. 
Ferguson,  James. 
Fergusson,  James. 
Fernandez,  Diniz. 
Fernandez,  Juan. 
Fernel,  Juan.     1497- 


Ferry,  Jules  Francois  Camille.     1832-. 
Fersen,  Axel  von,  Count.     1755-1810. 
Fesch,  Joseph,  Cardinal.     1763-1836. 
Fessenden,  William  Pitt.     1806-1869. 


. .  Fr.  statesman. 
Swedish  field-marshal. 
French  prelate. 
Am.  statesman. 


Feuerbach,  Paul  Johann  Anselm.    1775— 1S33.    German  jurist. 

Reformer  of  the  criminal  law. 

Feuillet,   Octave.     1812-1890.    French  author. 

Fichte,  Immanuel  Hermann.     1797- 1879.     Ger.  philosopher. 

Fichte,  Johann  Gottlieb.     1762-1814.     Ger.  metaphysician. 

Field,  Cyrus  West.       1819- American  merchant  and 

financier.  Established  the  first  telegraph  cable  between  America  and 
Europe,  via  Newfoundland. 

Field,  David  Dudley.     1805- American  jurist. 

Fielding,  Henry.  1 707-1 754.  Eng.  novelist  and  dramatist. 
Son  of  Edmund  Fielding,  a  lieutenant-general  under  Marlborough. 
Commenced  reading  law  at  18,  but  discontinued  this  study  in  a  few 
years,  and  began  to  lead  a.  dissolute  life.  About  this  time,  however,  he 
produced  several  successful  plays.  After  marrying,  and  squandering  his 
wife's  fortune,  he  resumed  the  study  of  law,  but,  gout  preventing  his 
practicing,  he  turned  his  mind  to  literature.  In  1749  his  great  novel, 
Tom  Jones,  was  published.  In  1750  he  was  appointed  a  magistrate,  and 
endeared  himself  to  the  inhabitants  01  the  London  suburbs  by  suppress- 
ing numerous  bands  of  robbers.  Among  Fielding's  novels,  besides 
Tort  Jones,  may  be  mentioned  Amelia  and  Joseph  Andrews. 


Corsican  conspirator ; 
Leader  in  a  conspiracy  to 


Fieschi,  Joseph  Marco.      1790-1836. 

inventor  of  the  so-called  infernal  machine. 

kill  Louis  Philippe.     Executed. 
Fiesco   (or  Fieschi),   Giovanni    Luigi,  Count  of   Lavagna. 

I525-I547.  Genoese  conspirator.  Having  sent  some  of  his  adherents  to 
capture  the  palace  of  the  Dorias,  he  made  a  night  attack  on  the  Doria 
galleys  in  the  harbor,  but  fell  while  passing  from  one  galley  to  another, 
and  was  drowned  before  help  could  reach  him. 

Fiesole.Giovanni  da.   FraAngelico.    1387-1455.   It.   painter. 

Fillmore,  Millard.  1800-1874.  American  statesman ;  thir- 
teenth president  of  the  United  States.  Bora  in  New  York ;  learned 
fuller's  trade  ;  read  law  and  acquired  a  lucrative  practice  in  Buffalo. 
Elected  to  Congress  1832,  and  continued  a  member  of  that  body  till 
1842.  Elected  vice-president  1848,  and  became  president  on  the  death 
of  Taylor,  in  1850.  Approved  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  and  the  com- 
promise measures  of  Henry  Clay,  and  made  Daniel  Webster  secre- 
tary of  state. 

American  statesman. 
English  prelate;  executed.   Op- 


Am.  inventor.     (Steamboat.) 
1763-1798.     Irish  revolutionist. 
B.C.     Rom.  general  and  consul. 
230-174  B.C.       Roman  general 


Fish,  Hamilton.     1808-. . . 

Fisher,  John.      »459-«535- 
posed  the  Reformation. 

Fitch,  John.     1743-1798. 

Fitzgerald,  Edward,  Lord. 

Flaminius,  Caius -217 

Flaminius,  Titus  Quintius. 
and  consul. 

Flamsteed,  John.     1646-1719.     Eng.  astronomer. 

Flaxman,  John.     1755-1826.     English  sculptor. 

Fleetwood,  Charles     . . .  .-1692.  Eng.  Parliamentary  general. 

Fletcher,  Andrew  {of  Saltoun).    1653-1716.    Scottish  author. 

Fletcher,  John.  1576-1625.  English  poet  and  dramatist ; 
associate  of  Beaumont.  The  Maid's  Tragedy ;  The  Faithful  Shep- 
herdess. 

Flotow,  Frederick  Ferdinand  Adolphus  von.  1812-1883. 
German  composer.    Martha. 

Fontenelle,  Bernard  de  Bovier  de.     1657— 1757.     Fr.  author. 

Foote,  Andrew  Hull.     1806-1863.     American  rear-admiral. 

Foote,  Samuel.     1720-1777.     English  wit  and  comedian. 

Ford,  John      1586-1639.     English  dramatist. 

Forrest,  Edwin.     1806-1872.     American  tragedian. 

Forster,  John.     1812-1876.     English  biographer. 

Forster,  William  Edward.     1818-1886.    English  statesman. 

Forsyth,  John.     1780-1841.     American  statesman. 

Fortescue,  Sir  John.     1 3957-1485?     English  jurist. 

Fortuny,  Mariano.     1 839-1 874.     Spanish  painter. 

Foscari,  Francesco.     1373-1457.     Doge  of  Venice. 

Foster,  Birket.     18 12-....     English  engraver. 

Foster,  Stephen  Collins.     1826-1864.     Am.  song-writer. 

Fourier,  Francois  Charles  Marie.  1772-1837.  French  social- 
ist ;  founder  of   Fourierism.     Theory  of  Universal  Unity. 

Fowler,  Orson  Squire.     1809-1887.   Am.  phrenologist. 

Fox,  Charles  James.  1749-1806.  English  orator  and  states- 
man. Entered  Parliament  in  1768  as  a  Tory,  but  joined  the  opposition 
in  1773,  and  became  leader  of  the  Whigs,  in  which  capacity,  and  also  as 
foreign  secretary  and  secretary  of  state,  he  opposed  the  policy  of  Pitt. 

Fox,  George.  1624-1690.  English  founder  of  the  society  of 
Friends,  or  Quakers. 

Fox,  John.  1517-1587.  English  Protestant  clergyman  and 
author.     Book  of  Martyrs. 

Foy,  Maximilian   Sebastian.     1775-1825.     French  orator  and 

general. 

Fra  Bortolommeo  di  San  Marco.     See  Baccio  delta  Porta. 


/ 


^ 


228 


A  COMPKNDIU.M  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


~A 


jy 


Fra    Diavolo.     (Michael    Rozzo.)     1769-1806.     Neapolitan 

brigand. 
Francia,  Jose  Gaspar   Rodriguez.     i757?-i840.     Dictator  of 

Paraguay ;    adopted    a    policy   cutting  off  all  intercourse    with    other 

nations. 
Francis  I.     1494-1547.     King  of  France ;  defeated  at  Pavia. 

II.,  1543-1560. 
Francis  I.     1708-1765.     Emperor    of  Germany.     II.  (I.  of 

Austria),  1768-1835. 
Francis  II.     1836-....     King  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
Francis  Borgia,  Saint.     1510-1572.      Duke  of  Gandia  and 

Viceroy  of  Catalonia ;  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  became  a  zealous 

preacher;  elected  general  of  the  order  in  1565. 
Francis  de  Paula,   Saint.      1416-1507.     Italian   Franciscan 

monk ;  founded  the  order  Fratres  Minimi. 
Francis  de  Sales,  Saint.     1 567-1622.     French  Jesuit,  writer 

and  orator ;  bishop  of  Geneva.     Treatise  on  the  Love  0/  God. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  Saint.     1 182-1226.     Italian  founder  of  the 

Franciscan  order. 

Francis  Joseph  Charles.     1830- Emperor  of  Austria. 

Francis,  John  Wakefield.     1789-1861.     Am.  physician. 

Francis,    Sir    Philip,     1 740-1 8 1 8.      British    statesman    and 

writer.     Believed  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  Letters  of  Junius. 
Francis  Xavier,  Saint.     See  Xavier. 
Franklin,   Benjamin.     1706-170X).     American  statesman  and 

philosopher.  Born  in  Boston;  the  youngest  of  a  family  of  seventeen 
children.  His  father  was  a  tallow-chandler  and  soap-boiler.  Learned 
the  trade  of  a  printer  and  studied  diligently.  Removed  to  Philadelphia, 
where  he  established  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette.  Began  the  publica- 
tion of  Poor  Richard's  Almanac  in  1735.  Discovered  the  identity  of 
lightning  and  electricity  in  1752,  by  means  of  a  kite.  Franklin  occupied 
many  positions  of  public  trust  and  was  the  recipient  of  many  honors. 
He  was  deputy  postmaster-general  of  the  colony ;  delegate  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress;  minister  to  France,  1776-85;  president  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1785-8  ;  member  of  the  convention  of  1787. 

Franklin,  Sir  John.  1786-1847.  English  Arctic  explorer; 
perished  in  the  Arctic  regions. 

Fredegonde.     546?~5o6.     Wife  of  Chilperic  I.  of  France. 

Frederick  I.  Barbarossa.  1 121-1 190.  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many. Crowned  by  Pope  Adrian  IV.  Reduced  Milan  in  1158,  but 
was  defeated  by  the  Lombards  near  Legnano.  Joined  the  third  crusade 
in  1189  with  150,000  men,  and  defeated  the  Turks  at  Iconium.  Died  in 
the  Holy  Land.  II.,  1194-1250.  Opposed  by  the  Guelphs  and  the 
pope  in  his  project  to  unite  Italy  and  Germany  in  one  empire.  Began  a 
crusade  against  the  Moslems  in  1227,  but  turned  back,  and  was  excom- 
municated by  Pope  Gregory  IX.  Resumed  the  crusade  in  1228,  cap- 
tured Jerusalem  and  made  peace  with  the  pope.  Defeated  the  Guelphs 
at  Cortenuova,  1237,  and  renewed  war  with  the  pope. 

Frederick    William.       The     Great    Elector.       1620-1688. 

Elector  of  Brandenburg ;  founder  of  the  Prussian  monarchy. 
Frederick  I.  1657-1713.  First  king  of  Prussia.  II.  (Fred- 
erick the  Great),  1712-1788.  Subjected  to  inhuman  treatment  in  youth 
by  his  father,  he  gave  but  little  promise  of  his  future  greatness.  As- 
cended the  Prussian  throne  in  1740,  and  invaded  Silesia,  which  was 
ceded  to  him  by  Maria  Theresa  in  174a.  An  alliance  having  been 
formed  against  him  by  Austria,  Russia  and  France,  he  began  the  Seven 
Years'  War  in  1756  by  invading  Saxony.  Gained  a  great  victory  at 
Prague  in  1757,  but  was  defeated  at  Kolin  soon  afterward.  His  affairs 
were  now  in  a  desperate  condition,  but  in  the  same  year  he  defeated  a 
French  army  twice  as  large  as  his  own  at  Ross  bach,  and  won  a  brilliant 
and  decisive  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Lcuthen.  In  1759  he  was  de- 
feated at  Kunnersdorf,  and  Berlin  was  captured  by  the  allies,  but  in  1760 
he  gained  the  victories  of  Licgnitz  and  Torgau,  and  peace  was  made  in 
1763,  Prussian  Poland  being  added  to  Frederick's  dominions.  Besides 
being  a  great  general  and  monarch,  Frederick  was  a  voluminous  writer. 


Frederick    William     I.       1688-1740.       King    of    Prussia. 

Father  of  Frederick  the  Great.    II.,  1744-1797*  III.,  1770-1840;  founded 

the  Zollverein.     IV.,  1795-1861. 
Frederick  III    Frederick  William;.     1831-1888.      King  of 

Prussia  and  emperor  of  Germany. 

Frederick     VI.      1768-1839.     King    of    Denmark.    VII., 

1808-1863. 
Freeman,  Edward  Augustus.     i823-#»««     English  historian. 

The  Norman   Conquest ;    Historical  Essays ;    History  0/  Federal 

Government. 

Freiligrath,  Ferdinand.  1810-1876.  German  lyric  poet 
Frelinghuysen,  Theodore.  1787-1862.  Am.  statesman. 
Frelinghuysen,  Frederick  Theodore.     1817-188$.     Nephew 

of  preceding.    American  statesman. 
Fremont,   John   Charles.      1813-1890.     American   politician, 

explorer  and  general.     Republican  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1856. 
Freycinet,  Charles  Louis  de.     1828- French  *■■ 

BULB, 

Froebel,  Frederick.     1782-1852.     German  educator ;   founder 

of  the  "Kindergarten." 
Froila  I.     722-768.     King  of  Spain. 

Froissart,  Jean.  1337-1410?  French  historian.  Chronicles. 
Froude,  James  Anthony.    1818-. . . .    English  historian.   Short 

Studies  on  Great  Subjects  ;  Histor?  of  Henry  VHl. 

Fry,  Elizabeth  (nit  Gurney).  1780-1845.  Eng.  philanthropist. 
Fuller,  Melville  W.  1833-.  .  .  .  Chief  justice  of  th,-  t  .  > 
Fuller,  Sarah  Margaret,  Countess  d'Ossoli.      1810-1S50.     Am. 

authoress. 
Fulton,  Robert.     1 765-181 5.     American  engineer  and  inven* 

tor  of  the  steamboat.  Born  in  Pennsylvania.  After  spending  some  years 
in  London  as  an  artist,  he  turned  his  attention  to  civil  engineering  and 
inland  navigation.  In  1 796  he  published  a  treatise  on  Canal  Navigation. 
Went  to  Paris,  and  there  invented  a  submarine  torpedo.  He  returned 
to  New  York  in  1801  and,  with  the  assistance  of  Robert  Livingston,  dis- 
covered steam  navigation.  In  1806  he  built  the  steamer  Clermont,  which 
made  regular  trips  between  Albany  and  New  York  at  a  speed  of  five 
miles  an  hour.  Although  he  spent  a  large  amount  of  money  on  his  inven- 
tion, the  patent  did  not  prove  of  pecuniary  value  to  him. 
Fuseli,  John  H.     1 742-1825.     Swiss  historical  painter. 

y^ADSDEN,  Christopher.     1724-1805.     American  states- 

V3£     man. 

Gadsden,  James.     1 788-1858.      American  statesman.     (The 

Gadsden  purchase.) 
Gage,  Thomas.     I720?-I787.     British  general  in  America. 
Gaines,  Edmund  Pendleton.     1777-1849.     American  general. 
Gaines,  Myra  Clark.  1805-1885.    Wife  of  E.  P.  G.     American 

heiress. 
Gainsborough,  Thomas.     1 727-1 788.     English  painter. 

Galba,  Servius  Sulpicius.     B.c  4?-A.D.  69.     Roman  emperor. 

Galen.  131-205?  Greek  physician,  medical  writer  and  phil- 
osopher, living  at  Rome.    De  Locis  AJfectis. 

Galerius,  Caius  Valerius  Maximianus -31:.      Roman 

emperor. 

Galilei,   Galileo.     Galileo.     1 564-1642.     Italian    astronomer. 

Discovered,  about  1584,  the  isochronisvn  of  the  vibrations  of  a  pendulum, 
and  the  law  by  which  the  velocity  of  falling  bodies  Is  accelerated. 
Adopted  tn  astronomy  the  system  of  Copernicus,  and  constructed  his 
wonderful  telescope  in  1609.  Through  it  he  discovered  the  satellites  of 
Jupiter,  and  was  enabled  to  explore  the  surface  of  the  moon  and  view 
the  phases  of  Venus.  He  also  ascertained  that  the  "milky  way"  was 
composed  of  myriads  of  stars.  In  1631  he  produced  his  THatafues  am 
the  Ptolemaic  and  Cepernuan  Systems,  but  was  compelled  by  the 


A. 


~A 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


220 


Inquisition  to  abjure  the  theory  of  the  motion  of  the  earth.  He  was 
detained  in  prison  for  several  years,  but  it  does  not  seem  that  he  was 
severely  treated,  as  he  was  allowed  to  pursue  his  studies  until  prevented 
by  blindness. 

Gall,  Franz  Joseph.  1758-1828.  German  physician ;  founder 
of  phrenology. 

Gallatin,  Albert.  1 761-1849.  American  statesman;  native 
of  Switzerland.     Secretary  of  the  treasury,  1801-13. 

Gallaudet,  Thomas  Hopkins.     1787-1851.     American  clergy. 

man  and  instructor  of  deaf-mutes. 

Gallienus,  Publius  Licinius  Valerius.      233?-268.      Roman 

emperor. 

Gallitsin,  or  Galitzin.  An  illustrious  family  of  Russian  princes. 
Gait,  John.     1779-1839.     Scottish  novelist. 
Galvani,  Aloisio.    1 737-1 789.   Italian  discoverer  of  galvanism. 
Gama,  Vasco  da.     I45o?-I524.     Portuguese  navigator. 
Gambetta,   Leon.     1838-1882.     French    radical   orator  and 

statesman. 

Gambier,  James,  Baron.     1756-1833.     British  admiral. 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega.     1503-1536.     Spanish  poet. 

Gardiner,  Stephen.     1483-1555.     Eng.  prelate  and  statesman. 

Garfield,  James  Abram.  1831-1881.  Twentieth  president  of 
the  United  States.  Born  in  Ohio;  worked  on  a  farm  in  boyhood,  and 
learned  the  trade  of  a  carpenter ;  afterward  became  driver  and  helms- 
man of  a  canal-boat ;  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1856  ;  appointed 
professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  at  Hiram  College,  Ohio,  and  chosen 
president  of  that  institution  in  1858.  About  this  time  he  married  Miss 
Lucretia  Randolph,  and  occasionally  acted  as  a  Campbellite  minister. 
Elected  to  the  state  senate  in  1859,  and  in  1861  was  chosen  colonel  of  an 
Ohio  regiment ;  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  Elected  to 
Congress  in  1862,  and  remained  in  that  body  until  1880,  when  he  was 
made  senator.  Nominated  for  the  presidency  by  the  Republican  party  in 
1880,  and  elected  the  following  November.  Shot  by  Charles  J.  Guiteau, 
in  Washington,  July  2,  1881,  and  died  on  September  19  of  same  year. 

Garibaldi,  Giuseppe.     1 807- 1 882.     Italian  patriot  and  general. 
Garrick,  David.     1716-1779.     English  actor. 
Garrison,  William  Lloyd.     1804-1879.     Am.  abolitionist. 
Garth,  Sir  Samuel.     1672  7-1719.     Eng.  physician  and  poet. 
Gascoigne,  George.     1535—1537.     English  poet. 
Gaskell,  Elizabeth  Cleghorn.     1810-1865.     English  authoress. 
Gassendi,  Pierre.     1592-1655.     French  savant. 
Gates,  Horatio.    1728-1806.   American  Revolutionary  general ; 
bom  in  England.    Captured  Burgoyne's  army  at  Saratoga. 

Gatling,  Richard  Jordan.     1818- American  inventor. 

Gauss,  Carl  Friedrich.     1777—1855.     German  mathematician. 
Gautama  Booddha.     624-543  ?  B.C.     Hindoo  reformer,  and 

founder  of  Buddhism.     See  Buddha. 

Gautier,  Theophile.     1811-1872.     French  poet  and  novelist. 
Gaveston,  Piers  de -1312.     Favorite  of  Edward  II.  of 

England ;  executed  by  the  nobles. 
Gay,  John.     1688-1732.     English  poet. 
Gay-Lussac,  Joseph   Louis.      1778-1850.      French   chemist 

and  natural  philosopher  ;  discovered  cyanogen. 

Gellert,  Christian  Furchtegott.     1715-1769.     German  poet. 

Genevieve,  Saint.  422?~5I2.  French  religious,  said  to  have 
converted  Clovis  to  Christianity.     Patron  of  Paris. 

Genghis  Khan.  1 163-1227.  Mogul  conqueror;  subdued 
China  and  Persia. 

Genseric.  4o6?-477.  King  of  the  Vandals.  Invaded  Africa, 
429 ;  defeated  the  Romans  in  numerous  battles ;  captured  Carthage, 
439 ;  captured  and  sacked  Rome,  455 ;  defeated  the  navy  of  the  Emper- 
or Marjorian  in  457. 


Geoffrey  of  Monmouth.     I  too?- 1154.     Eng.  chronicler. 

George  I.  (Lewis.)  1660-1727.  King  of  Great  Britain.  II. 
(Augustus),  1683-1760.  Defeated  the  French  at  Dettingen  in  X743. 
Charles  Edward  Stuart  was  defeated  at  Culloden,  1746,  by  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland,  and  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  George  II.  was  marked 
by  victories  over  the  French  in  Canada,  in  India,  and  on  the  ocean.  III. 
(William  Frederick),  1738-1820.  Arbitrary  and  ignorant,  and  through 
his  obstinacy  lost  the  American  colonies.  Became  insane  in  1810.  IV. 
(Augustus  Frederick),  1762-1830.  *'  The  First  Gentleman  of  Europe." 
Led  a  dissipated  life  and  incurred  an  immense  debt.  Married,  in  5786, 
Mrs.  Fitzherbert.  She  being  a  Roman  Catholic,  the  marriage  was  ille- 
gal. As  his  father  refused  to  pay  his  debts  unless  he  contracted  a  regu- 
lar marriage,  he  was  induced,  in  1795,  to  marry  his  cousin,  whom  he 
regarded  with  great  dislike,  a  separation  being  the  result.  Became 
regent  1811.  Took  little  interest  in  public  afTVirs.  One  year  before  his 
death,  an  act  was  passed  relieving  Roman  Catholics  from  political  dis- 
abilities. 

George,  Saint.  Fl.  3d  century.  Bishop  of  Alexandria.  Patron 
saint  of  England.  To  him  is  attributed  the  destruction  of  a  terrible 
dragon. 

Gerard-Thorn,  or  Tenque.      1040  ?-l  121.      Founder  of  the 

Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

Germanicus,  Csesar.     B.C.  14-A.D.  19.     Roman  general. 

Gerome,  Jean  Leon.     1824-. Fr.  painter. 

Gerry,  Elbridge.     1744-1 8 12.     Am.  Revolutionary  statesman; 

signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.    Governor  of  Massachusetts, 

1810;  vice-president,  1812. 

Gessler -'307-     Austrian  bailiff  killed  by  Tell. 

Gesner,  Conrad.     1 5 16-1565.     Swiss  naturalist. 

Ghiberti,  Lorenzo.     1378-1455.     Florentine  sculptor. 

Gibbon,  Edward.  1737-1794.  English  historian.  Educated 
at  Oxford.  The  first  volume  of  his  great  work,  History  0/  the  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  t  appeared  in  1776;  the  next  two  in 
1781,  and  in  1783  he  retired  to  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  com- 
pleted the  last  three  volumes,  which  appeared  in  1788.  Gibbon  has 
been  justly  criticised  for  the  antagonism  to  the  Christian  faith  shown  in 
this  work. 

Gibson,  John.     1791-1866.     English  sculptor. 

Giddings,  Joshua  Reed.     1795-1864.     Am.  abolitionist. 

Gifford,  Sanford  Robinson.     1823-1880.    American  painter. 

Gifford,  William.  1757-1826.  English  writer  and  critic; 
founder  of  the  Quarterly  Review.  Studied  at  Oxford,  after  serving  five 
years  as  a  shoemaker's  apprentice. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey.     1539-1583.     English  navigator. 

Gilbert,  Sir  John.     1817- English  artist. 

Gilbert,  William  Schwenck.       1836-....     English  humorous 

author  and  librettist.     Bab  Ballads  ;    Pygmalion  and  Galatea  ;  Pina- 
fore;  Patience;  Pirates  0/ Penzance ;  lolantke :  Princess  Ida,  etc. 

Giles,  Wm.  Branch.     1762-1830.     American  statesman. 

Gilray,  James.     1785—1815.     English  caricaturist. 

Girard,  Stephen.  1750-1831.   American  merchant  and  banker, 

born  in  France.    Founded  Girard  College. 
Girardin,  Emile  de.     1806-1881.    French  journalist. 
Giulio  Romano.     1492-1546.     Italian  painter  and  architect. 

Gladstone,  William  Ewart.     1809- English  premier. 

Glauber,  Johann  Rudolph.     1604-1668.     German  chemist. 
Glendower,  Owen.     1349?-I4I5.     Welsh  chieftain. 
Gluck,  Christoph  Wilibald  von.      1 7 14-1787.     Ger.  composer. 
Gobelin,  Gilles  and  Jean.     Fl.  1450.     French  dyers. 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon.     io58?-iioo.     Leader  of  first  crusade. 
Godiva.     Lady  Godiva.     Fl.  I  Ith  century.    English  heroine 

wife  of  Leofric,  Earl  of  Leicester. 


V- 


A 


pr 


~X 


230 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Godman,  John  D.      1794-1830.    Am.  physician  and  naturalist. 

Godunoff,  Boris  Fedorovitch.        1552-1605.      Czar  of  Russia. 

Godwin,  William.    1 756-1 836.  Eng.  novelist.   Caleb  Williams. 

Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von.  1749-1832.  German  poet 
and  author,  dramatist,  scientist  and  statesman.  Faust:  Wilhelm 
Mtisttr ;  Fgmont :  Sorrows  of  Werther  ;  Iphigenia  in  Tauris; 
West-Eastern  Divan. 

Goffe,  William.     1605  ?-l670.     Eng.  Puritan  and  regicide. 

Goldsborough,  Lewis  M.     1805-1876.     Am.  rear-admiral. 

Goldsmith,  Oliver.  1728-1774.  Irish  poet  and  miscellaneous 
writer.  Educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  afterward  studied 
medicine.  Squandered  in  dissipation  a  large  portion  of  the  funds  fur- 
nished for  his  education.  In  London,  he  became  the  intimate  friend  of 
Dr.  Johnson.  His  Vicar  0/  Wakefield  was  written  while  he  was  under 
arrest  for  debt.  The  Traveller ;  The  Deserted  Village ;  She  Stoops  to 
Conquer. 

Gomez,  Sebastiano.  1616-1690.  Spanish  painter.  A  slave 
of  Murillo,  who  liberated  him  and  took  him  into  his  studio. 

Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  Hernandez.  The  Great  Captain. 
I443?-I5i5.    Spanish  commander. 

Goodrich,  Samuel  Griswold.  Peter  Parley.  1793-1860. 
American  author. 

Goodyear,  Charles.  1800-1860.  American  inventor.  (Vul- 
canized india-rubber.) 

Gordon,  George,  Lord.     1750-1793.     English  agitator. 

Gorgey,  Arthur.     1818-....     Hungarian  general. 

Gore,  Catherine  Grace.     1799-1861.     English  novelist. 

Gortschakoff,  Alexander  Michaelovitch,  Prince.     1798-1883. 

Russian  statesman  and  diplomatist. 

Gottschalk,  Louis  Moreau.     1829-1869.     Am   composer. 

Gough,  John  B.  1 822-1886.  American  temperance  lecturer, 
born  in  England. 

Gould,  Augustus  Addison.     1805-1866.     American  naturalist. 

Gould,  Hannah  Flagg.     1789-1865.     American  poetess. 

Gould,  Jay.     1836-....     American  railway  financier. 

Gounod,  Charles  Francois.  1818-....  French  composer. 
Faust;  La  Heine  d*  Saba  :  Romeo  and  Juliet. 

Gower,  John.     I320?-I402.     English  poet. 

Gracchus,  Caius  Sempronius.     159-126B.C.    Rom. statesman. 

Graham,  John,  Viscount  Dundee.  Claverhouse.  1650?- 
1689.  Scottish  officer,  noted  for  merciless  severity  toward  the  Cov- 
enanters. 

Graham,  Sylvester.     1794-1851.     American  vegetarian. 

Granger,  Gideon.     1767-1822.     American  statesman. 

Grant,  James.     1822-1887.    Scottish  novelist. 

Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson.  1822-1885.  Eighteenth  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  Born  in  Ohio;  graduated  at  West  Point, 
1843;  served  in  Mexico;  became  a  captain  in  1853.  Resigned  in 
1854,  and  after  passing  some  time  in  St.  Louis,  removed  to  Galena,  111., 
in  1859,  and  engaged  *n  business.  In  1861  he  was  made  aide-de-camp 
to  the  governor  of  Illinois,  but  soon  after  was  chosen  colonel  of  the 
Twenty-first  Illinois  Volunteers,  and  in  July  of  same  year  was  made 
brigadier-general.  His  war  record  is  history.  Made  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Union  armies  in  March,  1864.  Elected  to  the  presidency  in 
1868,  and  again  in  1872,  and  after  the  expiration  of  his  second  term  he 
travelled  extensively  in  Europe  and  Asia, 

Granville,  Granville  Geo,  Earl.  1815-1891.  English 
statesman. 

Grattan,  Henry.     1746-1820.     Irish  orator  and  statesman. 

Gray,  Asa.     1810-18S8.    American  botanist. 

Gray,  Thomas.  1716-1771.  English  poet.  Declined  the 
position  of  poet-laureate.     Elegy. 


Greeley,  Horace.  181 1-1872.  American  journalist.  Born  in 
New  Hampshire  ;  learned  the  printer's  trade,  and  worked  as  a  journey- 
man printer  in  New  York  for  one  year.  Founded  the  Mrui  Y'ork  Trib- 
une in  1841.  A  staunch  Whig  and  Republican,  he  favored  Fremont  for 
the  presidency  in  1856,  and  Lincoln  in  i860.  Accepted  the  Democratic 
nomination  in  1872,  but  was  defeated  at  the  election  by  Grant. 

Green,  John  Richard.  1874-1883.  English  historian.  SJurt 
History  of  the  English  People. 

Green,  Seth.     1817-1888.    American  pisciculturist. 

Greene,  Nathaniel.    1742-1786.    Am.  Revolutionary  general. 

Greenleaf,  Benjamin.     1786-1864.    American  mathematician. 

Greenleaf,  Simon.     1783-1853.     American  jurist. 

Greenough,  Horatio.     1805-1852.     American  sculptor. 

Gregory  I.  (Saint.)  The  Great.  540-604.  Pope,  ascending 
the  pontifical  chair  in  590.  II.,  ruled  715-731.  III.,  731-741.  IV., 
827-844.  V.,  997-999  VI.  1044-1047.  VII.  (St.  Hildebrand),  1073- 
1085;  excommunicated  Henry  IV.  VIII.,  1187;  died  same  year  XI., 
1227-1241;  excommunicated  Frederick  II.  X.,  1271-1276.  XI.,  1370- 
1378  ;  condemned  the  doctrines  of  Wycliffe.  XII.,  1406-1409,  when  be 
and  the  anti-pope,  Benedict  XIII.,  were  deposed  by  the  council  of  Pisa; 
died  1417.  XIII.,  1572-1585;  reformed  the  Julian  calendar.  XIV., 
1590-1591;  excommunicated  Henry  IV.  of  France.  XV.,  1621-1623. 
founded  the  Propaganda.    XVI.,  1831-1846;  succeeded  by  Pius  IX. 

Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Saint.  332-394.  Greek  father  of  the 
church. 

Gregory  of  Tours,  Saint.  540-595.  French  prelate  and 
historian. 

Gregory,  James.     1638-1674.     Greek  geometer. 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  Saint.  326?-389.  Bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople. 

Grenville,  George.    1712-1770.    Eng.  statesman.  (Stamp  act.) 

Grevy,  Francois  Paul  Jules.     1807-1891.     Fr.  president. 

Grey,  Henry,  Earl.     1802-.  .  .  .      English  statesman. 

Grey,  Lady  Jane.    1537-1554-   Gifted  English  lady ;  executed. 

Grimm,  Fricdrich  Melchior,  Baron.     1723-1807.    Ger. writer. 

Grimm,  Jakob  Ludwig  (1785- 1 863), and  Wilhelm  Karl  (1786- 
1859)     German  philologists  ;  brothers. 

Grisi,  Giulia.     1812-1869.     Italian  singer. 

Griswold,  Rufus  Wilmot.     1815-1857.     American  author. 

Grotius  (De  Groot),  Hugo.       1583-1645.       Dutch  jurist  and 

theologian. 

Grouchy,  Emmanuel  de,  Marquis.     1766-1847.     Fr  general. 
Guarneri,  Giuseppe  A.     1683-1745.     Italian  violin-maker. 
Guatemozin.      1497-1525.      Last  Aztec  emperor  of  Mexico. 
Guelph  (or  Welf).      Noble  German  family,  originally  Italian. 
Guiccioli,  Teresa  Gamba,  Countess.      1801-1873.      Friend  of 

Byron. 
Guido  Reni.     1575-1645.     Italian  painter. 
Guillotin,   Joseph  Ignace.       1738-1814.       French  physician; 

advocate  of  the  guillotine. 
Guiscard,  Robert.     101 5-1085.     Norman  commander. 
Guise,  Charles  de.     1525-1574.     Cardinal  of  Lorraine. 
Guise,  Claude  de  Lorraine  de,  Duke.      1496-1550.      French 

general  and  statesman. 

Guise,  Francois  de  Lorraine  de,  Duke.     1519-1563. 
Guise,  Henry  I.  of  Lorraine  de,  Duke.     1550-1588. 

Guizot,  Francois  Pierre  Guillaume.  1787-1874.  French 
statesman  and  historian. 

Gustavus  I.  ((iustavus  Vasa.)  1496-1559.  King  of  Sweden. 
II.  (Gustavus  Adolphus),  1594-1632.  Defeated  the  Polish  and  Russian 
armies  invading  Sweden.      Became  the  head  of  the  Protestant  league  in 


4^ 


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A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


231 


Germany  and  defeated  Tilly  at  Leipsic  in  1631,  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lech  in  1632.  At  the  great  battle  of  Liitzen,  Wallenstein  now  com- 
manding the  imperial  army,  Gustavus  was  killed,  but  his  troops 
nevertheless  gained  a  complete  victory.'  III.,  1746-1792  ;  assassinated. 
IV.,  1778-1837  ;  ascended  the  throne  in  1792,  but  was  deposed  in  1809. 

Gutenberg,  Johann.    (Gansfleisch.)       1400-1468.       German 

inventor  of  printing. 
Guzman,  Alfonso  Perez  de.   1258-1309.    Spanish  commander. 

HACKLANDER,  Friedrich   Wilhelm  von.      1816-1878. 
German  novelist.    Military  Life  in   Time  of  War. 

Hadrian  (or  Adrian).     76-138.     Roman  emperor. 

Hafiz,  Mohammed  Sherns  ed-Deen.      I300?-I390?     Persian 

poet.    Divan. 

Hagedorn,  Friedrich  von.     1 708-1 754.     German  poet. 
Hahnemann,  Samuel  Christian  Friedrich.      1755-1843.    Ger- 
man physician  and  founder  of  homoeopathy. 
Hale,  Edward  Everett.   1822-....   Am.  clergyman  and  author. 
Hale,  Sir  Matthew.     1609-1676.     English  jurist. 
Hale,   Nathan,  Captain.     1755-1776-     American  patriot. 
Halevy,  Jacques  F.  F.  E.     1 799-1 862.     French  composer. 
Haliburton,  Thomas  Chandler.      Sam  Slick.       i8o2?-i865. 

Nova  Scotian  jurist  and  humorous  writer. 

Halifax,  Charles  Montague,  Earl  of.       1661—1715.       English 

statesman. 

Halifax,  George  Saville,  Marquis  of.     1630-1695. 

Hall,  Charles  Francis.     1821-1871.     Am.  Arctic  explorer. 

Hall,   Tames.     1811-..    .     American  author  and  judge. 

Hall,  Mrs.  S.  C.  (Anna  Maria  Fielding.)  1800-1881.  Irish 
authoress.    Sketches  0/  Irish  Character ;   The  Outlaw,  etc. 

Hallam,  Arthur  Henry.  1811-1833.  Engiish  critic  and 
essayist. 

Hallam,  Henry.  1777-1859.  Father  of  preceding.  English 
historian  and  critic. 

Halleck,  Fitz-Greene.  1790-1867.  American  poet.  Marco 
Bozzaris ;  Fanny. 

Halleck,  Henry  Wager.  1714-1872.  American  general  and 
lawyer. 

Halley,  Edmund.      1656-1742.     English  astronomer. 

Hamilcar    Barca -229   B.C.       Carthaginian   general; 

father  of  Hannibal. 

Hamilton,  Alexander.  1757-1804.  American  orator,  states- 
man, financier  and  general.  Born  in  the  West  Indies.  Secretary  and  aide- 
de-camp  to  Washington  in  Revolutionary  war  ;  chosen  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  in  1782,  but  resigned  in  order  to  practice  law  ;  leading 
member  of  the  convention  of  1787;  secretary  of  the  treasury,  1789-95  ; 
became  recognized  leader  of  the  Federal  party.  Hamilton  died  from 
a  wound  received  in  a  duel  with  Aaron  Burr,  and  his  death  was  deeply 
deplored. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William.     1788-1856.     Scottish  metaphysician. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William  Rowan.     1805-1865.  Irish  astronomer. 

Hamlin,  Hannibal.     1809-1891.    American  statesman. 

Hampden,  John.  1594-1643.  English  statesman  and  re- 
former. Entered  Parliament  in  1620.  Denied  the  authority  of  the  crown 
to  levy  tonnage  without  the  consent  of  Parliament,  and  refused  to  con- 
tribute to  the  forced  loan  ordered  by  King  Charles,  for  which  he  was 
imprisoned.  Regaining  his  liberty  and  re-entering  Parliament,  he  ably 
and  firmly  resisted  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  crown.  Intending, 
with  his  cousin,  OliverCromwell,  to  emigrate  in  1638,  they  were  detained 
by  order  of  council.  In  1640  he  was  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  Long 
Parliament,  and  the  most  popular  public  man  in  England.  Impeached 
for  high  treason  in  1642,  together  with  four  other  members,  the  Commons 
refused  to  surrender  them,  the  king  himself  going  so  far  as  to  personally 
lead  his  guard  in  an  attempt  to  arrest  them  in  their  seats.      This  caused 


the  greatest  excitement  and  indignation,  so  that  the  Commons  were 
soon  enabled  openly  to  defy  the  regal  authority.  Hampden  afterward 
raised  a  regiment  for  the  Parliamentary  army,  and,  after  displaying  great 
courage  in  numerous  engagements,  was  slain  in  a  skirmish  with  Prince 
Rupert's  forces. 

Hampton,  Wade.     1755-1835.     American  general. 

Hampton,  Wade.     1818- Confederate  general.  Elected 

governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1876,  and  U.  S.  senator  in  1878. 

Hancock,  John.  1 737-1 793.  American  statesman;  presi- 
dent of  the  Continental  Congress. 

Hancock,  Winfield  Scott.  1824-1886.  American  general; 
second  in  command  at  Gettysburg.  Democratic  candidate  for  president 
in  1S80. 

Handel,  George  Frederick.  1684-1759.  German  composer. 
Composed  sonatas  at  10 ;  produced  Almeria  at  18 ;  settled  in  England 
in  1712,  after  spending  some  years  in  Italy,  and  became  chapel-master  of 
George  I.  The  oratorio  of  Saul  was  produced  1740,  and  his  greatest 
work,  The  Messiah,  the  greatest  of  oratorios,  in  1741.  Handel  was 
stricken  with  blindness  in  1751,  but  continued  to  conduct  his  oratorios. 
Buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Hannibal.     247-183  B.C.      Carthaginian  general.      Sworn  by 

his  father,  Hamilcar  Barca,  to  eternal  enmity  toward  Rome ;  became 
commander  of  the  Carthaginian  forces,  221  B.C.;  subdued  several  power- 
ful Spanish  tribes,  and  in  219  captured  Saguntum ;  crossed  the  Alps,  218 ; 
defeated  the  Romans  near  the  Ticinus  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Trebia; 
routed  Flaminius  at  Lake  Thrasymene,  217  ;  almost  destroyed  a  supe- 
rior Roman  army  near  Cannae,  216  ;  captured  Capua.  Recalled  to 
Carthage  to  repel  a  Roman  invasion  under  Scipio  Africanus,  he  was 
defeated  at  Zama  in  202.  Banished  from  Carthage  about  194,  through 
the  enmity  of  the  aristocracy.  Finally  ended  his  life  by  taking  poison, 
to  escape  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 

Hans  Sachs.      1494-1576.     German  poet  and  shoemaker. 

Hardee,  William  J.     1818-1873.     Confederate  general. 

Hardenberg,  Friedrich  von.     See  Ncwalis. 

Hardicanute.    ioi7?-io42.     King  of  England  and  Denmark. 

Hardinge,  Henry,  Viscount.       1785-1856.      English  general. 

Hardwicke,  Philip  Yorke,  Earl  of.     1690-1764.     Eng.  jurist. 

Hardy,  Thomas.  1840-....  English  novelist.  Far  from 
the  Madding  Crowd;    Under  ike  Green-wood  Tree. 

Harley,  Robert,  Earl  of  Oxford.    1661-1724.  Eng.  statesman. 

Harney,  William  Selby.     1798^1889.    American  general. 

Harold  I.     Harefoot.     -1041       King   of  England.     II. 

. . .  .-1066     Defeated  by  William  the  Conqueror,  i»rd  slain. 

Haroun-al-Raschid.     766? -809.     Caliph  of  Bagdad. 

Harrison,  William  Henry.  1773-1841.  American  general 
and  ninth  president. 

Harrison,  Benjamin.  1833-. . . .  Born  at  North  Bend,  O. 
Graduated  from  college  at  1 8;  studied  law  and  began  practice  at 
Indianapolis  in  1854 ;  elected  reporter  of  the  supreme  court  in  i860. 
This  office  he  abandoned  in  1862,  to  aid  the  cause  of  the  Union, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  Brigadier-General.  Elected  U.  S.  Senator, 
1881,  and  President,  1888. 

Harte,  Francis  Bret.  1839-....  American  writer  and 
humorist.  Born  in  New  York  ;  removed  to  California  at  15,  where  he 
was  successively  miner,  school-teacher  and  editor.  Removed  to  Boston, 
and  was  appointed  in  1878  consul  to  a  German  port.  Heathen  Chinee  ; 
Luck  0/  Roaring  Castp,  etc. 

Harvard,  John.     i6o8?-i688.     Founder  of  Harvard  College. 

Harvey,  William.  1578— 1657.  English  physician  and  anato- 
mist.   Discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

Hasdrubal -207  B.C.  Punic  general ;  brother  of  Han- 
nibal.    Defeated  the  Scipios  in  Spain  ;  slain  at  the  Metaurus. 


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232 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


4* 


Hastings,  Warren.  1732-1818.  British  general  and  states- 
man; president  of  the  Council  of  Bengal,  and  governor-general  of 
India.  Defeated  Hyder  Ali,  king  of  Mysore.  After  perpetrating 
great  outrages  against  the  Rajah  of  Benares  and  the  Begums  of  Oude, 
In  order  to  replenish  the  treasury,  he  resigned  in  1775  and  returned  to 
England.  Impeached  soon  afterward,  and  opposed  in  his  trial  by  Burke, 
Sheridan  and  Fox,  but  acquitted. 

Havelock,  Sir  Henry.  1795-1857.  British  general.  De- 
feated the  Sepoys  in  India,  and  relieved  Lucknow. 

Hawke,  Edward,  Lord.     1715-1781.     English  admiral. 

Hawkins,  Sir  John.     I520-»I595.     English  naval  officer. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel.  1804-1864.  American  author. 
Twice-told  Tales;  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse:  House  0/  Seven  Ga- 
bles; Scarlet  Letter;    The  Marble  Faun  ;    The  Blithtdate  Romance. 

Haydn,    Joseph.      1732-1809.     German    musical    composer. 

Born  of  extremely  poor  parents;  served  some  years  as  a  chorister  in 
Vienna;  appointed  in  1760  chapel-master  to  Prince  Esterhazy,  who 
*>ecame  his  patron  ;  visited  London  1 791,  where  six  of  his  symphonies 
were  received  with  great  enthusiasm.  His  masterpiece,  the  oratorio  of 
The  Creation,  was  produced  in  1798. 

Haydon,  Benjamin  Robert.     1786-1848.     English  painter. 

Hayes,  Isaac  Israel.     1832-1881.     American  Arctic  explorer. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birchard.  1822-....  Nineteenth  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  Born  in  Connecticut;  admitted  to  the  bar, 
1845;  brigadier-general  in  civil  war ;  Congress,  1865-8;  governor  of 
Ohio,  1868-76.  Republican  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1876; 
inaugurated  president  in  1877,  the  electoral  commission  to  determine 
the  result  of  the  election  of  1876  having  decided,  by  a  vote  of  eight  to 
seven,  that  Hayes  had  received  185  electoral  votes  as  against  184  for 
Samuel  J.  Tilden,  the  Democratic  candidate. 

Hayne,  Robert  Young.  1791-1840.  American  orator  and 
statesman;  opponent  of  Webster  in  discussing  the  constitution;  gov- 
ernor of  South  Carolina. 

Heath,  William.     1737-1814.     Am.  Revolutionary  general. 

Heber,    Reginald.     1783-1826.     English  prelate  and  author; 

bishop  of  Calcutta.     Hymns  ;  Journey  through  India. 

Hegel,  Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich.  1770-1831.  German 
philosopher,  metaphysician  and  pantheist.  His  system  of  philosophy 
is  developed  in  the  Encyclopedia  of  thg  Philosophical  Sciences, 

Heine,  Heinrich.     1799-1856.    German  lyric  poet  and  author. 

Heloise.      1 101-1 164.     French  nun ;    pupil    and    friend    of 

Abelard. 

Helps,  Sir  Arthur.     1817-1875.     English  author. 

Helvetius,  Claude  Adrian.     1715-1771.     Fr.  philosopher. 

Hemans,  Felicia  Dorothea  (tike  Browne).  1794-1835.  Eng- 
lish poetess.  Published  her  first  volume  of  poems  in  «8o8,  and  in  1813 
married  Capt.  Hemans,  but  separated  from  him  In  1818,  she  retaining 
all  their  children.     Restoration  of  the  Works  of  Art  to  Italy. 

Hendricks,  Thomas  Andrews.     1819-1886.    Am.  statesman. 

Hengist -488.   Jutish  chief ;  founded  kingdom  of  Kent. 

Hennepin,  Louis.     1640-1702?     French  Catholic  missionary 

and  explorer  of  the  Mississippi. 

Henrietta  Maria.     1609-1669.     Queen  of  England. 

Henry  I.  Beauelere.  1068-1135.  King  of  England.  Defeated 
hi*  brother  Robert  and  usurped  the  throne.  II.,  1:33-1189;  first  of  the 
Plantagenets  ;  issued  constitutions  of  Clarendon,  which  were,  however, 
repealed  about  ten  years  later;  conquered  Ireland.  During  his  reign 
Thomas  a  Hecket  was  killed.  III.  {of  Winchester),  1207-1373  ;  warred 
with  the  barons.  IV.,  Bolingbroke f  1366-1413  ;  first  king  of  the  house 
of  Lancaster.  V.  {of  Monmouth),  1388-1432;  conquered  France.  VI. 
{of  Windsor),i  421-1 471 ;  his  reign  was  made  memorable  by  the  war  of  the 
Roses.  VII.,  1456-1509 ;  founded  the  Tudor  dynasty.  VIII.,  1 491-1547  ; 
defeated  the  French  at  Guinegastc  and  the  Scotch  at  Flodden,  1513; 
made  'lhomu  Wolaey  prime  minister  ;    applied  unsuccessfully  to   the 


pope  for  a  divorce  from  Catherine  of  Aragon,  his  wife ;  favored  the 
Reformation  ;  deposed  Wolsey  and  elevated  Thomas  Cranmer ;  had 
himself  declared  head  of  the  church ;  married  Anne  lioleyn  after  the 
convocations  of  York  and  Canterbury  had  declared  bis  marriage  with 
Catherine  invalid ;  declared  the  English  Church  independent  of  the  papal 
see  and  abolished  the  monasteries  ;  had  Anne  Boleyn  executed  in  1536,  and 
married  Jane  Seymour  the  day  after  the  execution  ;  excommunicated  by 
the  pope,  1538  ;  his  third  wife  having  died  in  1537,  he  married  Anne  of 
Cleves  in  1540;  was  divorced  from  her  the  same  year  and  married 
Catherine  Howard,  who  was  executed  on  a  charge  of  adultery  in  154a; 
married  Catherine  Parr  in  1543,  she  surviving  him. 

Henry  I.     ioo5?-io6o.     King  of  France.     II.,    1518-1559; 

married  Catherine  de'  Medici.  III.,  Henri  de  I  atois,  1551-1589;  tMt 
of  the  Valois.  IV.,  Le  Grand,  1553-1610;  king  «f  Navarre  ;  first  of  the 
Bourbons ;  assassinated. 

Henry  I.  The  Fowler.  876-936.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Defeated  the  Hungarians.  II.  (Saint),  972-1034.  III.,  The  Black,  at 
The  Bearded,  1017-1056.  IV.,  1050-1106  ;  excommunicated  by  Gregory 
VII.  V.,  1081-1125;  last  of  the  Salic  line.  VI.,  1165-1107.  VIL, 
1262-1313. 

Henry,  Patrick.  1 736-1799.  American  patriot  and  orator. 
Member  of  the  Continental  Congress  ;  governor  of  Virginia. 

Heraclitus.     Fl.  500  B.C.     Greek  philosopher. 

Herbert,  George.     1593-1632.     British  poet  and  divine. 

Herder,  Johann  Gottfried  von.     1 744-1803.     German  author. 

Hermann  !or  Arminius).  B.C.  16-  A.D.  21.  German  hero. 
Defeated  the  Romans  a.d  9,  near  the  Lippe. 

Herod.     The  Great.     B.C.  73 -a.d.  I.     King  of  Judea. 

Herodotus.    484?-4o8?  B.C.     Greek  historian. 

Herrick,   Robert.      1591-1674.      English    divine    and    poet 

Hespe rides,  or  Poems  Human  and  Dhnne. 

Herschel,  Sir  John  Frederick  William.     1790-1871.     English 

astronomer  and  philosopher. 

Herschel,  Sir  William.     1738-1822.     Father  of   preceding. 

German  astronomer.     Bom  in  Hanover,  but  removed  to  England  at  ai ; 

discovered  Uranus. 
Hesiod.     Fl.  800  B.C.     Greek  poet.     Works  and  Days, 
Hezekiah.     750-698  B.C.     King  of  Judah. 
Hicks,  Elias.     1 748-1830.     American  Quaker  preacher. 
Hildreth,  PJchard.    1807-1865.    Am.  journalist  and  historian. 
Hill,  Sir  Rowland.    1795-1879.     Author  of  the  English  penny 

post  system. 
Hipparchus.     Fl.  150  B.C.     Bithynian  astronomer. 
Hippocrates.    The  Father  of  Afedicine.   460-360?  B.C.  Greek 

physid.m. 

Hoar,  George  Frisbie.    1826-. . . .    Am.  lawyer  and  statesman. 

Hobart,  Augustus  Charles.  Hobart  Pasha,  1822-1886. 
Turkish  naval  commander,  bom  in  England. 

Hobbes,  Thomas.     1 588-1 679.     English  philosopher. 

Hoche,  Lazare.     176&-1797.     French  general. 

Hoe,  Richard  March.  1812-18B7.  American  inventor  of  print- 
ing presses. 

Hofer,  Andreas.     1767-1810.     Tyrolcse  patriot;  executed. 

Hoffman,  Charles  Fenno.     1806-1884.    American  author. 

Hogarth,  William.     1697-1764.     Bag.  painter  and  engraver. 

Hogg,  James.  Tht  Ettrick  Shepherd.  1772-1835.  Scottish 
poet. 

Hohenlohe.  Hohenstaufen,  Hohenzollern.  Princely  families 

Of  (i(  1 

Holbein,  Hans.  The  Younger.  1497-1554.  German  painter. 
The  Dance  of  Death  ;  Lesst  Supper,  etc. 

Holland,    Josiah    Gilbert.      1819-1881.      American    author. 

Timothy  Titctmb's  Letters  ;   The  Bay  Pmtk,  etc. 


k= 


<S aw. 


K" 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


233 


:.  iL 


Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell.     1809- American  physician, 

author  and  poet.    The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-table  :  Elsie  Venner; 
The  Guardian  Angel :    The  Poet  at  the  Breakfast-table  :   Poems,  etc. 

Holt,  Sir  John.     1642-1709.     English  judge. 

Homsr.  FI.  1000  B.C.  Greek  poet,  about  whose  life  scarcely 
anything  is  known.  Regarded  as  the  greatest  of  poets.  Supposed  to  have 
been  blind  and  poor.  Some  doubt  his  existence,  maintaining  that  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  the  two  great  epics  ascribed  to  him,  are  collections 
of  songs  from  various  poets. 

Honorius,  Flavius.     384-423.     Roman  emperor. 

Hood,  Thomas.       1799-1845.       English  poet  and  humorist. 

Song  of  the  Shirt :    Bridge  of  Sighs;  Dream  of  Eugene  Aram  ; 

Whims  and  Oddities. 

Hook,  Theodore  Edward.     1788-1841.     English  author. 
Hooker,  Joseph.     1819-1879.     American  general. 
Hooker,  Richard.     1553-1600.     English  theologian. 
Hopkins,  Johns.     1795-1873.     American  philanthropist. 
Hopkinson,  Francis.     1738-1791.     American  author ;  signed 

the  Declaration  of  Independence.     The  Battle  of  the  Kegs. 
Hopkinson,  Joseph.     1 770-1842.      Son  of  F.  H.     American 

lawyer ;  author  of  Hail  Columbia. 

Horace.     (Quintus  Horatius  Flaccus.)     65-  8  B.C.    Latin  poet. 

Odes  ;  Epistles  ;  Satires. 

Hosmer,  Harriet  Goodhue.      1830- .     American  sculptor. 

Houdin,  Robert.     1805-1871.     French  conjurer. 

Houdon,  Jean  Antoine.     1741-1828.     French  sculptor. 

Houston,  Sam.  1793-1863.  American  general  and  states- 
man. Governor  of  Tennessee,  1827-9;  passed  a  number  of  years  with 
the  Cherokee  Indians;  commander-in-chief  of  the  Texan  forces  in  re- 
volt against  Mexico,  and  defeated  and  captured  Santa  Anna  in  1836 ; 
elected  president  of  Texas  same  yonr,  and  re-elected  1841  ;  elected  sen- 
ator from  Texas  after  its  admission  to  the  Union,  in  1845,  and  governor 
in  1859. 

Howard,  Henry,  Earl  of  Surrey.     1516-1547.     Eng.  poet. 
Howard,  John.     1726-1790.     English  philanthropist. 
Howard,  Oliver  Otis.     1830-. . . .     American  general. 
Howe,  Elias.      1819-1867.      American  inventor. 
Howe,  Samuel  Gridley.       1801-1876.       Am.  philanthropist. 

Howells,  William  Dean.     1837- American  author. 

Howitt,  William.     1795-1879.     English  author. 
Hoyle,  Edmund.     1672-1769.     English  author.     Games. 
Huck,  Evariste  Regis,  Abbe.     1813-1S60.     Fr.  missionary. 

Hudson,  Henry  (or  Hendrik) -161 1.    Eng.    navigator. 

Hughes,  Thomas.  1 823-. . . .  English  author  and  barrister. 
Tom  Brown's  School-days. 

Hugo,  Victor  Marie,  Vicomte.  1802-1885.  French  poet,  novel- 
ist and  dramatist.    Les  Miserables :  Notre  Dame. 

Hull,  Isaac.     1775-1843.     American  commodore. 

Hull,  William.    1753-1825.   American  Revolutionary  general. 

Humbert  I.     1844-  •■•  ■     King  of  Italy. 

Humboldt,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexander  von,  Baron.  1769- 
1859.  German  scientist.  Cosmos  :  An  Essay  of  a  Physical  Description 
of  the  Universe. 

Hume,  David.  1711-1776.  Scottish  historian  and  philoso- 
pher.    History  of  England. 

Hunt,  James  Henry  Leigh.  1784-1859.  English  poet  and 
author.     The  Seer. 

Hunt,  William  Henry.  1790-1864.  English  painter  in  water- 
colors. 

Hunt,  William  Holman.     1826-. . . .     English  painter. 

Hunter,  David.     1802- 1886.   American  general. 


Hunter,  John.     1728-1793.     Scottish  surgeon. 

Huss,  John.    1373-1415.    Bohemian  reformer.    Burned  at  the 

stake  by  order  of  Emperor  Sigismund. 

Huxley.Thomas  Henry.  1825-. . . .   Eng.  scientist.  Physiology. 

Hyacinthe,  Pere.     See  Loyson. 

Hyder-Ali.     1718-1782.     Hindoo  prince. 

Hypatia.     Fl    500.     Female  philosopher  at  Alexandria. 

IBERVILLE,    Pierre  le    Moyne    d',    Sieur.      1661-1706. 
Canadian  military  and  naval  commander. 
Ibrahim  Pasha.     1789-1848.     Viceroy  of  Egypt. 
Ibrahim  Bey.     1735?— 1816.     Mameluke  chief. 
Ignatieff,  Nicholas  Pavlovitch.     1832- Russian  general 

and  diplomatist. 

Ignatius,  Saint.     Theophorus -107.  Bishop  of  Antioch. 

Ignatius,  Saint.     799-877.     Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

Ignatius  de  Loyola,  Saint.     See  Loyola. 

Inchbald,    Elizabeth,    Mrs.     1753-1821.     English    authoress 

and  actress. 
Ingelow,  Jean.     1830-. ...     English  poetess  and  novelist. 
Ingersoll,  Jared.     1 749-1 822.     American  lawyer. 

Ingersoll,  Robert  G.  1833- Am.  lawyer,  author  and  lecturer. 

Ingres,  Jean  A.  D.     1781-1867.     French  painter. 
Inman,  Henry.     1801-1846.     American  portrait  painter. 

Inness,  George.     1825- American  landscape  painter. 

Innocent  I.     Pope,  ruling  from  402  to  417.     During  his  reign 

Rome  was  sacked  by  Alaric.  II.,  1130-1143.  III.  (Loiharius.)  Born 
in  n6i,and  chosen  pope  1198.  Put  Trance  under  the  ban,  1 190,  be- 
cause Philip  Augustus  had  repudiated  his  wife;  promoted  the  fourth 
crusade,  the  result  of  which  was  the  capture  of  Constantinople ;  de- 
posed Otho,  emperor  of  Germany,  transferring  the  crown  to  Freder- 
ick of  Sicily ,  subjected  John  of  England  to  the  papal  see,  compelling 
him  to  pay  an  annual  tribute;  crushed  the  Albigenses  in  1214,  and 
died  two  years  later.  IV.  (Sinibaldo  de  Fieschi),  1243-1254.  V.,  as- 
sumed the  pontificate  in  1276,  and  died  same  year.  VI.,  1352-1362. 
VII.,  1404-1406.  VIII.,  1484-1491.  IX.,  1591 ;  died  same  year.  X.t 
1644-1655.    XI.,  1670-1686.    XII.,  1692-1700.    XIII.,  1721-1724. 

Iredell,  James.     1751-1799.      American  jurist. 

IrenseuSj  Saint.     l40?-2O2?     Bishop  of  Lyons ;  martyr. 

Irene.     7527-803.     Empress  of  Constantinople. 

Irving,  Edward.     1 792-1834.     Eloquent  Scottish  divine. 

Irving,  John  Henry  Brodribb.     1838- . . . .     English  actor. 

Irving,  Washington.  1783- 1859.  American  author.  Born 
in  New  York  city.  Read  law,  travelled  in  Europe,  and  on  his  return 
was  admitted  to  the  bur,  but  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  literary  pur- 
suits. Knickerbocker' s  History  of  New  York  was  published  in  l8c^. 
In  18x5  he  sailed  for  Europe,  remaining  there  a  number  of  years  and 
becoming  an  intimate  friend  of  Walter  Scott.  About  this  time  Irving 
lost  all  his  property  by  the  failure  of  his  brother  in  New  York,  in  whose 
business  he  was  a  silent  partner.  The  Sketch-Book  was  written  in  Eng- 
land and  appeared  in  1818.  Secretary  of  legation  at  London,  1829 ; 
minister  to  Spain,  1842-6.  Bracebridge  Hall :  Tales  of  a  Traveller: 
Conquest  of  Granada:  Life  of  Washington  :  Columbus;  Wolfert's 
Roost,  etc 

Isabella  I.     The  Catholic.      1451-1504.     Queen  of  Castile. 

Wife  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  ;  patroness  of  Columbus.  II.  (Maria 
Isabel  Luisa),  1830-. . . .     Ex -Queen  of  Spain. 

Isabelle  of  France.  1292-1358.  Queen  of  England,  wife 
of  Edward  II.,  whom  her  adherents  deposed,  and  with  whose  assassi- 
nation she  is  charged.  Her  son,  Edward  III.,  ascended  the  throne  and 
ordered  her  arrest,  and  she  died  after  twenty  years'  incarceration. 

Isaiah.     Fl.  740  B.C.     Hebrew  prophet. 

Iturbide,  Don  Augustin  de.   1 790-1824.     Emperor  of  Mexico. 


A 


234 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


-A 


Ivan  III.  (Vasilievitch).  1438-1505.  Czar  of  Russia.  IV. 
(Vasilievitch),  The  Terrible,  1529-1584. 

VACKSON,  Andrew.     1767-1845.     American  general  and 

^-  statesman;  seventh  president.  Born  in  South  Carolina;  son  of  an 
Irishman ;  received  but  little  education ;  served  against  the  British  in 
178:'  began  the  practice  of  law  at  Nashville,  1788;  Congress,  1796; 
U.  S.  Senate,  1797 ;  judge  Tenneusec  Supreme  Court,  1 798-1804 ;  fought 
several  duels,  killing  Chas.  Dickinson  in  1806 ;  defeated  the  Creek  Indians, 
1814,  and  was  commissioned  brigadier -general ;  defeated  the  British  at 
New  Orleans,  1815;  successfully  carried  on  war  against  the  Scmlnoles, 
1817-18;  Senate,  1823,  and  nominated  for  the  presidency,  the  opposing 
candidates  being  Clay,  J.  Q.  Adams  and  W.  H.  Crawford.  Although 
Jackson  had  the  highest  number  of  votes,  he  did  not  have  the  necessary 
majority,  and  Adams  was  elected  by  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Clay's  advocacy  of  Adams  in  this  contest  caused  a.  bitter  enmity  between 
that  gentleman  and  Jackson.  Jackson  was  elected  to  the  presidency, 
however,  in  1828.  He  was  the  first  president  to  remove  public  officers  on 
account  of  their  politics.  Re-elected  in  183a.  In  that  year,  the  conven- 
tion of  South  Carolina  having  declared  the  tariff  laws  of  1828  null  and 
void,  Jackson  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  his  intention  to  check 
by  force  of  arms  all  movements  tending  to  disunion. 

Jackson,  Thomas  Jonathan.  Stonewall.  1824-1863.  Con- 
federate general,  native  of  Virginia  Defeated  Gen.  Banks  at  Cedar 
Mountain,  and  captured  Harper's  Ferry  with  10,000  prisoners,  1862. 
Killed  by  a  company  of  his  own  men,  mistaking  him  and  his  staff  for 
Federal  cavalry. 

Jacquard,  Joseph  Marie.     1752-1834.     French  inventor. 

Jamblichus.     Fl.  320.     Syrian  Neo-Platonic  philosopher. 

James  I.  1 566-1625  King  of  England  (VI.  of  Scotland). 
Executed  Raleigh.  A  translation  of  the  Bible  was  made  under  his 
direction.    II.,  1633-1701.     (VII.  of  Scotland.)     Deposed  by  revolution. 

James  I.  1394-1431.  King  of  Scotland.  Assassinated.  II., 
1430-1460.  III.,  1453-1488.  IV.,  1473-1513;  defeated  and  slain  at 
Flodden.    V.,  1512-1542.    VI.  (I.  of  England).    VII.  (II.  of  England). 

James,  Henry,  Jr.     1843- American  novelist. 

Jameson,  Robert.     1774-1854.     Scottish  naturalist. 
Janauschek,    Fanny.     1830-....     Bohemian  tragedienne. 
Jansen,  Cornells.        1 585-1 638.     Dutch  theologian ;    founder 

of  the  Jansenists. 
Januarius,  Saint.     272-305.     Patron  saint  of  Naples. 
Jasper,  William.     1 750-1 779.     Brave  American  soldier. 
Jay,  John.      1745-1829.      Am.  statesman;    first  chief  justice. 
Jeanne  d'Albret.     1528-1572.    Queen  of  Navarre. 
Jean  Paul.     See  Richter. 
Jefferson,  Joseph.     1829-....     American  actor. 

Jefferson,  Thomas.  1743-1826.  American  statesman; 
third  president.  Born  in  Virginia;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1767  ;  elected 
to  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  17*9;  Continental  Congress,  1775  ;  draft- 
ed the  Declaration  of  Independence  ;  governor  of  Virginia,  1779-81; 
minister  plenipotentiary,  1784,  to  negotiate  treaties  with  European 
powers;  minister,  at  Paris,  1785-9;  secretary  of  state,  1789-93;  elected 
vice-president  1 796,  and  president  in  1800,  holding  that  office  from  1801 
to  1809. 

Jeffrey,  Francis.     1 773-1850.     Scottish  critic  and  judge. 

Jeffreys,  George,  Lord.    1 650- 1 689.    Infamous  British  judge  ; 

lord  high  chancellor  under  James  II.;  died  in  the  Tower. 
Jenkins,  Edward.     1838-....     Eng  author.       Ginx's  Baby. 
Jenner,  Edward.     1749-1823.     English  physician ;  introduced 

vaccination. 
Jenner,    Sir  William.       1815-....       English   physician  and 

anatomist. 

Jerome,  Saint.     340  ?-420.     Latin  father  of  the  church. 


Jerome  of  Prague.  1378-1416.  Bohemian  religious  re- 
former ;  follower  of  Huss.     Burned  at  the  stake. 

Jerrold,  Douglas  William.  1803-1857.  English  humorist  and 
satirical  writer.  Mrt.  Caudle' 1  Curtain  Lecture* :  Chroniclei  0/ 
Clovernook. 

Jervis,  John,  Earl  of  St.  Vincent.    1734-1823.    Eng.  admiral. 

Joan  of  Arc.  (Jeanne  d'Arc.)  The  Maid  of  Orleans.  141 1  ?- 
1431.  French  heroine.  Born  in  Lorraine,  of  an  humble  peasant  family. 
Believing  herself  commissioned  by  Heaven  to  liberate  France,  and'  con. 
vincing  Charles  VII.  of  her  divine  authority,  she  was  given  command 
of  a  considerable  force,  and  by  the  victories  she  gained  enabled  Charles 
to  be  crowned  at  Rheims.  Although  desirous  of  returning  home  and 
resuming  her  former  humble  peasant  life,  she  was  induced  to  retain  her 
command  ih  the  army.  3he  was  captured  in  1430,  by  the  Burpundians, 
and  delivered  to  the  English.  Charged  with  sorcery,  she  was  burned  at 
the  stake  after  a  mock  trial. 

Joel.     Fl.  775  B.C.     Hebrew  prophet. 

John  I.  (Saint).  Pope,  ruling  from  523-526.    II.  ,533-535.  IIL, 

560-573.  IV.,  640-642.  V.,685-687.  VI.,70l-705.  VII.,  705-707.  VIII., 
872-882.  IX., 898-900.  X., 915-928.  XI., 931-936.  XII.,  956-964.  XIII., 
965-972.  XIV.,  984-985.  XV.,  died  in  985,  only  a  few  days  after  his 
accession.  XVI., 986-996.  XVII.  (Rival  of  Gregory  V.in  9^7)  XVIII., 
1003.  XIX.  1004-1009.  XX.,  1024-1033.  XXI.,  1276.  XXII.,  chosen 
1316;  deposed  1327;  diedi334.    XXIII.,  chosen  in  1410  •  deposed  1414. 

John.     1166-1216.    King  of  England ;  granted  Magna  Charta. 

John  II.     The  Good.     1319-1364.     King  of  France. 

John  II.  (Casimir  V.)  1609-1672.  King  of  Poland.  III. 
(Sobieski),  1625-1696. 

John  I.     The  Great.    1357-1433.     King  of  Portugal. 

John.     1801-1873.     King  of  Saxony. 

John  of  Austria,  Don.     1 547?-!  578.     Spanish  general. 

John  of  Gaunt  (Ghent).       1340-1399.       Duke  of  Lancaster. 

Son  of  Edward  III. 

John  the  Baptist.     B.C.  5-A.D.  28.     Prophet. 

John  the  Evangelist.    (St.  John.)     -100?     Apostle. 

Johnson,  Andrew.  1808-1875.  American  statesman ;  seven- 
teenth president.  Born  in  N.C.;  learned  the  trade  of  a  tailor  in  Tenn  ; 
Congress,  1843-53;  governor,  1853-7 ;  senator,  1857 ;  military  governor, 
1862;  elected  vice-president  in  1864,  and  succeeded  to  the  presidency  on 
the  death  of  Lincoln,  1865.  Johnson  became  involved  in  a  bitter  quarrel 
with  the  leaders  of  the  Republican  party,  and  was  impeached  in  1S68, 
but  acquitted,  although  thirty-five  senators  voted  or  conviction  to  only 
nineteen  against,  a  two-thirds  majority  being  necessary.  He  was  subse- 
quently elected  to   he  Senate  from  Tennessee  as  a  Democrat. 

Johnson,  Reverdy.     1796-1876.     American  statesman. 

Johnson,  Richard  Mentor.  1780-1850.  Ninth  vice  president 
of  the  United  States. 

Johnson,  Samuel.   1700-1784.    Eng.  writer  and  lexicographer. 

Johnston,  Albert  Sydney.     1803-1862.     Confederate  general . 

Johnston,  Joseph  Eccleston.  1809-1891.  Confederate  general. 

Joliet,  Louis.     1645-1700?     Fr.  explorer  of  the  Mississippi. 

Jomini,  Henri,  Baron.     1770-1869.     Swiss  military  writer. 

Jonah.     Fl.  800  B.C.     Hebrew  prophet. 

Jones,  George.  1811-1891.  American  journalist.  N.Y. 
Timet.  . 

Jones,  John  Paul.  1747-1792.  American  Revolutionary 
naval  commander  ;   bom  in  Scotland.    Captured  the  Serapis. 

Jones,  Sir  William.     1746-1794.     English  orientalist. 

Jonson,  Ben.     1574-1637.     English  poet  and  dramatist.  Too 
poor  to  graduate  at  Cambridge,  he  became  a  mason,  and  afterward 
served  as  a  soldier  in  Flanders.     Returned  to  England  nnd  1 
pany  of  actors,  but  killed  one  of  them  in  a  duel  and  barely  escaped  - 
Every  Man  in  Hit  llumer,  his  first  drama,  appeared  in  tsoft.   Appointed 


vt 


poet-laureate  by  James  I.    Died  in  poverty.    Sejanus  ;  The  Alchemist : 
Catiline's  Conspiracy.  , 

Joseffy,  Raffaele,  1852- Hungarian  pianist. 

Joseph  I.      1676-1711.      Emperor  of  Germany.     II.,  1741- 

1790;  abolished  feudal  serfdom. 
Josephine.      (Marie  Josephe  Rose  Tascher  de  la   Pagerie.) 

1763-1814.    Empress  of  France ;  wife  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
Josephus,  Flavius.     37  ?-y5  ?     Jewish  historian. 
Joshua.     1537-1427  H.c.     Hebrew  leader. 
Jovian.     331-364.     Roman  emperor. 
Juarez,  Benito  Pablo.     1806-1872.     Mexican  Aztec  statesman. 

Judas  Maccabaeus -160  B.C.     Hebrew  leader. 

Judson,  Adoniram.     1788-1850.     Am.  Baptist  missionary. 
Julian.     The  Apostate.     331-363.     Roman  emperor. 
Julius  I.    Pope,  336-352.    II.,  1503-1513.    III.,  I55°-I555 
Junot,  Andoche,  Due  d'Abrantes.     1771-1813.     Fr.  general. 
Justin.     The  Martyr.     103-165?     Church  father  in  Palestine. 

Justin  I.    450-527.     Byzantine  emperor.     II., -578. 

Justinian  I.      The  Great.     482?-565.     Byzantine  emperor. 
Juvenalis,  Decimus  Junius.    407-125?     Latin  poet. 

Vj^ALAKAUA,  David.     1836-1S91.    King  of  Hawaii. 

Kamehameha  IV.     1834-1863.     King  of  Hawaii. 
Karnes,  Henry  Home,  Lord.    1696-1782.    Scottish  judge  and 
writer.     Elements  of  Criticism. 

Kane,  Elisha  Kept.     1820-1857.     American  Arctic  explorer. 
Kant,  Immanuel.   1 724-1804.  German  metaphysician ;  founder 
of  the  transcendental  school  of  philosophy.     Critique  of  Pure  Reason. 
Kean,  Edmund.     1787-1833.     English  tragedian. 
Kearney,  Philip.     1815-1862.     American  general. 
Keats,  John.     1795-1821.     English  poet.     Eve  of  St.  Agnes. 
Keble,  John.     1792-1866.     Eng.  divine.     The  Christian  Year. 
Keene,  Laura.     1820-1873.     American  actress. 
Kellermann,  Francois  Christophe  de.  1735-1820.  Fr.  general. 

Kellogg,  Clara  Louise.     1842- American  vocalist. 

Kemble,  Charles.    1775-1854.  Brother  of  J.  P.  K.  Eng.  actor. 
Kemble,  Frances  Anne.     1809-. . . .     English  actress. 
Kemble,  John  Philip.     1757-1823.     English  tragedian. 
Kempis,   Thomas  a.      1380-1471.      German   ascetic  writer. 

Imitation  of  Christ. 

Kent,  James.     1 763-1847.     American  jurist.     Commentaries. 
Kepler,  Johann.     1571-1630.     German  astronomer. 
Key,  Francis  Scot.     1776-1843.      American   poet;  author   of 
The  Star-spangled  Banner. 

Khosru  I -579-     King  of  Persia.     II., -628. 

Kidd,  William.     1650-1701.     American  pirate  ;  executed. 
Kilpatrick,  Hugh  Judson.     1836- 1881.   American  general. 
King,  Rufus.     1755-1827.     American  statesman. 
King,  William  Rufus.     1786-1853.     American  statesman. 
Kingsley,  Charles.     1819-1875.     English  divine  and  author. 
Kitto,  John.     1804-1854.     English  Biblical  scholar. 
Kleber,  Jean  Baptiste.     1754-1800.     Fr-nch  general. 
Klopstock,  Friedrich  Gottlieb.     1724-1803.     German  poet. 
Kneller,  Sir  Godfrey.     1 648-1 723.     English  portrait  painter. 
Knowles,   James   Sheridan.     1784-1862.     English   dramatist 

and  actor;  subsequently  became  a  Baptist  minister.      The  Hunchback  ; 

Virginius. 


Knox,  Henry.     1750-1806.     American  general  and  statesman. 
Knox,  John.     1505-1572.     Leader  of  the  Scot,  reformation. 
Koch,  Robert.     1843-.  .  .  .     German  bacteriologist. 
Kosciusko,     Thaddeus.     17467-1817.     Polish    patriot    and 

general ;   commanded   the  Polish   insurgent  army ;    bravely  defended 

Warsaw,  but  was  defeated. 
Kossuth,  Louis.     1802-. . . .      Hungarian  patriot,  orator  and 

statesman.     Leading  spirit  in  the  insurrection  of  1848-49. 

Kuang  Hsu.     1871-   .  .  .     Emperor  of  China. 

"y*   ABLACHE,  Luigi.     1794-1858.     Italian   singer.     His 

A  "i       voice  was  of  phenomenal  range  and  unusual  sweetness. 

La  Chaise  d'Aix,  Francois.     Pire  la   Chaise.     1 524-1 700. 

French  Jesuit. 
Lactantius.     The  Christian  Cicero.     260 7-325.     Latin  father 

of  the  church.     Institutiones  Divinee. 
La  Fayette,  Marie  Jean  Paul  Roch  Yves  Gilbert  Motier  de, 

Marquis.  1757-1834.  French  general  and  patriot.  Came  to  America 
in  1777  to  aid  the  Americans  in  their  struggle  for  independence,  and  was 
commissioned  major-general ;  fought  at  Brandywine,  where  he  was 
wounded,  and  in  numerous  other  engagements ;  visited  France  and 
obtained  supplies  and  munitions,  returning  in  1779;  commanded  the 
advance  guard  at  Yorkstown,  1781 ;  returned  ag..in  to  France;  chosen 
commandant  of  the  French  National  Guard  in  1789  ;  visited  America  in 
1824,  and  was  enthusiastically  received ;  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1830. 

La  Fontaine,  Jean  de.     1621-1694.     Fr.  poet  and  fabulist. 

Lagrange,  Joseph  Louis.     1736-1813.     Fr.  mathematician. 

Lamartine,  Alphonse  de.    1792-1869.  Fr.  poet  and  statesman. 

Lamb,  Charles.     1775-1834.     Eng.  essayist.     Essays  of  Elia. 

Lambert,  Daniel.     1769-1809.     English  giant. 

Lambert,  John.     1621-1694.     Eng.  Parliamentary  general. 

Lamotte-Fouque,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Karl  de,  Baron.  1777— 
1843.    German  novelist  and  poet.     Undine. 

Landon,  Letitia  E.  1802-1838.  L.  E.  L.  English  author- 
ess.   Romance  and  Reality. 

Landor,  Walter  Savage.  1775-1864.  English  author.  Imagi- 
nary Conversations, 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin.     1802-1873,     English   animal  painter. 

Langlande    (or   Longland),   Robert.     Fl.    1360.      English 

monk  and  poet.      Vision  of  Piers  Plowman. 

Langton,  Stephen -1228.     English  prelate. 

Lannes,  Jean,  Duke  of  Montebello.  1769-1809.  French 
marshal. 

Lansdowne,  William  Petty,  Marquis  of.  1 737-1805.  Eng- 
lish statesman. 

Laplace,  Pierre  Simon,  Marquis.  1749-1827.  French  astron- 
omer and  mathematician. 

La  Rochefoucauld,  Francois  de,  Duke.    1613-1680.   French 

moralist  and  statesman. 

La  Salle,  Jean  Baptiste.  1651-1719.  Founder  of  the  Chris- 
tian Brothers. 

La  Salle,  Robert  Cavelier  de.     16357-1687.     Fr.  explorer. 

Lasker,  Eduard.     1829-1884.     German  statesman. 

Latimer,  Hugh.     1480-1555.     English  reformer;  burned. 

Latour  d'Auvergne,  Theophile  Malo  Corret  de.  1743-1S00. 
French  officer,  called  by  Napoleon  "  The  First  Grenadier  of  France." 

Lauderdale,  John  Maitland,  Duke  of.  1616-1682.  English 
cabal  minister. 

Laurens,  Henry.     1724-1792.     American  statesman. 
Lavater,  Johann  Caspar.     1 74I-J801.    Swiss  physiognomist. 


^^4^ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


rr 


Lavoisier,  Antoine  Laurent.     l743-'794-     French  chemist. 

Law,  John.  1671-1729.  Scottish  financier  in  France;  pro- 
moted the  "  South  Sea  Bubble." 

Lawrence,  Amos.     1786-1852.     American  philanthropist. 

Lawrence,  James.  1781-1813.  American  naval  hero  ;  com- 
manded the  Chesapeake  and  engaged  the  British  frigate  Shannon  off 
Boston.  He  was  killed  in  the  action,  and  his  last  words  were  :  "  Don't 
give  up  the  ship." 

Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas.     1769-1830.     English  painter. 

Lawrence,  Saint -258.     Roman  martyr. 

Layard,  Austen  Henry.     1817- English  orientalist. 

Lebrun,  Anne  Charles,  Duke  of  Piacenza.  !775-'859- 
French  general. 

Lebrun,  Charles.     1619-1690.     French  painter. 

Lebrun,  Charles  Francois,  Duke  of  Piacenza.  1 739-1824. 
French  statesman. 

Lecky,  William  Edward  Hartpole.     1838- Eng.  author. 

Lecouvreur,  Adrienne.     1690-1730.     French  actress. 

Ledru-Rollin,  Alexandre  Auguste.     1808-1874.  Fr.  socialist. 

Ledyard,  John.     1751-1788.     American  traveller. 

Lee,  Arthur.  1740-1792.  American  statesman.  Brother  of 
R.  H.  and  F.  L.  Lee. 

Lee,  Charles.     1775-1782.     Am.  general ;  native  of  Wales. 

Lee,  Francis  Lightfoot.     1 734-1 797-     American  patriot. 

Lee,  Henry.  Light-Horse  Harry.  1756-1818.  American 
general  and  statesman.     Governor  of  Virginia. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry.     1 732-1 794.     Am.  orator  and  patriot. 

Lee,  Robert  Edmund.  1806-1870.  American  general ;  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Confederate  army.  Son  of  Henry  Lee.  Born  in 
Virginia ;  graduate  of  West  Point ;  chief  engineer  of  Gen.  Scott's  army 
in  Mexico ;  Confederate  brigadier-general  1861,  and  appointed  to  the 
chief  command  in  1862.  Surrendered  at  Appomattox,  April  9,  1865. 
Subsequently  chosen  president  of  Washington  College,  at  Lexington, 
Va.,  where  he  died. 

Leech,  John.     1816-1864.     English  caricaturist. 

Lefebvre,    Francois  Joseph,    Duke  of   Dantzig.     1755-1820. 

French  general. 

Legouve,  Ernest.     1807-.  .  .  .      French  author. 

Leibnitz,  Gottfried  Wilhelm  von,  Baron.  1646-1716.  Ger- 
man philosopher  a.id  mathematician. 

Leicester,  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of.  I532?-I588.  Favorite  of 
Queen  Elizabeth. 

Leidy,  Joseph.     1823-1891.    American  naturalist. 

L'Enclos,  Ninon  de.      1616-1706.     French  beauty. 

Leo  I.  4O0?-474.  Byzantine  emperor.  III.,  68o?~74i.  V., 
....-8ao.    VI.,  865T-9H. 

Leo  I.  (Saint).  The  Great.  Pope,  ruling  from  440  to  461. 
II.,  683-684.  HI.  (Saint),  795-816.  IV.,  847-855.  V.,  903 :  reigned 
only  two  months.  VI.,  928-939.  VII.,  937-939.  VIII.,  963-965.  IX., 
1049-1054.  X.  (Giovanni  de'  Medici),  1513-1521.  XL,  1605:  died 
twenty-four  days  after  his  accession.  XII.,  1823-1829.  XIII.  (Gioa- 
chimo  Pecci.)  Born  at  Carpineto,  in  the  Papal  States,  1810,  the  son 
of  Count  Ludovico  Pecci ;  ordained  a  priest  in  1837,  and  created  Arch- 
bishop of  Damietta  in  1843;  nuncio  to  Belgium  three  years;  car- 
dinal, 1853:  cardinal  camcrlcngo,  1877;  elected  to  the  papacy,  to  succeed 
Pius  IX.,  February  ao,  1878. 

Leonidas -480  B.C.      King  of  Sparta;   leader  of  the 

brave  three  hundred  at  Thermopylae. 
Leopold  I.      The  Great.     1640-1705.     Emperor  of  Germany. 

IL.  >747->79»- 

Leopold  I.     1790-1865.     King  of  Belgium.     II.,  1835- 


Lerdo    de    Tejada,    Sebastian.       1825- President    of 

Mexico. 

Le  Sage,  Alain  Rene.     1668-1747.     Fr.  novelist.     Gil  Bias. 

Leslie,  Alexander,  Earl  of  Leven -1661.  Scot,  general. 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de,  Viscount.  1805- French  en- 
gineer and  diplomatist.  Planned  the  Suez  canal,  and  the  inter-oceanic 
canal  across  Panama. 

Lessing,  Gotthold  Ephraim.     1 729-1 781.     German  author. 

Leutze,  Emanuel.     1816-1808.     German  historical  painter. 

Lever,  Charles  James.  1806-1872.  Irish  novelist.  Charles 
CrMalley;   Tom  Burke  of  Ourt :  Harry  Lorrequer. 

Leverrier,  Urbain  J.  J.     1811-1877.     French  astronomer. 

Lewes,  George  Henry.  1817-1878.  English  author;  hus- 
band of  "  George  Eliot."     Biographical  History  0/  Philosophy. 

Lewis,  Matthew  Gregory.     1775-1818.     English  novelist. 

Lewis,  Meriwether.     1774-1809.     American  explorer. 

Leyden,  Lucas  van.     1494-1533.     Dutch  painter. 

Lieber,  Francis.     1800-1872.     German  historical  writer. 

Liebig,  Justus  von,  Baron.     1803-1873.     German  chemist. 

Lincoln,  Abraham.  1809-1865.  Sixteenth  president  of  the 
United  States.  Born  in  Kentucky  ;  removed  to  Indiana  when  eight  years 
old  ;  captain  in  the  Black  Hawk  war,  1833 ;  elected  to  the  Illinois  legis- 
lature, 1834 ;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1836,  and  removed  to  Springfield,  111.: 
elected  to  Congress  in  1846;  Republican  candidate  for  U.  S.  senator  in 
1854,  his  opponent  being  Stephen  A.  Douglas ;  nominated  for  the  presi- 
dency and  elected,  i860;  re-elected  1864,  but  assassinated  April  14,  1865, 
by  John  Wilkes  Booth.  His  death  was  universally  deplored,  for  his  wist 
administration  of  affairs  during  the  civil  war  had  won  for  him  the  regard 
of  both  factions  of  the  bloody  controversy. 

Lilinokalani.      1838-....      Queen  of  Hawaii. 

Lind,  Jenny.  (Mrs.  Goldschmidt.)  1821-1887.  Swedish  vocalist 

Linnaeus,  Charles.     1 707-1 778.     Swedish  botanist. 

Lippi,  Filippo.     1412-1469.     Italian  painter. 

Liszt,  Franz,  Abbe.     1811-^885.    Hungarian  piani-t. 

Littleton  (or  Lyttleton),  Sir  Thomas.    I420?-I48l.    English 

jurist.      Tenures.  % 

Liverpool,  Robert  B.  J.,  Earl  of.  1770-1828.    Eng.  statesman. 
Livingston,  Edward.     1764-1836.     American  jurist. 
Livingstone,  David.     1817-1873.    Scottish  explorer  in  Africa. 

Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Zambesi. 
Livy.     (Titus  Livius.)    59  B.C.  - 1 7  A.D.     Roman  historian. 
Locke,  John.     1632-1704.     English   philosopher.     Essay  en 

the  Human  Understanding. 
Lockhart,  John  Gibson.     1 794-1854.     Scottish  author. 
Logan.     Tah-gah-jute.     17257-1780.    American  Indian  chief. 
Logan,  Benjamin.     I742?-i862.     Kentucky  pioneer. 
Logan,  John  Alexander.     1826-1887.    American  general  and 

statesman. 

Lola  Montez.     1820-1861.     Creole  ballet  dancer. 

Long,  Roger.     l68o?-l770.     English  astronomer. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth.  1 807- 1 882.  American  poet. 
Born  in  Portland,  Me. ;  graduated  in  1835  at  Bowdoin  College,  at  which 
Institution  he  took  the  chair  of  modem  languages  after  travelling  four 
years  In  Europe  ;  held  the  same  position  at  Harvard  1836-54.  Hyperion; 
Voices  of  the  Night:  The  Spanish  Student:  Evangeline:  Song  ef 
Hiawatha:  Miles  Standish  ;  Tales  of  a  II ayside  Inn,  etc. 

Longinus.     11.  3d  century.     Greek  philosopher. 

Longstreet,  James.     1821- Confederate  general. 

Lome,  John  George  Edward  Henry  Sutherland  Campbell, 
Marquis  of.    1845- En(r.  author.    G01  .-<it  n.  «.  .inada  187S-S.J. 


i¥ 


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,. 


1^1 


K 


# 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


2  37 


Lorraine.  Charles  IV.,  Duke  of.  1604-1679.  German  general. 
V.,  1643-1690. 

Lossing,  Benson  John.     18x3-1891.    American  historian. 

Louis  I.  Le  Debonnair.  778-840.  Emperor  of  the  West 
and  king  of  France ;  divided  the  empire  among  his  sons.  VI.,  The  Fat, 
io78?-ii37.  King  of  France.  IX.  (Saint),  1215-1270;  led  a  large 
army  against  the  Saracens  in  1248 ;  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  in 
Egypt,  but  effected  his  rinsom ;  led  another  crusade  in  1270,  but  died  the 
same  year  near  Tunis.  He  was  a  wise  ruler,  and  noted  for  many  virtues. 
XI.,  1 423-1483 ;  established  post-offices.  XII.,  1462-1515.  XIII., 
1601-1643.  XIV.,  Le  Grand,  1638-1715.  ("  I  am  the  State.")  XV., 
1710-1774.  XVI.,  1754-1793;  guillotined.  XVII.  (Dauphin),  1785-1795. 
XVIII.,  Monsieur,  1755-1824. 

Louis  I.     1786-1868.     King  of  Bavaria. 

Louis  IV.     The  Bavarian.     1285  ?-i345-     Ger.  emperor. 

Louis  Philippe.    1773-1850.    "  The  citizen  king"  of  France; 

abdicated  1848. 
Louvois,  Francois  Michel  Letellier  de,  Marquis.     1641-1691. 

French  statesman  ;  caused  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 
Lover,  Samuel.     1797-1868.      Irish  novelist.    Handy  Andy; 

Rory  O*  Moore,  etc. 
Lowell,  James   Russell.        1819-1891.      American  poet  and 

critic  ;  minister  to  Spain  and  to  England.  The  Bigelow  Papers  ;  Under 
the  Willows  ;  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal ;  Commemoration  Odes; 
Fable  for  Critics  ;  Among  my  Books  :  My  Study  Windows,  etc. 

Lowell,  John.     1799-1836.     American  statesman. 

Loyola,  Ignatius  de.  Saint  Ignatius,  1491-1566.  Spanish 
founder  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  or  Jesuits.  Entered  the  army  at  an 
early  age;  crippled  by  a  wound  in  1520,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
religion ;  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  in  1523,  and  subsequently 
studied  at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he  met  Francis  Xavier  and 
James  Lainez,  in  conjunction  with  whom,  in  1543,  he  formed  the  society 
which  has  since  become  so  celebrated. 

Loyson,  Charles.  Fire  Hyacinthe.  1827-....  French 
reformer  and  ex-Carmelite. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John.    1834-.  .  .  .     Eng.  naturalist  and  stats. 

Lucanus,  Marcus  Annaeus.     38-65.     Roman  epic  poet. 

Lucian.     120?- Greek  satirist. 

Lucilius,  Caius.     148  ?-ioo  ?  B.C.     Roman  satiric  poet. 

Lucretius.  (Titus  Lucretius  Cams. )  95- B.C.   Latin  poet. 

Lucullus,  Lucius  Licinius.    110-57  B.C.     Roman  general. 

Luther,  Martin.  1483-1546.  Leader  of  the  Protestant 
Reformation,  Born  at  Eisleben,  in  Germany,  the  son  of  a  miner;  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Erfurt,  and  in  1505  entered  the  Augustine 
convent  at  that  place;  ordained  a  priest,  1507;  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Wittenberg,  1508;  visited  Rome,  1510;  denounced  the 
sale  of  indulgences,  1517,  and  became  involved  in  numerous  controver- 
sies; cited  to  appear  before  Leo  X.,  he  refused  to  comply;  burned  the 
papal  bull  containing  an  order  to  destroy  certain  of  his  works,  and  denied 
the  authority  of  thepope;  excommunicated;  enjoyed  the  support  of  the 
Elector  of  Saxony;  attended  the  Diet  of  Worms,  convened  for  his 
trial,  in  1521 ;  laidaside  his  monastic  dress  in  1524,  and  married  Cather- 
ine von  Bora,  an  ex-nun,  in  1525  ;  enjoyed,  during  the  latter  part  of  his 
life,  the  greatest  distinction  from  the  princes  of  Germany.  Luther  com- 
pleted, in  1522,  his  translation  01"  the  New  Testament,  and  in  1534 
that  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  central  point  of  his  theology  is 
justification  by  faith. 

Luxembourg,  Francois  Henri  de  Montmorenci  de.  1628- 
1695.    Marshal  of  France. 

Lycurgus.     Fl.  850  b.c.     Spartan  law-giver. 

Lyell,  Sir  George.     1797-1875.     Scottish  geologist. 

Lyndhurst,  John  Singleton  Copley,  Lord.  1772-1863.  Lord 
chancellor  of  England ;  born  in  Boston,  Mass. 


Lyon,  Nathaniel.  1819-1861.  American  general.  Born  in 
Connecticut ;  graduate  of  West  Point ;  appointed  commanderof  the  De- 
partment of  the  Missouri,  1861 ;    killed  at  the  battle  of  Wilson's  Creek, 

Lysander -395  B.C.     Spartan  general. 

Lysias.    458-378  B.C.     Athenian  orator. 

Lysimachus.    355?-28i  B.C.     King  of  Thrace. 

Lysippus.     Fl.  330  B.C.     Greek  sculptor. 

Lytton.     See  Bulwer. 

*1HT*ACAULAY,  Thomas  Babington,  Baron.      1800-1859. 
<*-VA^   English  historian,  critic  and  essayist.     History  0/ England;  Es~ 
says  :  Lays  0/  Ancient  Rome. 

Macbeth -1056  ?     King  of  Scotland. 

McCarthy,  Justin.     1830- Irish  writer  and  Home  Rule 

leader  in  Parliament.  Came  to  America  in  1868  and  visited  thirty-five 
of  the  United  States.  My  Enemas  Daughter  ;  A  Fair  Saxon  ;  History 
0/  Our  Own  Times,  etc. 

Macchiavelli,  Nicolo  di  Bernardo  dei.     1469-1527.     Italian 

statesman  and  author.  Among  his  numerous  writings  are  his  History 
0/ Florence  and  The  Prince,  the  latter  of  which  (not  intended  for  publi- 
cation, but  for  the  private  perusal  of  the  Medici)  has  rendered  the  name 
Macchiavelli  the  synonym  of  perfidy. 

McClellan,  George  Brinton.  1826-1885.  American  general. 
Born  in  Philadelphia;  graduate  of  West  Point;  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  in  1S55  served  on  a  commission  sent  by  the  government  to  make 
observations  on  the  Crimean  war;  became  chief  engineer  of  the  Illinois 
Central  railroad  in  1857  ;  re-entered  the  army  in  1861,  taking  command 
of  the  Federal  troops  in  Western  Virginia,  and  gained  the  victories  of 
Rich  Mountain  and  Cheat  River ;  made  commander  of  the  army  at 
Washington,  and  in  November,  1861,  became  commander  of  the  armies 
of  the  United  States  ;  gained  a  victory  at  Fair  Oaks,  1862,  but  was  forced 
to  relinquish  the  plan  of  reducing  Richmond  ;  superseded  by  Gen.  Pope, 
but  recalled,  and  defeated  the  Confederates  under  Lee  at  Antietam  ;  re- 
lieved of  command  about  six  weeks  later ;  Democratic  candidate  for  the 
presidency  in  1864,  and  afterward  elected  governor  of  New  Jersey. 

McCosh,  James.     1811-.  .  .  .     Scottish  theologian  in  Am. 
McCulloch,  Hugh.     1808-.  .  . .      American  financier  and 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
Macdonald,  Flora.     1720-1790.     Scottish  heroine;  saved  the 

life  of  "  The  Young  Pretender." 
Macdonald,  George.     1824-. . . .     Scottish  poet  and  novelist. 

David  Elginbrod ;  The  Portent ;  Wilfred  Cumbermede  ;  Malcolm  ; 
Unspoken  Sermons  ;    The  Miracles  of  our  Lord,  etc. 

Macdonald,  Sir  John  A.     1814-1891.     Canadian  premier. 

McCloskey,  John.     1810-1885.    First  American  cardinal. 

McDowell,  Irvin.     1818-18S5.    American  general. 

MacMahon,  Marie  Edme  Patrice  Maurice  de,  Due  de  Magenta. 
1808- Marshal  of  France  and  president  of  the  French  republic. 

Macpherson,  James.     1 738-1 796.     Scottish  poet. 

MacPherson,  James  Birdseye.     1828-1864.     Am.  general. 

Macready,  William  Charles.     1 793-1 873.     Eng.  tragedian; 

Madison,  James.  1751-1836.  Fourth  president  of  the  United 
States.  Born  in  Virginia  ;  member  of  the  Virginia  legislature  and  dele- 
gate to  the  convention  of  1787  ;  joint  author  with  Jay  and  Hamilton  of 
the  Federalist ;  Congress, 1789-97;  secretary  of  state,  1801-9,  president, 
1809-17. 

Magellan,  Fernando.     1470-1521.     Portuguese  navigator. 

Magee,  William  C.     1822-1891.     Primate  of  England. 

Mahmood,  Abool-Kasim-Yemeen-ed-Dowlah.  967-1030. 
Mohammedan  conqueror;  founder  of  the  Gaznevide  dynasty. 

Mahomet.     See  Mohammed. 

Maintenon,  Francoise  d'Aubigne  de,  Marquise.  1635— 1719- 
Consort  of  Louis  XIV, 


\C- 


^ 


A 


K 


238 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


Venetian  printer. 
Venetian  printer  and  author. 
French  Jacobin  demagogue, 


Malibran,  Maria  Felicita  {nee  Garcia).  1808-1836.  French 
vocalist  and  actress. 

Malthus,  Thomas  Robert.  1766-1834.  English  writer  on 
political  economy,  and  author  of  the  "  Malthusian  theory." 

Mandeville,  Sir  John.     1300-1372.     English  traveller. 

Manfred.    1234-1266.     King  of  Naples. 

Manning,  Henry  Edward.  1808-1893.  English  Catholic 
prelate  and  author.  United  with  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  1851 ; 
archbishop  of  Westminster,  1865  ;  cardinal,  1877. 

Mansfeld,  Ernst  von,  Count.     1585-1626.     German  general. 

Mansfield,  William  Murray,  Earl  of.  1704-1793.  British  jurist. 

Mantegna,  Andrea.     1431-1506.     Italian  painter. 

ManteufTel,  Edwin  Hans  Carl  von,  Baron.  1809-1883.  Prus- 
sian field-marshal. 

Manuel  I.  Comnenus.  H20?-n8o.  Byzantine  emperor.  II. 
Palarologus,  1348-142;. 

Manutius,  Aldus.     I449?-I5I5. 

Manutius,  Aldus.     1547-1597. 

Marat,  Jean  Paul.     1744-1793. 
assassinated  by  Charlotte  Corday. 

Marcellus,  Marcus  Claudius.  268  ?-2o8  B.C.  Roman  consul. 
Conquered  Syracuse ;  killed  in  a  skirmish  with  the  Carthaginians. 

Margaret.  Semiramis  of  the  North.  1353-1412.  Queen  of 
Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark. 

Margaret  of  Anjou.  1429-1482.  Queen  of  Henry  VI.  of 
England. 

Margaret  of  Angouleme.  1492-1549.  Queen  of  Navarre 
and  author.    Heptameron. 

Margaret  of  Austria.   1480-1530.    Regent  of  the  Netherlands. 

Margaret  of  Valois.     1553-1615.     Queen  of  France. 

Margaret,  Saint.     1046-1093.     Queen  of  Scotland. 

Margaret,  Saint -275.     Virgin  of  Antioch ;  martyr. 

Maria  Christina.     1806-1878.  Queen  dowager  of  Spain. 

Maria  II.  da  Gloria.     1819-1853.     Queen  of  Portugal. 

Maria  de'  Medici.     1573-1642.     Queen  of  France. 

Maria  Louisa.     1791-1847.     Empress  of  France. 

Maria  Theresa.  1717-1780.  Empress  of  Austria  and  Queen 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 

Marie  Antoinette.  1755-1793.  Wife  of  Louis  XVI.  of 
France ;  guillotined. 

Mario,  Giuseppe,  Marquis  di  Candia.    1810-1883.     ''•  singer. 

Marion,  Francis.     1732-1795.     Am.  Revolutionary  general. 

Mariotte,  Edme.     1620-1684.     French  phycisist. 

Marius,  Caius.     157-36  B.C.     Roman  general  and  consul. 

Marlborough,  John  Churchill,  Duke  of.  1650-1722.  Eng- 
lish commander.  Commanded  the  English  forces  in  the  Netherlands, 
1689;  commanded  in  Ireland,  1690 ;  accused  of  treason,  deposed  and 
confined  in  the  Tower,  169a  ;  reinstated  1696 ;  commanded  the  allied 
armies  in  Holland,  170a  ;  won  the  battle  of  Blenheim,  1704  ;  Ramilles, 
1706;  Oudenarde,  1708  ;  Malplaquct,  1709. 

Marlowe,  Christopher.     1 564-1 593.     English  dramatist. 

Marmont,  Auguste  Frederic  Louis  Viesse  de,  Duke  of  Ragusa. 
1774-1852.    French  marshal. 

Marquette,  Jacques.  1637-1675.  French  missionary  and 
discoverer.-  explored  the  Mississippi  river. 

Marryatt,  Frederic.  1 792-1848.  English  novelist  and  naval 
officer.    Midshipman  Easy;  Peter Simplt t etc 

Marsh,  George  P.     1801-....     American  philologist. 

Marshall,  John.  1755-1835.  American  jurist  and  states- 
man; chief  justice  of  the  United  States. 


Martialis,  Marcus  Valerius.     43-104.     Latin  poet. 

Martel,  Charles,  Duke  of  Australia.        The  Hammer.       694- 

74>.    Conquered  the  Saracens  in  the  great  battle  of  Tours,  or  Poitiers, 
732. 

Martineau,  Harriet.     1802-1876.     English  writer. 

Marx,  Karl.     1818-1883.     German  socialist. 

Mary  I.  Bloody  Mary.  1516-1558.  Queen  of  England. 
Married  Philip  II.  of  Spain;  persecuted  the  Protestants.  II.,  1661- 
1694;  wife  of  William  III. 

Mary  Stuart.  1542-1587.  Queen  of  Scots.  Daughter  of 
James  V.  and  Mary  of  Guise ;  educated  ia  France,  where  she  was  mar- 
ried  to  the  Dauphin  in  1 558,  who  the  following  year  ascended  the  French 
throne  as  Francis  II.,  but  died  childless,  1560 ;  invited  to  the  throne  at 
Scotland,  and  married  her  cousin.  Lord  Daraley;  suppressed,  1565,  a 
revolt  of  the  Protestants  instigated  by  Queen  Elizabeth  ;  joined,  1566, 
a  league  to  extirpate  heresy,  and,  wearying  of  the  arrogance  and  disso- 
luteness of  Lord  Damley,  bestowed  her  confidence  on  David  Rizzio,  an 
Italian  musician,  whose  murder  was  instigated  the  same  year  by  Mary's 
jealous  husband.  Lord  Damley  himself  was  killed  in  1567,  and  Queen 
Mary  married  the  Earl  of  Bothwell  the  same  year.  Public  sentiment 
in  Scotland  against  her  became  so  intense  that  she  was  compelled  to  take 
refuge  in  England,  where  she  was  finally  beheaded  on  an  improves 
charge  of  conspiracy. 

Masaniello.     1620-1647.     Neapolitan  insurgent  leader. 

Mason,  James  M.     1797-1871.     American  statesman. 

Massasoit.     I58o?-i66i.     Sachem  of  the  Wa.<ipanoags. 

Massena,  Andre,  Prince  of  Essling.    1758-1817.    Fr.  marshal. 

Massinger,  Philip.     1584-1640.     English  dramatist. 

Mather,  Cotton.  1663- 1728.  American  divine  and  writer, 
notorious  for  his  persecution  of  witchcraft. 

Mathew,  Theobald.  Father  Mathew.  1790-1856.  Irish 
Catholic  priest,  called  "  The  Apostle  of  Temperance." 

Maurice.  1521-1553.  Elector  of  Saxony;  German  general 
and  Protestant  leader. 

Maurice  of  Nassau.  1567-1625.  Dutch  warrior ;  Prince  of 
Orange. 

Maximilian  I.     1459-1519.     Emperor  of  Germany. 

Maximilian.  (Ferdinand  Maximilian  Joseph.)  1832-1867. 
Archduke  of  Austria,  and  emperor  of  Mexico.  Executed  by  the 
Mexicans. 

Mazarin,  Giulio,  Cardinal.     1 602-1 661.     Fr.  prime  minister. 

Mazeppa,  Ivan  Stepanovitch.  1644-1709.  Polish  nobleman, 
and  hetman  of  the  Cossacks.     Hero  of  Byron's  poem. 

Mazzini,  Giuseppe.     1807-1872.     Italian  patriot. 

Meade,  George  Gordon.  1815-1872.  American  general ;  won 
the  battle  of  Gettysburg. 

Medici,  Alessandro  de'.  1510-1537.  First  duke  of  Florence ; 
assassinated. 

Medici,  Cosimo  de'.  The  Elder.  1389-1464.  Chief  of  the 
Florentine  republic. 

Medici,  Cosimo  de'. 
duke  of  Tuscany. 

Medici,  Lorenzo  de*. 


The  Great.     1 5 19-1574. 


First  grand 
Prince 


The  Magnificent.     144S-1492. 
of  Florence  ;  scholar,  and  patron  of  literature  and  art. 

Mehemet  AH.     1769-1849.     Viceroy  of  Egypt. 

Meissonier,  Jean  Louis  Ernest.     1812-1891      French  painter. 

Melanchthon,  Philip.     1497-1560.     German  reformer ;  leader 
of  the  Reformation  after  Luther's  death.     The  Augsburg  C*n/essi*n. 

Melikoff,  Loris.     1824-1SSS.    Russian  general. 

Melville,  Andrew.     1545-1622.     Scottish  religious  reformer. 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  Felix.     1809-1847.     G«r.  comp. 

Menelek.      Emperor    (or    negus)   of    Abyssinia.      Pro- 
claimed March  11,  tSSo. 


V- 


Al 


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A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


7f 


239 


Menno,   Simonis.     1496-1561.     Frieslandic   founder   of    the 

Mennonites. 
Mercadante,  Saverio.      1 797-  1S70.     Italian  composer. 
Merimee,  Prosper.     1803-1870.     French  novelist. 
Mesmer,  Friedrich  Anton.    1733-1815.    German  discoverer  of 

"  mesmerism  .*' 
Metellus,   Quintus   Csecilius.     FI.   100  B.C.     Roman  general. 

Defeated  Jugurtha,  109  b.c, 
Metternich,  Clemens  Wenzel  Nepomuk  Lothar  von.      1775- 

1859.     Austrian  statesman. 

Meyerbeer,  Giacomo.  (Jakob  Meyer- Beer.)  1794-1864.  Ger- 
man composer.  Robert  le  Diable ;  Semiramide ;  Les  Huguenots; 
U '  Etoile  du  Nord. 

Michael   Angelo.     (Michelangelo    Buonarotti.)     1474-1563. 

Italian  painter,  sculptor,  architect  and  poet.  Patronized  by  Lorenzo  the 
Magnificent;  invited  to  Rome  by  Pope  Julius  II.,  where  he  designed 
the  church  of  St.  Peter;  became  architect  of  that  magnificent  structure 
in  1546,  and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  almost  exclusively  to  its  comple- 
tion. Among  his  productions  are  the  frescoes  in  the  Sistine  chapel,  in- 
cluding The  Last  Judgment ;  The  Holy  Family  ;  a  gigantic  statue  of 
David,  and  a  marble  group  called  Pieta,  representing  the  Virgin  as 
weeping  over  the  dead  body  of  the  Savior. 

Mifflin,  Thomas.     1744-1800.     American  patriot;  president  of 

the  Continental  Congress. 
Mill,  James.     1773-1830.     Scottish  nistorian  and  writer. 
Mill,    John    Stuart.     1806-1873.     English    philosopher    and 

political  economist.     The  Principles  0/  Political  Economy. 
Millais,  John  Everett.     1829-. . . .      English  painter. 
Miller,  Hugh.     1803-1856.     Scottish  geologist. 
Miller,    Joaquin.     (Real  name,    Cincinnatus    Hiner    Miller.) 

1841-. . . .     American  poet.     Born  in  Indiana,  and  emigrated  to  Oregon 

in  boyhood.     The  One  Fair  Woman,  a  novel;  Pacific  Poems ;  Songs 

of  the  Sierras,  etc. 

Mills,  Clark.     1815-1883.     American  sculptor. 

Miltiades.     Fl.   500  b.c.     Athenian  commander ;  gained  the 

great  victory  of  Marathon. 

Milton,  John.  1608-1674.  English  poet ;  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge ;  passed  several  years  in  travel ;  visited  Galileo,  and  gained  the 
friendship  of  many  eminent  personages  ;  returning  to  England,  he  ad- 
vocated the  popular  party,  opposing  prelacy  and  the  established  church; 
wrote  many  political  and  controversial  works  in  prose  ;  was  appointed  in 
1648  Latin  secretary  of  the  Council  of  State ;  in  1654  he  had  become 
entirely  blind.  His  Paradise  Lost  was  completed  in  1655,  and  sold  for 
;£io,  half  of  which  was  not  to  be  paid  until  after  the  sale  of  1,300  copies. 
His  sonnets  are  among  the  best  in  the  language,  and  among  his  other 
works  are  Comus  ;  11  Penseroso ;  Samson  Agontstes  ;  V Allegro; 
Paradise  Regained;  Lycidas.  Milton  is  jusdy  considered  one  of  the 
greatest  poets  of  all  time. 

Minie,  Claude  Etienne.     1810-1879.     French  inventor. 

Mirabeau,  Honors  Gabriel  de  Riquetti  de,  Comte.  1749-1791. 
French  orator  and  statesman.  Entered  the  army  in  1776;  exiled  and 
imprisoned  for  debt ;  separating  from  his  wife,  he  eloped  with  a  young 
woman  in  1776,  for  which  offence  he  was  condemned  to  death  ;  escaped, 
however,  with  /our  years'  imprisonment ;  led  a  wandering  life  for  sev- 
eral years,  engaging  in  numerous  intrigues  ;  sent  to  Berlin  on  a  secret 
mission  in  1786,  and  elected  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  later  to 
the  National  Assembly,  of  which  he  became  president  in  1791. 

Mir  Khodudal  Khan.     Khan  of  Baluchistan.     Sue.  1857. 

Mitchel,  Ormsby  Macknight.  1810-1862.  American  gen- 
eral and  astronomer.     Captured  Huntsville,  1862. 

Mitchell,  Donald  Grant.     Ik  Marvel.    1822- American 

author.    Reveries  of  a  Bachelor  ;  My  Farm  at  Edge-wood,  etc. 

Mitford,  Mary  Russell.     1786-1855.     American  authoress. 


Mitford,  William.     1744-1827.     English  historian. 

Mithridates  VI.  The  Great.  132-63  B.C.  King  of  Pontus. 
Allied  with  Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia,  he  defeated  the  Romans  in  Sev- 
ern! battles. 

Mohammed,  or  Mahomet.  560- Founder  of  the  Mos- 
lem religion.  Pretended,  at  the  age  of  forty,  to  have  received  a  revela- 
tion from  Allah,  and  thenceforth  devoted  himself  to  the  propagation  of 
his  new  religion.  Previous  to  this  time  he  had  been  an  idolater.  Hut 
new  faith,  which  included  the  unity  of  God,  was  rejected  at  Mecca, 
where  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  but  was  warmly  embraced 
in  Medina,  to  which  place  the  prophet  fled  in  622.  From  this  flight, 
called  the  Hegira,  the  Mussulmans  compute  their  time.  After  this 
event,  Mohammed  ceased  to  advocate  liberty  of  conscience,  but  prop- 
agated the  faith  of  Islam  by  the  sword,  gaining  numerous  victories,  and 
spreading  his  religion  over  a  large  portion  of  Western  Asia.  The  Koran 
was  composed  in  separate  chapters,  as  occasion  required. 

Mohammed  II.  The  Victorious,  1430-1481.  Turkish  sul- 
tan.   III.,  1642-1692. 

Moliere.  (Jean  Baptiste  Poquelin.)  1622-1673.  French  dra- 
matist and  actor.  Among  his  numerous  comedies  are  The  Misanthrope 
and  The  Hypocrite  (  Tartuffe). 

Moltke,  Carl    Bernhard    Helmuth    von,    Count.     1 800-1 891. 

Chief  marshal  of  the  German  empire.  Virtually  commander-in-chief  of 
the  German  armies  m  the  Franco-German  war,  and  designed  the  entire 
campaign. 

Mommsen,    Christian   Matthias  Theodor.     181 7- Ger- 
man historian. 
Monk,  George,  Duke   of  Albemarle.      1608-1670.     English 

general ;  restored  the  monarchy. 

Monmouth,  James  Scott,  Duke  of.  16497-1685.  Natural 
son  of  Charles  II.;  rebelled,  but  was  defeated  and  executed. 

Monroe,  James.  1758-1831.  Fifth  president.  Born  in  Vir- 
ginia; captain  in  the  war  of  1812  ;  studied  law  under  Jefferson ;  Con- 
gress, 1783;  opposed  the  constitution;  governor  of  Virginia,  1799; 
envoy  extraordinary  to  France,  1802;  re-elected  governor,  18:1;  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  same  year  by  Madison;  elected  president, 
1816,  and  re-elected  1820. 

Montague,  Lady  Mary  Wortley.  1690-1762.  EngKsh 
authoress. 

Montaigne,  Michel  Eyquemde.  1533-1592.  French  philos- 
opher and  essayist.    Essays. 

Montalembert,  Charles  Forbes  de,  Comte.      1810-1870.     Fr. 

publicist;  leader  of  the  liberal  Catholic  party. 

Montcalm,   Louis  J.  de  St.  Veran,  Marquis  of.       1712-1759. 

French  commander  in  Canada. 
Montesquieu,   Charles  de  Secondat,  Baron  de.       1689— 1755. 

French  jurist  and  philosopher. 
Montezuma   II.        i48o?-i520.        Last   Aztec  emperor  of 

Mexico. 
Montfort,  Simon  de.    ri5o?-i2i8.     Norman  crusader. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  Earl  of  Leicester.        i2CO?-i265.      Sort 

of  preceding.     Ledthe  barons  against  Henry  III. 
Montgolfier,  Jacques  Etienne  (1745-1799)  and  Joseph  Michel 

(1740-1810).  French  mechanicians  ;  invented  air-balloon. 
Montgomery,  James.  1771-1854.  Scottish  poet. 
Montgomery,   Richard.        1736-1775.       American  general; 

killed  at  Quebec. 

Montgomery,  Robert.     1807-1855.     English  poet. 
Montmorenci,  Anne  de,   Due.      1493-1567.      Fr.  constable. 
Montmorenci,  Henri  de,  Due.      1534-1614.      Constable  of 

France. 

Montmorenci,  Mathew  de.    1 175-1230.  Constable  of  France. 


/ 


JJ 


240 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY 


~7| 


Montrose,  James  Graham,  Marquis  of.     1612-1650.      Scottish 

general.     Executed. 
Moody,  Dwight  Lyman.    1837- American  evangelist. 

Born  at  Northfield,  Mass. 
Moore,    Sir  John.       1761-1809.       British    general;     fell   at 

Corunna. 
Moore,  Thomas.     1779-1852.   Irish  poet.  LallaRookh;  Irish 

Mr  Indies :   The  Loves  0/  the  Angels,  etc. 
Morales,  Luis.    El  Divino.     1509- 1586.     Spanish  painter. 
More,  Hannah.     i745-»833-      English  authoress.     Calebs  in 

Search  of  a   Wife. 

More,  Sir  Thomas.  1480-1535.  English  statesman  and  phil- 
osopher; educated  at  Oxford  ;  entered  Parliament,  j  504  ;  produced 
History  0/ Richard  111.,  1513  ;  Utopia,  1516  ;  became  a  great  favorite 
of  Henry  VIII.,  who  made  him  lord  chancellor  in  1530-  being  an  ardent 
Catholic,  he  refused  to  sanction  the  divorce  of  Queen  Catherine  and  re- 
signedhis  office  in  153a  :  imprisoned  in  1534  for  declining  to  take  an  oath 
acknowledging  the  validity  of  the  king's  marriage  to  Anne  Boleyn,  and 
executed  the  following  year  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy  as  head  of 
the  church. 

Moreau,  Jean  Victor.  1763-1813.  French  general.  Victor 
at  Hochstadt  and  Hohenlinden  ;  fell  at  Dresden. 

Morelos,  Jose  Maria.     1780-1815.     Mexican  revolutionist. 

Morgan,  John  Hunt.  1825-1863.  Confederate  cavalry  offi- 
cer and  major-general.    ("  Morgan's  raid.") 

Mornay,  Philippe  de,  Seigneur  du  Plessis-Marly.  Du  Plessis 
Mornay.     1549-1623.     French  Protestant  statesman. 

Morris,  George  P.       1802- 1864.       American  journalist   and 

poet.      Woodman,  Spare   That   Tree. 

Morris,  Gouverneur.     1752-1816.     American  statesman. 
Morris,  Robert.     1734-1806.     Am.  statesman  and  financier. 
Morris,  William.     1834-....     English  poet. 
Morse,  Samuel  Finley  Breese.     1791-1872.     Am.  inventor  of 

the  magnetic  telegraph  ;  graduate  of  Yale  College;  studied  painting  in 
England,  returning  to  America  in  1832;  constructed  small  recording 
electric  telegraph  in  1835  ;  finally  obtained  aid  from  Congress  in  1843, 
and  constructed  a  line  between  Washington  and  Baltimore  in  1844. 

Mortimer,  Roger,  Earl  of  March.     1287?- 1 330.     Favorite  of 

Isabella  of  England  ;  executed. 
Morton,  James  Douglas,  Earl  of.       1530-1581.      Regent  of 

Scotland.     Executed  as  accessory  to  Darnley's  murder. 
Morton  (or  Moreton),  John.    1410-1500.    English  prelate. 
Morton,  Oliver  Perry.     1823-1877.     American  statesman. 
Moscheles,  Ignaz.     1794-1870.     Hungarian  pianist. 
Moses.     1 570-1450.     Hebrew  law-giver.     Led  the  Israelites 

out  of  Egypt. 
Motley,   John   Lothrop.     1814-1877.     American    diplomatist 

and  historian.   The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic  :  History  of  the  United 

Netherlands. 
Mott,  Lucretia  (tile  Coffin).     1793-1880.    Am.  social  reformer. 
Mott,  Valentine.     1785-1865.     American  surgeon. 
Moultrie,  William.     1731-1805.    Am.  Revolutionary  general. 
Mozart,   Johann   Chrysostomus   Wolfgang   Amadcus.     1656- 

1791.    Gennan  composer.     Composed  short  uieces  at  the  age  of  six,  and 

at  seven  gave  concerts  in  Paris  and  London.     Distinguished  for  the 

universality  of  his  genius.     Don  Giovanni:    The  Magic  Flute:   The 

Marriage  of  Figaro:  Reouiem. 
Muhlenberg,  Henry  Melchior.     1711-1787.     Founder  of  the 

German  Lutheran  church  in  America. 
Muhlenberg,  John  Peter  Gabriel.     1746-1807.     Am.  general. 
Mukhtar  Pasha,  Ghazi  Ahmed.    1837- . . . .    Turkish  general 

and  statesman. 


British  admiral. 
1550-1614.     Scottish 

1785-1860.     British 

1810- 


Muller,    Friedrich    Maximilian    (Afax   AftUler).      1823- 

German  scholar  aad  writer  in  England.  Chips  from  a  German  Work- 
shop. 

Mulock,  Dinah  Maria.     See  Craik. 

Munchausen,  Hieronymus  Karl  Friedrich  von,  Baron.  1720- 
1797.    German  soldier  and  rom;. 

Munzer,  Thomas -1526.     German  Anabaptist  fanatic 

Murat,  Joachim.     1771-1815.     Fr.  marshal  and  king  of  Italy. 

Murillo,  Bartolome  Esteban.  1618-1682.  Spanish  painter. 
Excelled  as  a  colorist,  and  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  the  Spanish 
school  of  painters.     His  virgin  saints  and  beggar  boys  are  famous. 

Murray  (or  Moray),  James  Stuart,  Earl  of.  1533-1570.  Re- 
gent of  Scotland.    Opponent  of  Mary  Stuart.    Assassinated. 

Murray,  Lindley.      1 745- 1 826.     American  grammarian. 

Musset,  Louis  Charles  Alfred  de.     1810-1857.     French  poet. 

Nadir  Shah.  (Kouli  Khan.)  1688-1747.  King  of  Persia. 
Expelled  the  Afghans  and  dethroned  the  Shah  ;  conquered  part  of  India. 

Nana-Sahib.     1824- Leader  of  Sepoy  mutiny. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles  James.    1782-1853.    Eng.  general  in  India. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles  John.     1786-1860. 

Napier,    John,  Laird  of    Merchiston. 

mathematician. 

Napier,  Sir    William  Francis   Patrick. 

general  and  writer. 
Napier  of  Magdala,  Robert   Cornells  Napier,  Baron. 

1876.     British  general. 
Napoleon.     See  Bonaparte. 

Nash,  Richard.     Beau  Nash.     1674-1761.     English  fop. 
Nasir-ed-Din.     1829-.  .  .  .     Shah  of  Persia. 
Neander,    Johann    August    Wilhelm.     1789-1850.     German 

theologian  and  historian.     History  of  the  Christian  Religion* 

Nebuchadnezzar -561  B.C.   Chaldean  king  of  Babylon. 

Conquered  Jerusalem,  Tyre  and  Egypt. 
Necker,  Jacques.    1732-1804.    French  statesman  and  financier. 

Father  of  Mme.  de  Stael. 
Neilson,  Adelaide.    1853-1881.     American  actress. 

Nelson,    Horatio,    Viscount.     1758-1805.     The    greatest    of 

Britain's  naval  commanders.  Entered  the  navy  at  13;  post-captain, 
1779  ;  rear  admiral,  1797,  his  promotion  having  been  earoec  by  his  share 
in  the  victory  of  St.  Vincent :  lost  his  right  arm  in  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tack on  TcnerifTc  ;  won  the  battle  of  the  Nile  in  1798,  for  which  be  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile ;  became  separated 
from  his  wife,  owing  to  an  infatuation  with  Lady  Hamilton  which  lasted 
until  his  death  ;  created  a  viscount  for  the  victory  of  the  Baltic,  where, 
being  second  in  command,  he  disobeyed  the  orders  directing  him  to  re- 
treat ;  fell  at  Trafalgar,  where  his  fleet  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  French  and  Spanish. 

Nepos,  Cornelius.     Fl.  5  B.C.     Roman  historian. 

Neri,  Fihppo  de,  Saint.  St.  Philip  Neri.  1515-1595.  Italian 
founder  of  the  order  of  "  Priests  of  the  Oratory." 

Nerva,    Marcus  Cocceius.     32-98.     Roman   emperor,  76-98. 

Nesselrode.  Charles  Robert  von,  Count.  1780-1862.  Rus- 
sian diplomatist ;  minister  of  foreign  affairs  for  forty  years. 

Nestorius -440?  Syrian  prelate  ;  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  founder  of  the  Nestorian  schism. 

Newman,  John  Henry,  Cardinal.  1801-1890.  English  theo- 
logian. Graduated  at  Oxford  :  founded  an  ascetic  community  in  184s, 
over  which  he  presided  for  three  years ;  a  recogniied  leader  of  the 
High  Church  party  until  1845,  when  he  became  a  Catholic  ;  appointed 
rector  of  Catholic  University  at  Dublin  1854.  and  made  a  cardinal  by 
Pope  Leo  X1I1.  in  1879.     A  Grammar  of  Assent. 


4^ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


241 


Newton,  Sir  Isaac.      1 642-1 727.      English  philosopher  and 

mathematician.  The  son  of  a  farmer ;  graduated  at  Cambridge  1665, 
about  which  time  he  invented  the  "  method  of  fluxions."  and  discovered 
the  attraction  of  gravitation ;  discovered,  in  1668,  that  light  is  not  homo- 
geneous, but  consists  of  rays  of  different  refrangibility  ;  published  his 
Theory  of  Light  and  Color  in  1675,  and  his  greatest  work.  The  Prin- 
cipia,  in  1687. 

Ney,  Michel,  Duke  of  Echlingen  and  Prince  of  the  Moskwa. 
1796-1815.  French  marshal ;  the  son  of  a  cooper ;  entered  the  army  at 
18  as  a  private,  and  was  gradually  promoted.  Napoleon  called  him  "the 
bravest  of  the  brave,"  and  his  titles  were  conferred  upon  him  tor  his 
victory  at  Echlingen  in  1805,  and  his  services  at  the  battle  of  Borodino. 
Commanded  the  rear  guard  in  the  retreat  from  Moscow ;  defeated  by 
Bernadotte,  at  Dennewitz,  1813  ;  submitted  to  Louis  XVIII.  upon  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon,  against  whom  he  was  sent  with  an  army  in 
1815,  but  united  his  army  with  that  of  his  old  commander;  had  five 
horses  shot  underhim  at  Waterloo,  where  he  fought  with  his  usual  valor ; 
was  captured  soon  after,  and  executed  on  a  charge  of  treason. 

Nicholas  I.  Pope,  ruling  from  858  to  867.  II.,  1059-1061. 
HI.,  1277-1280.    IV.,  128S-1292.    V.,  1447-1455. 

Nicholas  I.  1796-1855.  Emperor  of  Russia;  at  war  with 
Persia  and  Turkey ;  subdued  Polish  insurrection,  1831 ;  engaged  in 
Crimean  war. 

Nicholas.     1841-.  .  .  .     Prince  of  Montenegro. 

Niebuhr,  Barthold  Georg.     1776-1831.     German  historian. 

Nicot,  Jean.     1530-1600.     Fr.  scholar;  introduced  tobacco. 

Nightingale,   Florence.     1820-. . . .      English  philanthropist. 

Notes  on  Hospitals. 

Nilsson,  Christine.     (Mme.  Rouzaud.)     1843- Swedish 

vocalist. 

Noailles,  Adrian  M.,  Duke  of.     1678-1766.     French  general. 
Nordenskjold,  Adolf  Erik.     1832-. .  . .     Swedish  explorer. 
Nordhoff,  Charles.     1830-.  . . .     Am.  author  and  journalist. 
North,  Christopher.     See  Wilson,  John. 
North,  Frederick,  Lord.     1732-1792.     English  statesman. 
Northcote,  Sir  Stafford  Henry.      1818-1887.    Eng.  statesman. 
Norton,    Caroline    Elizabeth  Sarah    [nie    Sheridan).      1808- 

1877.    English  authoress.    Stuart  of  Dunleith. 
Nostradamus.  (Michel  tie  Notredame.)     1503-1566.    French 

astrologer.     Centuries. 

Nottingham,  Heneage  Finch,  first  Earl  of.  1621-1682.  Eng- 
lish jurist  and  statesman. 

Novalis.  (Friedrich  von  Hardenberg.)  1772-1801.  Ger- 
man author. 

Novello,  Vincent.     1771—1861.     English  composer. 

Noyes,  George  Rapall.     1798- 1868.     American  theologian. 

Noyes,  John  Humphrey.   1811-1886.   American  communist. 

OATES,  Titus.  1620-1705.  English  informer;  contriver 
of  the  celebrated  "Popish  Plot." 

Oberlin,  Jean  Frederic.  1740-1816.  French-German  re- 
former and  philanthropist. 

O'Brien,  William  Smith.  1803-1864.  Irish  political  agitator. 
Leader  of  "  Young  Ireland  "  party  ;  banished  for  treason. 

O'Connell,  Daniel.  1775-1847.  Irish  patriot  and  orator. 
Advocated  Catholic  emancipation,  but  opposed  resort  to  arms ;  elected 
to  Parliament  in  1828,  but  not  allowed  to  take  his  seat  until  1829,  when 
the  bill  for  Catholic  emancipation  was  passed ,  gave  up  his  large  law 
practice  and  gave  his  entire  attention  to  public  duties  ;  began  advocating 
the  repeal  of  the  union  in  1840,  and  was  convicted  in  1844  on  a  charge  of 
treason,  but  the  sentence,  one  year's  imprisonment  and  ^2,000  fine,  was 
reversed  by  the  House  of  Lords. 

O'Conor,  Charles.     1804-1884.     American  lawyer. 


Occam,  William  of.  The  Invincible  Doctor.  i28o?-I347. 
English  theologian. 

Odoacer -493-     Gothic  king  of  Italy ;  executed. 

O'Donnell,  Leopold,  Count  of  Lucena,  Duke  of  Tetuan. 
1809-1867.    Spanish  general  and  statesman. 

Oehlenschlager,  Adam  Gottlob.     1 779-1 850.     Danish  poet. 

Oersted,  Hans  Christian.  1777-1851.  Danish  natural  phil- 
osopher ;  founder  of  the  science  of  electro-magnetism. 

Offenbach,  Jacques.     1819-1880.     German-French  composer. 

La  Belle  Heline ;  Orphie  aux  Enfers ;  Bluebeard;  La  Grande 
Duchesse:  Lajolie  Par/umeuse,  etc. 

Oglesby,  Richard  J.     1824-. . . .     American  statesman. 

Oglethorpe,  James  Edward.  1698-1785.  English  general; 
colonized  Georgia. 

Oldcastle,  Sir  John,  Lord  Cobham.  1360-1407.  English  re- 
former; head  of  the  Lollards  ;  executed. 

Oldfield,  Anne.     1683-1730.     English  actress. 

Oliphant,  Margaret.     1818-. . .  .English  novelist. 

Ollendorff,  Henri  Godefroy.     1803-1865.     German  educator. 

Ollivier,  Olivier  Emile.     1825-. . . .     French  statesman. 

Omar  I.     581-644.     Arabian  caliph.     Conquered  Jerusalem. 

Omar  Pasha.    (Michael  Lattas.)     1806-1871.     Turkish  com 

mander  in  the  Crimean  war ;  born  in  Croatia. 

O'Meara,  Barry  Edward.     1780-1836.     Irish  physician   and 

author.    Napoleon  in  Exile. 
Opie,  Mrs.  Amelia.     1769-1853.     English  authoress. 
Orange,  William,  Prince  of.    The  Silent.   1 553-1 584.  Founder 

of  the  Dutch  republic  ;  leader  of  the  insurrection  which  broke  out  when 
it  was  attempted  to  introduce  the  Inquisition  into  the  .Netherlands. 
Assassinated. 

Origen.  i86?-253.  Greek  theologian  and  preacher.  Endeav- 
ored to  harmonize  the  teachings  of  Christ  and  Plato;  opposed  the  theory 
of  eternal  punishment. 

Orleans,  Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  Due  d'.      1747-1793.      Took 

the  popular  side  on  the  assembling  of  the  States-General,  renounced  his 
titles  and  assumed  the  name  of  Egalite  (Equality).  Voted  for  the  death  of 
his  cousin,  Louis  XVI.  Condemned  by  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  and 
executed.     His  son,  Louis  Philippe,  afterward  became  king  of  France. 

Orleans,  Philippe,  Due  d'.     1674-1723.     Regent  of  France. 
Orloff,  Alexis,  Count.     1787-1861.     Russian  general. 
Ormond,  James  Butler,  Duke  of.    1610-1688.  Irish  statesman; 

put  down  the  Irish  rebellion. 

Orsini,  Felice.  1819-1858.  Italian  conspirator;  leader  in  the 
attempted  assassination  of  Napoleon  III.,  in  1858  ;  executed. 

Oscar  II.     1829-.  .  .  .     King  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 

Osman  I.     1259-1326.     Founder  of  Ottoman  dynasty. 

Ossoli,  Margaret  Fuller,  Marchioness.  1810-1850.  Ameri- 
can authoress. 

Otho  I.  The  Great.  912-973.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Christianized  the  Danes;  deposed  Pope  John  XII.  II.,  955-983.  III., 
980-1002.    IV.,  1174-1218. 

Otho  I.     1815-1867.     King  of  Greece. 

Otis,  James.  1 725-1 783.  Am.  lawyer,  orator  and  patriot. 
Opposed  "  writs  of  assistance ' ';    leader  of  the  popular  party. 

Otway,  Thomas.     1651—1685.     English  dramatist. 

Oudinot,  Nicholas  Charles.     1767-1847.     French  general. 

Outram,  Sir  James.     1802-1863.     English  general  in  India. 

Overbury,  Sir  Thomas.     1581-1613.     English  poet. 

Ovid.  (Publius  Ovidius  Naso.)  B.C.  43-  18  a.d.    Roman  poet. 

Owen,  Sir  Rich'd.     1804- Eng.  zoologist  and  anat. 


V 


16 


^ 


1 


242 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


i-av. 


Owen,  Robert.     1771-1858.     English  socialist ;  founder  of  the 

community  of  New  Harmony. 
Oxensticrn,  Axel,  Count.      1583-1654.     Swedish  statesman. 

*T)ADILLA,  Don  Juan  Lope*  de -1521.      Spanish 

^         patriot  and  general ;  executed. 

Paganini,  Niccolo.     1784-1840.     Italian  violinist. 

Paine,  Robert  Treat.     1731-1814.  Am.  lawyer  and  statesman. 

Paine,  Thomas.  1737-1809.  American  political  writer  and 
free-thinker;  bom  in  England.  Common  Stmt;  Rights  of  Man  ;  Tht 
Age  0/  Reason. 

Pakenham,  Sir  Edward -1815.     British  general;  fell 

at  New  Orleans. 

Palestrina,  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da.  I524?-I594.  Italian  com- 
poser of  church  music.    Mass  of  Pope  Marcellus. 

Paley,  William.     1 743-1805.     English  theologian. 

Palissy,  Bernard.     1506-1589.     Fr.  potter  and  enameller. 

Palladio,  Andrea.     1518-1580.     Italian  architect. 

Palmaroli,  Pietro -1828.     Italian  painter. 

Palmerston,  Henry  John  Temple,  Viscount.  1784-1865. 
English  statesman  ;  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  prime  minister. 

Paoli,  Pasqualedi.     1726-1807.     Corsican  general. 

Papin,  Denis.     1647-1712.     French  physician.     (Digester.) 

Papineau,  Louis  Joseph.     1 789-1 871.       Canadian  politician. 

Paracelsus,  Philippus  Aureolus  Theophrastus  Bombastus  von 
Hohenheim.     1493-1541.    Swiss  alchemist  and  empiric. 

Parepa-Rosa,  Euphrosyne.     1 836-1 874.     Scottish  vocalist. 

Paris,  Louis  Albert  Philippe  d'Orleans,  Comte  de.     1838- 

French  prince  ;  grandson  of  Louis  Philippe. 

Park,  Mungo.     1771-1805.       Scottish  traveller  and  explorer. 

Travels  in  the  Interior  0/  Africa. 
Parker,  Matthew.      1 504-1 575.      English  prelate. 
Parker,  Theodore.     1810-1860.     Am.  rationalistic  theologian. 
Parkman,  Francis.     1823-. . . .     American  historian. 
Parnell,  Chas.  Stewart.    1843-1891.    Irish  agitator;  leader 

of  the  Irish  parliamentary  party. 
Parr,  Catherine.  1 509-1 548.    Surviving  queen  of  Henry  VIII. 
Parrhasius.      Fl.  400  B.C.     Greek  painter. 
Parrott,  Robert  Parker.     1804-1877.     American  inventor. 
Parry,  Sir  William  Edmund.       1 790-1855.       English  Arctic 

explorer  ;  discovered  Barrow's  Strait. 
Parsons,  Theophilus.    1750-1813;  1797-1882.  Am.  jurists. 
Parton,  James.     1822-1891.    American  historian. 
Pascal,   Blaise.      1623-1662.      French    philosopher   and 

mathematician.    At  the  age  of  twelve,  he  had  acquired,  without 

books,  a  knowledge  of  geometry,  and  established  the  theory  of 

atmospheric  pressure,  1648, 
Pasteur,  Louis.     182*-. . . .     Fr.  chemist  and  pathologist. 
Patrick,  Saint.      372?-46o?      Apostle  of  Ireland. 
Patti,  Adelina  Maria  Clorinda,  Marquise  de  Caux.     1843-.  -  •  • 

Operatic  singer,  of  Italian  descent ;  born  in  Madrid. 
Paul,    Saint,   of    Tarsus.     Saul.     lo?-66?     Apostle. 
Paul  I.  Pope  from  757  to  767.  II.,  1464-1471.  III.  (Alessan- 

dro  Farnese),  1534-1549 ;  excommunicated  Henry  VIII. ;  called  Council 

ofTrent.    IV.,  i555->5».    V.,  1605-1621. 

Paul  I.     1 754-1801.     Emperor  of  Russia  ;  assassinated. 
Paul  Veronese.    (Paolo  Cagliari.)   15307-1588.    It.  painter. 
Pausanias.     Fl.  479  B.C.     Spartan  general. 
Paxton,  Sir  Joseph.     1 803-1 865.     English  architect. 


Payne,  John  Howard.     1792-1852.     American  dramatist  and 

poet.    Home,  Sweet  Home. 
Peabody,    George.      1795-1869.      American   philanthropist 
Acquired  great  wealth  as  a  banker  in   London ;   expended  over  five 
millions  in  benevolent  enterprises. 

Peale,  Rembrandt.     1778-1860.     American  painter. 

Pedro   (de   Alcantara)   I.     1798-1834.     Emperor  of  Brazil; 

king  of  Portugal  as  Pedro  IV.     IX,  1815-1891.     Deposed  1889. 
Peel,  Sir  Robert     Orange  Peel.      1788-1850.      English 

statesman  and  prime  minister;  repealed  the  Corn  Laws. 

Peixoto,  Floriano.     President  of  Brazil.     Elected  1891. 
Pelham,  Henry.     1684-1754.     English  statesman. 
Pellegrini,  Carlos.     Pres.  Agentine  Rep.     Elected    1890. 
Pellico,  Silvio.     1789-1854.     Italian  poet  and  patriot 
Pemberton,  John  Clifford.     1814-1881.     Confederate  general. 
Penn,   William.      1644-1718.      English   Quaker;    statesman, 

courtier,  author  and  philanthropist ;  rounder  of  Pennsylvania.    Son  of 

Sir  William  Penn,  an  English  admiral. 

Pepin.  The  Short.  7i4?-768.  King  of  France.  Son  of 
Charles  Martel  and  father  of  Charlemagne.  Mayor  of  the  palace  under 
Childeric  III.;  usurped  the  throne  in  75a. 

Pepys,   Samuel.     1632-1703.     English   author   and   scholar; 

secretary  of  the  admiralty.     Diary  ;  Memories  0/  the  Navy. 

Pepperell,  Sir  William.     1696-1759.     Am.  colonial  general. 
Perceval,  Spencer.   1762-1812.   Eng.  statesman ;  assassinated. 
Percival,  James  Gates.     1795-1856.     American  poet 
Percy,  Thomas.     1728-181 1.     English  prelate  and  author. 
Pereire,  Emile  (1800-1875)  and  Isaac  (1806- ).     French 

financiers.     Founded  the  "Credit  Mobilier." 
Pergolesi,  Giovanni  Battista.    !7io?-i737?   Italian  composer. 
Pericles.      4957-429   B.C.      Athenian   orator,   statesman   and 

general.    Became  the  leader  of  the  democratic  party  and  the  first  man  in 

Athens;  greatly  increased  Athenian  influence;    erected  many  noble 

public  works,  including  the  Parthenon. 

Perrault,  Claude.     1613-1688.     French  architect. 

Perry,  Matthew  Calbraith.  1794-1858.  American  commodore ; 
commanded  expedition  to  Japan.  « 

Perry,  Oliver  Hazard.  1785-1819.  American  commodore; 
defeated  the  British  on  Lake  Erie. 

Persius  Flaccus,  Aulus.     34-62.     Roman  satirist. 

Perugino,  Pietro.     (Vannucci.)     1446-1524.     Italian  painter. 

Pestalozzi,  Johann  Heinrich.    1745-1827.   Swiss  educationist. 

Peter,  Saint -66.     Apostle. 

Peter  I.  The  Great.  1672-1725.  Czar  of  Russia.  Organ- 
ized an  army  and  entered  it  as  a  private  ;  studied  practical  seamanship, 
and  formed  a  navy ;  travelled  incognito  in  Western  Europe  ;  worked  as 
a  ship-carpenter  in  Holland  :  founded  schools  and  effected  a  number  of 
reforms  ;  defeated  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  at  Pultowa,  1709  ;  founded 
St.  Petersburg.  His  second  wife,  Catherine,  was  a  prisoner  of  war,  of 
obscure  parentage.  The  crown  prince,  Alexis,  opposing  the  czar's 
policy,  was  forced  to  renounce  the  succession  and  is  said  to  have  been 
poisoned  by  his  father. 

Peter  the  Hermit.      1050?-!  1 15.      Preacher  of  first  crusade. 

Peterborough,  Charles  Mordaunt,  Earl  of.  1658-1735. 
English  general ;  able  but  eccentric  Captured  Barcelona  and  Valencia. 

Petion,  Alexandre.     1770-1818.     First  president  of  Hayti. 

Petrarch.  (Francesco  Petrarca.)  1304-1374.  Italian  poet 
and  scholar.  Enamored  of  Laura  de  Sadc,  whose  name  has  been  ren- 
dered Immortal  by  over  three  hundred  sonnets  and  fifty  ■-«»-»■»  ad- 
dressed to  her. 

Pettie,  John.     1839- Scottish  artist. 


\ 


K" 


A 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


243 


1815-1852.      American  authoress. 


Daughter  of  preceding 
His 


Phelps,  Elizabeth  Stuart 
The  Sunny  Side. 

Phelps,  Elizabeth  Stuart.     1844-. . . 
American  authoress.     The  Gates  Ajar. 

Phidias.    490-432  B.c.    The  greatest  of  Greek  sculptors. 
Zeus  at  Olympia  is  counted  among  the  wonders  of  the  world. 

Philidor.  Assumed  name  of  a  French  family  (Danican)  of 
musicians.  Francois  Andre  Danican  (1736-1795)  was  a  celebrated  chess 
player. 

Philip.       (Pometacom.)      King  Philip -1676.      New 

England  Indian  chief;  sachem  of  Pokanoket.     (King    Philip's  war.) 

Philip  II.  382-336  B.C.  King  of  Macedonia ;  father  of  Alex- 
ander the.  Great.    Assassinated. 

Philip  II.  (Augustus.)  1 165-1223.  King  of  France.  An- 
nexed Normandy,  Anjou  and  Lorraine;  won  the  battle  of  Bou- 
vines.  III.,  The  Bold,  1245-1285;  ascended  the  throne  in  1270. 
IV.,  The  Fair,  12G8-1314;  reduced  the  power  of  the  feudal  nobles; 
imprisoned  Pope  Boniface  III.  and  caused  him  to  remove  his  seat 
to  Avignon;  suppressed  the  order  of  Knights  Templars.  VI.  (of 
Valois),  1293-1350. 

Philip  II.  1527-1598.  King  of  Spain.  Son  of  Charles  V. 
Provoked  insurrection  in  the  Netherlands  by  his  attempt  to  intro- 
duce the  Spanish  Inquisition;  married,  on  the  death  of  Mary  Tudor, 
his  second  wife,  Isabella  of  France,  the  betrothed  of  his  son,  Don 
Carlos;  equipped  the  "Invincible  Armada"  for  the  conquest  of 
England.  III.,  1578-1621.  IV.,  1605-1665.  V.,  1683-1746;  first  of 
the  House  of  Bourbon. 

Philip.      The  Good.     1396-1467.     Duke  of  Burgundy. 

Phillips,  Adelaide.     1833-. . . .       English-American  vocalist. 

Phillips,  Wendell.  1811-1884.  American  orator  and  abo- 
litionist.  Speech  in  Faneuil  Hall,  1836. 

Phips  (or  Phipps),  Sir  William.  1651-1695.  Colonial  gover- 
nor of  Massachusetts.    Captured  Port  Royal. 

Phocion.     4027-317  B.C.     Athenian  general  and  statesman. 

Piccolomini,  Ottavio.  1599-1656.  Austrian  general ;  con- 
spirator against  Wallenstein.  Gained  great  distinction  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  war  ;  led  Spanish  army  in  Flanders. 

Pickering,  Timothy.     1745-1829.     American  statesman. 

Pierce,  Franklin.      1804-1869.       Fourteenth  president  of  the 

United  States.  Born  in  New  Hampshire  ;  Congress,  1832-7  ;  senator, 
1837-42 ;  brigadier-general  in  Mexican  war  ;  elected  president  on  the 
Democratic  ticket,  in  1852,  holding  that  office  from  1853-7  ;  opposed  co- 
ercion ol  the  South  in  1863. 

Pilate,  Pontius -38.     Roman  governor  of  Palestine. 

Pinckney,  Charles  Cotesworth.  1746-1825.  American  states- 
man and  soldier;  leader  of  the  Federalists. 

Pindar.   520  7-440  ?  B.C.     Greek  lyric  poet. 

Pinkney,  William.        1764-1822.       Am.  lawyer  and  orator. 

Pisano,  Andrea.     1270-1345.      Italian  sculptor  and  architect. 

Pisano,  Nicola.    12007-1278?   Italian  sculptor. 

Pisistratus.     612-527  B.C.     Tyrant  of  Athens. 

Pitcairn,    Maj.  John -1775-      English   officer;    fell  at 

Bunker  HiU. 

Pitman,  Benn.     1822-. . . .     English  phonographer. 

Pitman,  Isaac.     1813-. . . .    Eng.  inventor  of  phonography. 

Pitt,  William.  1 759-1 806.  English  statesman  and  orator. 
Son  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham.  Graduated  at  Cambridge  ;  admitted  to 
thebar,  1780;  entered  Parliament,  1781  ;  chancellor  of  the exchecquer, 
1782  ;  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  prime  minister,  1783  ;  head  of  the 
great  coalition  against  Bonaparte. 

Pius  I.     Pope,  142-157.     II.,  1458-1464.     III.,  1503;    died 

same  year  IV.  (Giovanni  Angelo  de'Mcdici),  1559-1565  ;  convoked 
Council  of  Trent.  V,  1566-1572.  VI.,  1775-1799.  VII.,  1800-1823  ; 
taken  from  Rome  in  1809  by  Napoleon,  and  detained  at  Genoa  and  Fon- 


tainebleau.  VIII.,  1839-1830.  IX.  fGiovanni  Maria  Maitai  Ferretti), 
bom  1793  ;  chosen  to  the  pontificate,  1846 ;  died,  1878.  During  his 
incumbency  the  dogmas'  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  and  of  Papal  In- 
fallibility were  promulgated;  temporal  power  overthrown,  1870,  and 
the  Papal  States  annexed  to  Italy. 

Pizarro,  Francisco.    14757-1541?     Sp.  conqueror  of  Peru. 

Plantagenet.     Dynasty  of  English  kings,  1 1 54-1485. 

Plato.  428-347  B.C.  Greek  philosopher;  disciple  of  Socrates 
Held  that  the  human  soul  has  always  existed,  and  that  an  idea  is  an 
eternal  thought  of  the  divine  mind. 

Pleasonton,  Alfred.     1824- American  general. 

Pliny.  The  Elder.  23-79.  Roman  naturalist ;  perished  at 
an  eruption  of  Vesuvius.    Natural  History. 

Pliny.     The  Younger.     62?-n6.     Roman  orator  and  author. 

Plotinus.     205-270.     Greek  Neo-Platonic  philosopher. 

Plunkett,    William    Conyngham,    Lord.      1764-1854.     Irish 

jurist. 

Plutarch.      507-120?      Greek    biographer    and    philosopher. 

Parallel  Lives. 

Pocahontas.      15957-1617.      Daughter  of  Powhatan.    Saved 

the  life  of  Capt.  John  Smith,  an  English  explorer ;  was  converted  to 
Christianity,  and  married  an  English  gentleman  named  Rolfe. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan.  1809-1849.  American  author ;  extremely 
dissipated.  The  Raven  ;  The  Fall  0/  the  House  0/  Usher  ;  Tales  0/ 
the  Grotesque  and  Arabesque . 

Polk,  James  Knox.  1795- 1849.  American  statesman; 
eleventh  president.  Bom  in  North  Carolina ;  removed  to  Tennessee ; 
admitted  to  the  bar ;  Congress,  1835;  speaker  for  two  terms  ;  governor 
of  Tennessee,  1839-41 ;  elected  president  en  the  Democratic  ticket, 
holding  that  office  from  1845-9.  During  his  term  Texas  was  formally 
annexed  to  the  Union,  and  the  Mexican  war  prosecuted. 

Polk,  Leonidas.  1806-1864.  Episcopal  bishop  and  Confed- 
erate general ;  prominent  at  Shiloh  and  Stone  River. 

Pollok,  Robert.     17987-1827.     Scot.   poet.     Course  of  Time. 
Polo,  Marco.     12527-1324?     Venetian  traveller. 
Polybius.     2067-124  B.C.     Greek  historian. 
Polycarp,  Saint.     807-169?     Bishop  of  Smyrna ;  martyr. 
Pompadour,  Jeanne  Antoinette  Poisson,  Marquise  de.     172I- 

1764.     Mistress  of  Louis  XV.  of  France  ;    assumed  complete  control 

of  public  affairs. 
Pompey.     The    Great.     106-48    B.C.     Roman    general   and 

triumvir;  conquered  Suetonius  and  Mithridates  ;  became  leader  of  the 

aristocracy  and  opponent  of  Caesar;  defeated  at  Pharsalia. 
Ponce  de  Leon,  Juan.     1460-1521.     Spanish  discoverer  of 

Florida. 

Poniatowski,  Jozef  Antoni,  Prince.  1762-1813.  Polish  com- 
mander; created  field-marshal  by  Napoleon. 

Pontiac.  17127-1769.  Chief  of  the  Ottawas;  formed  coali- 
tion of  Indians  against  the  whites,  and  attempted  to  capture  Detroit. 

Pope,  Alexander.  1 688-1 744.  English  poet.  The  son  of  a 
linen-draper ;  educated  by  a  Catholic  priest.  Macaulay  calls  him  "  a 
great  master  of  invective  and  sarcasm."  Messiah:  Pastorals  ;  Essay 
on  Man  ;  Essay  on  Criticism  ;  The  JDtmciad;  Rape  0/  the  Loch,  and 
translations  of  Homer. 

Porter,  David.     1780-1843.     American  commodore. 

Porter,  David  Dixon.  1813-1891.  Son  of  preceding.  Am- 
erican admiral ;  reduced  Fort  Fisher,  1865. 

Porter,   Fitz  John.     1823-....     Nephew   of  David   Porter. 

American  general. 

Porter,  Jane.  1776-1850.  Eng.  novelist.   Thaddeus  of  Warsaw. 
Porter,  Noah.     181 1-.  .  .  .     American  educator. 
Powers,  Hiram.     1805-1873.     American  sculptor. 
Powhatan.     15507-1618.    Indian  chieftain  in  Virginia. 


=^b 


^l 


K 


244 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


/ 


Praxiteles.     Fl.  360  B.C.     Greek  sculptor. 

Preble,  Edward.     1761-1807.     American  naval  officer. 

Prentice,  George  Denison.     1802-1870.      American  poet  and 

journalist. 
Prentiss,  Sergeant  Smith.     1808-1850.     American  orator  and 

lawyer. 
Prescott,  William  Hickling.     1796-1859.  American  historian. 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

Price,  Sterling 1867.     Confederate  general. 

Prim,   Juan,  Count  de  Reus  and  Marquis  de  los  Castillejos. 

1814-1870.     Spanish  general  and  statesman  :  assassinated. 

Prior,  Matthew.    1664-1721.     English  poet  and  diplomatist. 

Probus,  Marcus  Aurelius.     232—282.     Roman  emperor. 

Procter,  Adelaide  Anne.     1825- 1864.     English  poetess. 

Procter,  Bryan  Waller.  Barry  Cornwall.  1790-1874.  Eng- 
lish poet.     The  Sea. 

Prout,  Father.  (Francis  Mahony.)  1805-1866.  Irish  journal- 
ist and  writer. 

Prynne,  William.     1600-1669.     English  Puritan  writer. 

Ptolemy  I.  Soter.  397?-283  B.C.  King  of  Egypt.  II., 
Philadelphus ,    309-447  b.c 

Ptolemy.  (Claudius  Ptolemseus.)  Fl.  2d  century  Greek 
astronomer  and  geographer.  Believed  the  earth  to  be  at  rest  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  universe,  the  heavenly  bodies  moving  around  't 

Pugin,  Augustus  N.  W.     1811-1852.     English  architect. 
Pulaski,  Casimir,  Count.    1 747-1 779.     Polish  patriot;  general 

in  the  American  Revolutionary  army.    Fell  at  the  siege  of  Savannah. 
Putnam,  Israel.   1718-1790.  American  Revolutionary  general. 

Conspicuous  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 
Pym,  John.     1 584-1643.     English  republican  statesman  and 

orator ;  popular  leader  in  Parliament. 
Pyrrho.     36o?-270?  B.C.     Greek  skeptic  and  philosopher. 
Pyrrhus.      3187-272  B.C.      King  of  Epirus  and  one  of  the 

greatest  of  ancient  generals.      Defeated  the  Romans  and  conquered 

Macedonia 

Pythagoras.  6oo?-5io?  B.C.  Greek  philosopher.  Taught 
the  doctrine  of  transmigration  of  souls 

QUACKENBOS,   George   Payn.     1826- 1881.   American 
educationist. 

Quarles,  Francis.     1592- 1 644.     English  poet.     Emblems. 

Queensberry,  William  Douglas,  Duke  of.  1724-1810.  Scot- 
tish profligate. 

Quin,  James.     1693-1766.     English  actor,  famous  as  Falstaff. 

Quincy,  Josiah.     1744-1775.     American  orator  and  patriot. 

Quincy,  Josiah.  1772- 1 864.  Son  of  preceding.  American 
statesman  and  scholar. 

Quintilianus,  Marcus  Fabius.    50?-u8?    Roman  rhetorician. 

Va^ABELAIS,  Francois.    I495?-I553-   French  scholar  and 

<AJ\  satirist.  Joined  the  Franciscans,  but  left  the  order:  afterward 
studied  medicine  His  great  work,  The  Pleasant  Story  0/  the  Giant 
Gargantna  and  hit  Son  Pantagruel,  is  a  satire  upon  the  different 
branches  of  society  of  his  age,  more  particularly  the  monastic  orders 

Rachel.  (Elizabeth  Rachel  Felix.)  1821-1858.  French 
actress,  born  in  Switzerland ;  daughter  of  a  Jewish  peddler. 

Racine,  Jean.  1639-1699.  French  dramatist.  Les  Plat- 
dears  :  Britannicus  ;  Berenice  ;  Bafaut  ;  lphigtnie  :  Phidre  : 
Esther;  Athalie. 

Racine,  Louis.     1692-1763.     French  poet.     Son  of  J.  R. 

Radcliffe,  Ann.     1 764-1823.     English  novelist. 

Radcliffe,  John.     1650-1714.     English  physician. 


Raglan,  James   Henry   Fitzroy  Somerset,  Lord.     1788-1855. 

English  general.     Commanded  British  army  in  Crimean  war. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter.  1552-1618.  English  courtier,  states- 
man, navigator  and  author.  A  favorite  of  Queen  Elizabeth ;  executed 
by  James  I . 

Rameau,  Jean  Philippe.     1683-1764.     French  composer. 

Ramsay,  Allan.     1685-1758.     Scottish  poet. 

Ranavalona  III.     Queen  of  Madagascar      Sue.  1883. 

Randolph,  John  (of  Roanoke).  1773-1833.  American  poli- 
tician and  orator.  Entered  Congress  1799;  advocated  extension  of 
slavery;  opposed  Missouri  Compromise ;  Senate,  1824;  soon  after  fought 
a  duel  with  Henry  Clay  ;  minister  to  Russia,  1830. 

Randolph,  Peyton.  1723-1775.  President  of  first  American 
Congress. 

Raphael.    (Raffaelle  Sanzio,  or  Santi  d'  Urbino.)     1483-1520. 

Italian  painter.    Sistine  Madonna  ;  Adoration  of  the  Magi;  Marriage 
o/tke  Virgin  :    Transfiguration,  etc. 

Ravaillac,  Francois.    1578-1610.    French  fanatic  ;  assassin  of 

Henry  IV. 
Read,  Thomas  Buchanan.     1822-1872.     American  poet  and 

artist.      The  House  by  the  Sea  ;    The  Wagoner  of  the  Alleghanies. 

Reade,  Charles.     1814-1884    English  novelist.    Peg  Wojfing- 

ton:  Hard  Cash;   White  Lies:  A    Terrible    Temptation  ;    Griffith 

Gaunt. 
Reaumur,   Rene  Antoine  Ferchault  de.     1683-1757.     French 

naturalist  and  inventor  of  a  thermometer. 
Recamier,  Jeanne  F  J.  A.  B.  1777-1849.    French  lady  noted 

for  beauty  and  accomplishments. 
Red  Jacket.     1760-1830.     Eloquent  Seneca  Indian  chief. 
Reeves,  Sims.     1821-....     English  oratorio  singer. 
Regulus,  Marcus  Atilius -250  B.C.     Roman  general  and 

statesman.     Captured  by  the  Carthaginians  and  sent  to  Rome  to  secure 

peace,   but    advised    against   it  J    returning    to    Carthage  as    he    had 

promised,  he  was  tortured  and  put  to  death. 
Reid,  Capt.  Mayne.      1818-1883.     Irish-American  novelist. 
Rembrandt  van  Ryn,  Paul.     1607-1669.     Dutch  painter. 
Remusat,  Charles  Francois  Marie,  Count.   1797-1875.  French 

statesman  and  philosopher.     Essays  on  Philosophy. 
Renan,   Joseph    Ernest.     1823- .     French  philologist  and 

writer.     Life  of  Jesus. 

Retz,  Jean  Francois  Paul  de  Gondi,  Cardinal.  1614-1679. 
French  prelate ;  a  leader  of  the  Frondeurs.     Memoirs. 

Reuter,  Kritz.     1810-1874.     Low-German  poet  and  novelist. 

Reuter,  Julius.  181 5-....  German  originator  of  Reuter's 
Telegraphic  Agency. 

Revere,  Paul.  1735-1818.  American  engraver  and  Revolu- 
tionary patriot.  Carried  the  news  of  Gage's  impending  attack  to 
Concord. 

Reynolds,  John  Fulton.     1820-1863.     American  general. 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua.      1723-1792.     English  painter. 

Ricardo,  David.     1772-1823.     English  pohti-al  economist. 

Richard  I.     Caeur  de  Lion.     1 1 57-1 109.     King  of  England. 
Led  a  large  army  into  Palestine,  where  he  exhibited  great  pa 
prowess,  conquered  Acre  and  defeated  Saladin.     II.,  1306-1400.     111., 
1453-1485,  last  of  the  Plantagenets. 

Richardson,  Samuel.     1689-1761.     English  novelist. 

Richelieu,  Annand  Jean  du  Plessis,  Cardinal.  1585-1643. 
French  prelate  and  statesman.  Made  cardinal,  i6m  .  prime  minister,. 
1624  ,  curbed  the  nobility  1  subdued  the  Calvinists ;  restored  balance  of 
power  in  Europe ;  granted  religious  toleration  to  the  Protestants ; 
secured  exile  of  his  foe,  Marie  de  Medici,  the  king's  mother,  1630 ; 
aided  German  Protestants  against  Austria :  founded  French  Academy 
(1635);  added  Alsace,  Lorraine,  and  Roussillon  to  France. 


v~ 


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A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


245 


Richter,  Johann  Paul  Friedrich.  Jean  Paul.  1763-1825. 
German  author.  Among  his  works,  which  are  distinguished  for  quaint- 
ness  and  originality,  may  be  named  Greenland  Lawsuits  :  Hesperus  ; 
The  Invisible  Lodge  ;  Parson  in  Jubilee  :   Titan. 

Ridley,  Nicholas.     i5oo?-i555.    English  bishop  and  reformer. 

Burned  at  the  stake. 

Rienzi,  Nicola  Gabrini.  I3I3?-I354-  Roman  orator;  made 
famous  by  his  attempt  to  restore  the  Roman  Republic. 

Ripon,  George  Frederick  Samuel  Robinson,  Earl  de  Grey  and 
Marquis  of.     1827-....     English  statesman. 

Ristori,  Adelaide,  Marchioness  del  Grillo.     1821- Italian 

actress. 

Rittenhouse,  David.     1732-1796.    American  astronomer. 

Riviere,  Briton.     1840-. . . .     English  animal  painter. 

Rizzio,  David.  1540-1566.  Italian  musician;  favorite  and 
secretary  of  Mary  Stuart ;  assassinated. 

Robert.  Robert  the  Devil.  ....-1035.  Duke  of  Normandy ; 
father  of  William  the  Conqueror. 

Robert  I.  Robert  Bruce.  1274-1329.  King  of  Scotland. 
II.,  1316-1390;  first  of  the  Stuarts. 

Robert,  Louis  Leopold.     1794-1835.     French  painter. 

Robertson,  Frederick  William.     1816-1853.     Eng.  divine. 

Robespierre,  Maximilien  Joseph  Marie  Isidore.  1 758-1 794. 
French  Jacobin  revolutionist ;  ruler  during  the  Reign  of  Terror ;  guil- 
lotined. 

Robin  Hood.     Fl.  12th  century.     English  outlaw. 

Rob    Roy.      (Robert     McGregor.)      i66o?-i735?      Scottish 

freebooter. 

Rochamcoau,  Jean  Baptiste  Donatien  de  Vimeur  de,  Count. 

1725-1807.     French  marshal ;  general  in  America  in  1781. 

Rockefort,  Victor  Henri  de  Rochefort-Lucay,  Comte.     1830- 

....     French  editor  and  communist. 
Rochefoucauld,  Francois,  Due  de  la.     1613-1680.     French 

wit  and  author.     Maxims. 

Rochejaquelin,   Henri   de  la,    Comte.     1772-1794.     French 

royalist :  leader  of  the  Vendeans. 
Rodney,  George    Bridges,  Lord.     1718-1792.     Brit,    admiral. 
Roebling,  John  Augustus.     1806-1869.     American  engineer. 

Rogers,  John.     1829- American  sculptor. 

Rogers,    John.      I50o?-i555.      English    divine;     burned  at 

Smithfield. 
Rogers,  Samuel.     1763-1855.     English  poet. 
Roland,  Marie  Jeanne  Philipon,  Mme.     1754-1793.     French 

Girondist  and  writer  ;  guillotined.     Memoirs. 
Rollin,  Charles.     1661-1741.     Fr.  historian.   Ancient  History . 
Rollc,  ov  Hrolf.     86o?-930?     Norwegian  viking.     First  duke 

of  Normandy. 

Romanoff,  Michael  Feodorovitch.     J598?-l645.     Founder  of 

the  Russian  dynasty. 
Romulus.     Fl.  750  B.C.     Founder  of  Rome. 
Romilly,  Sir  Samuel.     1757-1818.     English  statesman. 
Rooke,  Sir  George.     1650-1709.     British  admiral. 
Rosa,  Salvator.     1615-1673.     Italian  painter. 

Roscius,  Quintus.     61  b.c Roman  actor. 

Rosecrans,  William  Starke.     1817- Am.  general. 

Ross,   Sir  John.     1 777-1856.     British    admiral    and    Arctic 

navigator. 

Ross,  Sir  James  Clark.     1800-1862.     Nephew  of  preceding. 

British  Arctic  navigator. 
Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel.   1828-1882.     English    painter    and 

poet.    House  0/  Life. 


Rossini,  Gioacchimo.  1 792-1 868.  Italian  composer.  Will- 
iam Tell:  The  Barber  0/  Seville. 

Rothschild,  Mayer  Anselm.  1743-1812.  Jewish  banker  at 
Frankfort ;  founder  of  the  house  of  Rothschild. 

Rouget  de  l'lsle,  Claude  Joseph.     1 760-1836.     French  poet 

and  musician.     Marseillaise. 

Rouher,  Eugene.     1814-1884.    French  politician. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Baptiste.    1670-1741.     French  lyric  poet. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques.  1712-1778.  French  philosopher 
and  writer.  Born  in  Geneva ;  apprenticed  to  an  engraver,  but  wan- 
dered about,  and  was  successively  a  servant,  a  clerk,  and  a  music 
teacher;  went  to  Paris  1745,  and  met  Diderot  and  Grimme;  formed 
a  connection  with  Therese  le  Vasseur,  an  ignorant  woman,  whom  he 
afterward  married.  In  1760  appeared  Julie,  or  The  New  Heldtie ;  in 
1762,  The  Social  Contract.  His  Smile,  or  Education,  was  burned  at 
Geneva,  and  he  was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  England.  Hk  Con- 
fessions are  an  autobiography. 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul.     1 587-1640.     Flemish  painter. 

Rubinstein,  Anton.     1830- Rus.  composer  and  pianist. 

Ruckert,  Friedrich.     1 789-1866.     Ger.  orientalist  and  poet. 

Rudolph  I.  (of  Hapsburg).  1218-1291.  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many.   Founder  of  the  Austrian  empire.     II.,  1552-1612. 

Rumford,  Benjamin  Thompson,  Count.  1753-1814.  Am- 
erican natural  philosopher  in  France. 

Rupert,  Prince.     (Prince   Robert   of   Bavaria.)      1619-1682. 

German  warrior. 

Ruskin,  John.     1819- English  writer  on  art. 

Russell,  John,  Earl.     1 792-1878.     English  statesman. 
Russell,  William,  Lord.     1639-1683.      English  patriot.      Be- 
headed on  a  charge  of  complicity  in  the  "  Rye  House  Plot." 
Rutledge,  John.     1 739-1800.     American  statesman  and  jurist. 
Ruyter,  Michael  Adrianzoon  de.  1607-1675.  Dutch  admiral. 

Q*ACKVILLE,  George,  Viscount.      Lord  George  Germain. 
e*^       1716-1785.     English  statesman  and  general. 
Sadlier,  Mary  Anne,  Mrs.     1820-. . . .     Am.  authoress. 
Saint  Clair,  Arthur.     1734-1818.    American  general. 
Sainte-Beuve,  Charles  Augustin.     1804-1869.      French  poet 

and  critic. 
Saint-Pierre,  Jacques  Henri  Bemardin  de.     1737-1814.     Fr. 

author.    Paul  et  Virginie. 
Saint  Simon,  Claude  Henri  de,  Count.     1760-1825.     French 

socialist. 
Sala,  George  Augustus  Henri.     1828-. . . .       Eng.  litterateur. 
Saladin.    1137-1193.     Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria.      Opposed 

the  Crusaders.     Defeated  the  Christians  at  Tiberias. 

Sale,  George.     1680-1736.     English  orientalist. 

Salisbury,  Robert  Arthur  Talbot  Gascoyne  Cecil,  Marquis  ot 
1830-....    English  premier. 

Sallust.  (Caius  Sallustius  Crispus.)  86-34  B.C.    Rom.  historian. 

Saltonstall,  Sir  Richard.  1 586-1658?  Puritan  in  Massachu- 
setts colony. 

Salvini,  Tommaso.     1833-. . . .     Italian  actor. 

Samuel.     1 170-1060  B.C.     Last  of  the  Israelite  judges. 

Sand,  George.     See  Dudevant. 

Sandeau,  Leonard  Sylvain  Jules.     181 1-1883.      Fr.  novelist. 

Santa  Anna,  Antonio  Lopez  de.  1798-1876.  Mexican  gen- 
eral and  statesman. 

Sappho.     Fl.    600  B.C.     Greek  lyric  poetess. 

Sardanapalus.     Fl.  900  B.C.     King  of  Assyria. 

Sardou,  Victorien.     1831-....     French  dramatist. 


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246 


1 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


J 


Saul -,055  B-c-     First  king  of  Israel. 

Savage,  Richard.     1698-1743.     Eng.  poet.     The  Wanderer. 

Savonarola,  Girolamo.  1452-1598.  Italian  religious  re- 
former. 

Saze,  Hermann  Maurice,  Count  of.  1696-1750.  Marshal  of 
France;  native  of  Saxony.    Captured  Prague  1741. 

Saxe,  John  Godfrey.       1816-1887.    American  humorous  poet 

Say,  Jean  Baptiste  Leon.     1816-.  .  . .      French  financier. 

Member  of  the  Academic  Francaise. 
Schelling,  Friedrich  Wilhelm   Joseph    von.       1 775-1 854. 

German  philosopher. 
Schenck,  Gen'l  Rob't  C.     1809-1890.     Am.  statesman. 
Schiller,   Johann   Christoph   Friedrich  von.      1759-1805. 

The  most  popular  of  German  poets.  Studied  medicine  and  law, 
but  could  not  resist  his  inclination  towards  literature.  His  drama. 
The  Robbers^  appeared  in  1777;  Thirty  Years'  War,  171(1:  W'ull- 
enslein,  the  work  of  many  years,  1799.  The  Maid  of  Orleans, 
Mary  Stuart  and  William  Tell  are  anions  his  best  known 
dramas,  and  The  Song  of  the  Bell  is  considered  the  best  of  his 
minor  poems.     He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Goethe. 

Schlegel,  August  Wilhelm  von.  1767-1845.  German 
poet,  critic  and  philologist.  Lectures  on  Dramatic  Literature. 

Schlegel,  Karl  Wilhelm  Friedrich  von.  Brother  of  pre- 
ceding. 177^-1829.  German  philosopher  and  scholar.  Lectures 
on  the  Philosophy  of  History. 

Schliemann,  Heinrich.     1822-1890.     German  traveller. 

Schoeffer,  Peter.      1430-1500.      One  of  the  inventors  of 

printing;;   partner  of  Johann  Faust. 

Scheneld,  John  McAllister.     1831-. .  . .     Am.  general. 

Schomberg,  Friedrich  A.  H.,  Duke  of.  I6i6?-i690.  Protes- 
tant general.  Born  at  Heidelberg;  served  in  Swedish  army  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  war  ;  afterward  marshal  of  France  ;  entered  the  service  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  fell  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne. 

Schopenhauer,    Arthur.       1788-1860.       German     pessimist 

philosopher.     The  World  as  Will. 
Schott,  Andreas.     1552-1629.     Dutch  Jesuit  scholar. 
Schubert,  Franz.     1797-1828.     German  composer. 
Schumann,  Robert.     1810-1856.     German  composer. 
Schurz,  Carl.     1829-. . . .     German-American  statesman. 
Schuvaloff,  Peter,  Count.     1828-. . . .     Russian  diplomatist. 
Schuyler,  Philip.     1733-1804.     Am.  general  and  patriot. 
Schwanthaler,  Lud wig  Michael.     1 802- 1848.     Ger.  sculptor. 
Schwarz,   Berthold.     Fl.   14th  century.     German  monk  and 

alchemist :  reputed  inventor  of  gunpowder. 
Schweinfurth,  Georg  August. '   1836-...,     Ger.  traveller. 
Scipio  Africanus  Major,  Publius  Cornelius.     235  B.c-184? 

Roman  general ;  invaded  Africa  and  defeated  Hannibal. 
Scipio   AJmilianus   Africanus    Minor,    Publius   Cornelius. 

185 1-129  B.C.     Roman  general ;  captured  and  destroyed  Carthage. 
Scott,  Sir  Walter.     1771-1832.     Scottish  novelist  and  poet. 
Scott,  Winfield.     1786-1866.     American  general. 
Sebastian,  Saint.     255  ?-288.     Roman  soldier  and  martyr. 
Sebastian,  Dom.    1554-1578.     King  of  Portugal  and  warrior ; 

invaded  Morocco,  but  was  defeated  and  slain. 
Secchi,  Tictro  Angelo.     1818-1878.     Italian  astronomer. 
Sedgwick,  Catherine  Maria.  Daughter  of  T.  S.  S.  1780-1867. 

American  authoress. 

Sedgwick,  John.     1813-1864.    American  general. 
Sedgwick,  Theodore.     1746-1813.     American  jurist. 
Seid  Abdul  Ahud.     1S60-.  .  .  .     Amir  of  Bokhara. 


Selkirk,  Alexander.  1676?-. 723.  Scottish  sailor  whose  ad- 
ventures suggested  the  story  of  Robinson  Crusoe. 

Semiramis.  Fl.  1250  B.C.  Assyrian  queen.  Built  Babylon, 
and  greatly  increased  her  dominions  ;  invaded  India,  but  was  defeated. 

Semmes,  Raphael.      1809-1877.     Confederate  naval  officer. 

Seneca,  Lucius  Amicus.  5  7-65.  Roman  statesman,  moralist 
and  Stoic  philosopher. 

Sennacherib.     Fl.  700  B.C.     Assyrian  king. 

Sergius  I.  Pope  from  687-701.  II.,  844-847.  III.,  904- 
913.    IV.,  1009-10x3. 

Servetus,  Michael.  1509-1553.  Spanish  theologian.  Burned 
at  the  stake.     On  Ike  Errors  of  the  Trinity. 

Sesostris.     (Rameses.)     Fl.  1400  B.C.     King  of  Egypt. 

Severus,  Alexander.     205-235.     Roman  emperor. 

Severus,  Lucius  Septimius.     146-21 1.     Roman  emperor. 

Sevigne,  Marie  de  Rahutin-Chantal,  Marquise  de.  1627-1696. 
French  lady  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  accomplishments. 

Seward,  William  Henry.     1801-1872.     American  statesman. 

Secretary  of  state  1861-9. 

Seymour,  Horatio.  1811-18S6.  American  statesman.  Elected 
governor  of  New  York  1853,  and  reelected  1863;  opposed  the  adminis- 
tration's war  policy  ,   Democratic  nominee  for  the  presidency  in  1868. 

Sforza,  Ludovico.     II  Moro.     1451-1510.     Italian  general. 
Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  first  Earl  of.     1621- 

1683.     English  statesman. 
Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  third  Earl  of. 

1713.    English  philanthropist,  author  and  freethinker. 
Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  seventh  Earl  of 

1 88$.    English  philanthropist. 

Shakspere,  Shakspeare,  or  Shakespeare,  William. 

1616.  The  greatest  English  dramatist  Born  at  Stratford-on-Avon; 
married  Anne  Hathaway  1583  ;  went  to  London  about  1586  and  became 
an  actor  and  playwright ;  acquired  a  competence  and  retired  to  his  native 
town  about  1610.  Venus  and  Adonis  and  The  Rape  of  Lucrece,  th« 
only  works  published  under  his  own  hand,  appeared  1593-4.  The  first 
edition  of  his  collected  works  appeared  in  1633.  Hamlet ;  Lear  1  Mac- 
beth:  Othello;  The  Tempest:  Midsummer  Sithfs  Dream,  etc.,  etc. 

Shaw,  Henry  W.    Josh  Billings.     1818-1885.    Am.  humorist. 

Sheil,  Richard  Lalor.     1793-1851.     Irish  orator. 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe.  1 792-1822.  English  poet.  Expelled 
from  Oxford,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  for  writing  a  treatise  on  the  necessity 
of  atheism ;  married  the  daughter  of  a  retired  innkeeper  against  his 
lather's  will ;  became  reconciled  to  his  father,  and  doped  with  Miss 
Westbrook,  whom  he  married  at  Gretna  Green ;  separated  from  her  by 
mutual  consent,  and,  hearing  of  his  first  wife's  suicide,  married  Mary 
Godwin,  with  whom  he  was  travelling  on  the  continent ;  demanded  at 
law  the  custody  of  the  two  children  by  his  first  marriage,  but  the  guard* 
lanship  was  granted  to  their  maternal  grandfather,  on  the  ground  of  the 
father's  atheism  ;  removed  to  Italy,  where  he  was  accidentally  drowned. 
Adonais;  Ttu  Cenci ;  Prometheus:  Revolt  cf  Islam :  Atastrr  ;  Tit 
Witch  of  Atlas.  The  Cloud,  Ode  to  the  Skylark  and  The  Sensiture 
Plans  are  among  the  most  exquisite  of  his  shorter  poems. 

Sheppard,  Jack -1724.     English  burglar;  hanged. 

Sheridan,  I'lnlip  Henry.  1831-1888.  American  general. 
Victorious  at  Winchester,  Cedar  Creek  and  Five  Forks.  Made  ncutcsv 
ant-general  of  the  U.  S.  army  1869,  and  promoted  to  the  chief  frdmincl 
on  the  retirement  of  General  Sherman,  1883. 

Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley.      1751-1816.      Irish  orator  and 

dramatist.     The  Rintts;   The  School  for  Scandal :   The  Duenna. 

Sherman,  John.     1823-....    American  statesman.    Secretary 

of  the  treasury,  1877—81 ;  resumed  specie  payments. 
Sherman,  Roger.     1721-1793.     American  statesman. 


1671- 
1801. 
1564 


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A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


247 


ft 


r? 


Sherman,  William  Tecumseh.  1820-1891.  Brother  of  John 
Sherman.  American  general.  Made  the  celebrated  "March  to  the 
Sea."    Became  general  of  the  army  in  1869,  retiring  in  1883. 

Sickingen,    Franz    von.       1481-1523.       German   Protestant 

general. 

Siddons,  Sarah  (nie  Kemble).     1755-18.31.     English  actress. 

Sidney,  Algernon.  1622-1683.  English  republican;  exe- 
cuted on  false  charge  of  complicity  in  "  Rye  House  Plot." 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip.     1554—1586.     English  soldier  and  poet. 

Siemens,  Ernst  Werner.     1816-. . . .     German  inventor. 

Siemens,  Charles  William.  1823-1883.  Brother  of  preced- 
ing.   German  inventor. 

Sigismund.       1368-1437.       German   emperor  and  king  of 

Hungary. 

Sigismund  I.  1466-1548.  King  of  Poland.    II.,  1518-1572. 

Sigourney,  Mrs.  Lydia  Howard  Huntley.  1791-1865.  Am- 
erican poetess.    Moral  Pieces  in  Prose  and  Verse. 

Silli-man,  Benjamin.     1 779-1 864.     American  naturalist. 

Simeon  Stylites.  390?-459.  Syrian  ascetic ;  lived  for  forty- 
six  years  on  the  tops  of  pillars. 

Simeoni,  Giovanni.     1816-1892.     Prefect  of  Propaganda. 

Simon,  Jules.     1814- .     French  statesman. 

Sixtus  I.  Pope  from  117  to  128.  II.,  257-258;  martyr.  III., 

431-440.     IV.,  1471-1484.     V.  (Felice  Peretti),  1585-1590. 

Skobeleff,  Michael.     1843-1882.     Russian  general. 

Glocum,  Henry  Wadsworth.     1827- American  general. 

Smiles,  Samuel.     1816- Scottish  author. 

Smith,  Adam.       1723-1790.      Scottish  political    economist. 

An  Enquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations. 

Smith,  Gerrit.     1797-1874.     American  philanthropist. 
Smith,  Horace  (i78o?-i849)  and  James  (1775-1839).  English 

poets  and  humorists  ;  brothers.     Rejected  Addresses. 
Smith,  John,  Captain.     1579-1631.     English  explorer ;  found- 
er of  Virginia.     History  of  Virginia. 

Smith,  Joseph.     1805-1844.    Founder  of  the  Mormon  church. 

Smith,  Seba.  Maj.  Jack  Downing.     1 792-1 868.  Am.  author. 

Smith,  Sydney.    1771—1845.     English  divine  and  essayist. 

Smith,  William  II.  1825-1891.  Leader  House  of  Com- 
mons. 

Smollett,  Tobias  George.     1721-1771.     Scottish  novelist. 

Sobieski,  John.  1629-1696.  King  of  Poland  and  patriot. 
Defeated  the  Turks,  and  raised  the  siege  of  Vienna. 

Socrates.     470  ?-399  B.C.     Gr.  philosopher;  teacher  of  Plato. 

Soliman  II.  The  Magnificent.  1494-1566.  Sultan  of  Tur- 
key.   Conquered  Persia  and  part  of  Hungary. 

Solomon.     The  Wise.     1033-975 ?  B-c-     King  of  Israel. 

Solon.     638-558  ?  B.C.     Athenian  law-giver  and  poet. 

Somers,  John,  Baron.     1650-1716.     Eng.  jurist  and  statesman. 

Sontag,    Henriette,  Countess   Rossi.     1806-1854.      German 

vocalist. 

Sophocles.   495-405  B.C.    Gr.  tragic  poet.  (Edipus  Tyrannus. 
Sothern,  Edward  Askew.     1830-1881.     English  comedian. 
Soult,  Nicholas  Jean  de  Dieu.     1769-1851.     French  marshal. 
Southey,  Robert.     1 774-1 843.     English  poet-laureate.  Thai- 
aba  ;    The  Curse  of  Kehama  ;  Roderick,  etc. 

Southworth,  EmmaD.  E.  (Nevitt).  1818-. ...  American 
novelist.  Retribution:  The  Curse  of  Clifford :  The  Pearl  of  Pearl 
River,  etc. 

Sparks,  Jared.     1789-1866.     American  historian. 


Spartacus -71  B.C.  Thracian  gladiator  in  Rome;  in- 
augurated Servile  war, 

Speke,  John  Hanning.  1827-1864.  English  explorer  in  Africa. 

Spencer,  Herbert.   1820-. . . .  English  philosopher.  Sociology. 

Spenser,  Edmund.  1553-1599.  English  poet.  The  Faerie 
Queen  ;  The  Shephearde's  Calendar. 

Spinner, Francis  E.     1802-1890.     Treasurer  of  the  U.  S. 

Spinoza,  Benedict.  1632-1677.  Dutch  philosopher  and  pan- 
theist.   Ethics  Demonstrated  by  Geometrical  Method. 

Spurgeon,  Charles  Haddon.  1834-....   English  pulpit-orator. 

Spurzheim,  Johann  Caspar.  1776-1832.  German  phrenologist. 

Stael-Holstein,  Anne  Louise  Germaine  Necker  de,  Baronne. 
Mme.  de  Stael.  1766-1817.  French  authoress,  and  a  lady  of  remark- 
able genius.     Corinne. 

Standish,  Miles.     1584-1656.     Captain  of  Plymouth  Colony. 

Stanhope,  Philip  Henry,  Earl  of.    1805-1875.  Eng.  historian. 

Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn.  Dean  Stanley.  1815-1881.  Eng- 
lish divine  and  author ;  dean  of  Westminster  Abbey. 

Stanley,  Henry  M.  (John  Rowlands.)  1840-. . . .  Ameri- 
can explorer  in  Africa;  born  in  Wales. 

Stanton,  Edwin  McMasters.  1814-1869.  American  states- 
man ;  secretary  of  war  in  President  Lincoln's  cabinet. 

Stanton,  Elizabeth  Cady.  1816-. ...  American  "  Woman's 
rights  "  advocate. 

Starhemberg  (or  Stahremberg),  Ernst  Rudiger,  Count. 
1635-1701.    Austrian  general. 

Starhemberg  (or  Stahremberg),  Guido  Baldi,  Count. 
1657-1737.    Austrian  general. 

Stark,  John.     1728-1822.     American  Revolutionary  general. 

Stedman,  Edmund  Clarence.     1833-. . . .     American  poet. 

Steele,  Sir  Richard.  1671-1729.  British  essayist  and  drama- 
tist. The  Funeral;  The  Tender  Husband;  The  Conscious  Lovers ; 
Essays  in  The  Tatler,    The  Spectator  and  The  Guardian. 

Stein,  Heinrich  Friedrich  Karl  von,  Baron.    1757-1831.  Prus- 


sian statesman. 


Stephen,  Saint.     Stoned  36?     First  Christian  martyr. 
Stephen  I.     Pope,  253-257.    II.,  752.     III.,  752-757.    IV., 

768-772.    V.,  816.    VI.,  885-891.  VII.,  896-897.   VIII.,  928-930.  IX., 

939-942.    X.,  1057-1058. 

Stephen  I.     (Saint.)     979-1038.     King  of  Hungary. 

Stephen.     1105-1154.     King  of  England. 

Stephens,  Alexander  Hamilton.  181 2-1883.  American 
statesman.  Bom  in  Georgia  ;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1835  ;  Congress,  1843; 
vice-president  of  the  Confederate  States ;  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate 
from  Georgia,  but  not  permitted  to  take  his  seat ;  member  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  however,  from  1874  until  his  death.  History  of  the 
War  between  the  States;  A  Constitutional  View  of  the  Late  War 
between  the  States. 

Stephenson,  George.  1781-1848.  English  engineer;  inventor 
of  th;  locomotive  engine. 

Stephenson,  Robert.  1 803-1 859.  Son  of  preceding.  Eng- 
lish engineer;  inventor  of  the  tubular  bridge. 

Sterling,  John.     1806-1844.     British  essayist. 

Sterne,  Laurence,  Rev.     1713-1768.     Irish  humorous  writer. 

Tristram  Shandy  ;    The  Sentimental  Journey. 

Steuben,   Frederick  William  Augustus    von,    Baron.     1 730- 

1794.    German  American  general  in  the  Revolutionary  war. 
Stevens,  Thaddeus.     1793-1868.     American  abolitionist. 
Stewart,  Alexander  Turney.     1802-1876.     Am.  merchant. 
Stewart,  Balfour.     1828-....     Scottish  physicist. 
Stoddard,  Richard  Henry.     1825-,  •  •  •     American  poet. 


1 


\ 


248 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY 


Story,  Joseph.     1 779-1845.     American  jurist. 

Story,  William  Wetmore.     1819-. American  sculptor. 

Stowe,  Mrs.  Harriet  Elizabeth  Beecher.  1812-....  Ameri- 
can authoress.    Uncle  Tom's  Cabin. 

Strabo.     54  B.c-24  A.D.     Greek ,  geographer. 

Stradella,  Alessandro.    1645-1678.     Italian  composer. 

Stradivari,  Antonio.     1670-1735.     Italian  violin-maker. 

Strafford,  Thomas  Wentworth,  Earl  of.  1593-1641.  English 
statesman :  beheaded. 

Strauss,  Johann.     1804-1849.    Ger.  composer  of  dance  music. 

Strauss,  Johann.  1825-. . . .  Son  of  preceding.  German 
composer. 

Strickland,  Agnes.     1806-1874.     English  authoress. 

Stuart,  Gilbert  C.     1 756-1828.     American  portrait  painter. 

Stuyvesant,  Peter.  1602-1682.  Last  Dutch  governor  of 
New  Netherland  (New  York). 

Sue,  Marie  Joseph  Eugene.     1804-1857.     French  novelist. 

Sulla  (or  Sylla),  Lucius  Cornelius.  138-78  B.C.  Roman 
statesman  and  general. 

Sullivan,  Arthur.  1844-....  English  composer.  Pinafore, 
Patience,  etc.     See  also  Gilbert.    Knighted  by  the  Queen  1883. 

Sumner,  Charles.  1811-1874.  American  statesman,  lawyer 
and  abolitionist.     True  Grandeur  of  Nations, 

Surrey,  Henry  Howard,  Earl  of.     1516?— 1547.     English  poet. 

Suwarow,  Alexander  Vasilievitch.      1729-1774.  Rus.  general. 

Swedenborg,  Emanuel.  1688-1772.  Swedish  theosophist. 
In  his  theosophy,  the  central  point  is  the  correspondence  of  the  natural 
and  the  supernatural.  The  True  Christian  Religion  ;  The  Mysteries 
0/  Heaven. 

Swift,  Jonathan.  1667-1745.  Irish  divine  and  satirist.  Gulli- 
ver's Travels  :  Tale  of  a  Tub. 

Swinburne,  Algernon  Charles.     1837- English  poet. 

Sylvester  I.     (Saint.)     Pope,  314-335.    II.,  999-1003.    III. 

(Anti-pope),  1013. 


55?  after   117?    Roman  his- 
1804- 1 884.     Swedish 


VtVACITUS,  Caius  Cornelius. 

,  a,  t       torian.     Germania. 

Taglioni,  Marie,  Countess  des  Voisins. 

opera  dancer. 

Taine,  Hippolyte  Adolphe.     1828- French  author. 

Talbot,   William    Henry  Fox.     1800-1877.     English    author 

and  discoverer  of  photography. 
Talfourd,  Sir  Thomas  Noon.     1 795-1 854.     Eng.  author.  Ion. 
Talleyrand-Perigord,   Charles  Maurice   de,  Prince  of  Bene- 

vento.     1754-1838.     French  diplomatist. 

Talmage,  Thomas  Dewitt.     1832- Am.  clergyman. 

Tamerlane  (or  Timour).     1336-1405.     Asiatic  conqueror. 
Tancred.     1078-1112.     Norman  leader  in  the  first  crusade. 
Taney,  Roger  Brooke.     1777-1864.     American  jurist. 
Tannahill,  Robert.     1774-1810.     Scottish  poet. 
Tarquinius  Superbus.    (Lucius  Tarquinius.)     -495?  B.C. 

Last  king  of  Rome. 

Tasman,  Abel  Janssen.     i6oo?-i645.     Dutch  navigator. 

Tasso,  Torquato.  1 544-1 595.  Italian  poet.  Jerusalem  De- 
livered. 

Taylor,  Bayard.  1825-1878.  American  traveller,  novelist, 
poet  and  journalist;  minister  to  Germany  ;  translated  Goethe's  Faust. 
Among  his  works  arc  V'ieva  Afoot,  or  Europe  seen  with  Knapsack 
and  Staff:  Travels:  Poems  of  the  Orient;  Booh  of  Romances  ;  Lyrics 
and  Songs,  and  several  novels. 

Taylor,  Jeremy.     1613-1667.     English  bishop  and  author. 


Taylor,  Thomas.     The  Platonisl.     1758-1835.     Eng.  scholar. 

Taylor,  Tom.     1817-1800.    English  dramatist. 

Taylor,  Zachary.  1784-1850.  American  general  and  states- 
man ;  twelfth  president.  Bom  in  Virginia;  entered  the  army  in  iftot,* 
served  in  Seminole  and  Black  Hawk  wan ;  major -genera!  in  Mexican 
war,  and  won  the  battles  of  Resaca  dc  la  Palma  and  Buena  Vista. 
Elected  president  by  the  Whigs  in  itxB. 

Tecumseh.  1 770-181 3.  Chief  of  the  Shawnee  Indians; 
formed  alliance  of  Western  Indians,  and  was  defeated  by  Harmon  at 
Tippecanoe. 

Tell,  Wilhelm.     Flem.   1305.  Legendary  Swiss  hero. 
Teniers,  David.      The    Younger.     1610-1690.     Flem.  painter. 
Tennyson,  Alfred,  Baron.    1S09-.  . . .     Eng.  poet-laur.  In 

Memoriam  ;   Enoch  Arden :    The  Princess  ;    The  Idylls  of  the  King ; 

Lochsley  Halt ;    The  Lotus  Eaters  ;    The  } My  Grail ;  Harold,  etc. 

Terence.      (P.    Terentius    Afer.)     I95?-i6o?    B.C.      Roman 

comic  poet. 

Terpander.     Fl.  675  B.C.     Greek  musician. 

Terry,  Alfred  Howe.     1 827- 1890.    American  general. 

Tertullian.     i5o?-230?     Latin  father  of  the  church. 

Tetzel,  Johann.  I46o?-I5I9.  German  monk  ;  vender  of  in- 
dulgences. 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace.  1811-1863.  English  novel- 
ist. Born  in  Calcutta.  Henry  Esmond;  I'anity  Fair;  The  Xrtv- 
c^mes;  Pendennis  :  The  Adventures  of  Philip:  The  Virginians;  The 
Book  of  Snobs  ;   The  Four  Georges  ;  English  Humorists. 

Thalberg,  Sigismond.     1812-1871.     Swiss  pianist. 
Thales.     635?-546  B.C.     Greek  sage  and  philosopher. 
Themistocles.  5I4?~449?  B.C.  Athenian  general  and  statesman. 
Theocritus.     Fl.  275?     Greek  pastoral  poet. 

,..-548.       Empress    of    the    East;     wife   of 


Theodora. 

Justinian. 

Theodore. 

Theodoric 


iSi8?-i868.  King  of  Abyssinia. 
The  Great.  455-526.  King  of  the  Ostrogoths. 
Theodosius,  Flavius.  The  Great.  346?-395.  Rom.  emperor. 
Theophrastus.  3727-287?  B.C.  Gr.  philosopher  and  moralist. 
Thierry,  Jacques  N.  Augustin.  1795-1836.  French  historian. 
Thiers,    Louis   Adolphe.     1797-1877.     French  statesman  and 

historian.     History  of  the  Consulate  and  Empire. 
Thomas,  George  H.     1816-1870.     American  federal  general. 

V.\m  the  battles  of  Chickamauga  and  Nashville. 
Thomson,  James.     1 700-1 748.     Scotch  poet.      The  Seasons; 
The  Castle  of  Indolence  :    Tancred  and  Sigtsmunda. 

Thoreau,  Henry  D.  1817-1862.  American  author.  The 
Concord  and  Merrimac  Rivers  ;   The  Maine  Woods. 

Thorwaldsen,  Albert  D.     1770-1844.     Danish  sculptor. 

Thucydides.     470-400  B.C.     Greek  historian. 

Tiberius.    42  B.c-37  A.D.     Roman  emperor. 

Tilden,  Samuel  Jones.  1814-1886.  American  statesman. 
Governor  of  New  York  ;  Democratic  candidate  for  presidency,  1876. 

Tilly,   Johann   Tzcrklas    von,    Count.     1559-1632.     German 

general  in  Thirty  Years'  war:  fell  at  the  battle  of  the  Lech. 

Timoleon.     395-337  B.C.     Corinthian  general. 
Tindal,  Matthew.     1657  ?-!733-     English  theological  writer. 
Tintoretto,  II.    (Giacomo  Robust  i.)     1512-1594.     It.  painter. 
Titian.     (Ti.'i.tno   Veccllio.)      1477-1576.      The   greatest  of 

Yrnetian  painters.     Assumption  of  the   I'irgrn  :  Peter  Martyr;    The 
Last  Supper;    Bacchus  and  Ariadne;  Homage  tf  Frederick  Bar. 
baressa  tt  the  Pope,  etc. 
Titiens  101  Titjena),  Therese.     1834-1877.    German  vocalist. 


/ 


-\ 


■       —  ■*■*» 


7[ 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 


249 


Titus.     40-81.     Roman  emperor. 

Tobin,  John.    1770-1804.    Eng.  dramatist.     The  Honeymoon. 

Tocqueville,  Alexis  Charles  Henri  Clerel  de.      1805-1859. 

French  statesman;  author  of  Democracy  in  America. 
Todleben,  Franz  Eduard.     1818-1884.    Russian  general. 
Tone,  Theobald  Wolfe.     1763-1798.     Irish  patriot;  founder 

of  the  United  Irishman. 

Tooke,  John  Home.  1736-1812.  English  philologist  and 
radical.  Having  said  that  certain  Americans  had  been  "murdered"  at 
the  battle  of  Lexington,  he  was  sentenced  to  one  year's  imprisonment 
and  a  heavy  fine  ;  subsequently  tried  for  treason,  but  acquitted. 

Torquemada,   Tomas  de.     1420-1498.     Spanish  Dominican 

monk;  inquisitor-general. 
Torricelli,  Evangelista.     1608-1647.     Italian  physicist. 
Toussaint  l'Ouverture,   Francois  Dominique.      1743-1803. 

Negro  leader  of  the  Haytien  rebellion. 

Trajan.     52-117.     Roman  emperor. 

Trollope,  Anthony.     1815-1883.     English  novelist. 

Tromp,  Marten  Harpertzoon  van.   1597-1653.   Dutch  admiral. 

Tromp,  Cornelis  van.     1629-1691.     Dutch  admiral. 

Trumbull,  John.     1750-1831.     American  poet  and  satirist. 

Trumbull,  John.     1756-1843.     American  painter. 

Trumbull,  Jonathan.     1740-1809.     American  statesman. 

Tupper,  Martin  Farquhar.    1810-1889.  Eng.  poet  and  author. 

Turenne,  Henri  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,  Vicomte  de.  161 1- 
1675.  French  general.  Defeated  Conde  and  the  Spaniards  in  1659  ;  in- 
vaded Holland  in  1672 ;  killed  at  Salzbach. 

Turgenef,   Ivan  Sergyevich.     1818-1883.     Russian  novelist. 

Turner,  Joseph  Mallord  William.  1775-1851.  English  land- 
scape painter.  The  son  of  a  barber.  The  Battle  of  the  Nile  ;  The  Sun 
Rising  through  Vapor;    The  Fall  of  Schaffhausen. 

Turpin,  Dick.     1711-1739.     English  highwayman. 

Tweed,  William  Marcy.  Boss  Tweed.  1823-1878.  American 
politician  and  embezzler;  mayor  of  New  York  city. 

Tyler,  John.  1 790-1862.  Tenth  president  of  the  United 
States.  Born  in  Va. ;  practiced  law;  Congress,  1816-21  ;  governor  of 
Virginia,  1825;  senator,  1827;  sympathized  with  the  nullificrs  and 
Opposed  Jackson ;  resigned  1836  ;  elected  vice-president  on  Whig  ticket, 
1840;  succeeded  Harrison  in  184X. 

Tyler,  Wat -1381.      English  rebel ;    leader  of  rebellion 

against  capitation  tax. 

Tyndall,  John.     1820- Irish  scientist. 

yy  DAL,    Nicolas.      1506-1564.      English    dramatist    and 
■A^p-   teacher.    Author  of  the  first  English  comedy. 
Uhland,  Johann  Ludwig.     1787-1862.     German  lyric  poet. 
Ulloa,  Antonio  de.     1716-1795.     Spanish  mathematician  and 
naval  officer  ;  governor  of  Louisiana. 

Ulphilas.  3'3-383-      The  apostle  of  the  Goths.     Translated 

the  Scriptures  into  Gothic. 

Ulpianus,  Domitius -228.     Roman  jurist. 

Unger,  Johann  Friedrich.     1750-1813.     German  printer  and 

engraver. 
Urban  I.     Pope,  ruling  223-230;    martyr.     II.,   1088-1099; 
organized  the  first  crusade.     III.,  1184-1187.    IV.,  1261-1264.    V.,1362- 
1370.     VI.,  1378-1389.     VII.,  1500;  died  on  the  twelfth  day  of  his  pon- 
tificate.    VIII.,  1623-1644. 

Ure,  Andrew.     1778-1857.     Scottish  chemist  and  physician. 
Urfe,  Honore  d'.     1567-1625.     French  romancist. 
Ussher,  James.     1 580-1 656.     Irish  prelate  and  scholar. 
Utrecht,  Adriaan  van.     1599-1651.     Dutch  painter. 


'TT'ALENS,  Flavius.  3287-378.  Emperor  of  the  East. 
•  »  Brother  of  Valentinian  I.  Arian  persecutor  of  orthodox  Christians. 
Valentinianus    I.     (Flavius.)      321-375.     Roman   emperor. 

II.  (Flavius),  371-392.    III.  (Placidius),  419-455. 
Valerian.     (Publius  Lucinius  Valerianus.)    . . .  .-268?  Roman 

emperor. 
Van    Buren,    Martin.     1782-1862.     Eighth  president  of   the 

United  States.  Enrolled  at  the  bar  in  New  York  in  1803,  and  elected  to 
the  state  senate;  state  attorney-general,  1815;  leader  of  the  "  Albany 
Regency  ";  U.  S.  Senator,  1821 ;  governor,  1828  ;  secretary  of  state, 
1829-31  ;  vice-president.  1833-7;  president,  1837-41. 

Vancouver,  George.     I758?-I798.     English  navigator. 
Vanderbilt,  Cornelius.     1 794-1 877.     American  capitalist. 
Vandyke  (or  Van  Dyck),  Sir  Anthony.    1599-1641.    Flemish 

painter.  Resided  in  England  for  several  years  before  his  death,  where 
he  became  the  most  popular  artist  of  his  time.  Besides  many  portraits, 
including  those  of  the  celebrated  artists  of  his  time  and  several  of  Charles 
I.,  may  be  mentioned  as  amonghis  best  works.  The  Crucifixion  ;  St. 
Augustine  in  Ecstacy ,  and  The  Erection  of  the  Cross. 

Vane,  Sir  Henry.  1612-1662.  English  republican  statesman. 
Convicted  of  treason  and  executed. 

Vanloo,  Charles  Andre.     1705-1765.     French  painter. 

Vanloo,  Jean  Baptiste.     1684-1745.     French  painter. 

Van  Rensselaer,  Stephen.  The  Patroon.  1 764-1 839.  Am- 
erican statesman  and  landholder. 

Varus,  Publius  Quintilius.     Fl.  7.     Roman  general ;  governor 

of  Germany  ;  defeated  by  Arminius. 
Vassar,  Matthew.     1792-1868.     Founder  of  Vassar  College. 
Vauban,    Sebastien    le    Prestre,     Seigneur    de.      1633- 1 707. 

French  military  engineer. 
Velasquez,  Don   Diego  Rodriguez  de  Silva  y.      1 599-1660. 

Spanish  painter. 

Velde,  Willem  van  der.        The  Elder.     1610-1693.     Dutch 

marine  painter. 
Velde,  Willem  van  der.      The  Younger.     1633-1707.     Dutch 
marine  painter. 

Vendome,  Louis  Joseph,  Due  de.  1654-1712.  Fr.  general. 
Verbceckhoven,  Eugene  Joseph.  1 799-1 881.  Belgian  painter. 
Verdi,    Giuseppe.      1814- Italian    composer.     Ernani ; 

La  Traviata;  II  Trovatore ;  Ai'da. 
Vernet,   Antoine  Charles  Horace.     1758-1836.     Fr.  painter. 
Vernon,  Edward.     1684-1757.     English  admiral. 
Vespasianus,  Titus  Flavius.     9-79.     Roman  emperor. 
Vespucci,    Amerigo.       (Americus    Vespucius.)       1451-1512. 

Italian  navigator  and  astronomer,  after  whom  America  is  named. 
Viaud,  Jean  ("Pierre     Luti").    1850- ...  .    French  writer. 
Victor,  Claude  Perrin,  Duke  of  Belluno.   1 764-1 841.     French 

marshal. 
Victor  I.     Pope,  from  185  to  198.     II.,     1055-1057.     III., 

1086-1087.     IV.    (Anti-pope),  recognized    by    Frederick    1.    in    1159; 

died  1 164. 

Victor  Emmanuel  I.     1759-1824.     King  of  Sardinia.     II., 

1820-1878;  first  king  of  Italy;  restored  Italian  unity. 

Victoria.       (Victoria    Alexandrina.)       1819- Queen  of 

Great  Britain  and  empress  of  India. 

Vidocq,  Eugene  Francois.     1775-1850.     French  detective. 
Villars,  Claude  Louis  Hector  de,  Due.     1653-1734-     French 

general. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  Saint.  1576-1660.  French  priest  and  re- 
former. Founded  the  Congregation  of  Missions  and  the  Sisters  of 
Charity. 


Vinci,  Leonardo  da.  1452-1519.  Italian  painter.  Last  Sup- 
per :  Madonna;  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  etc. 

Virgil  (or  Vergil).     (Publius  Virgilius  Maro.)     70-19  B.C. 

Latin  poet.    sEneitt ;  Eclogues;  Bucolics;  Georgia. 

Volta,  Alessandro.    1745-1827.    It.  inventor  of  the  voltaic  pile. 

Voltaire,  Francois  Marie  Arouet  de.  1694-1778.  French 
author,  poet,  wit,  dramatist,  historian,  philosopher  and  skeptic. 
The  son  of  a  notary ;  imprisoned  in  the  Baslilc  in  1716  on  an  unfounded 
suspicion  of  being  the  author  of  a  libel  on  the  Regent,  and  there  pro- 
duced CEdipe  and  wrote  part  of  the  Henriade;  in  Eh^land,  1726-9, 
passing  much  time  in  the  society  of  Bolingbroke;  his  drama  of  Za'ire 
appeared  in  1730,  and  about  the  same  time  he  finished  his  History  0/ 
Charles  XII.;  Alzire,  1738;  Mahomet,  1741;  Merope,  1743;  passed 
the  years  1750-3  with  Frederick  the  Great ;  took  up  his  residence  (1755) 
at  Ferney.  The  Age  of  Louis  XIV.  :  Essay  on  the  Manners  0/  Na- 
tions: Candide. 

Voorhees,  Daniel  W.     1827-. . . .  American  orator  and  states- 
man ;  senator  from  Indiana. 
Vortigern -485.     King  of  the  Britons. 

YaVaDDINGTON,  William  Henry.     1826- French 

JL  a\     statesman  and  archaeologist. 

Wagner,  Richard.  1813-1883.  German  composer,  poet  and 
critic.  Rienzi  ;  The  Flying  Dutchman  :  Tann/tduser;  Lohengrin: 
Gotterdammerung  ;  Nibelungenlied :  Rheingold,  etc. 

Waite,  Morrison  Remich.    1816-  1888.  American  chief  justice. 
Waldemar  I.     The  Great.     1131-1181.      King  of  Denmark. 
Walker,  John.     1732-1807.     English  lexicographer. 
Wallace,  Sir  William.     I270?-I305.     Scottish   general   and 

patriot.     Defeated  by  Edward. I.  of  England  ;  betrayed  and  executed. 
Wallace,   William   Vincent.      1815-1865.      Irish   composer. 

Maritana. 

Wallenstein.  Albrecht  Wenzel  Eusebitrs  von,  Count.  1583- 
1634.  Austrian  general.  Hero  of  one  of  Schiller's  dramas.  Entered 
the  imperial  army  at  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years*  war ;  raised  an 
army  at  his  own  expense  in  1625,  invading  Denmark ;  banished  from 
court  by  Emperor  Ferdinand,  but  recalled  on  the  death  of  Marshal 
Tilly ;  defeated  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  at  Lutzcn  in  1632,  but  gained 
several  victories  in  Silesia  ;  again  lost  tne  emperor's  favor,  b<  ing  charged 
with  aspirations  to  the  throne  of  Bohemia,  was  deprived  of  his  command 
and  assassinated. 

Walpole,  Horace,  Earl  of  Orford.  1717-1797.  English 
author  and  wit.     Catalogue  0/ Royal  and  Noble  Authors. 

Walther  von  der  Vogelweide.  ("Walter  of  the  Bird- 
Meadow.")    1170  7-1230?    Greatest  of  the  German  minnesingers. 

Walton,  Izaak.  1593-1683.  English  writer.  The  Complete 
Angler  ;  or,  A  Contemplative  Man's  Recreation. 

Warbeck,  Perkin -1499-     English  pretender  ;  hanged. 

Ward,  Artemas.     1727-1780.     American  general. 

Warner,  Charles  Dudley.     1829-.  . . .     American  humorist. 

Warner,  Susan.  (Elizabeth  Wetherell.)  1818-1885.  American 
authoress. 

Warren,  Joseph.  1741-1775.  American  physician,  Revolu- 
tionary general  and  patriot ;  fell  at  Bunker  Hill. 

Warren,  Samuel.     1 807- 1 877.     English  author. 

Warwick,  Richard  Neville,  Earl  of.  The  King-maker.  1420?- 
1471.  English  warrior.  Set  up  and  [deposed  Edward  IV.  Hero  ol 
Bulwer's  Last  o/the  Barons. 

Washington,   George.     1 732-1 799.    Commander-in-chief  in 

the  American  Revolution    and   first   president    of  the  United  St;ites. 

Born  in  Virginia.    Aide-de-camp  to  Braddock  in  the  Indian  campaign 

1   IJjsi    marriel  Martha  Cnstis,   rrW I    Ghana  to  Congress,  1774; 

appointed  commander-in-chief,  1775;  president,  1789-07. 


Watt,  James.     1736-1819.     Scottish  engineer  and   inventor. 

Improved  and  completed  the  steam-engine.   Has  also  been  credited  with 

the  discovery  of  the  composition  of  water. 
Watteau,  Jean  Antoine.     1684-1721.     French  painter. 
Watts,  Isaac.     1674-1748.     English  Dissenting  minister  and 

•acred  poet.   Hymns. 
Wayne,    Anthony.       1 745-1 796.        American  Revolutionary 

general.     Captured  Stony  Point. 

Weber,  Karl  Maria  Fricdrich  Ernst  von,  Baron.     1 786-1 826. 

German  composer.  Der  Freischiltz.  His  Waldmadclieu,  subsequently 
known  as  Sytvana,  was  composed  at  sixteen. 
Webster,  Daniel.  1 782-1852.  American  lawyer,  orator  and 
statesman.  Born  in  N.  H. ;  Congress,  1812-16, 1832-8  ;  Senate,  1828-41; 
secretary  of  state  ;  re-entered  the  Senate  in  1844  ;  again  became  secre- 
tary of  state  in  1850.  Webster  was  nominated  for  the  presidency  In  1834, 
but  defeated  ;  candidate  for  the  Whig  nomination  in  1848,  but  defeated 
by  Taylor,  whom  he  cordially  supported.  Webster's  reply  to  Harne 
of  South  Carolina,  is  considered  the  greatest  speech  ever  made  on  the 
floors  of  Congress.  His  greatest  legal  effort  was  in  the  famous  Dart- 
mouth College  case. 

Webster,  Noah.     1758-1843.     American  lexicographer. 

Wedgwood,  Josiah.     1730-1795.     English  potter. 

Weed,  Thurlow.      1797-1883.     American  journalist. 

Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley,  first  Duke  of.  1769-1852. 
British  general  and  statesman.  Gained  great  distinction  in  India,  in  the 
war  against  the  Mahrattas  ;  major-general,  1803  ;  Parliament,  1805  ;  sec- 
retary for  Ireland,  1807  ;  defeated  the  Danes  at  Kioge,  and  was  given 
command  of  an  anny  sent  to  Spain  against  the  French,  1808  ;  opposed 
by  superior  forces  and  able  generals,  but  [ably  thwarted  their  plans  ;  tri- 
umphantly entered  Madrid,  1812 ;  defeated  Jourdan  and  Soull,  1813  ;  in- 
vaded France  and  gained  numerous  victories  ;  defeated  Xan£leon  at 
Waterloo,  1815,  and  entered  Paris  with  the  allies  same  year.  W.»- 
ward  prime  minister  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 

Wells,  Horace.   1815-1848.  American  dentist.    (Anaesthesia.) 

Wells,  Samuel  Roberts.      1820-1875.     Am.  phrenologist. 

Wenceslaus  (or  Wenzel).      1361-1419.      Emperor  o: 
many  and   king  of  Bohemia. 

Wesley,  Charles.     1 708-1 788.     English  Methodist  divine  ard 

hymn-writer. 

Wesley,  Ji  hn.     1703-1791.     Brother  of  preceding.     English 

founder  of  Methodism. 
West,    Ben]  .min.        1738-1820. 
Wharton,  Francis.     1820-1889. 
Wharton,  Henry.      1664-1695. 
Whately,  Richard.      1787-1863. 


Am.   painter  in    England. 
Am.  jurist  and  theologian. 
English  ecclesiastical  writer 
Irish  prelate  and  author. 


Wheeler,  William  Almon.     1819-1887.  American  statesman; 

vice-president. 
Whewell,  William.     1794-1866. 
White,  Andrew  Dickson.     1832-. . 
White,  Henry  Kirke.     1785-1806. 
White,  Joseph  Blanco.     1775-1841. 
White,  Richard  Grant.     1822-1885. 


English  philosopher. 
. . .     American  scholar. 
English  religious  poet. 
English  author. 
American  author. 


Whitefield,  George.     1714-1770.     English  preacher;  founder 
of  Calvinistic  Methodists. 

Whitman,  Walt.      1819- American  poet.      In  tum  car- 
penter, editor,  nurse  and  government  clerk.     Leaves  of  Grass. 

Whitney,  Eli.     1765-1825.     Inventor  of  the  cotton-gin. 

Whittier,  John  Grcenleaf.     1807- American  poet  Bom 

at  Haverhill,  Mass.     Member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  Fanner,  shoe, 
maker,  journalist  and  abolition!*'  agitator.      Snow  Bound;      I' 
Freedom:  Songs  of  Labor  ;  Home  Ballads:  In  War  Time;  Nation- 
al/.yri.-< :       Hie   Tent  on  the  Beach:      Ballads  of  New  England ': 
Hanoi  Blossoms,  etc. 


"ST 


mm. 


Al 


4^= 

W  s ~~ 


Wieland,  Christoph  Martin.     1733-1813.     German  poet. 
Wilberforce,  William.       1759-1833.      English  philanthropist 

and  statesman.    Secured  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade. 
William  I.     The  Conqutror.     1027-1087.     King  of  England. 

Dukeof  Normandy;  conquered  England.    II.,  Rufus,  1056-1100.    III. 

(William  Henry  of  Nassau,  Prince  of  Orange),  1650-170J  ;  won  battle  of 

the  Boyne.    IV.,  1765-1837  ;  uncle  of  Queen  Victoria. 
William  I.    1772-1843.   King  of  the  Netherlands.    II.,  1792- 

1849.  III.,  1817-1890. 
William   I.     1 797-1 888.    King  of  Prussia  and  emperor  of 

Germany.    II.,  1859 — 

Williams,  Eleazer.    1 787-1858.    American  clergyman,  claim- 
ing to  be  the  son  of  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette. 
Williams,   Roger.      1 599-1683.     English   Puritan  minister; 

founder  of  Rhode  Island  colony ;  born  in  Wales. 

Willis,  Nathaniel  Parker.  1806-1867.  American  journalist 
and  poet. 

Wilmot,  David.  1814-1868.  American  statesman;  author 
of  the  Wilmot  Proviso. 

Wilson,  Alexander.  1766-1813.  Scottish-American  orni- 
thologist. 

Wilson,  Henry.  (Jeremiah  Jones  Colbath.)  1812-1875. 
American  politician ;  eighteenth  vice-president. 

Wilson,   John.      Christopher  North.     1785-1854.      Scottish 

writer. 

Windom,  William.     182S-1891.      Sec.  of  U.  S.  Treasury. 

Wiseman,  Nicholas.     1802-1865.     Eng.  Catholic  cardinal. 

Wittekind -807.  Saxon  warrior  ;  conquered  by  Charle- 
magne. 

Wolcott,  John.  1738-1819.  English  satirist.  Peter  Pindar's 
Odes. 

Wolfe,  Charles.  1791-1823.  Irish  poet.  Burial  0/ Sir  John 
Moore. 

Wolfe,  James.    1726-1759.     Eng.  general ;  fell  at  Quebec. 

Wolseley,  Garnet  Jos.,  Viscount.   1833-.  .  .  .    British  gen. 

Wolsey,  Thomas.  1471-1530.  English  cardinal  and  states- 
man.    Prime  minister  of  Henry  VIII.;  deposed  1529. 

Wood,  Mrs.  Henry.     1820-1887.   Eng.  novelist.    East  Lynne. 

Woodworth,  Samuel.  1785-1842.  American  poet.  Old  Oaken 
Bucket. 

Worcester,   Edward   Somerset,   Marquis  of.       1601  ?-i667. 

English  nobleman  ;  one  of  the  inventors  of  the  steam-engine. 

Worcester,  Joseph  Emerson.    1 734-1866.  Am.  lexicographer. 
Wordsworth,  William.    1 770-1 850.    English  poet.    Educated 

at  Cambridge ;  with  Coleridge  produced  Lyrical  Ballads,  1798  ;  settled 
at  Rydal  Mount,  1803;  Poems,  1807;  The  Excursion,  1814;  The 
White  Doe  of  Rylstone,  1815;  Peter  Bell,  i8:6.  Ecclesiastical  Son- 
nets ;   The  Wagoner;   Yarrtrw  Revisited;    The  Prelude, 

Wrangel,  Karl  Gustaf  von,  Count.     1613-1675.     Sw.  general. 
Wrangell,  Ferdinand  Petrovitch  von,  Baron.      i795?-i87o. 

Russian  explorer ;  governor  of  Russian  America. 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher.  1632-1723.  English  architect.  (St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  London.) 

Wright,  Silas.     1795-1847.     American  statesman. 

Wycherley,  William.     i640?-i7i5.     English  comedy  writer. 

Wycliffe  (or  Wickliffe),  John  de.  I324?-I384.  English  re- 
former; translator  of  the  Scriptures. 

XANTIPPE.     The  wife  of  Socrates;   notorious  for  bad 
temper,  but  credited  by  her  husband  with  many  domestic  virtues. 
Xavier    Francis,   Saint.      The  Apostle  of  the   Indies.     1506- 
1552.    French  Jesuit  missionary  to  India  and  Japan. 


Xenocrates.     396-314  B.C.     Greek  philosopher. 

Xenophanes.     6oo?-5oo?  B.C.     Greek  philosopher. 

Xenophon.  4457-355?  B.C.  Athenian  historian  and  general. 
Anabasis ;  Cyroptedia. 

Xerxes  I.  The  Great.  ....-465  B.C.  King  of  Persia.  In- 
vaded Greece,  but  was  defeated  at  Salamis. 

Ximenes,  Francisco,  Cardinal.  1436-1517.  Spanish  prelate, 
statesman  and  patron  of  literature.    Published  Polyglot  Bible. 

•Y^AKOOB    IBN    LAIS -879.      Founder  of   the 

,-•■»     Persian  dynasty  of  the  Suffarides.    Conquered  Selstan  and  Fanistan. 

Yale,  Elihu.     1648-1721.     Founder  of  Yale  College. 

Yancey,  William  Lowndes.     1814-1863.  American  politician. 

Yonge,  Charlotte  Mary.     1823- English  authoress. 

Yorck  von  Wartenburg,  Hans  David  Lud wig,  Count.    1759 
1830.    Prussian  general. 

York,  Edmund  Plantagenet,  first  Duke  of.  1341-1402.  Found- 
er of  the  house  of  York. 

Yorke,  Charles,  Lord  Morden.  1722-1770.  English  states- 
man and  jurist. 

Young,  Arthur.     1741-1820.     English  agricultural  writer. 

Young,  Brigham.  1801-1877.  President  of  the  Mormon 
church. 

Young,  Charles  Augustus.     1834-....     Amer.  astronomer. 

Young,  Edward.  1684-1765.  English  poet.  Night  Thoughts; 
Love  of  Eame  the  Universal  Passion  ;    The  Revenge. 

Yves,  Saint.  1253-1303.  French  monk  and  jurist ;  patron  of 
lawyers. 

JT"ALEUCUS.        Fl.    7th  century  B.C.       Greek   legislator 

.A-i         and  reformer ;  first  to  make  a  written  code  of  laws. 

Zamoyski,  John  Sarius.  1541-1605.  Polish  general,  states, 
man  and  scholar. 

Zechariah.     Fl.  6th  century  B.C.     Hebrew  prophet. 

Zelotti,  Battista.     1532-1592.     Italian  painter. 

Zeno  (or  Zenon).  3557-307?  B.C.  Greek  philosopher ;  founde 
of  the  school  of  Stoics. 

Zeno  (or  Zenon).     495-. . . .?     Greek  philosopher. 

Zeno -49L    Emperor  of  the  East. 

Zenobia,  Septirnia -275.  Queen  of  Palmyra.  Beauti- 
ful, learned,  and  possessed  of  a  warlike  and  masculine  temper.  Her  do- 
minions extendedfromtheMeditcrraneanto  the  Euphrates,  and  included 
a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor.     Defeated  by  Aurelian,  she  retired  to  Italy. 

Zephaniah.  Hebrew  prophet,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah.     Foretold  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

Zeuxis.    450-. . .'.  ?     Greek  painter. 

Zhukovsky,  Vasili  Andreevitch.     1783-1852.      Russian  poet. 

Zimmerman,  Johann  Georg  von.  1 728-1 795.  Swiss  physi- 
cian and  philosopher.     On  Solitude. 

Zinzendorf  Nicolaus  Ludwig  von,  Count.  1700-1760.  Ger- 
man theologian  ;  restorer  of  the  sect  of  Moravians. 

Ziska,  John,  of  Trocznow.  1360-1424.  Bohemian  general 
and  leader  of  the  Hussites. 

Zoega,  Georg.     1755-1809.     Danish  archaeologist. 

Zollicoffer,  Felix  K.     1812-1862.     American  general. 

Zoroaster.    Fl.  1500  B.C.     Persian  philosopher  and  founder  ot 

the  Magian  religion. 

Zschokke,  Johann  Heinrich  Daniel.       1771-1848.       German 

author. 
Zuccaro,  Federigo.     1 543-1609.     Italian  painter. 
Zwingle,  Ulrich.       1484-1531.      Swiss    reformer;    killed  IB 

battle.    Exposition  of  the  Christian  Faith. 


^ 


<s »~ 


V 


252 


. 


A  PANORAMA  OF  HISTORY. 


*^?*APHIC  ACCOUNT  &r!&S^ 

*Y  Nation  on  the  &* 

BBBBBBBBBEBBBBBBBBBBMBBBBBBBBEBBKBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBK 

©he  United  Stages. 


k- 


;  EFORE  the  occurrence  of  the  events  which  awoke  a 
national  feeling  in  the  thirteen  colonies,  their  history 
was  an  uninteresting  series  of  selfish  bickerings  and 
quarrels.  Only  once  or  twice  during  this  period  did 
~^$f^        any  of  the  colonies  form  unions  with  one  another, 

and  eve  1  then  it  was  done  solely  for  the  purpose  of  mutual 

protection  against  the 

common  enemy,  the  In- 
dians, whose  incursions 

upon   the   settlements, 

and    the  wars    waged 

against  them,  form  the 

most  romantic  pages  of 

this  periodof  American 

history.       The    people 

were  too  loyal  to  think 

of  separating  from  the 

mother  country,  whose 

utter  disregard  of  her 

alien  children  is  alone 

to  blame   for   the  loss 

of    the    empire   which 

they  deprived    her    of 

when   they  united  and 

fought  for  and  obtained 

the    glorious   boon    of 

national  independence. 

It   is   with    the   events 

which    preceded    this 

con  ummation  that  the 

history  of  the  United 

States    really   begins. 

Unacquainted  at  once 

with  the  needs aod  with 

the  spirit  of  the  colo- 
nists, the  home  Government  brought  to  bear  upon  them  several 
res  against  which  they  entered  more  than  one 

gentle  but  decided  protest.     No  taxation  without  representation 

was  the  central  idea  of  the)  lolonial  opposition  to  British  rale,  and 


THE  FALLS  OF  NIAGARA. 


when,  in  1765,  the  British  Government  passed  what  was  known 
as  the  Stamp  Act,  requiring  the  colonists  to  place  the  Gov- 
ernment stamp  upon  all  their  legal  documents,  newspapers  or 
pamphlets,  a  general  opposition  to  the  law  was  aroused  in 
the  colonies,  which  resulted  in  the  calling  of  a  Colonial  Con- 
gress, which  entered  a  formal  protest  against  the  measure.     Its 

repeal  was  se.-ured  by 
this  action,  but  the  re- 
lief was  only  tempo- 
rary, as  ten  years  later 
the  Government  im- 
posed a  duty  on  tea, 
glass,  paper  and  other 
colonial  imports,  which 
was  bitterly  resisted. 
In  Boston  the  outcry 
against  it  was  especially 
loud,  and  t  here  occurred 
that  very  ominous  affair 
known  as  the  "  Bos- 
ton Tea  Tarty,  "  when 
patriotic  colonists,  dis- 
guised as  Indians, 
boarded  the  British 
ships  and  threw  into 
the  bay  the  tea  which 
constituted  their  main 
cargoes.  The  British 
Parliament  closed  the 
port  of  Boston,  and 
these  harsh  measures, 
unrelieved  by  any  ef- 
forts in  the  direction  of 
conciliation,  drove  the 
colonists  to  rebellion. 
War  began  April  19,  1775,  when  the  Colonial  militia  and 
I  met   at   Concord.     Common  cause  was  at 

made  by  the  colonists,  who  raised  troops  and  placed 

them  under  the  command  of  George  Washington,  a  Virginian, 


IV 


"7 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


253 


who  had  served  with  credit  as  an  English  officer  in  the  wars 
against  the  French  in  the  West.  Boston  was  evacuated 
by  .the  British  March  17,  1776,  and  July  4th  of  the  same 
year  Congress  adopted  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Reverses  now  befell  the  Colonial  armies.  New  York  was  lost 
to  them,  and  this  serious  blow  was  hardly  offset  by  the  victories 
of  Princeton  and  Trenton.  Philadelphia  was  abandoned  in  1777, 
the  most  important  Colonial  victory  of  that  year  being  the  one 
gihed  by  General  Gates  at  Saratoga,  where  he  captured  Gen- 
en  1  Burgoyne  and  his  army.  Very  serious  was  the  drain  upon 
the  population  and  resources  of  the  Revolutionary  Government 
a,,  this  time,  and  during  the  winter  of  1777-78,  which  the 
American  army  passed  in  camp  at  Valley  Forge,  the  fortunes 
of  the  young  nation  seemed  at  a  very  low  ebb.  While  the  army 
was  suffering  from  cold  and  short  rations  during  this  season, 
the  American  diplomat  Benjamin  Franklin  was  at  the  court 
of  France,  successfully  conducting  negotiations  which  led  to 
the  establishment  of  a  defensive  and  offensive  alliance  between 
that  country  and  the  Americans.  F'rench  money  and  men 
proved  a  timely  aid,  though  for  two  years  the  colonists  made 
no  great  headway.  In  1781  the  campaign  in  the  South  was 
conducted  with  such  vigor  that  the  British  forces  there  were 
cooped  up  in  Savan- 
nah, Georgia,  and 
Charleston,  South 
Carolina.  Successes 
further  north  fol- 
lowed, and  the  sur- 
render of  General 
Cornwallis  at  York- 
town, Virginia,  proved 
the  ruin  of  the  British 
cause  in  America, 
and  the  practical  ter- 
mination of  the  war. 
In  the  following  year 
negotiationsfor  peace 
were  begun,  and  a 
treaty  acknowledging  the  independence  of  the  United  States 
was  signed  September  3,  1783. 

It  had  been  felt  all  through  the  war  that  the  articles  of  con- 
federation under  which  the  different  colonies  co-operated  were 
altogether  inadequate  to  the  conduct  of  the  young  nation's 
affairs,  and  the  revision  of  the  form  of  government  was  one  of 
the  earliest  matters  to  receive  the  attention  of  its  leaders.  A 
convention  was  called  at  Annapolis  in  1787,  which  framed  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States,  which  was  duly  ratified  by 
the  States  and  has  remained,  with  the  addition  of  sundry  amend- 
ments, the  embodiment  of  the  principles  of  government  in  this 
country  ever  since.  In  1789  General  George  Washington  was 
elected  first  President  of  the  United  States,  and  a  second  term  of 
office  was  accorded  him  in  1793,  at  the  end  of  which  he  declined 
to  again  accept  the  office,  thus  establishing  the  no-third-term 
precedent,  violation  of  which  has  not  since  been  permitted  by 
the  American  people.  Early  in  the  political  history  of  the 
country  party  lines  began  to  be  sharply  drawn,  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution  causing  the  first  clearly  defined  difference  of 
opinion,  when  those  favoring  it  became  known  as  Federalists 


THE  SUSPENSION  BRIDGE,  NIAGARA.' 


and  those  opposed  to  it  as  Anti-Federalists,  the  latter  party  as- 
suming the  name  Republican  subsequent  to  the  Constitution's 
adoption.  The  presidential  elections  following  those  of 
Washington,  in  which  patriotic  sentiment  was  allowed  to  over- 
come party  feeling,  were  purely  partisan ;  and  while  the  Fed- 
eralists succeeded  in  placing  John  Adams  in  the  presidential 
chair  as  Washington's  successor,  the  Republicans  elected  Jeffer- 
son, Madison  and  Monroe,  each  for  two  terms  of  office.  With 
the  exception  of  wars  with  the  Indians,  who  disputed  the  ad- 
vance into  their  territories  caused  by  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
population,  the  country  was  at  peace  during  the  years  subse- 
quent to  Washington's  inauguration.  In  1812,  however,  differ- 
ences arose  with  Great  Britain,  then  at  war  with  France,  the 
most  serious  of  which  was  her  persistence  in  asserting  the  right 
of  searching  American  vessels  and  removing  from  them  sailors 
who  she  claimed  were  of  British  birth,  but  who  really,  in  a  vast 
majority  of  cases,  were  American  citizens,  of  whom  not  less 
than  6,000  were  so  impressed  in  the  year  181 1.  The  war  was 
conducted  with  varying  success  in  different  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent. In  the  operations  against  Canada,  General  William 
Henry  Harrison  won  a  glorious  victory  near  Detroit,  defeating 
a  British  army  with  which  was  allied  a  powerful  force  of  In- 
dians under  the  fa- 
mous leader  Tecum- 
seh,  who  was  slain- 
General  Scott  secure  d 
successes  at  Lundy's 
Lane  and  Chippewa, 
while  Commodor, 
Perry,  on  Lake  Erie, 
and  Commodore  Mc- 
Donough,  on  Lake 
Champlain,  swept 
those  waters  of  Brit- 
ish war  vessels  and 
greatly  enhanced  the 
importance  of  thn 
militaryvictories.  In 
the  South,  General  Jackson  defeated  the  British  at  the  mem- 
orable battle  of  New  Orleans.  The  principal  reverses  sus- 
tained during  the  war  were  the  capture  of  General  Hull 
and  his  army  at-  Detroit,  and  of  General  Winchester  and 
the  defeat  of  the  Americans  at  Bladensburgh,  which  opened  the 
way  to  the  British  occupation  of  Washington.  The  war,  which 
came  to  an  end  December  24,  1814,  was  strongly  opposed  by 
the  Federalists,  and  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Republican 
party.  While  it  was  in  progress  an  uprising  of  the  Creek  In- 
dians in  Alabama  caused  considerable  trouble,  but  they  were 
conquered  by  General  Jackson.  Further  troubles  with  Indians 
occurred  in  1832,  when  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  tribes  living  in  the 
Northwest,  had  to  be  quelled  in  what  is  known  as  the  Black 
Hawk  war,  and  in  1835,  when  Osceola,  a  crafty  leader  of  the 
Seminole  tribe,  of  Florida,  began  a  war  which  lasted  for  four 
years  before  they  were  brought  under  subjection.  All  of  these 
troublesome  savages  were  removed  to  lands  reserved  for  them, 
and  known  then  and  since  as  the  Indian  Territory. 

Although   no  foreign   war   occupied   the   public  mind   for 
thirty  years  from  the  close  of  that  of  1S12,  important  events 


254 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


at  home  caused  great  agitation.  The  question  of  perpetuating 
the  institution  of  slavery  in  the  new  States  caused  a  long  and 
excited  controversy,  which  ended  temporarily  in  1820  by  the 
admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave  State,  with  a  compromise 
resolution  providing  that  in  future  no  slave  State  should  exist 
north  of  the  parallel  36  degrees  20  seconds  north  latitude. 
In  1832,  the  adoption  of  a  high  protective  tariff  by  Congress 
was  resented  by  the  Southern  States,  South  Carolina  declaring 
it  unconstitutional  and  threatening  secession.  Happily,  when 
a  collision  seemed  unavoidable,  a  compromise,  effected  by 
Henry  Clay,  providing  for  the  gradual  reduction  of  duties, 
restored  a  peaceful  condition  of  affairs.  In  1837  occurred  a 
financial  crisis  attended  with  many  serious  commercial  dis- 
asters, the  result  of  a  period  of  over-speculation  and  expansion 


defeated  the  Mexican  General  Santa  Anna.  In  1847,  General 
Winfield  Scott  captured  the  seaport  of  Vera  Cni2,  and,  march- 
ing up  the  valley  of  Mexico,  fought  and  won  the  battles  of  Cerro 
Gordo,  Churubusco  and  Chapultepec,  and  captured  the  city  of 
Mexico.  The  war  came  to  an  end  February  2,  1848,  the 
Mexicans  ceding  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California  to  the 
United  States. 

No  foreign  war  was  conducted  by  the  United  States  after 
this,  but  within  her  boundaries  a  conflict  of  forces  was  going 
on  which  was  doomed  to  bring  the  country  to  internal  strife. 
The  agitation  of  the  slavery  question  continued,  and,  as  years  ■ 
went  by,  the  discussion  of  its  merits  increased  in  bitterness. 
Still  the  country  continued  to  grow  rapidly  in  wealth  and 
population,  and  many  hoped  that  some  compromise  might  yet 


■■ 


fHE  CITY  OF  BO.- 


of  the  currency.  During  the  administration  of  President 
Tyler,  the  boundary  question  threatened  a  disruption  of  peace- 
ful relations  with  Great  Britain,  but  the  arbitration  treaty, 
which  was  arranged  by  Daniel  Webster,  averted  the  threatened 
disaster.  In  1845,  tne  Mexican  State  of  Texas,  which  had 
been  largely  settled  by  Americans,  and  which  had  declared  its 
independence  some  years  previous,  was  annexed  by  the  United 
States.  A  dispute  with  Mexico  over  the  boundary  question 
followed,  which  led  to  war,  and  General  Zachary  Taylor,  in 
the  battles  of  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  tic  la  Palma,  captured  the 
city  of  Monterey,  and  marched  on  to  Bucna  Vista,  where  he 


preserve  the  national  peace,  which  the  more  reckless  support- 
ers of  both  the  Abolition  and  Slavery  parties,  judging  by  the 
fierceness  of  their  utterances,  seemed  to  hold  of  much  lighter 
account  than  the  respective  principles  they  upheld.  As  each 
election  went  by,  the  issue  Iwcame  more  clearly  that  of  slavery 
or  freedom,  and  in  i860  Abraham  Lincoln  was  elected  Presi- 
dent by  the  Republican  party  on  a  platform  which,  while  leav- 
ing to  each  State  the  right  to  order  and  control  its  own 
domestic  institutions,  insisted  that  freedom  was  the  normal 
condition  of  all  the  territory  of  the  United  States.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Southern  States  had  made  the  declaration  that 


>!■» 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


255 


the  election  of  a  President  pledged  to  oppose  the  extension  of 
slavery  would  be  a  violation  of  their  constitutional  rights  and 
a  moral  invasion  of  the  Slave  States.  In  adherence  to  this 
declaration,  in  December,  i860,  South  Carolina  seceded  from 
the  Union,  and  her  example  was  followed  by  Mississippi, 
Georgia,  Alabama,  Florida,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Virginia, 
Arkansas,  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina.  In  April  following 
the  Confederates  opened  hostilities  by  bombarding  Fort 
Sumter,  near   Charleston,   S.  C,  and  compelling   the  Union- 


before  General  Grant,  and,  Port  Hudson  surrendering  a  few 
days  later,  the  blockade  of  the  Mississippi  was  ended.  The 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  at  which  General  Meade  defeated  Lee's 
splendid  army,  was  another  important  Northern  victory  during 
the  year  of  Emancipation.  In  1864,  General  Sherman  cap- 
tured Atlanta,  and  accomplished  his  march  to  the  sea,  which 
ended  with  the  fall  of  Savannah.  The  bloody  victories  of  the 
Wilderness  and  of  Spottsylvania  helped  the  Union  soldiers  in 
their  march  south,  and  the  siege  of  Petersburg  was  conducted 


THE  BROOKLYN  SUSPENSION  BRIDGE. 


garrison  to  surrender.  Both  sides  to  the  impending  conflict 
armed  with  haste,  and  the  first  serious  clash  of  arms  occurred 
at  Bull  Run,  where  the  Federal  forces  became  panic-stricken 
and  suffered  defeat.  The  Confederates  gained  but  a  slight 
advantage  and  were  driven  back.  In  the  West,  where  the 
Confederates  had  closed  up  the  Mississippi  River,  the  Federals 
captured  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  and  overran  the  State  of 
Tennessee.  On  January  1,  1863,  President  Lincoln  issued  the 
Emancipation  Proclamation.  With  varying  fortunes  the  war 
progressed  until  July  4th   of  that  year,  when  Vicksburg  fell 


by  General  Grant  in  command  of  a  line  between  thirty  and 
forty  miles  in  length.  The  fall  of  Richmond  and  Petersburg, 
April  2  and  3,  1865,  brought  the  end  near,  and  a  week  later 
General  Lee  surrendered  at  Appomattox  Court-house.  The 
war,  in  the  conduct  of  which  nearly  1,800,000  Union  soldiers 
had  been  enlisted,  and  a  debt  of  $2,000, 000,000  incurred,  called 
for  special  financial  legislation.  In  1862,  and  on  subsequent 
occasions,  were  issued  legal  tender  notes  of  the  United  States, 
and  interest -bearing  bonds  of  various  kinds.  A  national 
bank  system,  which   survives,  was  established.    Customs  duties 


ki 


• 


256 


A 


THE  TNI  I  U>  MATES. 


were  raised  to  an  average  of  nearly  50  ]>cr  cent,  and  a  direct 
tax  and  a  large   variety  of  internal   revenue  duties  were  ini- 


■ 


COL.  W.  A.  ROEBLING. 

HI  II  IX  H    OF   THE    BROOKLYN   BRIDGE. 

posed.  These  impositions  provided  for  the  annual  expendi- 
tures of  the  Government,  which  were  increased  from  $60,000,000 
in  i860  to  $1,217,000,000  in  1865. 

April  14,  1865,  a  few  weeks 
after  his  inauguration  for  the 
second  term,  President  Lincoln 
was  assassinated  at  Washington 
by  J.  Wilkes  Booth,  who  was 
hunted  down  and  killed  a  few 
days  later,  four  of  his  accom- 
plices being  convicted  and  exe- 
cuted. Vice-President  Johnson 
became  President,  and  the  work 
of  political  reconstruction  was 
begun.  The  Thirteenth  Amend- 
ment to  the  Constitution,  abol- 
ishing slavery  within  the  United 
States  and  places  subject  to 
their  jurisdiction,  was  duly  rati- 
fied and  proclaimed.  In  April, 
1866,  Congress  passed  the  Civil 
Rights  bill  over  the  President's 
veto,  thus  ensuring  protection 
to  the  freed  slaves,  and  giving 
to  the  Federal  courts  enlarged 
jurisdiction  in  the  matter.  In 
June  was  passed  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment,  whereby  equal 
civil  rights  were  guaranteed  to 
all,  irrespective  of  race  or  color.  Hy  this  tirrie  the  breach 
between  President  Johnson  and  the  Republican  party  was 
complete,  and  the  antagonism  grew  until  in  March.  1867, 
the  Republican  Congress  passed,  over  the  President's  veto,  the 
tenure  of  office  act,  intended  to  contract  the  executive's  power  to 
remove  officials.     Mr.  Johnson  deemed  the  act  an  unconstitu- 


tional invasion  of  his  rights,  and  defied  it,  which  led  to  his 
impeachment  and  trial  by  the  Senate,  who  acquitted  him,  the 
two-thirds  vote  necessary  for  a  conviction  not  being  secured. 
Just  before  his  retirement,  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution  was  passed,  which  provides  that  the  rights  of  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  to  vote  -.hall  not  be  denied  or  abridged 
by  the  United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color 
or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

At  the  next  presidential  election  General  U.  S.  Grant  re- 
ceived the  nomination  of  the  Republican  party  and  was  elected. 
Representation  in  Congress  was  restored  to  such  States  as  had 
not  regained  it  since  reconstruction  commenced.  In  1869  the 
Union  Pacific  and  Central  Pacific  railroads  were  completed, 
connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  by  rail. 

The  claims  of  the  United  States  against  the  British  Govern- 
ment for  the  depredations  of  the  Alabama  and  other  Confed- 
erate cruisers  built  by  the  English  were  referred  to  a  tribunal 
of  arbitration,  which  met  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1871,  and  awarded  the  United  States  the  sum  of  $15,500,- 
000  damages,  this  being  the  first  occasion  in  the  world's  history 
in  which  an  international  difficulty  of  such  gravity  had  been 
disposed  of  in  so  peaceful  a  manner. 

During  General  Crant'ssecondtcrm,  which  began  in  1873,  the 
Indians  gave  trouble.  The  Apaches,  in  Arizona,  were  subdued 
by  General  Crook.  In  1873,  General  E.  K.  S.  Canby  and 
some    other   officers    were    treacherously   massacred  by   the 


nit' 


.  «ho  were  destroyed  after  a  hard  struggle.  In  1876, 
the  Sioux,  in  Montana,  under  Sitting  Bull,  rebelled  against 
United  State*  authority  and  were  attacked  by  General  George 
A.  Custer,  who.  with  Ins  immediate  command,  was  surrounded 
and  slain,  other  companies  of  the  cavalry  regiment  under  him 
being  rescued  by  General  Terry. 


1 


V 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


In  1876  the  convention  of  the  Republican  party  nominated 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  for  President,  while  Samuel  J. 
Tilden,  of  New  York,  was  put  forward  by  the  Democrats.  The 
ensuing  election  was  extremely  close,  Mr.  Tilden  receiving  a 
majority  of  the  popular  vote,  and  the  returns  also  giving  him  a 
majority  of  the  Electoral  College.  The  returns  from  Florida  and 
Louisiana  were  disputed,  however,  on  the  ground  of  fraud. 
Congress  was  unable  to  reach  a  decision,  and  an  Electoral  Com- 
mission was  appointed.  Under  its  decision,  by  a  vote  of  8  to  7, 
Mr.  Hayes  became  President,  the  commission  allotting  him  185 
of  the  electoral  votes,  one  more  than  the  number  allotted  Mr. 
Tilden.  During  the  administration  of  President  Hayes  a 
great  cause  of  irritation  throughout  the  South  was  removed 
by  his  aversion  to  the  use  of  the  military  power  of  the 
United  States  in  controlling  State  governments.  The  decline  of 
values  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  however,  as  the  time  for  re- 
sumption of  specie  payments  approached,  caused  great  distress. 
Wages  were  lowered,  and  thousands  thrown  out  of  employ- 
ment. In  the  summer  of  1877  a  great  strike  of  men  engaged 
by  the  railroad  companies  stopped,  for  a  time,  all  transporta- 
tion of  passengers  and  freight  on  many  roads,  and  filled  the 
country  with  alarm.  Riots  occurred  at  Reading,  Scranton, 
Pittsburg,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis.  At  Pittsburg  property  to 
the  amount  of  several  millions  of  dollars  was  destroyed.  During 
1878  and  1879  the  lower  Mississippi  valley  was  ravaged  by 
yellow  fever,  and  great  numbers  perished  with  the  dread  disease 
in  New  Orleans,  Vicksburg,  Memphis,  and  smaller  places, 
although  the  Howard  Association,  as  well  as  sisterhoods  and 
clergymen,  nobly  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  and  relief  of  the 
sick.  A  majority  of  Congress,  during  Hayes'  administration,  was 
elected  by  the  Democrats,  and  many  cases  of  disagreement 
occurred  between  the  legislative  body  and  the  executive,  several 
bills  being  vetoed  by  the  President,  who,  in  1879,  called  an 
extra  session  to  pass  the  annual  appropriation  bills.  One  of  the 
bills  vetoed  by  the  President  was  that  to  prevent  the  further 
immigration  of  natives  of  China.  During  the  excitement  on 
this  subject  in  California,  many  acts  of  violence  were  perpetrated, 
and  miny  Chinese  left  the  State  and  became  scattered  through 
the  country.  A  new  treaty  with  China  at  last  removed  some  of 
the  difficulties. 

In  1880  the  Republicans  nominated  and  elected  General 
James  A.  Garfield,  his  opponent  for  the  Presidency  being  General 
Winfield  S.  Hancock.  A  strong  effort  had  previously  been  made 
in  the  Republican  party  to  nominate  General  Grant,  who  had 
made  a  tour  of  the  world,  and  been  received  with  great  distinc- 
tion in  Europe.  The  election  of  1880  was  a  close  one,  the  vote 
of  New  York,  which  had  for  years  been  Democratic,  deciding 
the  contest  in  favor  of  the  Republican  candidate.  The  elections 
for  Congress  also  showed  a  reaction  in  favor  of  the  Republicans. 
The  nomination  of  Garfield,  however,  had  caused  a  split  in  the 
ranks  of  the  Republican  party,  the  supporters  of  the  third  term 
aspirations  of  General  Grant,  commoaly  known  as  "  Stalwarts," 
feeling  deeply  their  failure  to  nominate  him.  This  opposition  to 
the  President  reappeared  after  he  had  begun  his  administration, 
and  an  open  rupture  between  him  and  the  Stalwart  leaders  fol- 
lowed.    While  this  was  at  its  height,  a  political  fanatic,  named 


Charles  Jules  Guiteau,  conceived  the  idea  that  he  would  restore 
unity  to  the  party  by  removing  the  President,  thus  throwing 
the  administration  into  the  hands  of  Vice-President  Arthur,  who 
was  a  Stalwart,  and  had  received  the  nomination  as  a  concession 
to  that  faction.  July  2,  iSSl,  Guiteau  lay  in  wait  for  the  Presi- 
dent at  the  railway  station  at  Washington,  and  shot  him  as  he 
was  on  the  point  of  departing  from  the  city  upon  a  vacation. 
The  wounded  President  died  September  19,  at  Long  Branch, 
N.  J.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Vice-President  Arthur.  The  as- 
sassin Guiteau  was  tried,  convicted  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged, 
the  execution  taking  place  in  the  jail  building  at  Washington. 

After  Mr.  Arthur's  accession  to  power  the  Democrats,  in  the 
general  elections  of  1882,  came  to  the  front  and  carried  so  many 
of  the  Congressional  districts  as  to  secure  them  a  large  majority 
in  the  Forty-eighth  Congress,  which  assembled  in  December, 
1883.  Interest  in  the  final  session  of  that  Congress  settled 
largely  upon  their  action  n  regard  to  the  tariff,  a  modification  of 
which  was  very  evidently  looked  for  by  the  people.  In  1884 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  re-adjust  the  tariff,  with  a 
view  to  reducing  the  surplus  in  the  treasury  and  securing  a  more 
equitable  distribution  of  taxation.  The  defeat  of  the  measure 
was  largely  due  to  the  Democratic  majority  in  the  House,  who 
desired  to  enter  the  Presidential  campaign  unfettered  by  prom- 
ises. Two  unsuccessful  treaties  were  negotiated  during  the 
*ame  period.  The  first,  with  Mexico,  was  approved  by  the 
Senate,  but  failed  to  go  into  effect  because  of  the  refusal  of  the 
House  to  provide  the  legislative  measures  necessary  to  secure 
its  operation.  The  other  treaty,  with  Spain,  was  killed  in  its 
early  stages.  Negotiations  for  a  new  extradition  treaty  with 
Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  were  also  begun. 

The  Presidential  campaign  of  1884  was  bitter  and  aggressive. 
James  G.  Blaine,  of  Maine,  the  Republican  candidate,  was 
defeated  by  Graver  Cleveland,  of  New  York,  the  nominee  of 
the  Democratic  party,  who  received  the  support  of  many  dis- 
satisfied Republicans;  and  in  1885,  for  the  first  time  in  twenty- 
four  years,  a  Democrat  was  installed  in  the  White  House. 
President  Cleveland  took  the  helm  of  state  with  the 
motto  of  l:Reform,"  and  the  conservative  spirit  displayed 
in  his  administration  of  the  office  of  chief  magistrate  of 
the  republic  rendered  it  satisfactory  to  all  classes. 

General  Benjamin  Harrison  was  nominated  by  the 
Republicans  and  elected  to  the  presidency  in  1S88.  In 
1889  North  and  South  Dakota,  Montana  and  Washington 
were  admitted  into  the  Union ;  Idaho  and  Wyoming 
were  admitted  in  1890,  and  Oklahoma  was  opened  to 
settlers  in  the  latter  year.  In  1890  the  McKinley  protec- 
tive tariff  bill  was  passed  by  Congress  and  signed  by  the 
President.  Active  preparations  are  now  in  progress  for 
the  opening  of  the  World's  Columbian  Fair  in  1893. 

The  country  was  never  in  a  more  prosperous  condition 
generally  than  at  present.  The  statistical  department  of 
this  work  speaks  volumes  for  the  growth  and  rank  of  the 
Union  in  all  those  things  which  make  a  nation  great. 


V- 


A 


16' 


I  OS     1.  i .  •     ■-      1 00 


I  5      Gre«n«ii'b    _      UU 


260 


THK  DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 


LVViVT 


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«S**I* 


'HE  Dominion  of  Canada,  now  a  semi-independent 
confederation  of  provinces  subject  to  the  British 
Crown,  has  an  interesting  history  which  reaches 
back  to  within  a  very  few  years  of  the  discovery  of 
America  by  Columbus.  The  French  sea  captain 
Jacques  Cartier,  in  1534,  planted  the  standard  of  Francis  I. 
of  France  upon  the  shores  of  New  Brunswick,  and  in  later 
voyages  he  discovered  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  Attempts 
at  colonization  were  made,  but  none  were  very  successful 
until  the  time  of  Samuel  de  Champlain,  when  the  city  of 
Quebec  was  established,  and  the  foundation  laid  of  the 
empire  of  New  France.  His  explorations  were  ably  followed 
up  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  who  were  sent  out  later  by  the 
French  Government,  and  the  names  of  Fathers  Joliet,  Mar- 
quette, La  Salle  and  Perrot,  who  first  saw  the  Great  Lakes  and 
the  Mississippi  River,  are  indissolubly  linked  with  the  story  of 
early  discovery  in  North  America.  Cruel  wars  with  the  Indians 
constitute  the  leading  feature  of  interest  in  early  Canadian  his- 
tory, each  of  the  leading  claimants  of  North  American  soil 
— England  and  France — employing  the  willing  savages  tocarry 
destruction  into  the  settlements  of  the  other.  Directly  result- 
ing from  this  cruel  policy  was  the  massacre  of  Lachine,  in 
which  the  Iroquois,  at  the  instigation  of  the  English,  fell  upon 
the  French  settlements  in  the  neighborhood  of  Montreal,  and 
slaughtered  their  inhabitants,  and  which  caused  the  cruel 
reprisals  of  Schenectady  and  Salmon  Falls.  During  the  fre- 
quent wars  between  England  and  France,  tht  latter's  Canadian 
colonies  became  more  than  once  the  object  of  English  attack, 
but  it  was  not  until  September,  1759,  that  the  citadel  of 
Quelx*c  fell  before  the  gallant  English  General  Wolfe,  and 
with  it  the  French  tenure  of  Canada,  which  was  called  the 
Province  of  Quebec,  divided  into  three  districts  and  placed 
under  the  direction  of  a  Governor  appointed  by  Great  Britain. 
During  the  war  of  American  Independence,  the  Americana, 
finding  that  the  Canadians  would  not  join  the  revolution,  in- 
vaded Canada,  but  were  unable  to  hold  the  country  on  account 
of  their  failure  to  capture  the  city  of  Quebec. 

After  the  close  of  the  war  a  great  many  persons  from  the 
English  colonies  settled  in  that  portion  of  Canada  lying  north 
of  Lake  Ontario,  which,  upon  the  separation  of  the  province 
in  1791,  became  known  as  Upper  Canada,  the  cistern  province 
taking  the  name  of  Lower  Canada,  Dissen-ions  arOK  ill  both 
provinces  over  questions  of  government,  but  the  war  of  1812 


united  Canada  in  defence  against  a  common  invasion,  in 
which  the  Canadians  showed  a  patriotism  and  valor  very 
creditable  for  so  young  a  country.  After  the  war,  the  same 
causes  of  dissension  still  existing,  the  old  quarrels  were  renewed 
and  the  disaffection  finally  culminated  in  separate  rebellions 
in  each  of  the  provinces.  In  Upper  Canada  a  popular  agitator 
named  Mackenzie  attempted  to  set  up  the  republic,  and  in 
1837  gathered  a  body  of  armed  followers,  who  marched  against 
the  capital,  Toronto,  where  they  were  defeated.  More  serious 
disturbances  were  caused  in  Lower  Canada,  when,  under  the 
leadership  of  Louis  Papineau,  the  French  Canadian  "patriots" 
collected  in  masses  on  the  Richelieu,  and  were  not  dispersed  until 
after  severe  conflicts,  in  which  several  hundreds  were  slain. 
The  union  of  the  two  provinces  was  decided  upon  by  the  home 
Government  as  a  remedy  for  the  troubles  complained  of,  and 
this  measure  was  accomplished  in  1S41,  the  new  Constitution 
giving  Canada  one  legislature  instead  of  two.  Under  it  the 
country  progressed  rapidly  in  population,  commerce  and  general 
prosperity.  About  1S61  a  strong  party  feeling  arose  between  the 
two  provinces  over  the  claim  for  representation  by  population 
made  by  the  inhabitants  of  Upper  Canada,  who,  having  largely 
outgrown  the  lower  province  in  numbers,  desired  that  their 
representation  in  Parliament  should  be  proportionately  larger. 
The  Lower  Canadians  would  not  agree  to  any  change  of  the 
Constitution  in  accordance  with  this  plan,  and  the  political 
struggle  was  growing  dangerously  bitter,  when  the  confedera- 
tion of  the  various  British  provinces  in  America,  with  local 
government  for  each,  was  suggested  as  an  available  remedy. 
The  provinces  of  Canada,  afterwards  known  as  Ontario  and 
Quebec,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  accepted  the  pro- 
posed union.  Newfoundland  and  Prince  Edward  ! 
rejected  it.  The  matter  was  left  with  the  British  Government, 
which,  in  1S67,  conferred  the  Constitution  under  which  the 
Canadians  now  live,  a-  well  as  the  name  Dominion  of  Canada. 
Since  then  the  confederation  has  been  enlarged  by  the  admis- 
sion of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's  Northwestern  territories  in 
1870,  now  known  as  Manitoba  and  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tories;  01  British  Columbia  in  1871,  and  of  Prince 
l.luard  Island  in    1S73. 

To  the  vast  majority  of  Americans  the  country  to  the 
north  of  the  international  lxmnd.iry  line  is  a  terra  inttgnitm, 
of  which  less  is  known  than  of  the  small  revolutionary  States 
of  Central  America.     Of  Mexican  affairs  the  people  of  the 


"_ 


-- 


»£. 


THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 


26l 


United  States  have  sufficient  reminders  to  spur  interest  or 
promote  enquiry,  in  its  biennial  revolutions  and  military  dicta- 
torships, but  of  the  quiet,  progressive  5,000,000  of  people 
owning  the  3,500,000  square  miles  comprising  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  we  know  but  little,  and  apparently  care  less. 

However  much  it  may  be  ignored,  it  is  still  an  undoubted 
fact  that  a  great  nation  is  rapidly  assuming  consistency  and 
form  in  that  country.  National  sentiment  and  feeling  have 
been  developed,  and  now  the  habitants  and  bourgeois  of 
Quebec  vie  with  the  agriculturists,  manufacturers  and  trades- 
men of  Ontario  and  the  Maritime  Provinces  in  priding  them- 
selves upon  being  Canadians.  Already  they  complain  of  being 
held  in  leading-strings  by  Great  Britain,  and  the  wish  is  gen- 
erally expressed  that  Canada  should  have  the  appointing  of  its 
own  Governor-General,  the  power  of  negotiating  foreign  com- 
mercial treaties,  and  that  the  slight  ties  now  binding  the 
Dominion  to  the  Colonial  Secretary's  office  in  London  be  yet 
further  loosened,  until  the  political  connection,  now  merely 
nominal,  ceases  to  exist  even  in  name.  The  very  presence 
of  Sir  Chas.  Tupper  as  High  Commissioner  at  the  British 
Court,  with  functions  possessed  by  the  representatives  of 
independent  powers,  is  a  tacit  claim  by  the  Dominion  of 
the  privileges  of  a  sovereign  people. 

ITS  VAST  AREA. 

The  Dominion,  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
oceans  and  from  the  United  States  boundary  line  to  the  Arctic 
seas,  has  a  larger  area  than  Europe,  and  even  exceeds  the 
United  States  exclusive  of  Alaska.  Territory,  however,  does 
not  of  necessity  imply  a  correspondence  in  greatness,  wealth 
or  power,  and  any  speculations  based  entirely  upon  such  data 
must  prove  fallacious.  In  order  to  form  anything  like  a  just 
estimate  of  the  importance  of  the  country  the  state  of  the 
settled  and  cultivated  portions  must  be  considered. 

Canada  proper,  consisting  of  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and 
Quebec,  containing  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  population 
of  the  Dominion,  is  1,000  miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of 
230.  It  has  an  area  of  450,000  square  miles,  or  310,000,- 
000  acres.  That  portion  of  it  included  in  Ontario  may  be 
considered  the  garden  of  Canada,  both  as  to  climate,  soil  and 
the  variety  0*"  productiveness  of  its  agricultural  exhibits. 

POPULATION. 

The  people  of  Ontario  are  very  different  from  their  French 
neighbors  on  the  other  side  of  the  Ottawa,  and  are  as  noted 
for  real  American  enterprise,  industry  and  progressiveness  as 
those  are  for  the  opposite.  In  1825  the  number  of  inhabitants 
in  Ontario  (at  that  time  Upper  Canada)  was  158,027.  In  1852 
the  number  had  reached  952,004,  and  at  the  census  of 
1891  it  was  2,112,989.  The  growth  of  the  cities  is  also 
remarkable.  Toronto  in  1826  had  only  1,677  inhabitants, 
and  in  1854  it  numbered  40,000,  and  now  it  contains  181,- 
220  people.  Hamilton,  within  ten  years,  from  1844  to 
1854,  quadrupled  its  population,  and  its  increase  since,  if 
less  rapid,  has  been  remarkable. 

In  1875  the  population  of  the  entire  Dominion  was 
4,000,000 ;  in  1881  it  was  about  4,400,000,  and  now  it  num- 
bers 4,829,41 1.     The  material  progress  of  the  country  has 


M 


been  on  an  equally  rapid  scale.  Canada  exports  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  butter,  cheese,  poultry,  eggs,  fruit,  wheat, 
flour,  barley,  oats,  beans,  and  other  produce  each  year  to 
the  value  of  $40,000,000  to  $45,000,000.  The  money  value 
of  the  fisheries  in  1889  was  $17,655,256.  The  foreign 
trade  is  largely  with  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
the  balance  being  exchanged  with  European  countries, 
the  West  Indies,  South  America,  Australasia,  China  and 
Japan.  The  exports  for  1890  were  as  follows  :  To  Great 
Britain,  $48,353,694;  United  States,  $40,522,810;  France, 
$278,552:  Germany,  $507,143;  Spain,  $69,788;  Portugal, 
$207,777;  Itatyt  $81,059;  Holland,  $1,042;  Belgium,  $41,- 
814;  Newfoundland,  $1,185,739;  West  Indies,  $2,719,141; 
South  America,  $1,551,887;  China  and  Japan,  $61,751; 
Australia,  $471,028;  other  countries,  $695,924.  Total, 
$96,749,149.  Total  imports  for  home  consumption,  $112,- 
765,584,  of  which  $77,106,286  were  dutiable  goods  and 
$35.659.298  free  goods. 

The  revenue  of  the  Dominion  for  1890  was  $39,879,925, 
of  which  $23,968,954  was  from  customs;  $7,618,118  from 
excise;  $2,357,388  from  post-office;  $2,357,388  from  public 
works,  including  government  railways;  $1,082,271  from 
interest  on  investments,  and  $220,141  from  Dominion 
lands. 

The  expenditure  on  account  of  consolidated  fund  was 
$35,994,031,  of  which  $9,626,841  was  for  interest;  $1,308,- 
847  for  civil  government;  $709,784  for  administration  of 
justice;  $932,187  for  legislation;  $466,115  for  lighthouse 
and  coast  service;  $286,315  for  mail  subsidies  and  steam- 
ship subventions;  $1,107,824  for  Indians;  $328,893  for 
fisheries;  $120,548  for  geological  survey;  $153,308  for 
arts,  agriculture  and  statistics;  $1,287,013  for  militia  and 
defence  ;  $1,972,501  for  public  works  ;  $3,904,922  for  sub- 
sides to  provinces  ;  $3,074,470  for  post-office;  $4,362,200 
for  railways  and  canals ;  $873,400  for  collecting  custom's 
revenue;  $164,047  for  ocean  and  river  service. 

CANADA  PACIFIC  RAILWAY. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the  prospective 
future  advances  of  the  country  to  a  high  condition  of 
material  progress  and  industrial  wealth  will  be,  undoubt- 
edly, the  Canada  Pacific  Railway.  The  route  through 
the  Dominion  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  preferable  to  that 
which  connects  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  in  our  country. 
It  is  said  by  competent  authorities  to  be  shorter  by  over 
a  thousand  miles  in  connecting  Europe  with  Asia.  Pass- 
ing close  to  Lake  Superior  and  traversing  the  watershed 
which  divides  the  streams  flowing  toward  the  Arctic  seas 
from  those  which  have  their  exit  southward,  the  route, 
though  presenting  serious  engineering  difficulty,  was 
more  easy  of  construction  than  the  Union  Pacific.  The 
effect  of  the  completion  of  this  road  can  scarcely  be  esti- 
mated at  present,  as  it  is  opening  up  for  settlement  a  vast 
region  abounding  in  valuable  timber,  coal  and  other  ma- 
terial products,  and  well  suited  for  grazing  and  the  growth 
of  grain.     Construction   on   the   Canadian    Pacific   was 


" 


IV 


262 


"7 


THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 


first  commenced  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, but  this  plan  was  not  found  to  work  well,  and 
shortly  after  the  change  of  Government,  in  1878,  the  new 
Ministry  handed  over  the  work  of  construction  to  a  syndicate, 
granting  to  them  money  and  land  bonuses  and  exclusive  rights 
on  a  monopoly  of  traffic  for  twenty  years  from  the  time  of  the 
completion  of  the  road.  The  road  was  opened  for  traffic 
in  1886.  In  1890,  12,821,262  passengers  and  20,787,469  tons 
of  freight  were  carried ;  the  earnings  amounting  to 
$46,843,826,  and  the  expenses  being  $32,913,350. 

The  settlement  of  the  Northwest  Territory  along  the  line  of 
the  railway  is  proceeding  at  an  unprecedented  rate.  Indeed, 
there  is  nothing  to  be  at  all  compared  with  it  unless  it  is  the 
rapidity  of  opening  up  in  some  of  the  Western  States.  Free 
grants  are  given  to  actual  settlers,  which,  with  an  inexhaustible 
soil,  should  be  a  sufficient  attraction  for  emigrants  from  Europe. 
But  of  this  class  the  Canadian  Northwest  country  has  so  far 
attracted  no  considerable  number.  Of  the  44,000  emigrants 
arriving  in  Manitoba  and  the  Northwest  in  one  year  fully 
three-fourths  were  from  Ontario  and  other  parts  of 
Canada. 

NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS. 

There  are  extensive  coal  fields  in  the  Valley  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan and  at  Edmonton,  but  so  far  they  have  not  been 
worked  to  any  extent.  When  capital  has  been  directed  into 
this  channel,  a  cheap  supply  of  coal  can  be  secured,  and  one  of 
the  principal  defects  of  that  section  of  the  Dominion  will  be 
removed. 

The  length  and  severity  of  the  winter  in  Manitoba  and  the 
contiguous  territory  is  also  a  serious  obstacle  to  their  settle- 
ment. Winter  often  begins  in  October,  and  continues  until 
about  the  end  of  April,  after  which  the  weather  changes  rap- 
idly, and  the  chilling,  freezing  atmosphere  becomes  soft  and 
warm,  with  the  southern  winds  sweeping  over  the  interminable 
plains.  Vegetation  after  this  becomes  so  rapid  as  to  be  almost 
incredible,  and  in  less  than  four,  and  occasionally  only  three, 
months  after  the  seed  has  been  sown,  abundant  crops  of 
wheat,  barley  and  oats  can  be  harvested. 

With  all  its  defects,  it  is  a  magnificent  country,  and  it 
requires  no  great  powers  of  prevision  to  foresee  in  it  the  home 
of  millions  of  free,  prosperous  and  intelligent  people. 

Winnipeg,  the  leading  city  of  the  Northwest,  has  sprung 
up  as  if  by  magic,  and  is  a  very  different  place  from  the  hamlet 
visited  by  General  Wolseley  and  his  troops,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  Riel  disturbance,  a  number  of  years  ago.  It  has  now  a 
population  of  25,642,  and  for  some  time  the  boom  in  real 
estate  was  such  that  city  lots  were  selling  at  a  higher  price 
than  in  Toronto.  Many  other  cities  now  exist  in  embryo  in 
that  vast  region,  and  with  a  liberal,  wise  policy  on  the  part  of 
the  Government,  the  success  of  the  Northwest  is  certain. 

In  the  other  sections  of  Canada,  Ontario  especially,  the 
condition  of  the  farming  population  has  been  entirely  changed 
within  the  past  twenty  years.  The  log  shanties  of  the  squatter 
have  been  changed  to  elegant  farm-houses  of  stone,  brick  and 


frame.  Frame  barns  have  taken  the  place  of  the  open  log 
structures  that  so  poorly  protected  the  crops  of  the  pioneers, 
and  wire  and  picket  fences  surround  the  steadings  instead  of 
rails.  Farm-houses  now  contain  all  that  is  requisite  for  com- 
fort, with  many  of  the  elegancies  of  life  added,  and  in  many 
will  be  found  not  only  a  piano  or  parlor  organ,  but  also  a 
young  lady  quite  capable  of  rendering  music  by  note.  Educa- 
tion has  also  become  generally  diffused,  and  it  is  but  rarely  that 
a  person  can  be  met  with  who  cannot  read  and  write. 

That  the  Dominion  is  more  prosperous  now  than  ever  it  has 
been  before,  will  scarcely  be  questioned  by  those  familiar  with 
its  present  and  past  conditions,  and  that  it  has  now  entered 
upon  a  new  and  vast  phase  of  its  progressive  development, 
under  the  most  auspicious  circumstances,  cannot  for  a  moment 
be  doubted. 

GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  DOMINION. 

The  executive  power  of  the  Dominion  is  vested  in  a  Gov- 
ernor-General, who  is  appointed  by  the  British  Government,  and 
exercises  authority  in  the  name  of  the  Queen.  His  advisers 
constitute  the  Privy  Council,  whom  he  appoints  and  removes, 
subject  to  the  convenience  of  the  lower  house  of  Parliament. 
The  military  command  is  vested  in  the  Queen.  Parliament, 
consisting  of  an  upper  and  a  lower  house,  known  respectively 
as  the  Senate  and  House  of  Commons,  controls  legislation. 
Senators,  who  are  appointed  for  life  by  the  Governor-General, 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  Privy  Council,  are  80  in 
number,  apportioned  as  follows  :  Quebec  and  Ontario, 
24  each  ;  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  10  each ;  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  3;  Manitoba,  3;  P.  E.  I,  4;  N.  W.  Ter,  2. 
The  House  of  Commons  has  215  members — Ontario,  92  ; 
Quebec,  65  ;  Nova  Scotia,  21 ;  New  Brunswick,  16;  British 
Columbia,  6 ;  Manitoba,  5 ;  P.  E.  I.,  6;  N.  W.  Ter„  4. 
A  redistribution  of  memberships  occurs  after  each  decennial 
census,  with  the  understanding  that  Quebec  shall  never  have 
less  than  65.  All  appropriation  bills  must  originate  in  this 
house,  co  which  the  Privy  Council  is  responsible,  it  representing 
the  views  of  the  political  party  which  is  in  the  ascendancy.  Bills 
passed  by  Parliament  may  be  vetoed  at  any  time  within  two 
years.  The  seat  of  government  is  at  Ottawa.  The  Dominion 
Parliament  controls  exclusively  the  currency,  postal  service, 
public  debt,  raising  of  money,  regulation  of  trade  and  com- 
merce, the  militia,  savings  banks,  marriage  and  divorce,  crim- 
inal law,  navigation  and  shipping,  bankruptcy,  and  all  subjects 
not  specially  assigned  to  the  local  legislatures.  The  latter  have 
the  right  to  levy  direct  taxes,  and  to  borrow  money  for  provin- 
cial purposes,  the  management  of  public  lands,  public  works 
lying  within  the  province,  municipal  institutions,  prisons, 
hospitals,  asylums  and  charities,  and  generally  matters  of  a 
local  or  private  character.  With  a  few  minor  exceptions,  all 
Judges  are  appointed  by  the  Dominion  Government.  There  is 
a  general  court  of  appeal,  possessing  powers  similar  to  that  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  and  which  passes  upon  the 
constitutionality  of  laws  passed  by  the  provincial  legislatures. 


4** 


NORTH 
AMERICA 

Scale  of  Mile*. 


0  800       400 


SOO        1000 


IV 


264 


~A 


MEXICO. 


t^^k 


i^^^^y?^ 


?vivwvf^vr^viv^r^» 


=5^ 


-i-H^^^^-J- 


SO  foreign  country  is  attracting  such  close  attention 
from  the  people  of  the  United  States  just  now  as 
Mexico,  sometimes  familiarly  alluded  to  as  "  the  sister 
republic."  Bounded  on  the  north  by  the  United 
States,  on  the  south  by  Guatemala,  on  the  east  by 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Caribbean  Sea,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Pacific,  it  occupies  the  tapering  southern  extremity  of  the 
North  American  continent— a  region  of  mountain  table-lands, 
rich  in  mineral  wealth  and  agricultural  resources,  which,  hav- 
ing lain  for  ages  comparatively  undeveloped,  are  now  begin- 
ning to  feel  the  impulse  of  a  new  civilization  supplied  from  the 
United  States,  whose  capitalists  are  building  railroads  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country.  The  history  of  the  country  begins — 
no  one  knows  when.  Ages  before  the  coming  of  the  Spanish 
conquerors  the  settlement  of  the  Mexican  valley  had  been 
accomplished  by  Indian  tribes  who  are  said  to  have  come  from 
the  north,  the  last  of  these  being  the  Aztecs,  who  founded  a 
city,  established  a  monarchial  government,  enforced  civil  and 
criminal  laws,  kept  a  standing  army,  and  cultivated  the  arts 
and  sciences,  their  skill  in  the  working  of  metals  and  their 
profound  knowledge  of  astronomy  being  attested  by  venerable 
relics  which  are  extant  at  the  present  day.  About  the  only 
dark  feature  in  this  pleasing  picture  of  prehistoric  civilization 
and  culture  is  that  provided  by  their  religious  observances, 
which  included  human  sacrifices,  the  practice  being  so  common 
that  the  observance  of  certain  days  caused  the  immolation  of 
thousands  of  victims.  Such  were  the  accomplishments  of  the 
wonderful  people  whom  De  Cordova  met  in  Mexico  when  he 
discovered  it  in  1517.  Two  years  later  Fernando  Cortez 
effected  a  landing  upon  Mexican  soil  at  a  spot  where  the  city 
of  Vera  Cruz  now  stands.  Here  he  burned  his  ships  to  give  a 
disaffected  portion  of  his  command  to  understand  that  nothing 
was  left  them  but  obedience,  after  which  he  marched  into  the 
interior.  On  his  way  he  fought  several  engagements  with  the 
natives,  and  finally  arrived  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  where  the 
Aztec  Emperor,  Montezuma,  received  him  with  apparent 
kindness.  Fearing  treachery,  Cortez  caused  Montezuma  to  DC 
seized  and  conveyed  to  the  Spanish  quarters.  Cortez'  con 
were  delayed  by  the  opposition  of  the  Governor  of  Cuba,  who 
sent  a  party  to  seize  hii  a  and  his  .staff  and  send  them  back  to 
Cuba.  The  brave  Spaniard  turned  the  tables  upon  his  pursuers, 
vanquishing  then  and  taking  their  leader,  Narvacz,  prisoner. 
Montezuma,  after  a  long  imprisonment,  consented  to  acknowl- 
edge Spanish  supremacy,  but  the  Aztecs  declined  to  submit  so 


easily,  and,  making  a  final  effort,  compelled  Cortez  to  retreat. 
He  returned,  however,  a  year  later,  and,  after  a  series  of  battles, 
reached  once  more  the  City  of  Mexico,  which  he  captured, 
August  13,  1521,  after  a  siege  of  seventy-five  days.  The  other 
provinces  fell  in  succession  before  the  invader,  and  for  nearly 
300  years  subsequently  Mexico  remained  in  subjection.  The 
government  which  the  Spaniards  first  inaugurated  was  known 
as  "  Audiencia,"  with  a  President  and  four  Auditors,  but  the 
measures  of  this  body  soon  proved  so  harsh  and  arbitrary  that 
the  colony  complained  loudly  of  their  oppression.  A  vice- 
regal government  was  inaugurated  in  1535,  which  lasted  undis- 
turbed for  nearly  three  centuries. 

Events  in  Europe  at  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century 
shaped  the  history  of  Mexico.  The  uprising  of  1S10  is  thus 
graphically  described  by  Mr.  John  A.  Dillon,  a  journalist 
whose  thorough  knowledge  of  Mexican  affairs,  no  less  than  his 
eminent  literary  attainments,  makes  him  peculiarly  qualified  to 
treat  the  subject : 

"  The  revolution  was  long  in  coming.  Shut  off  as  it  was 
from  the  world,  Mexico  could  not  help  noting  that  the  power 
of  Spain  had  grown  weaker  and  weaker,  until  at  last  the  rough 
hand  of  Napoleon  pushed  the  feeble  Bourbon  from  the  throne. 
The  latent  fires  of  revolution  broke  forth  on  the  15th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1810,  in  the  village  of  Dolores,  near  Guanajuato, 
where  a  curate  named  Manuel  Hidalgo  set  up  the  Grilo  dt 
Dolores,  as  it  is  called  in  Mexican  history,  or  the  'call  of 
Dolores.'  What  the  call  meant  was  little  known,  either  to 
him  who  started  it  or  to  those  who  heard  it.  It  meant  any- 
thing but  a  republic  to  Hidalgo;  it  meant  the  cause  of  religion, 
and  loyalty  to  some  Mexican  sovereign.  To  the  Indians  who 
heard  it,  it  meant  death  to  the  strangers,  the  Gathupintt,  as 
they  called  the  Spaniards. 

"  Then  was  started  the  most  bitarre  and  motley  revolution 
in  history,  outshaming  Jack  Cade.  Swarms  of  ragged  and 
swarthy  Indians  gathered  around  the  priest,  armed  with  sticks 
and  stones  and  knives  anil  clumsy  pikes.  They  swarmed  down 
to  Guanajuato  in  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands,  and  the 
slaughter  of  Cortex  was  repeated  on  their  defenceless  bodies. 
Cannon  and  musket  tore  their  ranks  in  vain,  for  they  rushed 
up  to  the  loaded  cannon's  mouth  and  stuffed  in  their  battered 
straw  hats  and  ragged  serafus,  to  keep  the  balls  from  coming 
out.  By  sheer  force  of  numbers  they  destroyed  the  troops, 
and  then  in  savage  triumph  sacked  the  city  of  their  brothers. 


MEXICO. 


**5         \, 


"  Brief  and  sad  was  the  career  of  the  soldier-priest.  Under 
the  banner  of  the  Virgin  of  Guadalupe  he  led  his  hordes  from 
Guanajuato  down  to  Vallcdolid,  and  thence  to  Queretaro,  and 
in  six  weeks  had  reached  the  mountain  of  Las  Cruces,  within 
thirty  miles  of  the  capital.  Here  the  Viceroy  gave  him  battle, 
ami  here  again  the  ragged  hordes  rushed  on  the  batteries  and 
killed,  every  man  behind  them,  only  three  officers  of  the  Vice- 
roy's army  of  3,000  escaping. 

"  Then  fear  came  on  the  victor  for  the  unknown  power  of  a 
city  such  as  he  had  never  seen  the  like  of.  He  came  within 
sight  of  Mexico,  lingered  there  for  a  month,  and  then  turned 
to  retreat.  A  bloodhound  was  set  on  his  trail  in  the  person 
of  General  Calleja.  The  fugitive  rebels  passed  back  through 
Guanajuato,  and  the  bloodhound  Calleja  followed  them  and 
cut  to  pieces  14,000  men,  women  and  children  in  the  city.  In 
his  report  he  said  that  he  had  them  hacked  with  knives  and 
swords,  because  gunpowder  was  very  dear,  and  he  did  not  want 
to  put  the  Government  to  the  needless  expense  of  using  ammu- 
nition. 

"On  the  17th  of  January  Hidalgo  reached  the  place  called 
the  Bridge  of  Calderon,  and  there  his  last  battle  was  fought 
and  lost.  He  fled  toward  our  frontier,  but  his  commanders 
rebelled,  and  one  of  them,  Elizondo,  delivered  the  whole  band 
up  to  the  Government  on  the  21st  of  March,  181 1.  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  they  were  shot,  and  their  heads  were  after- 
ward exposed  in  iron  cages  on  the  castle  wall  of  Guanajuato. " 

The  population  was  made  up  of  four  classes  —  the  Span- 
iards of  European  birth  ;  the  Mestizos,  or  half-breeds,  the 
result  of  union  between  the  Indians  and  whites  ;  the  Creoles, 
who  were  the  pure-blooded  descendants  of  the  original  Span- 
ish settlers,  and  the  pure-blooded  Indians.  The  last-named 
had  experienced  but  little  change  of  condition  under  the  Vice- 
roys, and  were  still  subject  to  the  payment  of  tribute  and  held 
in  a  sort  of  life-long  tutelage.  Degrading  restrictions  weighed 
upon  them  from  which  only  their  nobles  were  exempted.  The 
Creoles,  as  proud  of  their  origin  as  the  native  Spaniards  were 
of  their  birth,  were  treated  contemptuously  by  the  latter,  and 
denied  all  part  in  the  government,  or  even  high  command 
in  the  army.  Many  of  them  had  amassed  great  wealth,  and 
while  titles  and  other  empty  honors  were  conferred  upon  such, 
the  Government  deemed  it  imprudent  to  allow  them  a  share  of 
the  administration  of  public  affairs.  This  treatment  was 
resented  by  the  Creoles,  and  open  rebellion  would  have  been 
gladly  availed  of  by  them,  had  they  not  dreaded  that,  at  such 
a  turn  of  affairs,  an  uprising  of  the  Indians  and  half-breeds 
would  occur,  and  they  and  the  native  Spaniards  be  together 
overcome  and  destroyed.  While  the  revolution  of  1820  was 
going  on  in  Spain,  which  lost  Ferdinand  his  throne,  the  Mexi- 
cans agitated  in  favor  of  a  liberal  government,  and  Don  Au- 
gustin  Iturbide,  a  native  Mexican  officer  of  rank,  who  had 
served  with  distinction  in  quelling  the  earlier  uprisings,  inaugu- 
rated a  second  and  successful  revolution,  which  resulted  in  the 
'  declaration  of  Mexican  independence,  February  24,  1821.  His 
authority  obtained  the  national  recognition  ;  in  August  he 
established  a  regency,  and  May  19,  supported  by  his  army  and 
his  followers,  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  he  was  proclaimed  Emperor. 
December  2,  1822,  Santa  Anna,  supported  by  other  chiefs, 
proclaimed  the  Republic  at  Santa  Cruz,  and  March  19  Itur- 


bide abdicated.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  ordered  into  exile, 
and  in  May,  1823,  he  left  Mexico  for  London. 

The  Constitution  which  Congress  formulated  October  4, 
1824,  was  modelled  after  that  of  the  United  States,  and  estab- 
lished in  Mexico  a  republic  with  nineteen  States  and  five 
Territories.  The  first  President  was  Don  Felix  Fernando 
Victoria,  during  whose  administration  Iturbide  returned  to 
the  country  and  was  arrested  and  shot.  At  the  second  presi- 
dential election  the  candidates  were  Generals  Padraza  and 
Guerrero.  The  former  was  elected,  but  Guerrero  instituted  a 
revolt,  and  seized  the  presidency  in  1829.  That  year  the  Re- 
public received  the  recognition  of  the  United  States,  and  de- 
feated an  attempt  of  the  Spaniards  to  recapture  the  country 
with  an  army  of  4,000,  who  were  sent  back  to  Havana.  Gen- 
eral Anastasio  Bustamante,  who  had  assisted  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  Spanish  invaders,  declared  against  Guerrero,  and  de- 
posed him.  Intrigues  and  revolts  followed  in  quick  succession, 
Santa  Anna  coming  to  the  front  April  1,  1833,  who,  after 
banishing  Bustamante  and  several  other  political  leaders,  insti- 
tuted an  administration  of  sweeping  reform.  Laws  were 
passed  suppressing  the  convents  and  abolishing  the  payment  of 
tithes,  and  measures  discussed  looking  to  the  appropriation  of 
church  estates  and  their  application  to  extinguishing  the 
national  debt.  These  failed  to  prove  popular,  going  further 
than  the  people  cared  to  follow.  Insurrections  followed,  and 
troubles  which  led,  in  1835,  to  the  abrogation  of  the  Constitu- 
tion which  had  been  adopted  in  1824,  and  the  formation  of  a 
consolidated  republic,  which  took  the  place  of  the  confedera- 
tion of  States.  Santa  Anna  possessed  dictatorial  power,  and 
the  revolution  was  endorsed  by  the  whole  country  except 
Texas,  whose  citizens  declined  to  accede  to  the  centralization 
of  power.  Santa  Anna  then  invaded  the  State  with  an  army, 
which  was  destroyed,  and  Santa  Anna  was  captured.  Busta- 
mante became  President,  but  Santa  Anna,  after  a  trip  to 
Washington,  where  he  conferred  with  President  Jackson,  was 
released,  and  returned  to  Mexico.  Another  period  of  chronic 
revolution  soon  set  in,  a  dictatorship  was  established  for  a 
while,  and  in  1844  constitutional  government  was  resumed, 
with  Santa  Anna  at  its  head.  He  was  banished,  however,  and 
Herrara  happened  to  be  the  President  at  the  time  war  was  de- 
clared against  the  United  States  after  the  annexation  of  Texas. 

The  American  arms  were  successful,  and  Mexico  lost,  in 
addition  to  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Northern  California,  when 
peace  was  declared,  in  February,  1848.  Santa  Anna  was  re- 
called in  1853,  and  for  the  fifth  time  elected  President.  He 
attempted  now  to  secure  the  position  for  life,  with  the  right  to 
name  his  successor,  and  this  led  to  another  revolution  in  1855, 
when  Alvarez  deposed  him  and  became  President.  He  re- 
signed in  favor  of  Comonfort,  who  gained  the  opposition  of 
the  ecclesiastical  party  by  his  promotion  of  a  law,  which  was 
adopted  in  1856,  for  the  sale  of  church  lands  and  the  freedom 
of  religious  belief.  Revolutions  followed,  and  in  1857  Con- 
gress promulgated,  and  the  President  was  forced  to  accept,  a 
very  democratic  Constitution. 

In  the  following  year  Benito  Juarez,  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  claimed  the  legal  succession  to  the  presidency, 
but  was  defeated  by  the  incumbent,  Zuloaga,  and  driven  to 
Vera  Cruz,  where  he  established  himself  as  Constitutional 


Y- 


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fe= 


266 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


President.  His  claims  were  strengthened  by  their  acknowl- 
edgment by  the  United  States,  and,  after  defeating  General 
Miramon  in  several  engagements,  he  entered  the  capital  in 
triumph,  January  II,  1861.  His  administration  was  noted  for 
the  reforms  which  he  carried  out,  and  which  gained  him  the 
love  of  the  Mexican  people.  Among  the  most  important  of 
these  were  the  appropriation  of  church  property  to  the  service 
of  the  State,  by  which  more  than  three  hundred  millions'  worth 
of  real  estate  was  saved  to  the  people ;  making  marriage  a 
civil  contract ;  the  abolition  of  ecclesiastical  tribunals  and  per- 
petual monastic  vows  ;  and,  finally,  the  complete  separation  of 
Church  and  State.  Much  as  the  people  enjoyed  their  liberties, 
the  Church  party  could  not  brook  so  great  a  curtailment  of 
their  property  and  prerogatives,  and  they  resolved  upon  the 
destruction  of  Juarez'  Government.  Their  opportunity  was 
not  long  wanting.  Subjects  of  Spain,  France  and  Great 
Britain  having  sustained  alleged  losses  and  injuries  in  Mexico, 
for  which  Juarez  declined  to  give  satisfaction,  these  three 
powers,  at  a  convention  held  in  London,  October  31,  1861, 
decided  to  send  a  joint  expedition  to  Mexico  to  demand  it. 
In  December  of  that  year,  General  Prim,  commanding  a 
Spanish  detachment  from  Cuba,  landed  at  Vera  Cruz,  and  a 
month  later  French  and  British  troops  followed.  A  settle- 
ment being  effected  with  Spain  and  Great  Britain,  the  forces 
of  these  powers  were  withdrawn  from  the  country.  The 
French  army  remained  in  Mexico,  declared  war  against  Juarez, 
and  captured  the  City  of  Mexico  June  10,  1863,  President 
Juarez  and  his  Ministers  retiring  to  San  Luis  Potosi.  June  24 
a  regency  was  formed,  and  July  8  an  assembly  of  notables  was 
convened  to  decide  upon  Mexico's  form  of  government  and  re- 
solved that  it  should  be  a  hereditary  monarchial  government 
under  a  Roman  Catholic  Emperor.  The  Archduke  Maximilian, 
of  Austria,  accepted  the  crown.  Juarez  and  his  republican  sup- 
porters retired  to  El  Paso,  where  they  remained  from  Septem- 


ber, 1865,  to  the  beginning  of  1866,  when,  the  United  States 
having  secured  the  withdrawal  of  French  troops  from  Mexico, 
they  assumed  the  aggressive.  Maximilian  was  captured  and 
sho;,  together  with  his  Generals,  Miramon  and  Mejia,  June  19, 
1867,  three  days  after  Juarez  had  re-entered  the  City  of  Mex- 
ico. The  work  of  national  reconstruction  was  at  once  com- 
menced. An  attempted  revolution  by  Santa  Anna  was  quelled 
and  its  instigator  captured  and  exiled.  In  1871  Juaret  was 
again  elected,  his  opponents  being  Porfirio  Diaz  and  Sebastian 
Lerdo  de  Tejada,  the  latter  of  whom,  on  the  death  of  Juarez, 
July  18,  1872,  became  President. 

Although  a  brilliant  scholar  and  statesman,  Lerdo  misun- 
derstood the  sentiments  of  the  Mexican  people,  mistook  the 
spirit  of  the  age,  and  seemed  to  oppose  the  material  progress 
of  the  country,  endeavoring  to  stem  the  tide  of  reform  and 
advancement  and  opposing  the  railroad  movement.  General 
Diaz  seized  this  opportunity,  and  in  1876  organized  a  revolu- 
tion. After  a  series  of  victories  and  defeats,  the  revolutionary 
chieftains  met  the  Government  forces  at  Texcoac,  and  came 
out  victorious  after  a  sanguinary  conflict.  During  his  short 
administration  Diaz  began  the  work  of  regeneration,  and  initi- 
ated the  railroad  movement,  which  was  a*bly  conducted  onward 
by  his  successor.  General  Gonzales,  elected  to  the  presidency 
In  1880,  and  again  by  Diaz,  elected  1884,  re-elected  1888. 
Mexico  is  a  federal  republic,  and  the  General  Govern- 
ment is  administered  according  to  the  provisions-of  the 
Constitution  of  1857,  which  was  twice  overthrown  and 
restored,  and  which  was  considerably  amended  in  1873-87. 
A  President  is  chosen  by  indirect  popular  suffrage  every 
fourth  year.  Both  houses  of  Congress  and  the  Supreme 
Judiciary  are  elected  in  like  manner.  The  Senate  and 
Supreme  Judicial y  are  elected  for  terms  of  six  years,  and 
the  Representatives  for  two  years.  The  States  have  local 
constitutions,  with  elective  Governors  and  legislature?. 


v&m 


G>E1W1^AIj  flMEI^IGA. 


sQHh&5 


RNDER  the  name  of  Central  America  are  included  the 
republics  of  Guatemala,  Honduras,  San  Salvador, 
Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  and  the  territory  known  as 
British  Honduras.  In  1502  Columbus  discovered 
the  Eastern  shore  of  Central  America,  and  shortly 
afterward  the  Spaniards  took  possession  of  it,  retaining  it 
until  1820,  when  it  rebelled  and  many  of  the  States  which 
then  composed  it  were  annexed  by  Mexico.  Three  years 
afterwards  was  formed  the   Central  American  Confederation, 


T 


V- 


but  in  1839  Nicaragua  withdrew,  as  did  also  Costa  Rica  in 
1840  and  Guatemala  in  1847.  In  1872  Guatemala,  Costa 
Rica,  San  Salvador  and  Honduras  became  united,  forming  the 
Central  American  L'nion,  the  object  of  the  union  being  the 
maintenance  of  peace  in  the  several  States  and  of  the  repub- 
lican form  of  government.  Since  this  was  accomplished,  the 
several  States  have  generally  enjoyed  an  immunity  from  the 
internal  discords  which  frequently    plunged  them   into  civil 

U.lls. 


^5* 


N<8— 


K 


CUBA— SOUTH  AMERICA. 


267 


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1H* 


-4|£    -K-K-X-    (§>UBA.    •*•*•*• 


-*-;  <M"M' !»■!"»  tt'Kfr»'Ii'l"H"Hi  'ii»  <ii  «i  »»»»»#»♦#! 


4*  *  -ejC 


||UBA,  the  greatest  of  Spain's  colonial  possessions,  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  while  on  his  first  voyage,  but 
it  was  not  until  15 11  that  Velasquez  conquered  the 
natives.  Eight  years  later  the  present  capital, 
Havana,  was  founded,  which  in  1538  and  1554  was 
destroyed  by  the  French.  Near  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  was  begun,  and 
slavery  followed.  In  1762  the  English  captured  Havana, 
and  took  possession  of  the  island,  but  restored  it  to  Spain 
in  the  following  year.  Cuba's  brightest  and  happiest  era 
began  with  the  rule  of  Las  Casas  as  Governor-General, 
who  arrived  at  the  island  in  1790.  Under  him  the  island's 
resources  were  developed  rapidly,  old  restrictions  were  re- 
moved, and  the  natives,  grateful  for  their  new  liberties,  devel- 
oped a  strong  affection  for  their  foreign  rulers.  In  1808, 
when  Napoleon  deposed  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  they  remained 
loyal  to  the  Spanish  crown.  Since  that  time  Spanish  misrule 
has  caused  Cuban  discontent,  and  when  the  French  republic 
was  proclaimed  in  1848  the  question  of  annexation  to  the 
United  States  was  openly  advocated,  and  President  Polk 
offered  Spain  one  million  dollars  for  the  island,  which  was 
declined.  Ten  years  later  a  proposition  to  purchase  the  island 
for  thirty  millions  was  submitted  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
but  nothing  was  done  in  the  matter.  Four  years  previously 
the  American  Ministers  at  London,  Paris  and  Madrid  had 
drawn   up   what   is   known   as  the  Ostend  Manifesto,    which 


urged  that  Cuba  should  belong  to  the  United  States,  and  that, 
if  Spain  declined  to  sell  it,  it  should  be  wrested  from  her.  In 
1868  the  discontent  of  the  natives  culminated  in  open  rebellion, 
which  soon  spread  over  the  entire  island.  In  1869  Cespedes, 
who  had  headed  the  uprising,  was  elected  President,  and  Man- 
uel Quesada  was  given  command  of  the  forces.  Offers  from 
the  United  States  to  settle  the  strife  amicably,  and  for  the  ces- 
sion of  the  island,  were  rejected  by  Spain,  which  continued  to 
mass  troops  upon  the  island  to  quell  the  insurrection.  Peace 
overtures  were  made  to  Cespedes  in  1873,  on  the  condition 
that  Cuba  should  become  a  Spanish  republic,  but  they  were 
declined.  Eventually  the  Spanish  arms  prevailed,  but  not  until 
over  13,000  Cuban  soldiers  had  been  killed  in  battle  and  over 
43,000  prisoners  slain,  in  accomplishing  which  horrible  result 
more  than  150,000  men  had  been  sent  over  from  Spain  and 
over  twenty  millions  of  dollars  expended.  Peace  has  been 
nominally  restored,  but  the  native  Cuban  still  groans  under  the 
foreign  yoke,  and  sighs  for  the  free  institutions  of  the  land 
of  the  free,  from  which  he  is  separated  by  a  very  few  miles  of 
ocean. 

As  a  province  of  Spain,  Cuba  is  governed  by  a  Governor- 
General,  who  is  appointed  by  the  Crown  for  a  period  of  from 
three  to  five  years,  is  subordinate  only  to  the  Spanish  King, 
and  has  despotic  power  as  the  head  of  the  civil,  military  and 
ecclesiastical  jurisdictions.  No  municipal  government  is 
allowed,  although  town  councils  prevail  in  the  cities. 


-M»-f~i4^€4+-*-€H- 


^50ks^m% 


B0< 


■OR  obvious  reasons,  no  history  of  South  America  as  a 
■/  continent  need  be  given.  It  will  be  readily  gleaned 
™  by  the  reader  from  the  following  histories  of  the  vari- 
ous countries  contained  within  its  boundaries.  It 
may  be  stated,  however,  that  the  table-land  of  Bolivia 
was  the  nucleus  of  the  earliest  civilization  in  South  America. 
From  there  came  the  Inca  rulers  of  Peru  and  Ecuador,  which 


places,  together  with  Colombia,  provided  the  Spanish  ex- 
plorers with  the  only  evidences  of  culture  and  civilization. 
These  and  the  Portuguese  made  easy  conquests  wherever 
they  went  in  South  America,  and  established  colonies,  which, 
however,  declared  their  independence  early  in  the  present 
century,  and  obtained  their  freedom  after  fighting  for  it 
bravely. 


268 


BRAZII^-CHILI 


«MMIUMIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIMI«MIMI 


*   BRAZIL.   * 

IIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIII§ 


MIH  ililllt  1  **i>i>**** 


ROTABLE  as  the  largest  of  the  divisions  of  South 
America;  as  the  youngest  of  the  republics  of  the 
Western  hemisphere,  Brazil's  history  is  of  peculiar 
interest  to  the  historical  reader.  Pedro  Alvarez  de 
Cabral,  who  had  been  sent  out  by  King  Emmanuel 
of  Portugal  to  follow  up  the  discoveries  of  Vasco  da  Gama, 
discovered  the  land  in  1500,  and  the  richness  of  its  forests  in 
dye-woods  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  commerce.  A  Gov- 
ernor of  the  territory  was  appointed  in  1549,  who  founded  the 
present  capital  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Numerous  attempts  were 
made  by  the  Dutch  and  French  to  take  the  country,  but  it  was 
retained  almost  in  its  entirety  by  Portugal,  whose  King,  on 
the  occasion  of  Napoleon's  invasion  of  his  country  in  1808, 
fled  to  Brazil,  and  virtually  transferred  the  monarchy  to  his 
colonial  possession.  Seven  years  later  Brazil  was  made  a  king- 
dom and  its  ports  thrown  open  to  the  world,  and  in  1821  the 
King  went  back  to  Portugal,  leaving  behind  him  his  son,  Dom 
Pedro,  as  regent.  A  revolution,  or  rather  a  transition,  occurred 
in  the  same  year,  and  in  1822  Brazil  was  proclaimed  an  inde- 
pendent empire,  and  Dom  Pedro  was  invested  with  the  impe- 
rial crown.  A  Constitution  was  granted  in  1824,  when  the 
home  Government  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the 
young  empire.  In  1826  Dom  Pedro  became  King  of  Portugal 
by  the  death  of  his  father,  and  he  resigned  the  European 
crown  to  his  daughter.  In  1831,  after  long  and  harassing 
wars  with  adjacent  countries,  the  Emperor  abdicated  in 


favor  of  his  son,  Dom  Pedro  II.,  then  but  six  yean  old, 
and  the  country  was  ruled  by  a  regent  until  he  came  of 
age,  in  1841. 

The  imperial  dynasty  continued  until  November  15, 
1889,  when,  by  declaration  of  the  principal  citizens  of  the 
national  capital,  the  Republic  of  the  United  States  of 
Brazil  was  founded.  The  revolution  was  peaceful,  the 
Emperor  was  kindly  treated,  provision  was  made  for  his 
support,  and  he  was  transferred  to  his  kindred  in  Portu- 
gal; he  has  recently  died.  A  provisional  government  was 
formed,  upon  the  model  of  that  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  under  the  presidency  of  Marshal  Deodoro  da 
Fonseca,  and  on  February  24,  1891,  a  new  constitution 
was  voted  by  the  Constituent  Assembly,  by  which  the 
President's  term  of  office  is  fixed  at  four  years.  Every- 
thing went  on  much  as  usual;  the  Imperial  officials 
became  Republican,  most  of  the  ambassadors  who  had 
represented  the  Empire  abroad  continued  at  their  posts 
to  represent  the  Republic.  Some  few  important  changes 
were  made ;  the  Church  and  the  State  were  separated, 
civil  marriages  only  are  recognized,  and  education  is 
secularized.  A  second  revolution  broke  out  in  1891,  by 
which  President  Fonseca  was  unseated;  and  on  Novem- 
ber 23,  1891,  General  Florlano  Peixoto  was  elected 
President. 


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EN  1533  the  Incas  of  Peru  lost  their  control  over  Chili,  and 
a  few  years  later  the  Spaniards  occupied  the  country, 
the  city  of  Santiago  being  founded  by  them  shortly  after 
their  arrival.  A  treaty  was  established  with  the  natives 
in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  by  which 
boundary  lines  were  established  and  the  rule  of  the  Spanish  Vice- 
roy acknowledged.  A  preliminary  movement  to  the  declaration 
of  independence  was  made  in  1810,  when  the  Chilians  deposed 
the  Captain-General  and  placed  the  executive  power  in  the 
hands  of  a  committee  of  seven.  War  between  the  mother 
country  and  the  colony  commenced  in  the  following  year,  and 
two  years  later  the  latter  was  entirely  under  the  control  of  the 


[■ 


royalist  troops.  Nothing  daunted,  the  colony,  in  1817,  rebelled 
again,  and,  after  a  severe  struggle,  defeated  the  royalists  and 
secured  their  independence.  At  first  the  Government  took  the 
shape  of  a  directorship,  but  confusion  prevailed  until  1833, 
when  a  new  Constitution,  whose  formation  was  begun  two  yean 
previously,  was  adopted.  Under  the  amended  form  of  govern- 
ment ah  improved  condition  of  affairs  was  established,  which 
has  endured  up  to  the  present  day. 

Allusion  has  been  made,  under  the  head  of  Peru,  to  the  war 
in  which  that  country  was  conquered,  but  a  fuller  mention  of 
il  may  be  afforded  here,  as  the  event  is  one  of  great  impor- 
tance in  connection  with  South  American  history.     Ii 


-7T 


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Longitude    U  West 


from        32  Washington.  47 


270 


PERU. 


hostilities  began  between  Chili  and  the  allied  republics 
of  Bolivia  and  Peru,  growing  out  of  rival  territorial 
claims,  and  claims  to  guano  beds  and  mineral  deposits. 
Chili  insisted  that,  having  done  more  than  either  of  the 
others  to  repel  the  enemy,  she  was  entitled  to  generous 
treatment.  When  the  war  came  she  had  an  army  of 
22,000  and  a  navy  of  ten  small  steamers  and  two  powerful 
iron-clads,  which  gave  her  a  vast  advantage  over  the 
enemy.  The  war  was  conducted  with  great  spirit  and 
intrepidity,  the  naval  conflicts  between  the  two  powers 
being  especially  remarkable  for  the  ferocious  courage 
displayed  on  both  sides.  In  the  spring  of  1881  Callao 
and  Lima  were  taken,  and  the  Chilians  were  masters  of 
the  situation.  By  the  terms  of  peace  Chili  exacted  from 
the  conquered  countries  the   absolute  annexation  of  the 


territory  containing  all  the  nitrates  and  the  great  bulk  of 
the  guano,  the  occupation  of  other  territory  for  a  period 
of  years,  and  of  the  Loblis  islands  as  long  as  there  if  anv 
guano  on  them  ;  also  the  payment  of  a  monster  war  in- 
demnity. 

In  1891  a  civil  war  resulted  in  the  overthrow  and  death 
by  suicide  of  President  Balmaceda.  An  incident  of  this 
war  was  the  escape  from  San  Diego,  California,  with  a 
cargo  of  arms,  of  the  Chilian  steamer  Itata ;  which  was 
pursued  and  finally  surrendered  to  the  United  States. 
Shortly  after  this  a  murderous  attack  was  made  upon 
unarmed  American  sailors  in  the  streets  of  Valparaiso. 
The  .United  States  demanded  explanation  and  repara- 
tion, and  the  matter  was  left  to  diplomacy  for  settle- 
ment. 


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1524,  Pizarro  made  a  visit  to  the  coast  of  Peru,  but  it 
was  not  until  1531  that  he  returned  with  intention  of  con- 
quest. His  aim  was  aided  at  the  time  by  the  divided  con- 
dition of  the  country,  for  the  possession  of  which  rival 
Incas  were  struggling.  With  less  than  200  men  in  his 
command,  the  Spanish  adventurer  made  the  friendship  of  one 
of  the  Incas,  whom  he  took  prisoner.  Promising  to  release 
him  for  a  ransom,  he  acquired  from  the  natives  metals  and 
valuables  worth  nearly  eighteen  millions  of  dollars,  after  which 
he  treacherously  slew  his  prisoner.  After  subjecting  the 
country  to  misrule,  accompanied  by  atrocious  cruelties,  Pizarro 
was  assassinated  in  1541.  Spanish  rule  became  firmly  rooted, 
however,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
colony  of  Quito  was  separated  from  Peru  and  added  to  the 
adjoining  colony  of  New  Granada.  Another  partition  of  the 
colony  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  separate  govern- 
ments of  Venezuela,  Guatemala,  Caracas,  Cumana  and  Chili. 
Peru  was  the  last  of  the  colonies  to  rise  against  Spain,  but  in 
1821  patriots  from  Chili  and  Buenos  Ayres  entered  the  country 
and  drove  the  Spaniards  from  the  capital.  In  1824  the  dicta- 
toiship  was  assumed  by  Bolivar,  who,  two  years  later,  drove 
the  Spaniards  from  their  last  stronghold,  after  which  be  ' 
a  republic  called  Bolivia  of  the  southern  and  southeastern  por- 
tions of  the  colony,  and  resigned  the  dictatorship.  Revolution 
in  Peru  occurred  in  1826,  and  in  place  of  the  Constitution  pre- 
pared by  Bolivar,  a  new  one,  similar  in  form  to  that  of  the 


United  States  of  America,  was  adopted.  Civil  war  followed, 
but  peace  was  finally  brought  about  by  General  Castilla,  who 
became  President  in  1845  and  ruled  the  country  until  1851, 
when,  a  vicious  government  succeeding  him,  another  revolution 
occurred.  Complications  with  the  United  States  arose  in 
1858,  through  the  seizure  of  several  American  vessels  by  ships 
belonging  to  the  revolutionary  forces,  but  in  1873  the 
American  claims  for  damages  were  settled.  Castilla's  star  once 
more  shone  in  the  ascendant,  and  the  country  enjoyed  good  gov- 
ernment until  1862.  In  1867  a  Constitution  was  adopted  and  a 
treaty  of  commerce  and  friendship  was  made  with  Chili.  After 
revolutions,  assassinations  and  other  exhibitions  of  anarchical 
tendency,  the  country  came,  in  1879,  into  conflict  with  Chili. 
With  the  Bolivians  as  allies,  the  Peruvians  made  a  gallant  stand, 
but  in  1881  the  Chilians  defeated  and  dispersed  the  Peruvian 
army  and  drove  the  President  from  the  capital. 

After  this  disastrous  war  with  Chili,  which  deprived 
Peru  of  territory  and  the  income  derived  from  the  guano 
deposits,  the  Republic  receded  from  public  notice.  Re- 
cent surveys,  however,  show  the  existence  of  rich  di 
on  the  coast  of  the  mainland,  and  in  iSScjan  arrangement 
was  concluded  by  the  Government  for  the  cancellation  of 
of  its  external  debt,  in  pursuance  of  which  the  State  rail- 
ways, the  guano,  the  celebrated  silver  mines  of  Cerro  de 
Pasco,  and  vast  tracts  of  land  are  vested  in  the  Peruvian 
Corporation. 


4& 


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UNITED  STATES  OF  COLOMBIA. 


271 


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She  United  States  or  (Colombia 

COUNTRIES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


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jNE  of  the  most  enlightened  and  progressive  coun- 
tries in  South  America  is  the  United  States  of 
Colombia.  In  1536-7  the  country  was  con- 
quered by  the  Spaniards,  who  held  it  until  1809, 
when  a  war  of  independence,  lasting  eight  years, 
gave  its  inhabitants  their  liberty.  At  that  time  the  country, 
then  known  as  New  Granada,  was  united  with  Ecuador  and 
Venezuela,  but  a  separation  took  place  in  1829,  and  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  as  at  present  organized,  was 
formed.  Civil  wars  desolated  the  country  from  i860  to 
1885,  but  peace  has  prevailed  generally  since  then.  A 
Constitution  was  promulgated  in  1S86  by  which  the  ex- 
ecutive authority  is  vested  in  a  President  elected  for  six 
years,  while  the  legislative  power  lies  in  a  Senate  consist- 
ing of  three  members  from  each  State,  and  a  House  of 
Representatives,  each  of  the  nine  States  sending  a  mem- 
ber for  every  50,000  of  its  inhabitants.  The  States  have 
each  their  own  legislature  and  executive  officer. 

Venezuela  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  a 
settlement  was  effected  by  the  Spaniards  in  1520,  who  held  the 
country  until  1823,  when  the  Venezuelans,  who  had  declared 
their  independence  in  181 1,  secured  it  after  a  severe  struggle 
of  eleven  years'  duration.  It  separated  from  New  Granada 
and  Ecuador  in  1880.  Many  civil  wars  have  devastated  the 
country,  which  has  hardly  yet  settled  down  to  the  peaceful 
enjoyment  of  the  liberties  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution  of 
J864,  by  which  Venezuela  became  a  federal  republic,  whose 
executive  power  is  vested  in  a  President  holding  office  for 
four  years.  Legislative  power  lies  in  a  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives,  whose  Deputies  are  named  by  corresponding 
State  bodies. 

Ecuador  was,  many  years  previous  to  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards,  the  seat  of  an  Indian  monarchy,  whose  King  was 
overthrown  in  the  tenth  century  by  Indians,  who  established  a 
government  and  ruled  the  country  until  it  was  conquered  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  by  Huaqua  Capac, 
Inca  of  Peru.  His  sons  divided  the  country  between  them 
and  quarrelled,  the  war  resulting  in  the  victory  of  the  one  of 
them  to  whom  the  province  of  Quito  had  fallen.  He  reunited 
both  countries,  but  in  1532  Pizarro  seized  and  slew  the  Inca, 
and  Spanish  rule  prevailed  until  1809,  when  the  colonists  arose 


in  rebellion  and  obtained  their  independence  in  182a  Ecuador 
became  an  independent  State  in  1830,  and  civil  war  followed, 
lasting  twenty  years,  after  which  came  war  with  Peru.  Tran- 
quillity followed,  and  prosperity  has  of  late  rewarded  the  coun- 
try's efforts  in  the  direction  of  commercial  and  social  advance- 
ment. The  Government  is  a  republic,  with  the  executive  in  the 
hands  of  a  President,  who  is  elected  for  four  years.  Legislative 
power  rests  in  a  Senate  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies,  who  have 
respectively  eighteen  and  thirty  members. 

Paraguay  was  discovered  in  1530,  and  settled  in  1536  by 
the  Spaniards,  whose  missionaries  found  the  natives  mild  and 
peaceful  of  disposition  and  well  disposed  to  receive  the  truths 
of  Christianity.  In  181 1  the  country  declared  for  independ- 
ence, and  was  for  twenty-nine  years  kept  under  the  rule  of 
Jose  Gaspar  Rodriguez  Francia,  who  sustained  during  the 
whole  period  a  policy  cf  non-intercourse  with  foreigners. 
The  country  was  accessible  only  by  way  of  the  river  Parana, 
and  ingress  and  egress  by  it  were  so  thoroughly  stopped  that 
during  the  long  period  of  his  rule  no  foreigners  whatever  were 
allowed  to  enter,  and  only  half  a  dozen  were  permitted  to 
leave.  Such  shipping  as  was  in  the  river  at  the  time  this  policy 
was  inaugurated  stayed  there,  rotted  and  fell  to  pieces.  This 
unique  condition  of  affairs  was  only  ended  by  Francia's  death, 
when  the  dictatorship  was  seized  by  Antonio  Lopez,  who  held 
it  under  the  title  of  President  until  1862,  when  he  died,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  ambitious  son,  Francisco  Solano  Lopez, 
who  set  himself  up  as  protector  of  the  "  equilibrium  "  of  the 
La  Plata  region.  War  with  Brazil,  Uruguay  and  the  Argentine 
Republic  ensued,  which  lasted  for  five  years,  closing  in  1870, 
when  Lopez  was  killed  and  peace  restored.  At  the  mercy  of 
its  conquerors,  Paraguay  ceded  a  portion  of  its  territory  to 
Brazil,  and  agreed  to  pay  in  all  an  indemnity  so  enormous  that 
it  is  now  bankrupt  and  with  no  prospect  of  regaining  the  finan- 
cial prosperity  it  enjoyed  previous  to  the  war.  Executive 
power  rests  in  a  Fresident,  who  is  elected  for  four  years, 
and  the  legislative  function  in  a  Congress  composed  of  a 
Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies 

Guiana,  consisting  of  three  divisions,  belonging  respect- 
ively to  Great  Britain,  France  and  the  Netherlands,  has  no 
specially  interesting  historical  reminiscences.  British  Guiana, 
the  largest  and   most  valuable  of  the  three  possessions,  was 


4¥ 


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272 


EUROPE. 


acquired  by  Great  Britain  in  1803.  It  u  ruled  by  a  Governor 
appointed  by  the  Crown.  French  Guiana  was  acquired  in 
1704.  It  is  not  a  very  valuable  possession,  and  its  main  use  to 
France  is  as  a  penal  settlement.  Dutch  Guiana,  which  lies 
between  the  others,  is  a  rich  country,  and  is  ruled  by  a  Gov- 
ernor-General and  Council. 

Formerly  known  as  Buenos  Ayres,  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic was  discovered  in  15 12,  and  twenty-three  years  later  its 
settlement  begin,  as  a  part  of  the  Peruvian  domain.  Such  it 
remained  until  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the  vice- 
royalty  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  formed  by  the  consolidation  of 
the  land  now  divided  among  the  Argentine  Republic,  Paraguay, 
Uruguay  and  Bolivia.  War  for  independence  from  Spanish 
rule  began  in  1809  and  ended  in  18 12,  with  the  revolutionary 
arms  in  the  ascendant.  In  181 7  a  Dictator  was  elected,  subject 
to  the  limitations  of  a  provisional  constitution,  and  three  years 
later  a  democratic  government  was  inaugurated.  After  a  war 
with  Brazil  the  Argentine  provinces  in  1831  formed  a  confeder- 
ation, and  the  power  fell  into  the  hands  of  General  Rosas, 
commander  of  the  army,  who  exercised  it  despotically  until 
1852,  when  he  was  deposed,  at  which  time  the  province  of 
Buenos  Ayres  seceded  from  the  confederation.  It  returned, 
however,  later,  and  by  a  recent  treaty  the  confederation  was 
increased  by  the  acquisition  of  all  of  Patagonia,  except  a  strip 
along  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  all  of  the  island  of  Terra 
del  Kuego  east  of  the  Andes.  Subsequent  to  the  deposition  of 
Rosas,  the  confederation  engaged  in  a  number  of  foreign  wars, 
and  suffered  many  internal  bioils;  but  since  1890  peace 
has  been  enjoyed  to  a  fair  extent.  A  President,  who  is  elected 
for  six  years  by  the  provincial  representatives,  holds  the  execu- 


tive power.  Legislative  power  restt  in  a  National  Congress, 
which  comprises  a  Senate  of  twenty-eight  members  and  a 
House  of  fifty-four  Deputies.  The  provinces,  fourteen  in  num- 
ber, are  ruled  by  Governors,  who  are  elected  for  fourteen  years. 

Uruguay  has  a  history  even  more  bloody  and  bellicose 
than  any  other  of  the  South  American  dominions.  It  was 
first  settled  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  but  Spain  and  Portugal  both  claimed  possession  of  it 
later,  and  after  much  fighting  the  former  succeeded  in  making 
its  claim  good  in  1724.  About  a  century  later  Brazil  an- 
nexed it,  but  it  revolted  and  secured  its  independence  in  1828. 
Since  that  time  until  quite  recently  revolution  continued  to  be 
the  normal  condition  of  the  country,  and  at  times  civil  war 
was  conducted  with  such  ferocity  that  the  intervention  of 
foreign  powers  became  necessary  as  an  act  dictated  by  feelings 
of  humanity.  Although  in  theory  a  republic,  with  a  President 
and  a  Senate  and  House  of  Delegates,  the  real  power  lies  with 
whatever  General  happens  at  the  time  to  have  the  control  of 
the  military. 

Bolivia,  named  after  Simon  Bolivar,  sometimes  called  the 
"  Liberator  of  South  America, "  for  the  leading  part  which  he 
took  in  helping  the  efforts  made  by  the  different  States  in  the 
direction  of  independence,  was  held  by  the  Spaniards  until 
1825,  when  it  became  independent.  Since  then  revolt  has 
almost  entirely  occupied  the  attention  of  its  people.  In  the 
war  with  Chili  it  was  virtually  annihilated,  the  conditions  ot 
peace  imposed  being  such  as  to  keep  the  country  in  everlasting 
subjection.  A  President  enjoys  the  executive  power,  and  legis- 
lative functions  are  vested  in  a  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, elected  by  the  people. 


REECE    has    the  honor  of    being  in    the  van    of 
European  civilization  and  power,  but  in  the  seventh 
century  before  Christ  a  rival  sprang  up  in  Italy, 
which  in  the  course  of  time  attained  such  vigor 
that  Greece  at  last  was  humbled  to  the  condition 
of  a   Roman   province.      From  200  B.C.  to  100  A.D.    the 
Roman  Empire  enjoyed  its  greatest  glory,  extending  its  power 
until   almost   all   Europe  came  under  its  rule.      From  the 
unconquered  portion  to  the  north,  however,  poured  legions 
of  barbarians,   who  overran  the   Roman   Empire    and    laid 
upon   its  ruins  the  foundations  of  modern   Europe.     What 
are  known  as  the  dark  or  middle  ages  of  European  history 


lasted  from  the  fifth  to  the  fifteenth  century,  and  these  are 
pregnant  with  historic  interest,  the  extension  of  the  Christian 
Church,  with  the  accompanying  development  of  rational  civili- 
zation, being  accomplished  during  those  centuries.  Many 
valuable  inventions  made  during  this  period  assisted  in  the 
beneficent  work,  among  the  most  important  of  which  was 
that  of  printing.  Among  the  most  advanced  of  European 
nations  during  this  time  were  the  republics  of  Italy,  which 
led  the  world  in  commerce,  the  arts  and  civilization.  Such 
is  a  general  summary  of  the  continent's  history  up  to  the  end 
of  the  middle  ages.  Fuller  facts  regarding  individual  national 
progress  during  and  subsequent  to  this  period  will  be  found 
under  the  proper  heads  elsewhere. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


273 


■ilW-^-T. 


^^       jf/aaaaaaaaaaaBaaBaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaM 

f  n         ^  '  '  '    — "*  * — 

|^#^    Gl^BAUT  BRITAIN. 

X        MaBBaaBBBBaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaalaaaaaaaaaaaii' 


[HE  island  now  known  as  Great  Britain  was  known 
to  the  ancients  previous  to  the  date  at  which  its 
written  history  begins,  the  Phoenicians,  Carthagin- 
ians and  Massilians  having  visited  its  shores  in  their 
trading  vessels.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  year 
55  B.C.  that  its  real  history  commenced,  with  the  conquest  of 
the  country  by  Julius  Caesar,  and  the  establishment  there  of 
the  Roman  rule,  which  lasted  until  A. D.  420,  when  the  pres- 
sure of  Rome's  enemies  caused  the  withdrawal  of  the  legions 
from  Britannia — the  name  which  Ctesar  gave  to  the  island  in 
the  stead  of  Albion,  by  which  it  had  formerly  been  known. 
The  departure  of  the  Romans  left  the  British  a  prey  to  the 
Picts  and  Scots,  whose  incursions,  aided  by  internal  dissen- 
sions among  the  British  chiefs,  re- 
duced the  country  to  a  condition  of 
anarchy.  One  of  these  chiefs,  seek- 
ing assistance  to  enable  him  to  cope 
with  the  northern  invaders,  effected 
nn  alliance,  in  A.  D.  446,  with  Hen- 
gist,  a  prince  of  the  Jutes,  who, 
with  Horsa,  his  brother,  after  driv- 
ing back  the  Picts  and  Scots,  turned 
his  arms  against  the  Britons,  whom 
they  overcame  in  a  series  of  san- 
guinary battles.  In  457  Hengist 
declared  himself  King  of  Kent, 
and  in  the  course  of  time  the  con- 
quest of  England  was  fully  ac- 
complished by  the  Saxons,  Jutes 
and  Angles,  who  established  three 
Saxon,  one  Jutish  and  four  Anglian 
kingdoms.     About  the  year  830  the 

ruling  power  was  consolidated,  and  Egbert,  ruler  of  the  Saxon 
kingdom,  Wessex,  became  King  of  all  England.  During  his 
reign  began  the  invasions  of  the  Danes,  who,  gaining  increased 
power  after  the  death  of  Alfred  the  Great  in  901 ,  held  the  country 
from  1017  to  1041,  when  the  crown  reverted  to  the  Anglo-Saxons 
and  to  Christianity,  which  had  already  been  introduced  in  the 
person  of  Edward,  surnamed  the  Confessor.  His  reign  was 
merely  nominal,  the  country  being  governed  by  Danish  and 
English  Earls,  and  when  he  died  one  of  these,  Harold,  Earl  of 
Wessex,  seized  the  throne,  which  was  soon  wrested  from  him 
by  William,  Duke  of  Normandy,  in  France,  who  defeated  him 
in  the  battle  of  Hastings,  and  established  the  Norman  line  of 
Kings.     The  Norman  invasion  was  followed  by  the  division  of 


QUEEN'S  CASTLE,  BALMORAL 


the  lands  among  William  the  Conqueror's  followers,  as  feudal 
lords,  the  foundation  thus  being  laid  of  a  rich  and  powerful 
landed  aristocracy,  which  has  continued  to  successfully  defend 
its  ascendancy  in  spite  of  all  opposition.  As  years  went  by 
the  Normans  and  Saxons  became  merged  into  one  people. 

In  the  court,  French  manners  and  the  Norman-French 
language  prevailed,  while  the  Saxon  tongue  remained  in  use 
among  the  laboring  classes ;  but  the  writings  of  Chaucer 
fixed  the  English  language,  which,  however,  had  received  a 
strong  impression  from  the  invaders.  The  reigns  of  the 
Norman  and  Plantagenet  monarchs  were  a  series  of  contests 
between  the  Kings  and  the  Barons,  and  the  concessions  which 
the  latter  wrung  from  royalty  constitute  some  of  the  strong- 
holds of  British  liberty.  One  of 
the  most  important  of  these  was 
the  Magna  Charta,  which  the  Bar- 
ons forced  King  John  to  sign  at 
Runnymede  in  1215,  and  which 
secured  to  the  English  people  two 
great  rights :  first,  that  no  man 
should  suffer  arbitrary  imprison- 
ment ;  second,  that  no  tax  should  be 
imposed  without  the  consent  of  the 
National  Council.  In  1265  King 
Henry  III.  was  imprisoned  by  the 
Barons,  and  the  first  English  Par- 
liament was  convened ;  and  though, 
in  the  same  year,  his  son  Edward 
defeated  the  Barons  and  restored 
his  father,  the  latter  was  glad  to 
conciliate  his  foes,  and  confirmed 
the  great  charter.  During  Ed- 
ward's reign  Wales  was  conquered  and  annexed  to  England, 
and  Scotland  was  menaced,  but  preserved  her  integrity  through 
the  skilful  generalship  of  William  Wallace  and  Robert  Bruce. 
The  shaping  of  the  English  Parliament  was  greatly,  advanced 
during  this  reign,  the  National  Council  taking  its  moderrf 
form  by  the  separation  of  the  greater  Barons  from  the 
tenants-in-chief,  who  thereafter  took  part  in  Parliament  only 
through  representatives.  In  1295  the  first  session  of  the 
Commons  in  a  separate  chamber  was  held,  and  in  1296  was 
passed  the  statute  providing  that  no  tax  should  be  imposed 
which  was  not  sanctioned  by  the  Barons,  Bishops  and  Burges- 
ses. Popular  government  made  another  step  forward  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.,  the  first  King  of  the  house  of  Lancaster, 


t£= 


X 


K~ 


274 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


in  the  enactment  of  the  statute  granting  the  parliamentary 
right  of  election  for  counties  to  all  freeholders,  and  the  recog- 
nition of  the  two  houses  of  Parliament  as  bodies  possessing 
distinct  privileges,  which  were  not  to  be  interfered  with  by 
each  other.  The  reform  of  church  abuses,  which  had  been 
inaugurated  by  Wycliff,  was  opposed  by  Henry  IV.,  while 
Parliament  passed  the  act  for  the  punishment  of  heretics, 
which  for  two  centuries,  almost,  was  made  the  instrument  for 
the  affliction  of  unutterable  cruelties.  The  aspirations  of  the 
house  of  York  to  the  throne  led  to  the  sanguinary  civil  con- 
flicts known  as  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  The  Yorkists  triumphed 
in  1461,  and  in  Henry  VII.  's  marriage  the  two  houses  were 
joined  together.  The  Tudor  dynasty  thus  formed  produced 
some  remarkable  reigns.  Henry  VIII.,  who  in  the  early  part 
of  his  reign  earned  the  title  of  "  Defender  of  the  Faith,"  for  his 
loyalty  to  the  Pope,  broke  with  Rome  later,  and  assumed  the 
title  of  "  Head  of  the  Church,"  and  in  1535  the  Papal  authority 
was  set  aside  by  act  of  Parliament.  In  the  reign  of  his 
daughter,  Queen  Mary,  a  devout  Catholic,  a  strong  effort  was 
made  to  undo  the  work  of  reformation  in  England.  The 
legislation  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  of  the  regency  which  suc- 
ceeded him,  was  repealed,  and  many  who  opposed  the  new 
deal  were  burned  at  the  stake.  Dying  without  issue,  Mary 
was  succeeded  by  her  Protestant  half-sister,  Elizabeth,  who 
restored  the  supremacy  of  the  Church  of  England,  which  about 
this  time  accomplished  the  reform  of  the  service  books  of  the 
church,  and  of  its  doctrines,  which  resulted  in  the  preparation 
of  the  thirty-nine  articles,  in  substantially  the  same  form  as 
they  exist  at  present.  The  nation  was  threatened  in  Eliza- 
beth's reign  by  the  Spanish  Armada,  which  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  fitted  out  for  England's  invasion,  but  which,  overtaken 
by  a  storm,  was  dispersed,  and  its  great  vessels  made  an  easy 
prey  for  the  lighter  and  more  manageable  English  ships. 
Under  Elizabeth  Ireland  was  subjected,  commerce  with  India 
established,  and  colonies  planted  in  America. 

The  Stuart  family  of  Scotland  succeeded  that  of  Tudor, 
and  with  them  culminated  the  struggle  between  royal  preroga- 
tive and  popular  right.  The  power  of  the  feudal  Barons  had 
already  been  destroyed,  and  the  bulwark  of  British  law  and 
liberty  now  was  the  middle  class.  The  Stuart  monarchs,  James 
I.  and  Charles  I.,  by  no  means  understood  the  spirit  of  their 
age,  and  their  constant  exercise  of  despotic  power  brought 
them  in  collision  with  the  united  trading  and  laboring  classes. 
King  Charles  attempted  to  dispense  with  the  Parliament,  and 
ruled  for  many  years  without  one,  but  in  1642  the  people  arose 
against  him,  and  in  1645  the  Roundhead  (Puritan)  army,  under 
Oliver  Cromwell,  overthrew  the  Royalist  forces.  The  King 
was  imprisoned  and  executed,  and  Cromwell,  declining  the 
title  of  King  offered  him  by  Parliament,  ruled  the  country  as 
H.ord  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth.  Under  this  great  man 
the  power  of  England  increased  greatly.  At  his  death,  in  1659, 
his  son,  an  amiable  man  of  moderate  capacity,  succeeded  him, 
but  resigned  his  power  in  the  following  year.  This  paved  the 
way  for  the  return  of  the  Stuarts  in  Charles  II.,  a  vicious 
monarch,  whose  reign  saw  further  conflicts  between  the  King 
and  Parliament,  which,  however,  in  1679,  showed  their  oppo- 
sition to  his  will,  and  passed  the  Habeas  Corpus  act.  His 
brother  and  successor,  James  II.,  worked  persistently  for  the 


overthrow  of  constitutional  government  and  the  establishment 
of  despotic  regal  power  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  as 
the  State  religion,  and  fared  no  better  than  his  predecessors, 
being  forced  to  abdicate  to  make  room  for  William  of  Orange, 
whose  acceptance  of  the  crown  was  made  subject  to  limita- 
tions inspired  by  Parliament,  which  passed  an  act  arranging 
for  the  succession,  while  the  Bill  of  Rights  guaranteed  the  lib- 
erty of  the  country.  Under  Queen  Anne,  the  English  armies 
under  the  famous  Marlborough  won  splendid  victories  on  the 
continent  against  France.  In  1707  the  union  with  Scotland 
was  consummated.  With  George  I.,  who  succeeded  her,  came 
in  the  Hanoverian  dynasty,  during  the  early  years  of  whose  rale 
efforts  were  made  to  re-establish  the  Stuart  line,  whose  hopes 
were  finally  crushed  at  Culloden  in  1746.  The  reign  of  George 
II.  was  marked  by  the  acquisition  of  India  and  Canada.  En- 
gland's colonial  possessions  were  largely  increased  during  the 
earlier  yearsof  George  III.,  but  later  on  the  persistent  attempts 
to  tax  the  American  colonists  drove  them  to  successful  revolu- 
tion and  the  formation  of  the  United  States  of  America.  The 
intellectual  brilliancy  of  the  Parliamentary  leaders  of  this 
epoch  is  one  of  its  striking  features,  the  destinies  of  the  nation 
being  in  the  hands  of  such  men  as  Pitt,  Fox,  Burke  and  Sheri- 
dan. The  successes  of  Napoleon  in  Europe  alarming  England, 
she  joined  with  the  other  powers  in  a  war  whose  object  was  to 
replace  the  Bourbons  on  the  French  throne.  The  prolonged  con- 
flict was  ended  by  the  battle  of  Waterloo  in  1815,  in  which 
Napoleon  was  defeated  by  a  British  army  under  Wellington 
and  a  Prussian  army  under  Blucher.  During  these  wars  En- 
gland's victories  at  sea,  under  Admiral  Nelson,  constitute  the 
brightest  page  in  her  naval  history.  In  1798  the  Irish,  assisted 
by  the  French,  rebelled,  but  were  subdued,  and  in  1801 
occurred  the  passage  of  the  act  of  union  between  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  George  IV.,  a  regal  profligate,  succeeded 
him,  and  in  the  reign  of  William  IV.,  who  followed,  was 
passed  the  first  reform  bill,  which  placed  the  political  power  in 
the  hands  of  the  people.  Three  years  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  1837,  the  decree  was  ordered  abolishing  slavery 
from  British  territory.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  present  sov- 
ereign, Queen  Victoria,  whose  reign  has  proved  one  of  the 
most  remarkable,  as  well  as  beneficent,  of  all  the  British  sov- 
ereigns. Born  in  London,  May  24,  1819,  she  was  only  18 
years  old  at  the  time  of  her  accession.  In  February,  1840, 
she  was  married  to  her  cousin,  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha,  with  whom  she  sustained  very  happy  conjugal  relations 
until  his  death,  in  1861,  since  which  time  she  has  remained  a 
widow.  The  earliest  event  of  importance  in  her  reign  was  the 
repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws  in  1845.  In 4847  a  famine  occurred 
in  Ireland,  which  was  followed  by  a  large  emigration  from  that 
country.  The  Chartist  agitation  followed  in  1848,  and  in  1853 
the  Crimean  war  commenced,  in  which  England  and  France 
allied  themselves  with  Turkey  against  the  encroachments  of 
Russia.  It  lasted  from  January,  1854,  until  March,  1856, 
when  the  Russians,  having  lost  the  fortress  of  Sebastopol, 
which  was  the  key  to  their  position,  consented  to  a  peace. 
The  next  serious  employment  of  the  English  arms  was  that 
provided  in  the  suppression  of  the  Indian  mutiny,  which 
occurred  in  1857-8,  after  which  England  assumed  direct  con- 
trol of  affairs  in  that  country.     In   1868  the   supplementary 


"7[ 


IRELAND. 


275 


reform  bill  was  passed,  and  in  1870  the  disestablishment 
of  the  Irish  Church  was  accomplished.  In  the  year  fol- 
lowing, the  peaceful  negotiation  of  the  differences  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  caused  by  the 
acts  of  the  rebel  cruiser  Alabama,  resulted  in  an  Alabama 
claims  treaty.  Amongst  the  minor  wars  of  her  reign 
were  thoce  against  the  Chinese,  Abyssinians  and  Ashan- 
tees,  the  Afghanistans,  Zulas  and  Boers,  Egyptians  and 
Mahdists,  and  Arabs.  Great  Britain  is  just  now  menaced 
by  the  defiant  attitude  of  her  Irish  subjects,  who,  seeking 
to  redress  the  wrongs  which  they  have  suffered,  are  in 
quasi  rebellion  against  the  Government.  Assisted  by 
political  societies,  whose  ramifications  extend  to  foreign 
countries  where  expatriated  Irishmen  have  found  homes, 
the  plotters  for  Irish  liberty  are  endeavoring,  by  acts  of 
violence  organized  and  accomplished  in  secret,  to  terrify 
the  Government  into  granting  the  concessions  they  de- 
mand. 

The  Government  of  Great  Britain  is  a  constitutional 
monarchy.  The  executive  function  is  vested  in  the 
sovereign,  and  the  legislative  in  the  Imperial  Parliament. 
The  succession  to  the  throne  is  settled  upon  the  descend- 
ants of  Sophia  of  Brunswick,  and  no  change  in  the  "Act 


of  Settlement"  can  be  made  without  the  consent  of  Par- 
liament. The  heir  apparent  assumes  the  title  of  "Prince 
of  Wales."  The  Parliament  consists  of  the  sovereign, 
the  House  of  Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons,  and  an 
act  to  obtain  the  force  of  law  must  be  passed  by  all  three. 
Membership  in  the  House  of  Lords  is  hereditary.  There 
are  537  members,  including  the  two  Archbishops  and 
twenty-four  Bishops  of  the  Established  Church  of  Eng- 
land. The  House  of  Commons  has  670  members — 495 
for  England  and  Wales,  103  for  Ireland  and  72  for  Scot- 
land. Of  these,  9  represent  the  universities,  377  the 
counties,  and  284  the  boroughs,  The  number  of  Parlia 
mentary  electors  in  1891  was  6,173,668;  being  36,176  for 
the  universities,  3,787,290  for  the  counties,  and  2,350,202 
for  the  boroughs.  The  members  of  the  Cabinet  Council 
are  appointed  by  the  sovereign,  but  responsible  to  Parlia- 
ment, and  consequently  their  appointment  is  virtually 
made  by  the  party  in  the  majority.  The  sovereign  ap- 
points the  members  of  the  Privy  Council,  the  Lord 
Mayor  of  London  being  the  only  ex  officio  member,  but 
public  business  is  in  reality  conducted  by  the  Cabinet 
Council.  In  Ireland  the  Crown  is  represented  by  a  Lord 
Lieutenant. 


•m- 


^r 


AA 


#? 


*•-    ICELAND.    ■♦■ 


'  T  the  present  moment,  on  account  of  the  strenuous 
ra  effort  the  Irish  are  making  to  effect  the  liberation  of 
their  land,  Ireland  is  commanding  a  great  deal  of 
attention.  Christianity  was  introduced  into  the 
island  in  the  fifth  century,  when  St.  Patrick,  being 
taken  a  captive  in  war,  was  sold  into  slavery  in  Ireland,  where 
he  remained  for  five  years.  Twenty  years  later  he  returned 
there  as  a  missionary,  and  for  thirty  years  preached  the  truths 
of  the  gospel  to  its  people,  succeeding  most  remarkably  in  his 
mission  as  a  Christian  propagandist.  From  the  eighth  to  the 
eleventh  century  was  the  period  of  Ireland's  greatest  compara- 
tive civilization.  During  this  period  she  was  far  more  advanced 
than  England  in  learning  and  culture.  Colleges  flourished,  and 
the  arts  were  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  Unfor- 
tunately, while  so  well  advanced  in  civilization,  Ireland  had  not 
achieved  what  was  at  that  time  necessary  for  her  salvation — a 
strong  central  government.  On  the  contrary,  it  was  divided 
up  into  a  number  of  petty  kingdoms,  which  had  no  secure 
bond  of  union.  Hence,  when  the  Plantagenet  monarch  of 
England,  Henry  II.,  made  his  raids  in  1172,  his  conquest  of 
the  disunited  country  was  a  comparatively  easy  matter, 
taking  into  consideration  the  really  warlike  qualities  of  the 
Irish  chiefs  and  Barons  who  ruled  the  land.  The  foothold 
thus  gained  was  in  the  province  of  Leinster,  and  from  that 
date  England  has  asserted  a  fictitious  claim  to  rule  a  people 


persistently  unreconciled  to  any  interference  with  home  rule. 
It  was  under  the  Tudors,  however,  that  the  fate  of  the  un- 
happy island  was  settled.  There  was  no  centralization  in 
Ireland.  Britain  became  great  because  the  petty  kingdoms 
were  consolidated  into  one  nation,  while  Ireland  dwindled 
away  and  lost  its  splendid  opportunity,  through  the  calamitous 
influence  of  the  tribe  and  the  clan,  in  distinction  from  the 
country.  For  a  long  time  the  "English  Pale,"  or  the  area 
of  actual  British  rule  in  Ireland,  was  very  limited.  Henry 
VII.  determined  to  extend  it,  but  pursued  his  purpose  only 
feebly.  Henry  VIII.  was  more  intently  bent  on  Irish  subju- 
gation, and  under  his  reign  nobles  and  people  felt  the  crushing 
hand  of  a  tyrant.  In  1542  he  assumed  the  title  of  King, 
instead  of  Lord  of  Ireland,  by  virtue  of  an  act  passed  by  the 
Anglo-Irish  Parliament  in  1541,  and  about  the  same  time  some 
of  the  native  princes  were  induced  to  acknowledge  him  as 
their  sovereign  and  to  accept  peerages.  Since  then  his  suc- 
cessors have  never  ceased  to  hold  fast  both  the  shadow  and 
substance  of  Irish  sovereignty.  In  order  that  the  national 
sentiment  might  be  suppressed,  the  language,  dress,  customs 
and  laws  of  the  country  were  prohibited.  The  fact  that  Henry 
was  at  war  with  the  Pope  made  loyalty  to  Rome  an  expres- 
sion of  patriotism  in  Ireland.  Very  little  favor  was  extended  to 
the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  either  by  the  descendants 
of  the  old  English  settlers  or  by  the  native  Irish,  and  when 


^J 


7-1 


V 


276 


IRELAND. 


the  English  Government  sought  to  introduce  it  great  dissen- 
sions were  stirred  up.  When  Mary  came  to  the  throne,  and 
Protestantism  lacked  the  support  of  the  Government,  it  almost 
immediately  melted  away.  She  was  not  disposed  to  abandon 
the  island  to  itself  by  any  means,  but  her  personal  sympathies 
were  with  the  Irish  in  the  matter  of  religion.  Elizabeth  was 
in  sympathy,  of  course,  with  the  Protestantism  of  her  father 
rather  than  the  papacy  of  her  sister  ;  but  she  took  a  secular 
view  of  the  Irish  question,  and  under  her  the  power  of  the 
British  Crown  was  felt  throughout  the  entire  island.  The  old 
Celtic  Constitution  was  rejected ;  the  tribal  authority  of  the 
chiefs  was  taken  from  them,  and  the  tribal  system  of  property 
set  aside ;  English  judges  and  English  law  were  substituted  for 
the  old  proceedings :  the  result  of  which,  says  Green,  was  that 
"  the  evicted  natives  withdrew  sullenly  to  the  lands  which  had 
been  left  them  by  the  spoiler  ;  but  all  faith  in  English  justice 
had  been  torn  from  the  minds  of  the  Irishry,  and  the  seed  had 
been  sown  of  that  fatal  harvest  of  distrust  which  was  to  be 
reaped  through  tyranny  and  massacre  in  the  age  to  come. " 
Very  shortly  before  Elizabeth's  death  occurred  the  famous 

insurrection  of  Tyrone,  

who   invited   the   Span-  ,7 

iards  to  assist  him;  but 
they  were  all  defeated  in 
1620.  Repeated  rebel- 
lion tried  the  temper  of 
the  Government,  which, 
in  the  reign  of  James  I., 
seized  the  province  of 
Ulster  and  divided  it 
among  such  of  his  Scotch 
and  English  subjects  as 
chose  to  settle  there.  In 
1641  occurred  More  and 
Maguire's  rebellion,  in 
which  an  endeavor  was 
.made  to  expel  the  Prot- 
estants from  the  island. 
From  1649  to  1656  the 
iron  hand  of  Cromwell 
was  laid  upon  the  land. 
In  the  year  of  King 
Charles'  execution,  the 
Royalists  being  still' strong  and  rebellious  in  Ireland,  Cromwell 
went  there  in.  person  as  Lord-Lieutenant  and  Commander-in- 
Chief,  and  his  measures  were  so  cruel  and  sanguinary  that  the 
Island  was,  in  nine  months,  completely  crushed.  He  left  in  charge 
of  it  his  son-in-law,  Ireton,  who  completed  the  island's  subjec- 
tion, and  no  disturbance  of  its  tranquillity  occurred  until  the  revo- 
lution. The  northern  province,  Ulster,  was  colonized  by 
Scotch  shortly  after  Cromwell's  invasion.  At  the  time  of  the 
revolution  James  II.  received  very  generally  the  support  of 
the  Irish,  while  the  Scotch  and  English  colonists  took  the 
part  of  William  and  Mary.  The  struggle  between  oppressor 
and  oppressed  lasted  for  four  years,  and  was  ended  by  the 
bloody  battle  of  the  Boyne,  fought  July  1,  1690,  and  result- 
ing in  the  overthrow  of  the  Irish,  who,  two  years  later,  were 
again  in   utter  subjection.      From  this  time  on   the  British 


) 


SACKVILLE  STREET,  DUBLIN. 


Government  systematically  sought  to  destroy  the  Irish  national 
sentiment.  Penal  laws  were  passed  which  imposed  terrible 
restrictions  upon  the  Roman  Catholic  population,  and  rebel- 
lions were  frequent.  Backed  by  the  "Volunteers,"  Henry 
Grattan  secured  a  free  Parliament  and  the  partial  abolition  of 
the  heavy  restrictions  on  Irish  commerce.  It  was  mainly 
through  this  patriot's  exertions  and  influence  that  the  stringent 
pressure  of  the  penal  laws  against  the  Roman  Catholics 
was  relaxed.  He  steadily  opposed  the  idea  of  a  legislative 
union  of  the  countries,  and  in  1800  he  was  elected  to  fight 
in  Parliament  for  Irish  liberty.  Two  years  previous  the 
country,  driven  to  desperation  by  oppression,  had  been  in 
revolt,  and  the  year  that  saw  Grattan's  election  saw  also  the 
crushing  out  of  the  attempt  to  secure  Ireland's  liberty.  Not- 
withstanding his  brilliant  advocacy  of  the  Irish  cause,  the 
oppressors  were  in  the  preponderance  in  Parliament,  and  the 
union  was  consummated  January  I,  1801.  Since  that  time 
Ireland  has  not  lacked  for  agitators  to  keep  alive  the  national 
spirit  and  to  fight  for  the  amelioration  of  her  condition.  In 
1829  the  Catholic  Emancipation  act  was  passed,  largely  through 
^^^__  the  exertions  of  the  great 

Daniel  O'Connell,  and 
later  on  a  reform  bill 
and  a  poor-law  were  en- 
acted. About  the  mid- 
dle of  the  present  century 
a  strong  movement  was 
on  foot  for  the  repeal  of 
the  union,  and  while  it 
was  in  progress  famine 
fell  upon  the  land  and 
whole  counties  were  de- 
populated. In  1848  Smith 
O'Brien's  abortive  revo- 
lution was  easily  sup- 
pressed. More  formida- 
ble since  then  have  been 
the  alternately  secret  and 
overt  workings  of  the 
Fenian  Brotherhood. 
Organized  in  1859  m  both 
America  and  Great  Brit- 
ain, it  held  a  congress  at 
Chicago  in  1863  that  attracted  much  attention.  Two  years 
later  another  was  held  in  Cincinnati,  which  represented  a  con- 
stituency of  80,00a  In  1866  an  attempt  was  made  to  conquer 
Canada,  and  in  1867  several  Fenian  riots  occurred  in  Great 
Britain.  It  has  been  urged  that  these  aggressive  movements 
accomplished  nothing.  Directly  they  may  have  failed  of  great 
success,  but  indirectly  they  proved  of  immense  value  to  the 
1 1  Mb  1  .iuse.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  population  of  Ireland 
hold  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  their  taxation  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  State  Church  was  one  of  the  leading  causes  of 
Irish  discontent.  It  is  not  uninteresting  to  note  that  it  was  in 
1869— two  years  after  the  first  Fenian  agitation — that  the 
Episcopal  State  Church  was  disestablished  and  disendowed,  and 
the  endowment,  except  as  used  for  annuities,  dedicated  to 
educational  and  other  secular  purposes.     Important  as  was  the 


V 


IRELAND. 


277 


concession,  it  did  not  satisfy  the  Irish  people,  who  had 
placed  national  independence  and  autonomy  as  the  goal 
of  their  combined  struggles,  and  a  powerful  movement 
was  inaugurated  for  securing  reform  in  tenure  of  land 
and  the  relations  of  landlord  and  tenant.  Under  the 
lead  of  Mr.  Parnell,  Irish  ideas  as  to  the  proper  relation 
of  Ireland  to  Great  Britain  were  brought  nearer  to  reali- 
zation than  they  ever  before  were  within  the  last  600 
years.  His  policy  was  to  compel  attention  to  Irish  wants 
by  obstruction  of  parliamentary  business.  By  speaking 
on  every  topic  before  the  House,  he  wearied  the  English 
members  into  action  on  Irish  affairs.  His  first  demand 
was  for  fixity  of  tenure  for  farmers,  fair  rent,  and  free 
sale.  This  was  secured  in  1881.  But  having,  in  1S79, 
with  Mr.  Davitt,  organized  the  Land  League,  with  the 
object  of  inducing  the  tenant  farmers  to  take  a  greater 
interest  in  the  national  movement,  Mr.  Parnell  increased 
his  demands  upon  the  English  Government  and  declared 
for  Irish  independence  and  a  Parliament  in  Dublin.  His 
arrest  and  imprisonment  in  Kilmainham  jail,  the  outlaw- 
ing of  the  League,  and  the  assassinations  in  Phoenix 
■Park,  in  1882,  were  striking  events  of  this  period. 
Toward  the  close  of  18S5  Mr.  ParnelPs  persistence  was 
rewarded  by  Mr.  Gladstone's  submission,  and  a  Home 
Rule  bill  was  the  result.     The   advent  of  the   Tories   to 


power,  in  1886,  prevented  the  immediate  realization  of 
Mr.  Parnell's  hopes,  though  he  succeeded  in  extracting, 
even  from  the  victors,  legislation  which  placed  Irish 
tenants  in  a  position  of  advantage  over  other  tenants  in 
any  part  of  the  world.  An  alleged  fac-simile  letter,  pub- 
lished by  the  London  Times,  representing  Mr.  Parnell  as 
consenting  to  the  Phoenix  Park  murder,  was  shown  after 
a  protracted  trial  to  be  a  forgery.  It  was  at  this  period 
that  he  reached  the  top  of  his  career  and  the  height  of 
his  popularity.  The  cloud  thrown  upon  the  Irish 
patriot's  life  by  a  divorce  in  1890,  in  which  Mr.  Parnell 
figured  as  co-respondent,  had  important  results  for  the 
Irish  party,  introducing  dissension  and  causing  ulti- 
mately Mr.  Parnell's  expulsion  from  the  leadership  at 
Mr.  Gladstone's  demand.  Mr.  Parnell  died  Oct.  6,  1891. 
In  1892  the  party  in  Parliament  numbered  30  Parnellites, 
against  54  anti-Parnellites  led  by  Justin  McCarthy. 

Ireland  is  represented  in  the  British  House  of  Com- 
mons by  103  members,  and  in  the  House  of  Lords  by  28 
representative  Peers,  who  are  elected  and  hold  office  for 
life.  Its  executive  consists  of  a  Lord  Lieutenant  and 
Privy  Council,  nominated  by  the  Crown.  English  rule 
is  enforced  throughout  the  country  with  the  assistance  of 
an  armed  military  constabulary  numbering  over   12,000 


-M 


18 


"^ 


278 


-7 


SCOTLAND 


-f4DI»n»ii«i*ttniim'H"t»«i*«*>nBg  ?■   , »' 


^^1    #    Scotland.    # 


[REVIOUS  to  the  union  with  England,  Scotland,  as 
an  independent  country,  had  attracted  considerable 
attention.  In  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  the 
Scots  acquired  a  predominance  in  North  Britain 
by  revolution.  A  lineal  descendant  of  Ardan,  a 
powerful  prince  who  more  than  once  successfully  invaded  the 
English  borders,  named  Kenneth,  claimed  the  British  realm. 
Under  his  son,  Malcolm  II.,  the  Scotch  acquired  the  Merse  and 
Teviotdale  from  the  Earl  of  Northumbria.  Malcolm  III.,  who 
succeeded,  had  a  long  and  prosperous  reign,  in  which  Scotland 
made  great  strides 
forward,  both  polit- 
ically and  socially. 
English  customs  were 
introduced,  owing  to 
his  long  residence  in 
England  and  his  mar- 
riage with  an  English 
princess,  and  the  En- 
glish language  began 
to  make  headway  on 
account  of  the  large 
immigration  from 
England  which  took 
place.  During  the 
succeeding  reigns  of 
Edgar,  Alexander  I., 
and  David,  who  was 
a  great  reformer  in 
both  clerical  and  sec- 
ular affairs,  the  En- 
glish influence  in- 
creased. One  of  the 
ablest  and  best  of 
Scottish    kings     was 

indei  111.,  who,  oy  a  treaty  with  Norway,  added  the 
Isle  of  Man  to  bit  dominions,  together  with  other 
of  the  Western  Sea.  A  dispute  over  the  crown  followed  the 
death  of  his  granddaughter  in  1290,  and  the  decision  l>etween 
the  claimants,  Jialiol  and  Bruce,  was  left  to  Kin;;  Edward  I. 
of  England,  who  entered  the  country  with  an  army,  deposed 
Baliol  and  instituted  English  government.  A  prolonged  strug- 
gle for  Independence  followed,  in  which  the  heroic  deeds  of 

Wallace  and  Bruce  gained  for  the  Scotch  a  deathless  reputation 


VIEW  OF  1  DINBt 


for  valor  and  patriotism.  During  succeeding  generations  the 
history  of  Scotland  was  one  prolonged  story  of  interminable 
civil  and  border  warfare,  and  of  occasional  invasions  from 
England.  Amicable  relations  between  the  Crown  and  the 
nobles  were  first  accomplished  during  the  reign  of  James  IV., 
whose  gay  and  elegant  court  seduced  the  warriors  from  the 
field  and  left  the  peasantry  to  attend  undisturbed  to  the  peace- 
ful and  profitable  occupation  of  husbandry.  Fisheries  were 
encouraged,  a  navy  built  and  commerce  promoted,  while  the 
King's    marriage    with    Margaret,    daughter    of    the    Tudor 

Henry  VII.,  laid  the 
foundation  of  the 
union  of  the  two 
kingdoras.  Henry 
VIII.  sought  to  con- 
quer the  country,  and 
in  the  war  v 
James  IV.  was  pro- 
voked into  declaring 
against  him  the  Scotch 
navy  was  destroyed, 
and  its  armies  de- 
feated on  Flodden 
Heights.  The  King 
niong  the  slain. 
.  isequently 
James  V.,  was  then 
a  minor,  and  during 
the  regency  which  en- 
sued the  countr- 
into  a  wretched 

«.    Hemarrieda 
dauglneroftlie  French 
Duke  of  Guise,  the 
fruit  of  which  mar- 
is the  unfortunate  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  whose  son, 
James  VI.  of  Scotland,  became  Jan  .-and,  thusuniting 

the  two  countries.  The  overthrow  of  the  Stuart  family  and  other 
events  v  hich  happened  from  the  accession  of  James  VI.  to  the 
'1  throne,  down  to  ratification  of  the  act  of  union  by  the 
Scottish  Parliament  in  1707,  are  told  in  the  history  of  Great 
Britain  given  elsewhere.  Scotland  retained,  on  its  admisa 
the  union,  its  church  system  and  its  laws.  It  is  governed  by  the 
Imperial  Parliament,  to  which  it  elects  72  commoners. 


V 


_-' 


£1= 

s  v 


GERMANY. 


^ 


/ 


279 


iaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaasaaaaaaaaBaBBaaaBBBaB&s 


+  Germany.  + 


*ZK1 


BBBBBESBBEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEL^EEEEEJ 


respect. 


HEN  Julius  Caesar  was  on  his  way  of  exploration 
through  Europe,  which  led  him  through  Gaul 
and  into  Great  Britain,  he  avoided  rather  than 
sought  to  measure  arms  with  the  Germans, 
whose  fighting  he  tasted  of  and  then  learned  to 
A  conflict  between  the  Romans  and  Germans  was, 


KINO'S  PALACE,  BERLIN. 

however,  inevitable,  and  the  freedom  and  independence  of  the 
nation  was  firmly  established  by  Arminius,  who  crushed  the 
invaders  in  the  historic  battle  of  Teuto- 
berger,   which   occurred   B.C.   9.     About 
500  years  later,  Clovis,  moving  westward, 
established  the  Frankish  Empire,  which, 
under  the  famous  Charlemagne,   reached 
from  the  Raab,  in  Hungary,  to  the  Ebro, 
in  Spain,  and  from  the  Eider,  in  the  north, 
to  the  Tiber,  in  the  south.     The  division 
and   subdivision   of    the   empire    created 
numerous   duchies  and  principalities,  and 
the  ruler  over  all  was  generally  the  one 
who  was  able  to  secure  the  influence  of  the 
clerical  leaders.     Wars  for  the  possession 
of  the  imperial  crown  and  changes  of  dy-     B| 
nasty  were  frequent.     The  empire  lasted 
until  1273,  when  Count  Rudolph  of  Haps- 
burg  began  his  reign  as  King,  destroyed   the  power  of  the 
nobles  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  family  which  still  reigns 
over  Austria.     In  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  the  power  of  Ger- 
many was  extended  so  that  it  included   Belgium,  Spain,  the 


Netherlands,  Austro-Hungary  and  Italy,  and  she  became  the 
ruling  power  in  Europe.  This  reign  was  also  remarkable  for 
the  beginning  of  the  Reformation.  In  1521,  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms,  Luther  made  his  famous  defence  ;  at  the  Diet  of 
Speyer  was  made  the  formal  protest  of  his  supporters  against 
decisions  unfavorable  to  them,  while  at  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg their  creed  was  publicly  announced.  Religious  dis- 
sensions occupied  the  country  for  about  fifty  years  after  the 
retirement  of  Charles  V.,  in  1556,  and  in  1618  the  Thirty- Years' 
War  broke  out.  At  first  the  Protestants  were  defeated,  but 
under  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden,  they  rallied,  and 
Germany  was  secured  forever  in  her  religious  freedom  by  the 
peace  declared  at  Westphalia  in  1648.  In  1675  the  Elector  of 
Brandenburg  vanquished  the  Swedes  at  Fehrhellin  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  Prussian  monarchy,  the  name  of  Prussia 
being  assumed  when  Frederick  I.  was  crowned  King  in  1701. 
Numerous  wars  occurred  in  the  next  one  hundred  years,  aad 
constant  mutations  occurred  in  the  map  of  Germany.  The 
young  kingdom  of  Prussia,  under  the  famous  Fredericks, 
developed  rapidly  into  a  first-class  power,  and  in  the  great 
wars,  especially  that  which  led  to  the  downfall  of  Napoleon, 
her  generals  and  soldiers  gained  many  important  victories. 
During  the  Napoleonic  wars  Germany  lost  a  large  portion  of 


y'-:*m 


HEIDELBERG, 
her  territory,  fully  half  of  it  being  lost  by  the  Peace  of  Tilsit 
in   1806,  when  Napoleon  formed  the   Rhenish  Confederation 
under  French  protection,  and  the  German  Empire  was  for- 
mally dissolved.     Subsequent  to  the  return  of  the  Bourbons 


280 


GERMANY 


the  affairs  of  Germany  were  regulated  in  accordance  with  a 
plan  drawn  up  by  Metternich,  whose  influence  then  predomi- 
nated throughout  Europe.  In  1833  the  Zollverein  was  estab- 
lished, an  important  event  as  being  in  the  direction  of  a  united 
Germany.  The  confederation  of  the  German  States  was  alter- 
nately swayed  by  Austria  and  Prussia.  In  1849  Frederick 
William  IV.  of  Prussia  was  tendered  the  imperial  crown  by 
the  Diet  of  Frankfort,  but  declined  to  accept  it.  His  succes- 
sor, William  I.,  early  evinced  a  desire  to  rule  in  accordance 
with  constitutional  views,  but  when,  in  1862,  the  Government 
declined  to  pass  certain  laws  relating  to  the  army,  he  created 
Bismarck  Minister  of  State  and  instituted  a  violent  reaction. 
In  the  following  year  Prussia  laid  claim  to  the  Danish  duchies 
of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  which  Denmark  disputed,  and, 
war  following,  the  Prussian  arms  were  victorious  and  the  two 
countries  were  annexed.  This  action  was  opposed  by  Austria, 
who  sought  to  have  them  placed  under  the  rule  of  a  branch  of 
the  Danish  royal  family,  and  in  June,  1866,  war  was  declared 
against  Prussia,  whose  splendidly  organized  army,  armed  with 
the  needle-gun,  which  was  at  that  time  a  novelty  in  warfare, 
completely  routed  the  Austrians  at  Sadowa.  Austria  with- 
drew entirely  from  the  German  confederation  and  acknowl- 
edged the  political  and  other  changes  which  Germany  had 
undergone  at  Prussia's  hands.  The  work  of  German  unifica- 
\k>n  was  now  further  advanced.  The  North  German  Confed- 
eration was  formed,  its  Constitution,  modified  in  parts,  was 
made  to  cover  the  whole  German  Empire,  and  treaties  were 
effected  with  the  South  German  States.  France,  jealous  of 
the  growing  power  of  Germany,  became  alarmed  when  she  saw 
that  the  unity  of  her  traditional  foe  in  the  East  was  fast 
being  realized,  and  the  relations  of  the  two  countries  became 
day  by  day  more  strained.  A  conflict  was  inevitable,  and  the 
issue  was  furnished  by  the  question  of  supplying  a  ruler  for 
Spain,  whose  throne  was  at  that  time  tenantless.  The  crown 
was  tendered  by  the  Spaniards  to  Prince  Leopold  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  who  declared  his  willingness  to  accept  it.  The  French 
Government,  hoping  to  gain  a  diplomatic  victory  of  great 
political  consequence,  demanded  of  King  William  that  he 
should  command  the  Prince  to  withdraw  his  acceptance  of  the 
Spanish  crown.  This  the  King  declined  to  give,  and  when 
the  Prince  himself  renounced  the  crown  the  French  Govern- 
ment demanded  of  William  a  declaration  that  he  approved  of 
the  renunciation  and  that  he  would  not  in  the  future  permit  of 
the  Prince's  candidature.  This  William  declined  to  give,  and 
on  July  19,  1870,  France  declared  war  against  Prussia.  In  a 
very  few  days  it  became  apparent  that  the  haste  with  which 
the  French  diplomats  had  brought  about  the  war  was  not  war- 
ranted by  the  condition  of  the  country's  military  and  naval 
affairs.  From  the  beginning  it  was  apparent  that,  while  the 
Prussian  armies  were  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency,  those  of 
France  existed  to  a  large  extent  only  on  paper,  were  poorly 
equipped  and  very  defectively  organized.  The  fight  opened  at 
Saarhruckcn,  where  the  French  gained  a  slight  advantage,  but 
the  defeats  of  Weissenburg  and  Worth  completely  changed 
the  aspect   if   affairs.      The   French  armies  withdrew   into 


France,  and  the  German  battalion!  streamed  over  the  fron- 
tier, following  up  eagerly  the  advantages  they  had  secured 
Bazaine,  the  French  commander-in-chief,  after  conducting 
several  unsuccessful  battles,  was  locked  up  in  Metz  with  a 
large  army.  The  main  body  of  the  French  army,  led  by 
Napoleon  III.  and  commanded  by  Marshal  MacMahon,  sought 
to  relieve  Bazaine,  but  were  checked  at  Sedan  and  over- 
thrown. Napoleon  surrendered  and  was  sent  in  captivity  to 
Wilhelmshohe. 

The  war  should  have  ended  here,  as  the  German  hold  upon 
France  was  so  complete  that  no  hope  was  left  to  her.  The 
Parisians,  however,  would  not  accept  the  situation.  A  pro- 
visional government  was  formed  and  the  defence  of  the  capital, 
pending  the  formation  of  a  new  army,  decided  upon.  The 
Empress  Eugenie  escaped  to  England.  September  19  the 
German  armies  invested  Paris,  the  idea  being  to  starve  the 
city  out,  and  January  26  the  siege  was  raised  and  the  Germans 
took  possession.  At  Versailles,  February  26,  a  preliminary 
peace  was  signed,  by  which  Alsace  and  Lorraine  were  to 
be  ceded  and  a  war  indemnity  paid  to  the  Germans.  The 
peace  was  ratified  by  the  French  National  Assembly,  and 
Paris  was  evacuated.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  war  which 
France  waged  against  the  unification  of  Germany  resulted  in 
its  accomplishment.  The  treaties  by  which  the  unity  was 
secured  were  concluded  between  Northern  and  Southern  Ger- 
many in  December,  1870,  and  January  18,  1871,  while  the 
victorious  German  armies  were  thundering  at  the  gates  of 
Paris,  the  King  of  Prussia  was  proclaimed  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many as  Kaiser  Wilhelm  I. 

The  Government  of  Germany  is  a  limited  monarchy.  The 
German  Empire  is  a  confederation  of  sovereign  States,  with 
largely  representative  governments.  Although  the  Emperor 
is  limited  in  certain  relations,  he  is  given  large  power  in 
others.  By  the  terms  of  the  Constitution,  which  bears  date 
April  :o,  187 1,  all  the  States  of  Germany  form  an  eternal  union 
for  the  protection  of  the  realm  and  care  of  the  welfare  of  the 
German  people.  In  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  bears  the  title 
of  Deutscher  Kaiser  (German  Emperor),  is  vested  the  supreme 
direction  of  the  military  and  political  affairs  of  the  Empire. 
The  Kaiser  "represents  the  Empire  internationally,"  and  can 
declare  war,  if  defensive,  and  make  peace ;  can  enter  into 
treaties  with  other  nations,  and  can  appoint  and  receive  em- 
bassadors. To  declare  war,  if  not  merely  defensive,  he  must 
have  the  consent  of  the  Bundesrath,  or  Federal  Council,  in 
which  body,  together  with  the  Reichstag,  or  Diet  of  the  Realm, 
are  vested  the  legislative  functions  of  the  Empire.  The  Reichs- 
tag represents  the  German  Nation,  and  its  members,  397  in 
numl>er,  are  elective  by  universal  suffrage  and  ballot  for  terms 
of  three  years.  The  Bundesrath  represents  the  individual 
States,  and  its  members,  numbering  58,  are  appointed 
for  each  session  by  their  respective  governments.  The  Bun- 
desrath and  Reichstag  meet  in  annual  session,  convoked  by 
the  Emperor.  All  laws  must  have  a  majority  of  both  houses, 
and  niust  be  approved  by  the  Emperor  and  promulgated  by 
the  Chancellor  of  the   Empire. 


=& 


^5U/F0Rl*N> 


ft 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 


28l 


V 


USTRIA'S  early  history  will  be  found  under  the  head 
of  Germany.  The  Government  under  which  the  Aus- 
tro-Hungarian  Empire  now  exists  will  receive  at- 
tention here.  About  the  end  of  the  eighth  century 
Charlemagne  founded  a  Margraviate  in  Lower  Austria 
which,  in  1156,  became  a  Duchy,  and  three  centuries  later 
an  Arch-Duchy.  Maximilian  II.,  son  of  Emperor  Charles 
V.,  of  Germany,  became  Emperor  in  1564,  with  a  dominion 
over  Austria,  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  It  was  not  until  the 
eighteenth  century  that  Austria  came  to  the  front  as  one  of 
the  great  European  powers,  and  attained  a  preponderating 
influence  in  the  conduct  of  German  affairs.  In  the  year  1806 
the  reigning  Emperor,  Francis,  renounced  the  title  of  Emperor 
of  the  Romans  and  became  the  first  Emperor  of  Austria.  In 
the  seven  years  which  followed,  Napoleon  worried  the  country, 
but  he  was  courageously  resisted,  and  the  territories  which  he 
took  from  her  were  restored  in  181 5  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
together  with  the  Tyrol,  Dalmatia,  Lombardy  and  Venice, 
and  the  Illyrian  provinces.  Several  insurrections  in  the  Austro- 
Italian  provinces  occurred  during  the  last  year  of  Emperor 
Francis'  reign,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  confederation  was 
shown  to  be  a  very  difficult  matter,  far  beyond  the  ability  of 
his  son,  Ferdinand  I.,  who  succeeded  in  1835.  The  crafty 
Metternich  almost  entirely  dictated  the  national  policy  during 
his  reign,  which  ended  by  his  abdication  in  1848,  when  the 
thione  was  given  to  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph.  During  this 
.year  occurred  the  Hungarian  revolution,  led  by  Kossuth.  In 
1859  tne  relations  of  Austria  and  France  were  broken  off,  but 
after  a  warfare  of  two  months  the  two  Emperors,  Francis 
Joseph  and  Napoleon  III.,  consummated  a  peace  by  which 
Austria  surrendered  Lombardy,  Italy  was  made  a  confedera- 
tion under  the  Pope,  and  Tuscany  and  Modena  were  restored 
to  their  rulers.  The  Constitution  which  Kossuth  and  his  com- 
patriots struggled  for  in  1848  was  granted  in  1867.  In  i860 
the  first  Constitution  of  Austria  was  promulgated,  which  was 
followed  by  a  patent  in  1S61,  upon  which  was  based  a  charter 
that  went  into  effect  in  1867.  Hungary's  independence  was 
acknowledged,  and  July  8,  1867,  the  Emperor  was  crowned 
King  of  Hungary,  vhich  countr;    pledged  itself  to  contribute 


to  the  national  revenues.  In  1864  Austria  combined  with 
Prussia  in  the  occupation  of  the  Danish  provinces  of  Schleswig, 
Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  which  terminated  in  their  acquisition; 
but,  quarrelling  afterward  with  Prussia  over  the  question  of  their 
disposition,  she  went  to  war  with  that  power.  This  adventure 
was  freighted  with  disaster,  and  the  peace  which  followed  was 
only  purchased  at  the  cost  of  Venetia,  the  fortresses  of  the 
Quadrilateral,  the  recognition  of  the  dissolution  of  the  German 
Confederation,  and  the  payment  of  a  large  indemnity.  After 
the  close  of  the  Turko-Russian  war  of  1877-8,  the  Austrian 
Empire  was  enlarged  by  the  acquisition  of  Bosnia,  Herze- 
govina and  Novi-Bazar. 

By  the  present  Constitution  each  of  the  two  countries,  Aus- 
tria and  Hungary,  has  its  own  parliament,  ministry  and  govern- 
ment, the  connecting  links  being  a  common  sovereign,  army, 
navy  and  diplomacy,  together  with  a  controlling  body  known 
as  the  Delegations.  The  latter  form  a  parliament  of  120  mem- 
bers, equally  divided  between  the  two  countries,  the  delegates 
being  chosen  by  the  local  legislatures,  the  latter  bodies  having 
two  branches,  substantially  the  same  as  the  Senate  and  House 
of  the  United  States  Congress.  The  local  legislature  or  diet 
is  called  Reichstag  in  Hungary,  Reichsrath  in  Austria.  The 
delegations  of  each  country  sit  in  a  body  by  themselves,  possess- 
ing co-ordinate  authority  and  power;  but  if  they  cannot  agree 
upon  measures  while  thus  acting  separately,  they  meet  as  one 
body,  and  the  final  vote  is  binding  upon  the  entire  empire. 
This  imperial  diet  is  confined  in  its  jurisdiction  to  foreign 
affairs  and  war.  There  are  three  Ministers  for  the  whole  em- 
pire, namely,  the  Ministers  of  War,  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  of 
Finance.  There  is  a  ministr)  in  Austria  and  another  in  Hun- 
gary. The  former  consists  of  v'e  Interior,  Public  Education, 
Justice  and  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  Finance,  Agriculture,  Com- 
merce, and  National  Defence.  The  Hungarian  departments 
or  executives  are:  Presidency  of  the  Council,  Finance,  National 
Defence,  Ministry  near  the  King's  Person,  Interior,  Educa- 
tion and  Public  Worship,  Justice,  Communications  and  Public 
Works,  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Commerce,  and  the  Ministry 
of  Croatia  and  Slavonia.  The  Imperial  Cabinet  is  responsible 
to  the  Delegations,  the  local  cabinets  to  their  respective  diets, 
the  Reichstag  and  Reichsrath,  as  the  case  may  be. 


V- 


^A 


■f  X 


:«v 


*« 


(2 _ 


^ 


!imHIIMIHHMHmillll  MHHH 


?=3g 


Belgium. 


^~— !l  I  ti'i  ITII  MmMiiIi  ijij  ti+*4i**m  I** 


'  "TC^P^ST*  "  ' 


'  ELGIUM,  the  most  densely  populated  country  in  Eu- 
rope, was  in  its  earlier  days  a  favorite  bone  of  con- 
tention for  the  European  powers,  and  frequently  be- 
came the  battle-field  upon  which  their  claims  were 
settled.  The  Burgundians,  the  Austrians  and  the 
Spaniards  successively  ruled  it,  and  in  Napoleon's  time  it  came 
under  French  rule.  In  1S14  a  union  between  Holland  and 
Belgium  took  place,  which  proved  very  unpopular  with  the 
Belgians,  and  shortly  after  the  Paris  revolution  of  1830  they 
rose  against  the  Government  in  such  force  that  the  troops 
ordered  to  quell  the  uprising  found  themselves  unable  to  do  so. 
Brussels,  the  capital,  and  other  large  cities  fell  into  the  hands 
of  mobs,  who  destroyed  much  valuable  property.  A  separa- 
tion of  the  States  followed,  and  the  differences  between  them 
were  finally  settled  by  a  convention  of  the  great  powers  in 
London.  The  dissolution  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands 
was  proclaimed,  and  in  1831  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg 
entered  Brussels  as  the  Belgian  King;  but  the  kingdom  was 
not  recognized  by  all  the  States  of  Europe  until  1839,  when 
the  treaty  was  signed  which  established  peace  between  Leopold 
and  the  King  of  the  Netherlands.  Leopold  I.  died  in  1865,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Leopold  II.,  who  still  reigns. 
Belgium  has  long  been  the  scene  of  a  struggle  between  the 
priests  a""1  <cr»,»liig  liberalism.     In  1850  the  educational  ques- 


tion, which  had  occasioned  a  long  and  fierce  dispute,  was  sup- 
]>osed  to  be  settled  on  liberal  principles,  but  since  then  there 
has  been  another  keen  struggle  between  the  Progressionists 
and  the  Ultramontanes,  and  in  1875  Belgium  was  the  scene  of 
serious  religious  riots,  in  which  many  persons  taking  part  in 
processions  were  injured  by  mobs  which  attacked  the  demon- 
strations. 

The  Government  of  Belgium  is  a  limited  constitutional 
monarchy,  which  was  established  in  its  present  form  by  the 
revolution.  The  broadest  principles  of  freedom  and  liberality 
are  its  foundation;  power  comes  from  the  people,  and  is  re- 
strained by  law.  Republican  equality  and  simplicity  pervade 
all  institutions.  No  act  of  the  King  is  valid  unless  it  has  the 
approval  of  one  of  his  Ministers.  The  law-making  power  is 
vested  in  the  Legislature,  consisting  of  a  Senate  and  a  Chamber 
of  Representatives,  who  are  elected  in  the  proportion  of  one  to 
every  40,000  inhabitants.  The  law  is  administered  by  local 
and  provincial  tribunals,  with  courts  of  appeal  in  the  principal 
cities.  The  provinces,  each  of  which  has  a  Governor  who  is 
named  by  the  King  and  a  Provincial  Council,  are  divided  for 
civil  purposes  into  arondisscments,  justice  of  peace  cantons, 
and  communes.  The  provincial  councils  guard  the  interests  of 
the  different  provinces,  direct  taxation,  superintend  public 
improvements  and  prepare  budgets. 


*8* 


I7OLLAND. 

(THE    NETHERLANDS.) 


-Hr 


-h* 


-f~M- 


FTER  being  ruled  for  four  centuries  by  a  number  of 
princes  who  were  subject  to  either  France  or  Ger- 
many, the  Netherlands,  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
came  almost  entirely  under  the  rule  of  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  At  that  time  the  country  Ml  rich, 
prosperous  and  happy,  the  controlling  interest  of  the  State 
resting  in  the  great  commercial  cities,  which  were  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  almost  republican  freedom,  and  renowned  for  the 
splendor  and  wealth  which  they  acquired  under  the  Bnrgundian 


# 


rule.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  an  attempt 
to  bring  under  the  power  of  the  Inquisition  the  Netherland 
Protestants,  who  had  taken  early  a  part  in  the  Reformation, 
was  stoutly  resisted.  Concessions  were  made  which  produced 
I  temporary  quiet,  but  Philip  II.,  who  was  King  at  the  time, 
entered  upon  the  work  of  crushing  Protestantism,  and  carried 
it  011   with   mere  i'  his   ferocious  policy  entailing  the 

execution  of  large  Dumber!  of  the  aristocracy  who  had  aided 
the  rebellion.     The  Prince  of  Orange,  having  made  alliance 


»  J- 


HOLLAND. 


285 


with  the  Protestant  powers,  waged  war  against  the  oppressor. 
However,  the  assassination  of  the  Prince  in  1584  for  the  time 
being  dashed  their  hopes  of  success,  and  the  war  ended.  His 
son,  Prince  Maurice,  carried  on  the  war  later  with  success. 
In  1648  war  with  Spain  ended,  and  the  Netherlands  achieved 
their  independence.  Foreign  conquest  occupied  the  attention 
of  the  Dutch  even  when  occupied  with  domestic  troubles,  and 


they  have  advanced  greatly  in  prosperity.  The  colonial 
possessions  of  the  country  are  very  important,  consisting 
mainly  of  islands  in  the  East  Indies  ;  portions  of  Borneo, 
Celebes  and  Sumatra,  in  Asia;  and  Dutch  Guiana  and 
Curacoa  and  several  islands  in  America.  Like  Belgium, 
the  Government  of  the  Netherlands  is  a  limited  constitu- 
tional  monarchy,   with  the   executive   vested   in  the   King, 


CITY  OF  AMSTERDAM. 


their  standard  was  planted  on  several  of  the  East  India 
Islands  and  on  the  American  continent.  A  great  naval  power, 
they  for  many  years  disputed  with  England  the  supremacy  of 
the  seas.  The  events  which  led  to  the  separation  from  Bel- 
gium are  described  in  the  history  of  that  country.  Since  that 
occurrence  the  Netherlands,  with  the  exception  of  wars  with 
her  colonies,  have  enjoyed  a  prolonged  peace,  during  which 


w  ith  a  Council  of  State  nominated  by  him,  and  the  Minis- 
ters of  the  Interior,  Foreign  Affairs,  Finance,  War,  the 
Colonies,  Marine  and  Justice.  Legislative  authority  rests  in 
a  Parliament,  consisting  of  two  chambers,  known  as  the 
States-General.  The  governors  of  the  provinces,  the  burgo- 
masters of  cities,  towns  and  villages,  and  many  other  officials, 
are  appointed  by  the  King. 


2b^ 


/ 


71 


r 


v%.n.nAXt.u  .t»vVk« 


f  GalTowa; 
8      Longitude      West       5      .from      Greenwich       4 


, .  v>  v\V  V  f ■&.  -  t»\fcV  Wfc. 


IV 


NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN. 


«1  H 


Roi^way  and  Sweden. 


•M-4 — °-*-c — »  «,<- 


jORWAY  was  a  collection  of  petty  tribes  up  to  the 
time  of  Harold  Harfager,  who,  in  863,  began  the 
work  of  unification.  Attempts  to  introduce  Chris- 
tianity met  with  little  success  up  to  the  time  of 
Olaf  Skatkonung,  who  inaugurated  a  crusade  against 
the  Pagan  Finns,  destroyed  the  Pagan  temples,  and  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  city  of  Trondhjem.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
eleventh  century  Canute,  the  Danish  King  of  England,  con- 
quered Olaf  and  assumed  the  C:  jwn.  Wars  with  Britain  fol- 
lowed, and  Ireland  was  invaded.  On  the  water  the  prowess  of 
the  Norsemen  was  remarkable,  and  for  years  they  scourged 
the  seas,  but  the  defeat  of  Haco  V.  off  the  west  coast  of 
Scotland,  and  his  death  later  in  the  Orkney  Islands,  were  fol- 
lowed by  a  period  of  national  depression.  National  industries 
were  checked,  foreign  wars  exhausted  the  exchequer,  and  in 
two  years  following  1347  the  plague  prevailed  through  the 
land,  carrying  off  more  than  half  the  people.  Not  only  its 
nationality,  but  also  its  language,  passed  away  during  this 
period,  and  when,  in  1380,  the  crown  descended  to  the  son  of 
Olaf  III.,  a  union  of  the  two  countries  was  accomplished 
which  lasted  for  over  four  centuries.  Near  the  close  of 
the  fourteenth  century  Margaret  effected  the  conquest  of  all 
Scandinavia,  and  the  three  kingdoms  became  one  under  the 
treaty  of  Calmar,  which  remained  in  force  until  1523,  when 
Sweden  emancipated  herself  from  the  union  with  Denmark, 
and  gave  to  Gustaf  Vasa,  who  helped  on  the  deliverance,  the 
crown.  For  more  than  two  centuries  thereafter  Norway  was 
merely  a  province  of  Denmark,  but  about  the  beginning  of  this 
century  the  national  prospects  brighto.ied,  M,ien  Charles  XIV. 
of  Sweden  was  on  the  throne.  ne  Danes  acknowledged 
Norway  as  a  Swedish  dominion,  and  the  two  countries  were 
united  August  14,  1814.  In  1818,  Napoleon's  General,  Berca- 
dotte,  was  elected  to  the  throne,  and  under  him  and  the  succeed- 


ing generations  of  his  dynasty,  which  still  rules,  great  advance- 
ment has  been  made  in  the  direction  of  liberal  government. 

SWEDEN'S  modern  history  is  almost  indissolubly  connected 
with  that  of  Norway.  During  the  rule  of  Gustaf  Vasa,  who 
headed  the  successful  revolt  against  Denmark,  the  country 
enjoyed  great  prosperity.  In  succeeding  reigns  the  country 
was  at  war  almost  constantly,  and  the  successes  of  the  great 
Gustavus  Adolphus  are  among  the  most  glorious  of  the  nation's 
annals.  In  1743,  in  a  war  with  Russia  which  had  lasted  two 
years,  Sweden  lost  Eastern  Finland  to  that  power.  A  new  con- 
stitution was  decreed  in  1809,  when  Gustavus  IV.  was  forcibly 
deposed  in  favor  of  his  uncle,  Charles  XIII.  The  union 
with  Norway,  in  1814,  which  has  already  been  mentioned,  ends 
the  distinctive  histories  of  both  countries.  In  1855  Russian 
encroachments  were  threatened,  but  an  alliance  which  Norway 
and  Sweden  effected  with  Great  Britain  and  France,  by  wnich 
the  former  engaged  themselves  never  to  cede  <  r  sell  territory 
to  Russia,  secured  the  guarantee  by  the  two  utter  powers  of 
their  future  territorial integrity 

Yhougn  naving  a  common  ruier,  the  treaty  of  union  between 
Norway  and  Sweden  leaves  each  of  them  free,  independent, 
indivisible  and  inalienable.  The  Government,  of  which  Oscar 
II.  is  now  the  head,  is  a  constitutional  hereditary  monarchy. 
Legislative  authority  lies  in  the  Storthing — an  assembly  of 
deputies  which  meets  annually,  and  whose  members  are  chosen 
by  indirect  election.  It  meets  of  its  own  authority  and 
divides  itself  into  two  chambers  —  the  Lagthing,  practically 
a  Senate,  and  consisting  of  about  two-fifths  of  the  entire 
Storthing,  and  the  Odelsting.  A  Council  of  State  gives  con- 
sent to  the  declaration  of  war,  making  of  peace  or  conclusion 
and  abrogation  of  treaties  by  the  King,  who  is  required  to 
pass  some  months  of  each  year  at  Norway  and  to  be  crowned 
at  Trondhjem. 


■+-*«- 


fgr^-w  t*«$  *■• — 5>M 


Denmai^. 


<& ■*    *"*    *«■ — 53 


*N  the  days  of  the  Norsemen  Jutland  was  occupied  by  a 
number  of  sea-faring  chieftains,  who  divided  their  time 
between  war  among  themselves  and  piracy  upon  out- 
siders. In  the  tenth  century  these  bold  marincr-war- 
riors  had  made  their  way  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  Scotland 
and  Normandy,  carrying  terror  into  such  places  as  they  vis- 


ited. After  having  paid  England  one  or  two  fixing  visits,  thej 
came  to  stay  in  ioiS,  when  the  Danish  King  Canute  added 
that  country  to  his  dominions  in  the  east.  The  Danish  tenure 
was  of  short  duration.     Anarchy  arose  in  Denmark  afl 

departure,  and  in  1042  his  dynasty  became  extinct,  and 
his   sister's  son,   Bvend    I.stiidscn,   succeeded.     Foreign  war* 


■_ 


FRANCE. 


289 


rr 


and  internal  dissensions  enfeebled  the  land,  and  a  powerful 
aristocracy  arose  who  oppressed  the  people,  reducing  them 
almost  to  a  condition  of  slavery.  In  the  reign  of  Canute  VI. 
and  Valdemar  II.  the  power  of  Denmark  grew  until  its  regal 
authority  extended  over  Holstein,  Pomerania  and  a  large  por- 
tion of  North  Germany.  The  Baltic  became  little  more  than 
a  1  tanish  inland  sea,  and  heavy  tolls  were  exacted  of  all  for- 
eign vessels  which  entered  it.  After  the  death  of  Valdemar, 
in  1241,  internal  disquietude  possessed  the  country,  which  rap- 
idly lost  its  possessions  and  prestige.  The  third  Valdemar, 
however,  retrieved  the  nation  and  regained  many  of  its  pos- 
sessions. Dying  in  1375,  he  was  succeeded  as  regent  by  his 
daughter  Margaret,  who  had  married  the  King  of  Norway  and 
was  at  this  time  his  widow.  Her  rule,  by  the  treaty  of  Cal- 
mar,  was  also  extended  to  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  the  union 
of  the  three  countries  lasted  until  1523,  when  the  Swedes  arose 
in  insurrection  against  Erick,  and  the  two  crowns  were  sepa- 
rated. Up  to  the  year  1660  the  crown  was,  to  a  large  extent, 
elective,  but  in  that  year  Frederick  III.,  aided  by  the  people, 
who  arose  against  the  nobles,  assumed  the  supreme  power, 
forming  an  absolute  monarchy  with  right  of  succession.  For  a 
century  the  peasantry  were  kept  in  a  condition  of  serfdom,  but 
its  abolition  was  accomplished  by  Christian  VII.  in  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Wars  on  her  own  account  or  in  alliance  with 
other  nations  kept  Denmark  busy  until  1848,  when  an  insur- 
rection arose  in  Holstein  which  brought  the  country  to  the 
verge  of  ruin.  Prussia  lent  the  insurrectionists  a  portion  of 
her  army,  but  the  revolution  was  put  down  and  a  peace  was 
concluded  in  Prussia  in  1850,  and  in  1852  a  protocol  was  drawn 


up  in  London  returning  the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Schles- 
wig  to  Denmark.  A  final  settlement  of  the  question  was  not 
yet  reached,  however,  and  when,  in  1863,  the  King  died  sud- 
denly, the  Duke  of  Augustenberg  laid  claim  to  the  throne, 
supported  by  Prussia,  Austria  and  other  German  States.  The 
duchies  were  occupied  by  their  troops,  and  in  the  war  which 
Denmark  brought  to  expel  them  her  armies  were  defeated, 
and  in  1864  King  Christian  IX.  surrendered  Holstein,  Schles- 
wig  and  Lauenberg  to  the  conquerors. 

The  despotic  form  of  government  which  was  established  in 
1660  lasted  until  1S49,  when  Frederick  VII.  signed  a  charter 
acknowledging  the  principle  of  limited  monarchy,  and  made  the 
future  government  dependent  upon  the  Rigsdad  (Congress), 
consisting  of  two  elective  houses,  the  executive  power  resting  in 
the  King  and  his  Ministers.  The  Rigsdad  consists  of  two 
houses  —  the  Landsthing,  corresponding  to  the  United  States 
Senate  and  having  the  privilege  of  discussing  the  budget,  and 
the  Folkething,  similar  to  the  United  States  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, which  administers  local  affairs.  Certain  members 
of  the  Landsthing  receive  their  nomination  from  the  Crown 
for  life,  the  remainder  being  elected  indirectly  by  the  people 
for  eight  years.  The  members  of  the  Folkething  are  elected 
directly  for  a  term  of  three  years.  All  male  citizens  over  30 
years  of  age  who  are  not  paupers  enjoy  the  privilege  of  vot- 
ing. With  the  King  as  its  presiding  officer,  the  executive  body 
comprises  the  President  of  the  Council,  who  is  also  the  Minis- 
ter of  Finance,  and  the  Ministers  of  Foreign  Affairs,  the  Inte- 
rior, Public  Education  and  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  Justice,  and 
for  Iceland,  War  and  Marine. 


FLANGE. 


^OUR  centuries  after  the  invasion  of  Julius  Caesar, 
which  made  ancient  Gaul  a  Roman  province,  the 
country,  being  deserted  by  its  conquerors,  was  invaded 
by  the  Franks,  whose  leader,  Clovis,  in  the  sixth 
century,  established  the  French  monarchy.  The  Mero- 
vingian dynasty,  which  he  founded,  was  succeeded  by  the  Car- 
lovingian,  whose  greatest  ruler,  Charlemagne,  extended  his 
empire  until  it  included  Italy  and  a  large  portion  of  Ger- 
many. The  House  of  Capet  succeeded,  and  ruled  from  987  to 
1328,  and  that  of  Valois,  which  followed,  from  1328  to  1589, 
and  during  all  these  years,  while  the  power  of  the  nobles  was 
checked  by  the  growing  wealth  and  influence  of  the  burghers, 
the  monarchy  gained  in  strength.  In  1589  the  Bourbon  dynasty 
was  founded  by  Henry  IV.,  who  wassucceeded  by  Louis  XIII., 
an  indolent  monarch,  who  left  the  conduct  of  affairs  to  his 
powerful  Minister,  Cardinal   Richelieu.     The  reign  of   Louis 


XIV.,  which  followed,  was  in  many  respects  a  brilliant  one, 
but  freighted  with  misfortunes  which  did  not  appear  until  after 
its  close.  The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  by  which 
religious  freedom  had  been  secured,  led  to  banishments  and 
persecutions,  which  cost  the  country  many  of  its  leading  indus- 
tries. The  court's  reckless  prodigality  in  the  erection  of  mag- 
nificent buildings  and  the  conduct  of  gorgeous  spectacles, 
together  with  more  or  less  successful  wars,  swelled  the  national 
debt  to  an  enormous  extent,  and  this  burden  crushed  the 
French  people  during  the  succeeding  reigns,  and  was  a  potent 
cause  of  the  revolution  of  1788.  The  reign  of  Louis  XV. 
added  to  the  national  burden,  and  the  evil  influences  of  his 
mistresses  led  to  a  foreign  policy  which  cost  France  her  colonial 
possessions  and  the  loss  of  her  fleets  and  armies  abroad.  His 
successor,  Louis  XVI.,  an  amiable  but  weak  monarch,  lacked 
the  ability  to  cope  with  the  difficulties  of  his  position,  and,  after 


VL 


^L 


K 


292 


FRANCE. 


he  had  reigned  for  fourteen  years,  in  1788  was  begun  a  revolution 
by  which  the  whole  framework  of  society  in  France  was  over- 
turned. The  bourgeois,  or  commoners,  finding  their  powers 
checked  by  the  combined  clergy  and  nobility,  in  1789  consti- 
tuted themselves  as  the  National  Assembly,  and  proceeded  to  the 
formation  of  a  Constitution.  Troops  being  ordered  to  oppose 
them,  in  Paris,  July  12,  an  insurrection  broke  out.  A  national 
guard  and  revolutionary  municipal  boards  were  formed,  and 
July  14  the  Bastile  was  stormed.  August  4  the  National 
Assembly  abolished  manorial  and  feudal  rights,  whereupon  the 
aristocracy  began  to  emigrate.  The  King  and  Queen  were 
taken  prisoners.  A  Constitution  was  prepared  by  the  Assem- 
bly, to  which  the  King  gave  his 
assent,  as  he  did  also  to  another 
which  was  formed  later.  The 
opposition  of  foreign  courts  to 
the  revolution  aroused  the  pop- 
ular anger,  and  the  King  and 
Queen  were  executed.  The  Reign 
of  Terror  succeeded,  the  absolute 
power  being  placed  in  the  hands 
of  a  Committee  of  Public  Safety, 
whose  excesses  were  terrible. 
Worship  in  accordance  with  the 
Christian  religion  was  abolished, 
and  that  of  Reason  substituted. 
This  caused  dissensions  within 
the  convention  itself,  and  when 
the  last  of  the  Jacobin  leaders, 
Robespierre,  perished  upon  the 
scaffold  to  which  he  had  sent 
hundreds  of  victims,  they  were 
without  a  leader.  In  1795  the 
convention  adopted  a  new  Con- 
stitution, which  placed  a  Direc- 
tory of  five  in  charge  of  the 
national  executive.  The  radical 
Democrats,  combining  with  the 
Royalists,  organized  an  insurrec- 
tion against  the  new  Constitution 
which  was  quelled  by  General 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  whose  qual- 
ities had  already,  at  the  early  age 
of  26,  brought  him  rank  and  dis- 
tinction. The  mob  of  Paris  was 
subdued,  but  the  Directory  had  a 
difficult  task  before  it.  England, 
Austria  and  Prussia  were  com- 
bined against  the  Republic,  whose 

armies,  however,  achieved  victories  for  it  in  foreign  countries 
and  made  its  name  dreaded  as  well  as  respected.  At  home  the 
Royalist  interest  made  headway,  and  in  1 797  they  gained  a  major- 
ity in  the  representation.  The  Directory  took  severe  mi 
surrounded  the  Tuileries  with  troops  and  ordnance,  arrested 
the  Royalist  members,  declared  their  election  illegal,  and  ban- 
ished them  from  the  country.  Financial  difficulties  also  adder! 
to  the  burden  of  the  Directory.  The  public  debt  was  more 
than  the  nation  could  pay,  and  the  State  was  declared  bank- 


NOTRE  DAME,  PARIS. 


rupt  and  two-thirds  of  its  obligations  repudiated.  Internal 
dissensions  among  its  members  lessened  the  prospect  of  the 
Directory's  accomplishing  any  marked  improvement. 

'In  this  emergency  Napoleon,  who  had  secretly  left  Egypt, 
where  the  English  fleet  had  nullified  his  Eastern  victories,  ap- 
peared suddenly  in  Paris,  and,  effecting  an  alliance  with  one 
of  the  disaffected  parties  in  the  Directory,  secured  its  over- 
throw November  9,  1799,  December  27,  a  new  Constitution 
was  offered  to  the  people,  which  they  sanctioned,  and  Napoleon, 
as  First  Consul,  was  entrusted  with  the  administration  of 
civil  and  military  affairs,  with  the  appointment  of  all  public 
officials  and  with  the  proppsition  of  all  public  measures. 
Early  in  1800  he  occupied  the 
Tuileries  with  his  wife,  Josephine, 
whom  he  had  married  in  March, 
1796,  and  he  established  a  court, 
whose  extravagance  was  hardly 
likely  to  incur  the  popular  dis- 
pleasure as  long  as  his  adminis- 
tration continued  to  be  marked 
by  such  wise  measures  as  were 
passed  during  the  earlier  part  of 
his  rule.  The  re-establishment 
of  the  church,  in  accordance  with 
a  Papal  concordat ;  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Bank  of  France,  with 
the  restoration  of  financial  order; 
the  return  of  the  emigrants  ;  the 
establishment  of  a  sound  system  of 
popular  education,  and  the  codi- 
fication of  the  laws,  were  hailed 
with  joy  by  the  people,  who  saw 
their  wisdom  and  appreciated  the 
good  results  to  follow. 

At  the  head  of  the  Empire  he 
aspired  to  the  control  of  Europe. 
One  after  another  Italy,  Spain, 
Portugal,   Switzerland  and   Ger- 
many came  under    his   control. 
He  dictated  terms  of  peace   to 
the  Emperors  of  Russia  and 
tria  and  to  the  King  of  Pn 
For  ten  years  his  star  ruled  in  the 
ascendant.     The  decline  came  in 
1S14.  when  Paris  was  entered  by 
the  allied  enemies  of  France,  and 
Napoleon  was  forced  to  Elba  in 
exile.    The  Bourbon  dynasty  was 
restored,  and  a  year  later  ' 
Icon  reappeared  and  gathered  around  him  an  army  of  enthu  - 
followi  -.s  attended  him  at  first,  but,  June  iS,  im;. 

lie  wis  thoroughly  defeated  at  Waterloo,  and  the  Bourbon 
restoration  was  finally  accomplished.  In  1830  war  was  com- 
nuiHul  with  Algeria,  which  country  was,  after  some  J 
fighting,  ceded  to  France.  In  1848  the  Bourbons  were  again 
driven  out  and  a  Republic  established,  with  Napoleon  III., 
a  nephew  of  the  Emperor,  as  President.  This  lasted  less 
than   three  years.     In   December,    1S51,   Napoleon,   by   the 


/ 


V 


RUSSIA. 


293 


infamous  coup  J'ctat,  seized  the  absolute  power,  setting  aside 
institution,  and  shortly  afterward  was  crowned  Emperor. 
The  imperial  prestige  was  sustained  by  the  wars  with  Russia 
and  Austria,  which  last  secured  France  the  Italian  provinces 
of  Savoy  and  Nice,  but  the  ill-fated  attempt  to  establish  an 
empire  in  Mexico,  and  other  failing  enterprises,  caused  it  to 
wane.  The  plebiscite  ui  1S70,  which  was  intended  to  secure 
the  popular  endorsement  of  the  Napoleonic  policy,  was  not  flat- 
tering to  the  Empire,  which  found  itself  in  1S70  forced  into  a 
war  with  Prussia,  the  leading  events  and  results  of  which  will 
be  found  in  the  history  of  Germany.  This  last  experiment  of 
imperial  government,  which  cost  France  millions  of  money, 
thousands  of  lives  and  two  provinces,  has,  for  the  time  being, 
overcome  the  French  admiration  for  centralized  power,  and 
the  Republic  which  was  established  after  the  war  is  still  a 
stable  and  popular  government. 


The  legislative  power  in  France  is  vested  in  a  Legislative 
Corps,  consisting  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Deputies.  The 
Senate  consists  of  300  members;  225  of  whom  are  chosen  for 
terms  of  nine  years  by  the  departments  and  colonies,  and 
seventy-five  for  life  by  the  National  Assembly.  The  members 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  number  532 — one  to  every  100,000 
inhabitants — and  are  elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The  ex- 
ecutive power  is  vested  in  a  President,  elected  for  a  term  of 
seven  years  by  a  joint  vote  of  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  He  has  power  to  dissolve  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
on  the  advice  of  the  Senate.  The  Secretaries  of  State,  or 
Ministry,  nine  in  number,  are  responsible  to  the  Chambers  for 
the  political  conduct  of  the  Government.  The  President  is 
responsible  in  cases  of  high  treason  only.  Every  Frenchman 
twenty-one  years  of  age  has  a  right  to  vote.. 


"*  "Is"''** 


Russia. 


f  HE  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  is  evidenced  in  the  writ- 
ings of  some  of  their  best  known  authors,  had 
gained  some  knowledge  of  the  Sarmatians  and 
Scythians,  who  occupied  the  rivers  Don  and  Dnieper. 
Shortly  after  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era  the  native  inhabitants  were  carried  before  the  invasion  of 
Goths  and  Huns  from  the  East.  The  Slavonians  are  recorded  as 
having  driven  the  scattered  Finns  northward  and  settled  down 
to  the  establishment  of  the  Russian  people.  The  country  for 
a  long  period  remained  subdivided  into  provinces,  each  of 
which  was  practically  independent  of  the  remainder.  Cen- 
tralization of  power  was  accomplished  from  time  to  time,  but 
only  to  be  again  broken  up,  until  in  1462  Ivan  I.  began  to 
reign,  and  in  the  forty-two  years  in  which  he  held  the  sceptre 
succeeded  so  ably  in  throwing  off  the  Tartar  yoke,  and  in  unit- 
ing the  principalities  under  his  sway,  that  he  must  be  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  the  Russian  nation.  His  successor,  Ivan  II., 
sometimes  called  the  Terrible,  or  the  Cruel,  on  account  of  the 
massacre  which  he  ordered,  in  which  60,000  inhabitants  of 
Novgorod,  suspected  of  treason,  were  slain,  advanced  the 
work  which  his  father  had  inaugurated,  finally  broke  the  power 
of  the  Tartars,  and  cultivated  commerce  and  the  arts  as  well 
as  warfare.  Perhaps  the  greatest  of  his  peaceful  achievements 
was  the  effecting  of  a  commercial  treaty  with  Queen  Elizabeth, 
by  which  the  English  merchant  marine,  who  had  discovered 
the  sea  passage  to  Archangel,  instituted  trading  relations  with 
the  northernmost  parts  of  the  Russian  dominions.  Under 
Peter  the  Great,  Russia  threw  off  her  barbarism  and  took  her 
place  among  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  Though  lacking 
education  commensurate  with  his  position,  he  had  the  sense  to 
see  the  shortcoming  and  to  remedy  it,  and  his  studies  taught 
him  the  lesson  of  his  country's  greatest  needs.     On  assuming 


£= 


the  government  he  had  the  army  reorganized  in  accordance 
with  European  military  tactics.  Seeing  the  necessity  of  naval 
power,  and  lacking  a  seaboard,  he  wrested  the  Sea  of  Azof 
from  the  Turks.  Travelling  incognito  in  foreign  lands,  he 
studied  their  arts  and  sciences  and  learned  their  trades,  putting 
his  knowledge  to  good  use  when  he  returned  home  again. 
Upon  a  site  located  on  a  strip  of  land  he  took  from  the  Swedes, 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern  capital,  St.  Petersburg, 
which  he  passed  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  beautifying.  Dy- 
ing in  1725,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  Empress,  Catherine,  who 
continued  his  policy.  During  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.  the 
first  partition  of  Poland  between  Russia,  Austria  and  Prussia 
took  place.  She  was  succeeded  by  her  son  Paul,  who  still  fur- 
ther advanced  the  interests  of  his  country,  now  acknowledged 
to  be  one  of  the  great  European  powers.  In  the  reign  of 
Alexander  I.  Russia  was  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe.  He 
was  the  father  of  the  Holy  Alliance  —  the  compact  entered 
into  at  Paris  September  26,  1815,  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia, 
Austria  and  Prussia,  joined  by  most  of  the  European  powers, 
which  bound  them  to  exclude  forever  every  member  of  the 
Bonaparte  family  from  any  throne  in  Europe;  also  to  stand  by 
each  other  in  the  maintenance  of  their  royal  prerogatives  and 
the  general  peace.  It  was  during  his  reign  that  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  city  of  Moscow  destroyed  it  by  fire  rather  than 
have  it  give  shelter  to  the  invader  Napoleon.  His  successor, 
Nicholas  I.,  saw  the  nation  engaged  in  a  struggle  with  the 
combined  armies  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy  and  Turkey. 
Sebastopol,  the  stronghold  of  the  Russians  in  the  Crimea,  was 
taken,  and  the  Russian  ambition  to  control  the  whole  of  the 
Black  Sea  checked  for  the  time  being.  Under  Alexander  II., 
who  succeeded  him,  was  accomplished  the  liberation  of  the 
serfs  in  1861 ,  the  humane  policy  being  dictated  rather  by  reasons 


19 


<s ^ 


IK 


296 


ITALY. 


of  expediency,  imperialism  at  the  time  being  threatened 
by  the  progressive  nobility  and  feeling  the  need  of  the  good 
will  of  the  fifty  million  working  people.  Twenty  years  later — 
years  that  were  marked  by  cruel  oppression  and  despotism — 
the  Czar  was  slain  by  the  hands  of  assassins,  who  had  previously 
made  repeated  unsuccessful  attempts  to  kill  him.  This  oc- 
curred shortly  after  the  war  with  Turkey,  in  which  Russia 
overcame  her  foe,  but  without  securing  any  distinct  advantages 
from  the  victory.  Notwithstanding  she  is  jealously  watched 
by  the  other  powers,  Russia  continues  to  approach  the  ac- 
complishment of  her  great  aim  —  the  possession  of  the  Black 
Sea.  In  the  East,  too,  her  power  is  felt,  and  England's  Indian 
border  and  China's  western  boundary  are  closely  pressed  by 
the  Russian  soldiery,  and  this,  too,  although  the  Government  is 
threatened  by  conspiracies  on  every  side,  a  majority  of  the 
peasants  and  laboring  classes  holding  extreme  communistic 
views,  while  the  doctrine  of  Nihilism  is  said  to  permeate  the 
whole  Russian  social  fabric,  and  even  among  the  nobility  to 
possess  its  adherents  by  the  thousands. 


The  Government  of  Russia  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  heredi- 
tary in  the  house  of  Romanoff,  which  was  founded  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  whose  head  rules  by  the  title  of  Cur. 
The  State  Council,  which  is  the  highest  consultative  body  in 
the  State,  is  composed  of  the  heads  of  departments  and 
others  selected  by  the  Emperor,  and  is  divided  into  the  legis- 
lative, administrative  and  financial  departments.  The  promul- 
gation and  execution  of  the  law  is  left  with  the  Senate,  which 
is  the  court  of  last  appeal.  There  is  no  representative  body, 
and  the  power  of  the  ministers  hardly  extends  beyond  render- 
ing clerical  assistance  to  the  Czar,  who  makes  all  appoint- 
ments. Trial  by  jury  has  been  in  vogue  since  1866.  Estab- 
lished by  law  and  partially  supported  by  the  Government,  the 
Russo-Greek  Church  is  almost  a  part  of  it.  It  has  a  member- 
ship of  over  5o,ooo,orx>  souls  in  European  Russia.  The  Rus- 
sians have  always  maintained  the  national  credit.  The  main 
portion  of  the  revenue  comes  from  excise  duties  on  beer,  spirits 
and  salt ;  in  addition  to  this  there  are  a  light  poll-tax  and  a  pro- 
tective customs  tariff. 


<**-£ 


>i «  #■ — *> 


:£" 


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— 5*i 

Italy. 


-:-:::-:- 


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jg 


— 


J^ 


-  ^<- 


pTALY,  the  successor  of  the  r.ncient  Roman  Empire,  has 
a  history  which  runs  back  into  the  ages  whose  events  are 
only  matters  of  tradition.  The  Virgilian  poem  which  tells 
of  the  founding  of  the  Roman  State  by  a  band  of  Trojan 
refugees,  and  the  story  of  the  wolf-suckled  twins,  Romulus 
and  Remus,  are  delightful  legends.  However,  the  foundation  of 
the  city  is  generally  conceded  to  have  occurred  B.C.  753,  when 
the  kingdom  was  established  which  lasted  until  B.C.  509,  when 
it  was  overthrown  in  the  reign  of  Tarquin  the  Proud,  and  a 
republic  established  which  lasted  for  nearly  five  centuries. 
During  these  eventful  years  the  kingdom  of  Tarquin  had 
grown  into  a  mighty  empire,  yet  not  without  suffering  great 
national  disasters.  In  the  year  390  B.C.  occurred  the  Gallic 
invasion,  with  the  burning  down  of  Rome  by  that  terrible  foe  ; 
from  343  to  290  B.C.  raged  the  wars  with  the  Samnites,  who 
threatened  the  Roman  power,  but  were  finally  subjugated  ;  in 
275  B.C.  occurred  the  battle  of  Beneventum,  by  which  the 
previously  victorious  Pyrrhus  was  overcome  ;  in  216  B.C.  was 
fought  and  lost  the  battle  of  Canna;,  by  which  the  Cartha- 
ginian General,  Hannibal,  after  destroying  80,000  of  the 
Roman  troops,  came  in  sight  of  Rome's  conquest,  but  lost  his 
opportunity  through  delay;  in  186  B.C.  the  enmity  between 
Rome  and  Carthage  culminated  in  the  destruction  of  the  latter 
city;  in  ill  B.C.  began  the  Jugurthine  war,  in  which  the 
powerful  Numidian  was  overthrown  after  a  five  years'  struggle  ; 
in  88  B.C.  began  the  Milhridatic  war,  which  ended  five  years 
later  in  the  overthrow  of  the  King  of  Pontus,  who  sued  for 
peace      Such  were  a  few  of  the  leading  events  which  occurred 


between  the  regal  and  imperial  eras  01  Roman  history.  They 
bring  the  reader  to  a  period  when  Scylla,  overcoming  his  rival, 
Marius,  in  civil  war,  seized  the  government  and  reigned  as 
Dictator  for  three  years.  In  the  year  60  B.C.  was  formed  the 
first  triumvirate,  when  Julius  Caesar,  Pompey  and  Cr.wus  were 
invested  with  the  government.  Caesar's  wars  of  discovery  in 
Gaul  and  Britannia  followed,  and  then  came  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia,  in  which  he  defeated  Pompey.  Two  years  later 
Caesar  assumed  the  dictatorship,  and  in  44  B.C.  he  was  slain  in 
the  Senate  house  by  the  assassins,  Brutus,  Cassius  and  others. 
Then  followed  the  second  triumvirate,  and  then  the  battle  of 
Philippi,  in  which  Brutus  and  Cassius  were  defeated  ;  then 
the  love  episode  between  Cleopatra  and  Marc  Antony,  who, 
frittering  away  the  opportunity  to  win  the  imperial  prize  at 
Rome,  suffered  defeat  and  death  at  Actium.  In  27 
Octavius  established  the  Empire,  under  the  title  of  Augustus 
Caesar,  at  which  time  the  city  of  Rome  is  supposed  to 
have  had  about  700,000  population,  while  that  of  tlii 
pim  is  believed  to  have  been  not  less  ihan  100,000,000. 
Tliaii  followed  a  line  of  Emperors,  some  of  them  wise  and 
benevolent,  others  of  them  rapacious  and  cruel.  Of  the 
latter  was  the  famous  Nero,  who  proved  the  most  bloodthirsty 
of  tyrants.  Under  him  began  the  persecutions  of  the  1 
ti.ins.  lie  was  accused  of  having  set  the  city  on  fire  for  the 
pleasure  to  be  derived  from  witnessing  the  conflagration.  Of 
the  former  was  Trajan,  under  whose  lieneficent  administration 
iiuu  h  wis  dime  to  civilize  the  ruder  portions  of  the  Empire, 
while  the  condition  of  the  city  and  its  inhabitants  was  ,;■ 


ameliorated.  In  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great  the  Chris- 
tian religion  was  first  acknowledged.  He  made  himself  a 
champion  of  the  church  by  issuing  the  decree  of  Milan,  in 
w*"'"h  he  gave  it  imperial  license  and  avowed  himself  a  believer 
in  ns  doctrines.  Entering  Rome  in  triumph  in  A.D.  312,  he 
became  the  first  Christian  sovereign  of  the  world,  and  after 
defeating  the  Pagans  in  their  fortress  of  Byzantium  he  became 
sole  Emperor  of  the  entire  Roman  Empire  He  transferred 
his  capital  from  Rome  to  Constantinople,  where  he  reigned 
until  the  year  337.  His  son  Julian,  who  succeeded  him,  had 
been  educated  a  Christian,  but  reverted  to  the  old  Pagan  faith  ; 
but  the  next  Emperor  Jovian,  restored  the  Christian  faith. 
In  3S3  the  Roman  Entire  had  three  Emp*erors,  who  soon 
were  at  war,  and  the  victor,  Theodosius,  divided  the  Empire 
into  Eastern  and  Western  at  his  death,  in  395,  putting  one  of 
his  sons  at  the  head  of  each.  From  this  division  resulted  the 
Roman  and  the  Greek  churches.  Roman  imperialism  reached 
its  last  stages  in  the  fifth  century.  Alaric  with  his  Northern 
hosts  marched  into  Rome,  wrought  his  pleasure  there,  and 
retired  from  it  after  twelve  days  of  sack.  Rome  had  fallen, 
and  such  events  as  are  further  mentioned  may  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  Italian  history  proper.  In  the  fifth  century 
Venice  was  founded  by  fugitives  fleeing  before  Attila.  In 
the  eighth  century  a  Germanic  tribe  threatened  Rome.  In 
the  ninth  Charlemagne  conquered  Lombardy  and  assumed  the 
title  of  Roman  Emperor,  the  control  of  the  city,  however, 
being  taken  by  the  Pope.  The  German  Rings  conquered  the 
northern  portion  of  Italy,  while  the  Byzantine  Emperors  and 
the  Saracens  ruled  the  southern  portion  until  the  uprising  of 
the  Xormans.  Several  of  the  Italian  cities,  however,  increased 
so  in  strength  and  riches  as  to  be  able  to  achieve  their  inde- 
pendence, and  chief  among  these  was  Venice,  which  com- 
manded the  Adriatic  Sea  and  kept  back  the  Turks  from  the 
invasion  of  Western  Europe.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
Austria  obtained  large  portions  of  Italy's  northern  territory, 
while  the  republics  of  Venice  and  Genoa  dwindled  away. 
The  remainder  of  the  land  was  divided  among  petty  sover- 
eigns, who  enjoyed  life  until  the  terrible  days  of  the  French 
revolution,  after  which  Napoleon  divided  Italy  into  four 
republics,  next  establishing  it  as  a  monarchy,  placing  first 
his  brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  then  Murat,  over  it. 
After  the    battle   of    Waterloo    the    final  reconstitution   of 


Italy  was  decreed  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  Almost  all  the 
old  boundaries  and  the  old  tyrannies  were  restored, followed  by 
the  outbreak  of  the  Carbonari,  whom  the  Austrians  subdued. 
In  1848,  by  a  simultaneous  insurrection  in  Lombardy  and 
Venice,  the  great  revolution  was  inaugurated.  Supported  by 
the  Pope  and  the  King  of  Sardinia,  it  was  successful,  and  Lom- 
bardy wasannexedtoSardinia.  In  the  yearfollowing.however, 
Austria  regained  that  territory.  After  an  unsuccessful  revolt 
in  Milan  in  1853,  and  in  Sicily  in  1856,  the  French  effected 
an  alliance  with  the  Sardinians  in  1859,  and  Austria  was 
defeated  in  the  great  battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino,  which 
were  followed  by  the  hasty  and  inconclusive  peace  of  Villa- 
franca,  which  left  Venetia  to  Austria,  gave  Lombardy  to 
Sicily,  and  left  unsettled  the  question  of  the  Grand  Duchies. 
Savoy  and  Nice  were  ceded  to  France,  which  still  holds  them, 
while  Parma,  Modena  and  the  Sicilian  provinces  were  incor- 
porated with  Sardinia.  March  17,  the  law  by  which  Victor 
Emmanuel  assumed  the  title  of  King  was  promulgated.  May 
6,  Garibaldi  joined,  with  1,000  men,  a  revolution  which  had 
broken  out  in  Sicily.  Declaring  himself  Dictator,  he  headed 
the  revolt  and  speedily  conquered  the  Two  Sicilies.  March 
14,  1861,  Victor  Emmanuel  was  declared  King  of  Italy  by 
the  first  Italian  Parliament.  In  the  same  year,  on  June  6, 
occurred  thedeath  of  Cavour,  who  was  the  originator  as  well  as 
the  director  of  the  Sardinian  policy  which  resulted  in  Italian 
liberation.  In  1866  Italy  and  Prussia  united  their  forces 
against  Austria,  and  Venetia  was  ceded  to  the  Italians. 
Attempts  were  made  by  Mazzini  and  Garibaldi  to  drive  the 
French  from  Rome,  but  they  remained  there  until  the  war 
with  Prussia.  In  1867  the  French  army  began  to  be  with- 
drawn from  Rome,  and  three  years  later  the  last  detachment 
had  left  the  Pontifical  territory.  September  20,  1870,  the 
Italian  army  entered  Rome,  and  October  9  the  Papal  States 
were  declared  part  ot  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  King  Vic- 
tor Emmanuel  strengthened  and  consolidated  the  king- 
dom, and,  dying  in  1878,  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hum- 
bert, who  still  reigns.  Italy  is  a  limited  monarchy,  with 
a  Senate  appointed  by  the  King  for  life,  and  a  Chamber 
of  508  Deputies,  elected  by  popular  suffrage  for  a  term  of 
five  years.  The  lynching  of  eleven  Italian  members  of 
the  Mafia  in  New  Orleans  was  the  cause  of  a  diplomatic 
controversy  between  Italy  and  the  United  States  in  1891. 


K- 


^ 


30       Longitude 


East        3ft      from  Greenwich      40 


vvn>\A  %,  w,  vt»\tvtd. 


300 


SPAIN. 


+K*-gHM 


ECORDED  history  gives  the  Phoenicians  the  credit 
of  having  first  established  colonies  upon  the  shores 
of  Spain,  which  at  that  time  was  occupied  by  Celtic 
[  tribes.  Later  appeared  the  Greeks,  who  called  the 
country  Iberia,  which  name  gave  way  to  that  of 
Hispania,  from  which  the  modern  name  is  derived,  when  the 
Romans  took  possession  of  the  country.  After  them  the 
Carthaginians  appeared,  conquering  a  stronghold  upon  the 
country  and  establishing  cities,  one  of  which,  Cartagena, 
situated  upon  the  Mediterranean  coast,  is  now  a  handsome 
city  of  80,000  inhabitants.  After  the  Punic  wars  the  Romans 
again  obtained  possession  of  Spain,  which  readily  improved  the 
opportunity  offered  of  advancement  in  civilization.  In  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Constantine,  Christianity,  which  was 
introduced  earlier,  became  the  general  religion.  In  the 
year  409  the  country  was  overrun  by  vast  hordes  of  barbarians 
who  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  made  a  clean  sweep  of  the 
country,  and  in  412  the  Visigoths  invaded  it,  and  a  Gothic 
monarchy  was  established  by  their  King,  Athaulf,  in  Catalonia. 
Its  first  written  laws  were  given  to  Spain  by  one  of  the  Gothic 
dynasty  of  kings.  In  711,  the  Moors  subjugated  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  country,  and  held  the  southern  part  of  it  as  a 
dependency  of  their  North  African  dominions.  From  A.  D. 
717,  their  Spanish  territory  was  governed  by  Emirs,  appointed 
by  the  Caliph  of  Damascus.  Under  the  independent  dynasty 
which  the  Moors  established  Southern  Spain  flourished  in 
agriculture,  commerce  and  the  arts  and  sciences.  Wars  oc- 
curred constantly  between  the  Moors  and  the  Gothic  princes, 
who  had  maintained  possession  of  the  Cantanabrian  territory, 
but  the  Christian  kingdoms  continued  to  grow  in  power,  and, 
uniting  at  last,  they  succeeded  in  driving  the  intruders  from  the 
country.  In  the  Kingdom  of  Granada  the  Moors  made  their 
final  stand,  but  at  last  they  succumbed  to  the  troops  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella.  Of  the  Christian  States  at  this  time  Arragon 
and  Castile  were  by  far  the  most  powerful,  and  in  time  their 
sway  extended  all  over  the  country.  Ferdinand  II.,  the  last  of 
the  Arragon  sovereigns,  by  his  marriage  with  Isabella,  Queen 
of  Castile,  followed  by  the  conquest  of  Granada  in  1492,  and 
of  Navarre  in  1502,  accomplished  thus  the  unification  of  Chris- 
tian Spain,  which  now  entered  upon  its  most  glorious  epoch. 
Spanish  discovery  gave  America  to  the  civilized  world,  and, 
Spanish  conquest  extending  her  rule  over  Naples,  a  large 
portion  of  North,  Central  and  South  America,  the  new 
Kingdom  at  once  attained  rank  as  one  of  the  great  powers  of 
the  world.  New  riches  were  secured  by  Cortez'  conquests  in 
Mexico,  and  Pizarro's  in  Chili  and  Peru,  but  in  the  reign  of 


the  Philips  the  decline  of  Spanish  power  began  and  accelerated. 
Portugal  had  been  conquered  in  1581,  but  in  1640  she  obtained 
her  independence,  and  during  this  period  Spain  suffered  other 
serious  diminishments  of  power  and  resources.  The  reign  of 
Charles  III.  promised  to  bring  the  country  back  to  something 
like  its  old  glory,  but  his  successor  embroiled  the  country  in 
inglorious  wars  which  cost  it  its  valuable  possession  of  Loui- 
siana, in  America,  ceded  to  France  in  1800,  while  England 
destroyed  the  Spanish  navies.  Ferdinand  VII.  was  removed 
from  the  throne  by  Napoleon,  who  placed  his  brother  Joseph 
in  his  stead.  England,  at  that  time  at  war  with  Spain,  ac 
knowledged  Ferdinand  as  King,  and  joined  the  Spaniards  in 
their  endeavors  to  drive  out  the  Bonaparte,  and  lent  the  sup- 
port of  its  armies  under  Wellington.  Ferdinand's  rule  was 
re-established,  but  his  reign  was  marked  by  insurrections  which 
cost  the  country  very  dearly.  His  daughter,  Isabella  II.,  suc- 
ceeded him,  but  her  political  and  personal  misconduct  brought 
about  many  rebellions,  that  of  the  Carlists  in  1834-9  ^'"C  ,ne 
most  serious.  In  1868  she  was  driven  from  the  throne  and 
forced  to  fly  to  France,  and  two  years  later  Prince  Amadeo 
of  Italy,  the  second  son  of  King  Victor  Emmanuel,  was  elected 
by  the  Cortes  and  declared  King.  A  year  later  he  abdicated, 
whereupon  Don  Carlos,  a  grandnephew  of  Ferdinand  VII., 
claimed  the  throne,  and  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  gain 
possession  of  it.  A  democratic  federal  republic  was  then 
declared  and  a  President  elected,  who  had  two  successors  within 
three  months.  Castelar,  who  had  been  elected  in  September, 
1873,  resigned  in  1874.  The  Cortes  dissolved,  and  General 
Serrano  was  charged  with  the  duty  of  forming  a  new  ministry. 
He  coped  successfully  with  the  Carlists,  who  were  then  making 
strenuous  efforts  to  gain  a  foothold,  and  retained  executive 
power  until  Januarv,  tb>7<;,  when  Alfonso  XII.,  son  of  the 
ex-Queen  Isabella,  who  had  been  declared  King  at  SantaiuUr 
the  month  previous,  landed  in  Spain  and  took  the  field  against 
Don  Carlos.  He  was  finally  victorious.  Don  Carlos  surren- 
dered his  claim  to  the  throne,  and  the  young  King  at  once 
devoted  his  attention  to  the  work  of  reorganizing  the  Govern- 
ment and  the  development  of  the  country.  He  died  in  1885. 
In  June,  1876,  a  Constitution  was  proclaimed,  which  pro- 
vides that  the  Government  shall  be  a  constitutional  monarchy, 
giving  the  executive  authority  to  the  King  and  placing  the 
lative  power  in  theCortcswith  the  King.  The  Cortes  comprises 
a  Senate,  which  is  divided  into  three  classes,  and  a  Congress, 
consisting  of  Deputies,  one  of  whom  is  allowed  to  every  50,- 
000  inhabitants.  Spain  is  now  under  the  repen 
Queen  Maria  Christina,  widow  of  Alfonso  XII.,  their 
son,  Alfonso  XIII.,  being  a  minor. 


^a 


M^^^^^^^^.*^^\*^Z 


DNnahnianlkaliahDhakioBaliniaioBa6D8oBaBaBaAiaSaiaB&} 


~«£I* 


IKE  Spain,  Portugal  was  early  inhabited  by  the  Celts, 
I  ^  who  were  succeeded  in  turn  byJ'Phcenicians,  Cartha- 
ginians and  Greeks,  who  built  cities  along  the  coast 
which  formed  the  nuclei  of  cotonies.  Like  Spain, 
too,  it  suffered  from  Vandal  and  Visigothic  invasion. 
In  the  eighth  century  the  Moors  conquered  the  country,  which 
they  held  until  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  when 
Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile  and  Leon  drove  out  the  invaders. 
It  was  the  son  of  Henry  of  Burgundy,  Don  Alfonso  Hen- 
riques,  who  established  the  Portuguese  monarchy,  after  defeat- 
ing the  Moors  at  the  battle  of  Ouriquein  1139.  Eight  years  later 
the  Moors  were  deprived  of  Lisbon,  and  a  century  later  they 
were  entirely  driven  from  the  country.  Alfonso's  successors 
proved  able  monarchs,  and  under  their  rule  the  country  advanced 
rapidly.  During  the  reign  of  King  John  I.  began  the  era  of 
Portugal's  superiority  in  seamanship,  which  made  Lisbon  a  city 
of  such  vast  commercial  power.  In  141 5  the  country  gained 
its  first  foothold  abroad,  when  the  sea-captain  Zarco  discov- 
ered the  island  of  Madeira.  Later  on,  Portuguese  sailors  discov- 
ered the  Azores  and  Cape  Verde.  In  i486  Bartholomeu  Dias 
discovered,  and  in  the  following  year  Vasco  da  Gama  doubled 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  pursuing  his  journey  reached 
Malabar.  Still  more  important  for  Portugal,  as  events  turned 
out,  was  the  discovery  by  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral,  in  1500,  of 
Brazil,  which  was  followed  by  the  formation  of  a  colony  which 


has  since  developed  into  the  Empire  of  Brazil.  A  dispute  with 
Spain  over  a  question  of  succession  brought  about  a  war 
with  that  power,  and  for  sixty  years  thereafter  Portu- 
gal remained  in  subjection  to  her  neighbor  on  the  Iberian 
Peninsula.  In  1640,  however,  the  Duke  of  Braganza  headed 
a  Portuguese  revolution,  was  successful,  and  ascended  the  throne 
as  John  IV.  In  1S07,  the  Government  havingtaken  sides  against 
Napoleon,  the  latter  invaded  the  country,  declaring  it  part  of 
France,  and  the  throne  vacant.  When  the  French  soldiers 
arrived,  the  Regent,  John  Maria  Joseph,  Prince  of  Brazil,  who 
ruled  in  the  place  of  Queen  Maria,  who  was  insane,  sailed  for 
Brazil.  At  Napoleon's  downfall  he  appointed  his  son,  Dom 
Pedro,  Regent  of  Brazil,  and  returned  to  Portugal.  In  1822 
Dom  Pedro  became  Emperor  of  Brazil,  the  succession  being 
accomplished  without  bloodshed,  and  a  few  years  later  he  came 
into  possession  of  the  crown  of  Portugal  also,  which  he  surren- 
dered to  his  daughter,  Donna  Maria,  preferring  to  remain  at 
Rio  Janeiro.  Civil  war  arising  not  long  afterward,  the  British 
interfered,  and  since  then  they  have  held  the  country  in  a  con- 
dition of  semi-subjugation. 

The  Government  is  a  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy, 
with  the  legislative  power  vested  jointly  in  the  sovereign  and  a 
Cortes  which  comprises  a  Chamber  of  Peers  and  a  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  of  which  the  King  nominates  the  former  for  life  and 
the  people  elect  the  latter. 


*** 


+  Switzerland.  * 


^RIGINALLY  occupied  by  Celts,  Switzerland  became 
a  Roman  province  and  was  held  as  such  for  several 
centuries,  until  successive  invasions  of  German  tribes 
occurred.  In  the  fifth  century  the  Burgundians, 
Goths  and  Allemanians  divided  the  province  among 
but  in  the  century  following  the  Franks  captured 
it.  Christianity  was  introduced  in  the  seventh  century  by 
Irish  monks,  and  monastic  institutions  were  founded.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  century  Switzerland  was  taken 


them, 


•c  s •- 


19* 


from  the  Franks,  Germany  gaining  the  northern  and  Bur- 
gundy the  southern  portion  of  the  land.  An  alliance  was 
formed  later  by  Zurich,  Berne  and  Basle  against  the  neighbor- 
ing powers  which  held  the  country,  and  a  brave  endeavor  in 
the  direction  of  independence  was  made.  Attempts  by  Aus- 
tria to  incorporate  the  Swiss  Cantons  with  her  domain  were 
nobly  opposed,  and  the  war  which  followed,  lasting  200  years, 
sundered  the  relations  of  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Imperial 
power  was  assumed  in  1273  by  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  a  Swiss 


aU 


S*v* 


77 


~7 


3°4 


TURKEY. 


nobleman,  and  in  1291  the  Cantom  of  Uri,  Unterwalden  and 
Schwyz  formed  a  league  against  foreign  oppression.  In  1315 
this  was  established  as  a  perpetual  confederacy,  and  in  the 
course  of  time  other  Cantons  joined  them.  Lucerne,  Zurich, 
Giants,  Zug  and  Berne  by  1353  had  become  members  of  "  The 
Perpetual  League  of  the  Old  Places  of  the  Confederacy," 
which  was  the  foundation  of  the  Swiss  Confederation.  In 
1415  the  inhabitants  of  the  Cantons  invaded  and  annexed  parts 
of  the  Austrian  territory,  and  three  years  later  they  annexed 
Ticino.  In  1481  Solothurn  and  Freiburg  were  admitted,  which 
was  followed  by  internal  dissension,  lasting  until  1499.  Two 
years  later  Basle  and  Schauffhausen  were  admitted,  as  was  also 
Appenzell  in  1513.  There  were  now  thirteen  Cantons,  and  the 
true  independence  of  the  State  was  established.  In  1531  war 
broke  out  between  the  Catholics  and  the  Protestants,  and  the 
former  were  victorious.  Berne  and  Zurich  managed  to  main- 
tain the  neutrality  of  Switzerland  during  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  and  in  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  in  1648  Switzerland 
was  acknowledged  as  an  independent  State.  At  the  time  of 
the  French  Revolution  Switzerhnd  was  invaded  by  two  French 
armies,  which  captur  .d  the  city  of  Berne  and  proclaimed  the 
Helvetic  Republic,  designating  Aarau  as  the  capital.  In  1S02, 
civil  war  dividing  the  Cantons,  Napoleon  undertook  to  reor- 
ganize the  country,  and  the  people  accepted  his  suggestions, 
but  in  1809  a  new  Constitution  was  formed  which  added  three 
new  Cantons — Geneva,  Vallais  and  the  Prussian  principality 
of   Neufchatel — to    the  nineteen  which  had  been  framed  by 


Napoleon.  The  European  powers  ratified  this  change  and 
declared  the  perpetual  neutrality  and  inviolability  of  the  Con- 
federation. During  the  excitement  aroused  by  the  French 
Revolution  agitations  in  the  direction  of  liberty  resulted  in 
the  reorganization  of  cantonal  constitutions,  which  were  made 
more  liberal  and  democratic.  Religious  troubles  reappeared 
in  1S34  and  lasted  for  some  years,  finally  resulting,  in  1S47,  in 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  suppression  of  the  monas- 
teries, which  excited  the  anger  of  some  of  the  powers  which 
attempted  to  intimidate  Switzerland.  In  1848  Neufchatel 
declared  her  independence  of  Prussian  control,  which  nine 
years  later  was  acknowledged.  Switzerland  made,  in  1S60, 
an  unavailing  protest  against  the  annexation  of  Savoy  to 
France. 

By  the  revised  Constitution  of  1874  it  is  provided  that  all  the 
rights  of  sovereignty  not  transferred  to  the  Confederation  shall 
be  exercised  by  the  twenty-two  Cantons.  Every  Canton's 
Constitution  is  guaranteed  if  it  is  republican  in  form,  if  it  has 
been  adopted  by  a  majority  of  the  people,  and  if  it  can  be 
revised  on  a  demand  of  the  majority  of  the  voters.  There  is 
a  Federal  Assembly  which  comprises  a  National  Council  and 
'  a  Council  of  States.  The  executive  authority  is  exercised  b_v  « 
Federal  Council,  which  has  seven  members,  each  of  whom  has 
a  department.  The  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  Fed- 
eral Council,  also  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  Con- 
federation, are  chosen  for  one  year  only  and  are  selected  from 
the  Council  by  its  members. 


•^ 


T<^-3— <S 


I    (SUI^EY. 


^ 


fg>— ;s— a)    -1     » 


!N  1330  begins  the  Ottoman  career  of  conquest.  About 
that  time  Orcan,  leader  of  a  tribe  inhabiting  the  Altai 
Mountains,  led  his  hardy  Janizaries  against  Nicomedia 
and  Nicola.  He  called  the  gate  of  his  palace  the  Sub- 
lime Porte,  and  himself  Padisha,  both  of  which  expres- 
sions are  still  extant.  His  successor  located  his  capital  at 
Adrianople,  and  during  his  rule  the  Turks  fell  "under  the  relent- 
less hand  of  Tamerlane,  who,  in  1402,  routed  them  in  battle, 
but  effected  no  permanent  occupation  of  their  territory.  Re- 
covering from  the  rude  assault,  the  Turks,  in  less  than  a  gener- 
ation, greatly  humiliated  the  Byzantine  Empire,  which  ceased 


to  exist  later,  giving  way  before  the  irresistible  Mohammed  II., 
who  transferred  the  seat  of  empire  from  Adrianople  to  Con- 
stantinople. The  capture  of  Constantinople  was  followed  by 
other  important  cities  in  Eastern  Europe,  and  during  the  next 
century  the  Turkish  Empire  constantly  grew  in  power.  Greece 
and  Arabia  were  added  to  the  domain  of  the  Porte.  The  glory 
of  Islam  culminated  in  the  reign  of  the  third  Sultan  of  Stam- 
boul,  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  which  lasted  from  1520  to 
1566.  His  ambition  was  to  conquer  Western  Europe  jnd 
establish  the  Crescent  throughout  the  continent,  and  for  many 
years  it  looked  as  though  he  would  succeed.       He  did  extend 


ik. 


© 


TURKEY. 


305 


his  empire  considerably,  but  his  grand  hope  was  destined  for 
non-fulfilment.  He  died  in  Hungary,  where  he  was  conduct- 
ing a  victorious  campaign,  in  1481,  and  with  his  death  began 
the  decline  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  It  was  by  no  rapid 
national  decay  that  the  Turk  fell  from  his  high  estate  under 
Solyman  to  his  lowly  condition  under  Abdul  Hamid,  the  pres- 
ent ruler.  For  centuries  Turkish  incursions  carried  terror  into 
the  lands  of  Russia,  Hungary,  Poland  and  Italy,  while  the 
whole  of  Europe  felt  apprehensive  of  Ottoman  supremacy. 
It  was  not  until  near  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  that 
the  tide  set  in  steadily  against  the  Turk.  Catherine  of  Russia 
was  the  first  to  bring 
the  Crescent  low, 
but  England  and 
France  objected  to 
the  partition  of  the 
empire  between 
Russia  and  Austria, 
and  obtained  for 
the  Sultan  terms  of 
peace  which  secured 
the  autonomy  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire. 
This  has  been  main- 
tained since  by  the 
friendly  interposi- 
tion of  the  anti- 
Russian  powers, 
who  see  that  so  long 
as  the  Sultan  of  a 
people  who  have 
lost  all  aggressive 
ambition  rules  at 
Constantinople  the 
"balance  of  power" 
is  safe.  In  the  war 
with  Russia  in 
1877-8  Turkey 
suffered  a  very  seri- 
ous loss  of  terri- 
tory, the  treaty  of  Berlin  reducing  her  area  from  1,742,874 
square  miles  to  1,116,848  square  miles,  and  her  population 
from  28,165,000  to  21,000,000.  Turkey  in  Europe  was  re- 
duced more  than  one-half  in  both  territory  and  population, 
the  cessions  under  the  treaty  being  as  follows :  Bulgaria, 
Eastern  Roumelia,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  Roumania,  Ser- 
via,  etc.,  and  parts  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus.      In  the  same 


VIEW  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE. 


year,  too,  the  island  of  Cyprus  .vas  placed  under  British  con- 
trol. 

As  to  the  Government  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  it  can 
generally  be  said  that  the  precepts  of  i.he  Koran  are  the  foun- 
dation of  its  fundamental  laws.  Absolute  power  is  vested  in 
the  Sultan,  as  long  as  his  acts  remain  in  conformity  with  Mo- 
hammedan doctrine.  Forms  of  constitutional  limitation  upon 
the  arbitrary  authority  of  the  Sultan  have  been  adopted 
recently,  but  in  point  of  fact  the  legislative  and  executive 
departments  of  the  Government  are  in  the  hands  of  his  Sub- 
lime Highness,  and  the  functions  of  law  are  directed  by  two 

officers,  the  Grand 
Vizier,  who  looks 
after  secular  affairs, 
and  the  Sheik-ul- 
Islam,  who  is  the 
head  of  the  church. 
There  is  a  body  or 
class  known  as  the 
Ulema,  which  com- 
prises the  "  Mufti," 
or  interpreters  of 
the  Koran,  the 
judges  and  high 
functionaries  of  the 
law.  "  Bey  "  is  a 
general  term,  apply- 
ing to  all  important 
civil  officers,  while 
"  Pasha  "  is  the  de- 
signation of  tax- 
gatherers  and  other 
officers  who  are 
both  military  and 
civil  in  '  function. 
A  ministerial  coun- 
cil, or  cabinet, called 
the"  Divan, "which 
is  presided  over  by 
the  Grand  Vizier, 
exists,  comprising  eight  ministerial  departments,  namely,  War, 
Finance,  Marine,  Commerce,  Public  Works,  Police,  Justice 
and  Education.  The  empire  is  divided  into  vilayets,  under 
Governors,  of  which  there  are  four  in  European  Turkey, 
exclusive  of  the  district  of  Constantinople.  Cruelty  and  ve- 
nality are  the  main  qualities  of  the  Governors,  whose  rule  is 
very  arbitrary. 


20 


<a »_ 


Ts" 


306 


7(\ 


kOUMANIA. 


■m  *•**••••••••*+** 


#     I^OUMANIA. 


HtHIIH.HI'*l«iniU«*»» 


<-»SH-l-fr^^3  I.   |  W  !• 


MONG  the  minor  States  of  Europe,  those  which 
received  their  autonomy  at  the  treaty  of  Berlin  are 
worthy  of  close  attention.  Roumania  is  the  name  con- 
ferred upon  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  when  they  be- 
came united  under  one  prince  and  one  administration 
as  a  province  of  Turkey,  in  December,  1861.  The  represent- 
atives of  the  people  met  at  the  capital,  Bucharest,  May  21, 
1877,  and  proclaimed  absolute  independence  of  Turkey,  which 
the  treaty  of  Berlin  confirmed  the  following  year.  The  Gov- 
ernment is  an  elective  and  strictly  limited  constitutional  princi- 
pality.    Karl  I,  is  the  present  Prince. 


-:  o. :- 


Bulgaria. 


Bulgaria,  an  autonomous  principality  tributary  to  Turkey, 
constituted  previous  to  1878  the  Turkish  Danubian  vilayet. 
Her  subjection  to  the  Porte  dates  from  1392,  but  nearly  five 
centuries  of  Moslem  misrule  and  oppression  have  not  deprived 
the  people  of  their  national  pride  and  desire  for  independence. 
In  1876  they  rose  against  their  oppressors,  but  were  unsuc- 
cessful, and  the  atrocities  which  the  ferocious  Bashi-Bazouks 
committed  in  suppressing  the  revolt,  together  with  the  lament- 
able condition  of  other  Turkish  provinces,  led  to  the  Turko- 
Russian  war.  At  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  the  erection  of  a 
Bulgarian  principality  was  not  permitted,  but  the  province  was 
granted  its  autonomy.  Eastern  Roumelia  was  incorpor- 
ated with  the  principality  in  1885  under  the  name  of 
South  Bulgaria. 


-:  :o  :- 


Sei^via. 


Servia  gained  independence  of  Turkey  at  the  same  time  and 
in  the  same  way  as  Roumania.  It  was  virtually  free,  however, 
as  early  as  1829.  Under  the  present  King,  Alexander, 
the  fifth  of  his  dynasty,  a  government  similar  to  that  of 
Roumania  is  carried  on. 


Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  according  to  the  same  treaty, 
were  to  have  their  administration  conducted  by  Austria-Hun- 
gary. 

XX 


pNDOI^A. 


In  the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  nestling  among  the  high  mountains, 
is  the  tiny  European  republic  of  Andorra,  which  has  main- 
tained its  independence  since  the  days  of  Charlemagne.  lis 
area  is  175  square  miles,  and  the  burden  of  its  government 
rests  lightly  upon  no  less  than  twenty-four  Consuls. 


-:  0  :- 


San  CQap^ino. 


Of  all  the  republics  in  the  world  that  of  San  Marino  enjoys 
the  double  distinction  of  being  the  oldest  and  the  smallest. 
Situated  in  Eastern  Central  Italy,  it  has  an  area  of  thirty- 
three  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  8,000,  an  army  of 
819  men,  131  officers,  while  the  Government  consist*  of  a 
Council  of  60  members  (20  nobles,  20  townsmen,  and  20 
peasants),  of  whom  two  act  jointly  as  Regents. 


CQONAGO. 


Still  smaller  than  San  Marino  is  the  principality  .1 
Monaco,  whose  ruler  conducts  the  affairs  of  a  population 
Of  a  little  over  12,000  within  an  area  of  8  square  miles. 
It  is  a  favorite  resort  for  invalids,  but  its  chief  notoriety 
comes  from  its  legalized  gambling-houses,  and  patron- 
ized by  European  tourists.  From  this  source  a  revenue 
of  $350,000  per  annum  comes  to  the  Prince  of  Monaco, 
who  spends  it  in  Paris,  where  he  has  his  residence. 


^ 


-. 9 


GREF.CK. 


3«>7 


f    ■$•       Gl^BEGE.       # 


[UT  little  remains  to-day  of  the  glories  which  once 
belonged  to  this  most  remarkable  and  interesting 
country.  Of  the  early  history  of  Greece  but  very 
little  authentic  knowledge  is  available.  Hellen  was 
claimed  by  the  Greeks  as  their  common  ancestor,  the 
popular  belief  being  that  from  his  sons,  Dorus,  .<Eolus,  and  his 
grandsons,  Ion  and  Achaeus,  sprang  the  four  different  branches 
of  the  nation  :  the  Dorians,  from  whom  the  Spartans  were 
descended  ;  the  Ionians,  from  whom  sprang  the  Athenians  ;  the 
jEolians,  whose  dialect  developed  itself  into  the  songs  of 
Sappho  ;  and  the  Achaeans,  who  occupied  Mycenae,  Argos  and 
Sparta.  Previous  to  the  Hellenic  inhabitants  of  Greece  were 
the  Pelasgians,  who  had  a  different  language.  Many  indica- 
tions go  to  show  that  Egyptian  and  Phoenician  immigration 
had  a  large  influence  upon  Grecian  civilization,  whose  alphabet 
is  apparently  of  Phoenician  origin.  What  is  known  as  the 
heroic  age  of  Greece  is  a  fragment  of  the  poetic  imagination 
of  such  minds  as  Homer  and  other  great  poets,  who  told  the 
story  of  the  great  deeds  of  heroes,  who,  descended  from  the 
gods,  performed  deeds  of  supernatural  valor  and  strength. 
Still,  modern  research  has  shown  that  much  which  has  been 
gravely  condemned  as  fiction  has  been  actual  occurrence,  the 
persistent  spade  of  Schliemann  even  establishing  the  fact  that 
the  siege  of  Troy  was  no  myth,  and  that  the  story  of  Achilles' 
wrath  may  to-day  be  read  in  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city. 

From  first  to  last  Greece  was  divided  into  numerous  inde- 
pendent States,  whose  union  was  confederate  rather  than 
federal.  Authentic  history  dates  from  776  B.C.,  when  the  first 
Olympiad  was  held.  Sparta  at  this  time  was  the  smallest  and 
least  important  of  the  States,  but  the  genius  and  valor  of  her 
citizens  made  her  famous  and  strong,  and  by  the  sixth  century 
before  the  Christian  era  foreign  conquest  and  internal  advance- 
ment had  placed  her  in  the  lead  as  to  power  and  wisdom  of 
administration.  Greece  was  at  this  time  the  acknowledged 
centre  of  European  civilization.  Persia  now  began  to  dispute 
the  Hellenic  advancement,  and  the  battles  of  Marathon,  Salamis 
and  Thermopylae  were  among  the  most  famous  encounters 
'between  these  powerful  nations.  In  B.C.  431  began  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  the  great  civil  war  of  Greece,  which  continued  with 
hardly  any  cessation  of  hostilities  for  twenty-seven  years.  In 
344  began  the  interference  by  Macedon  in  Peloponnesian  affairs, 
which  led  to  the  wars  which  ended  with  the  supremacy  of  the 


Y_ 


Macedonians,  whose  rule  lasted  until  325  B.C.,  when  the 
Athenians  accomplished  temporarily  their  independence.  In 
B.C.  214  occurred  the  first  collision  between  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans,  who  in  B.C.  200  invaded  the  country,  and  three 
years  later  conquered  the  Macedonians.  About  twenty  years 
later  war  arose  again  between  the  Romans  and  Macedonians, 
who  were  defeated  and  their  country  made  a  Roman  province. 
In  B.C.  146  occurred  the  battle  of  Leucopetra,  which  completed 
the  dissolution  of  the  last  of  the  Greek  leagues,  the  Achaean, 
and  henceforth  Greece  was  under  the  Roman  yoke.  The  Roman 
Senate,  and  afterward  the  Emperors,  treated  the  fatherland  of 
their  own  civilization  with  kindness,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
Byzantine  Empire  placed  its  cruel  foot  upon  the  Greek  neck 
that  all  free  institutions  and  popular  rights  were  disregarded. 

Though  conquered  in  war,  Greece  still  remained  the  leader 
of  the  world  in  literature  and  the  arts.  Her  temples  and 
statues,  her  schools  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  still  maintained 
her  dignity  among  the  nations.  After  the  Byzantine  invasion 
the  adherents  of  the  ancient  religion  only  retained  the  name  of 
the  ancient  Hellenes,  and  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  in  the  sixth 
century,  the  teaching  of  doctrines  opposed  to  Chistianity  was 
forbidden.  From  the  fifth  to  the  eighth  century  Slavic  and 
other  foreign  people  appeared  in  Greece,  but  they  were  finally 
expelled.  Its  ancient  inhabitants  regained  the  country,  though 
the  Slavic  influence  is  still  evident  in  certain  parts  of  it, 
especially  the  Southern  Peninsula.  In  the  eleventh  century, 
the  Normans  appeared  from  Sicily  and  plundered  and  ravaged 
the  cities  of  Thebes,  Athens  and  Corinth.  In  1203  the  Latin 
Princes  appeared  in  the  Crusade,  conquered  Constantinople, 
and  divided  Greece  among  them,  establishing  a  number  of 
principalities,  which  Frankish  governments  were  swept  away 
by  the  Turks  in  1453,  when  they  captured  Constantinople  and 
extended  their  conquests  in  a  few  years  over  the  whole  country, 
which  they  made  a  portion  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  Abject 
misery  was  the  condition  of  the  country  under  the  Turks.  In 
1687  the  Christian  League,  under  Venetian  leadership,  besieged 
and  took  Athens,  but  a  few  years  later  the  Venetians  were  ex- 
pelled, and  the  Moslem  once  more  ruled  Greece,  keeping  it  in 
a  most  deplorable  condition  of  subjugation.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  national  spirit  again  began 
to  assert  itself,  and  secretly  the  preparations  were  begun  for 
throwing  off  the  Ottoman  yoke.    They  were  completed  in  182  j, 

,_ il 

^~^;r 


V 


308 


~7 


when  the  Greeks  arose  in  insurrection  against  the  oppressor. 
On  their  side  was  the  sympathy  of  the  whole  civilized  world, 
and  money  and  men  were  supplied  the  struggling  State  from  all 
directions.  In  1822,  the  Moslems  increased  the  execration  in 
which  they  were  held  by  massacring  over  100,000  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  island  of  Scio,  reducing  the  population  from  120,000 
to  16,000.  Four  years  of  heroic  war  found  the  Greeks  ex- 
hausted and  at  the  mercy,  if  such  existed,  of  the  conqueror,  but 
the  diplomatic  interference  of  England,  France  and  Russia 
stayed  the  ferocious  hand  of  the  Turk,  and  proposed  that  Greece 
should  be  constituted  as  a  tributary  province,  with  the  right  to 
choose  its  own  government.  Greece  was  willing  to  accept  the 
terms  ;  the  Ottoman  Empire  rejected  them.  War  was  declared 
by  the  allied  powers  against  Turkey,  whose  fleet  was  almost  de- 
stroyed, and  in  1828  they  decided  to  create  Greece  an  independent 
kingdom.  The  crown  was  offered  to  two  foreign  princes  and 
was  declined  by  the  first,  while  the  second  was  assassinated. 
In  1833  Otto,  son  of  the  King  of  Bavaria,  assumed  the  reins 
of  government,  and  in  1835  the  capital  was  established  at 
Athens.  In  1844,  in  recognition  of  a  popular  clamor,  a  Con- 
stitution was  granted  to  the  people,  and  after  a  stormy  reign 


of  nearly  thirty  years  he  was  requested  to  abdicate,  and 
accepted  the  invitation.  An  election  by  universal  suffrage 
resulted  in  the  choice  of  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  who 
accepted  the  throne  on  condition  that  England  surrender  the 
protectorate  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  against  which  the  people 
had  rebelled,  which  was  granted  by  that  power.  In  1863,  the 
new  King  was  crowned  as  George  I.,  whose  reign  has  since 
proved  acceptable  to  the  people.  In  1866,  a  revolution  in 
Crete  strained  the  relations  of  Greece  and  Turkey,  but  the 
danger  was  finally  averted. 

Greece  is  governed  in  accordance  with  the  Constitution 
elaborated  by  the  constituent  assembly  in  1863  and  adopted  in 
1864.  A  single  chamber  of  representatives,  known  as  the 
Boule,  hold  the  legislative  power.  Annual  meetings  are  held 
by  the  Boule,  whose  members  are  elected  by  manhood  suffrage 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  the 
King  and  his  responsible  Ministers,  the  heads  of  the  following 
departments :  Presidency  of  the  Council,  Interior,  Finance, 
Justice,  Education  and  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  War,  Marine  and 
Foreign  Affairs.  A  Council  of  State  is  provided  for,  with  power 
to  review  or  amend  bills  passed  by  the  Deputies,  but  of  late 
years  its  services  have  not  been  employed. 


<«#*»•<#->- 


^aAPAN.W 


.o*o- 


^LTHOUGH  containing  a  vastly  larger  population 
than  any  other  of  the  continents — its  inhabitants 
in  fact  outnumbering  those  of  the  remainder  of 
the  earth — Asia,  on  account  of  her  not  having 
come  to  any  great  extent  under  the  influences  of 
modern  civilization,  is  as  weak  in  power  as  she  is  strong  in 
numbers.  In  ancient  days  this  was  different:  the  world's  his- 
tory was  then  largely  framed  by  its  Asiatic  sons,  who  contended 
successfully  against  Egypt  and  Greece,  and  later  on  helped  to 
build  up  the  glory  of  the  Macedonian  and  Roman  Empires. 
It  was  from  the  regions  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea  that  the  Huns 
came,  and,  following  the  star  of  empire,  marched  westward 
and  settled  down  in  various  parts  of  Europe.     Over  the  plains 


of  the  Slav  swept  the  victorious  armies  of  Timour  and  Genghis 
Khan,  and  later  the  Caliphs,  at  the  head  of  their  Arabian 
troops,  carried  the  Koran  and  the  sword  throughout  Asia, 
Europe  and  Africa,  and  established  religious  nationalities  which 
are,  to  a  certain  extent,  formidable  even  in  this  day  of  their 
decadence.  Before  their  march  the  Roman  Empire  gave  way, 
and  the  Turkish  dominion  raised,  which  for  so  many  yean 
held  other  European  powers  in  awe.  With  a  imputation  of 
825,0,54,000,  as  compared  with  that  of  Europe,  357,379.000,  it 
MM  as  though  the  day  must  come  when  Asiatic  supremacy 
will  exist  as  a  fact.  Asia  has  a  great  deal  to  learn,  however,  of 
the  modern  spirit  and  system  of  government,  before  it  can  hope 
to  cope  with  the  more  persistent,  audacious  and  intelligent 
continent  to  the  west  of  it 


?r? 


3f- 


CHINA— JAPAN. 


309 


4HHHHHHH 


HHHHMHHHHHHM 


#      ©HINA.      # 


^♦'iiit'i'ini^'iiii'i'iii  tuiiotimimmitttttiuaiiia 


«|* 


«M  ml).  >?i-n-i?>  <l>  «o» 


MYTHOLOGY,  rather  than  history,  must  be  cred- 
ited with  the  earlier  chronicles  of  the  Chinese, 
whose  actual  record,  however,  extends  back 
2,400  years  previous  to  the  Christian  era,  and 
contains  the  record  of  a  great  flood,  which 
many  have  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  deluge  of  the 
Pentateuch.  Certain  it  is  that  the  Great  Wall,  which  extends 
1,250  miles  along  the  northern  boundary  of  China,  was  erected 
250  years  before  the  Christian  era,  when  the  Tsin  dynasty  was 
founded  by  Chwang-Siang.  In  the  thirteenth  century  a  Mongol 
dynasty  was  formed  by  Genghis  Khan,  after  his  capture  of 
Pekin.  European  visits  began  in  this  century,  when  Marco 
Polo  reached  China  by  the  overland  route.  Portuguese  and 
Dutch  traders  followed,  and  in  the  seventeenth  century  En- 
gland visited  the  country,  and  after  several  unsuccessful  negotia- 
tions the  East  India  Company  was  allowed,  in  1684,  to  trade 
with  the  natives.  But  little  was  done,  however,  until  the 
opium  trade  set  in,  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
and  soon  attained  enormous  proportions.  An  attempt  was 
made  by  the  Chinese  Government  to  exclude  the  pernicious 
drug,  but  the  traders  of  the  East  India  Company  evaded  the 
restrictions  placed  upon  its  entry,  and  this  led  to  the  Anglo- 
Chinese  war,  known  as  the  opium  war,  which  closed  with  the 
treaty  of  Nankin  and  the  opening  of  five  ports — Canton, 
Amoy,  Foochow,  Ningpo  and  Shanghai — to  the  British  in 
1842.  American  trade  with  China  was  inaugurated  in  1784, 
when  the  ship  Empress  made  a  successful  voyage  from  New 


York  to  the  Celestial  Empire.  In  1844  the  first  American 
treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  between  the  United  States  and 
China  was  negotiated  at  Macao,  and  in  1867-8  a  more  impor- 
tant one  was  negotiated  by  the  Hon.  Anson  Burlingame,  which 
was  revised  in  1880,  in  order  that  an  understanding  might  be 
reached  with  the  Chinese  Government  in  relation  to  the  emi- 
gration of  its  subjects  to  this  country,  where  opposition  to 
Chinese  cheap  labor  had  been  aroused  in  California  and  other 
sections.  Such  treaties  as  the  Europeans  have  with  China 
have  been  wrested  from  that  country  by  force  of  arms,  and 
during  a  war  in  i860  the  French  troops  captured  the  Em- 
peror's summer  palace,  at  Pekin,  and  carried  off  several 
millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  booty.  The  most  important 
event  of  modern  domestic  Chinese  history  was  the  Taeping 
revolution,  which  lasted  from  1851  to  1864,  and  had  for  its 
object  the  overthrow  of  the  Manchoo  or  foreign  dynasty. 
Serious  anti-Christian  riots  occurred  in  1891,  in  which 
many  missionaries  and  other  foreigners  were  killed  and 
their  property  destroyed. 

An  Emperor  rules  China,  aided  by  the  Interior  Council 
Chamber,  which  is  mainly  composed  of  high  nobles.  The 
provinces  are  governed  by  Imperial  Governors  and  Executive 
Boards.  Bribery  and  corruption  prevail  throughout  the  civil 
service,  which  is  a  monstrous  institution.  Competitive  exam- 
ination is  the  basis  of  the  service,  the  intention  being  to  secure 
for  official  positions  the  most  intelligent  and  best  educated 
men  of  the  empire. 


5apan. 


f-g*.* 


ORIGINALLY  inhabited  by  a  race  known  as  the  Ainos, 
who  had  a  written  language  and  were  fairly  advanced 
in  civilization,  the  island  of  Japan  subsequently  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Mongols,  the  present  occupants 
being  akin  to  the  Chinese,  whom  they  resemble  in 
appearance.  According  to  Japanese  history,  the  ruling  dynasty 
claims  twenty-five  centuries  of  unbroken  succession,  descent 
being  claimed  from  the  first  Mikado,   Timmu  Tenno,  who  was 


reputed  to  have  been  of  divine  descent.  Buddhism  was  intro- 
duced into  Japan  in  the  sixth  century.  Marco  Polo  was  the 
first  European  to  write  of  Japan,  and  the  first  Europeans  to 
land  upon  its  shores  were  Portuguese  mariners.  About  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  one  of  the  smaller  islands  was 
visited  by  Fernam  Mendez  Pinto.  In  1549  St.  Francis  Xavier 
landed  and  introduced  Christianity,  and  he  was  followed  by 
many  others.     In  1615  the  priests  were  exiled,  and  nine  years 


^b 


K 


310 


BRITISH  INDIA. 


later  all  foreigners  except  the  Chinese  and  the  Dutch  were 
expelled  from  the  island,  and  the  emigration  of  natives  was 
prohibited.  In  1637  the  massacre  of  the  Christians  began,  and 
for  over  two  centuries  Japan  was  left  to  itself.  In  1854, 
however,  Commodore  Perry,  of  the  United  States  Navy, 
effected  a  commercial  treaty  with  Japan,  which  resulted  in 
opening  Japanese  ports  to  American  ships,  and  after  a  struggle 
with  the  old  court  party  the  civilization  of  the  West  began  to 
grow  in  popular  favor,  liberal  ideas  struck  root,  and  national 
progress  was  evidenced  in  a  number  of  valuable  reforms.  In 
1868  the  executive  power  of  the   Japanese  Government  was 


concentrated  in  the  Mikado,  and  since  then  the  work  of  ad- 
vancement has  gone  on  very  rapidly,  promising  to  open  up  to 
American  enterprise  a  large  field  for  the  exportation  of  her 
machinery  and  other  manufactures. 

Absolute  power  in  temporal  and  spiritual  affairs  is  vested  in 
the  Mikado.  He  is  assisted  in  government  by  an  Executive 
Ministry  and  a  Privy  Council ;  and,  since  1890,  by  a  Na- 
tional Parliament  of  two  Houses.  The  House  of  Peers 
consists  of  10  life  members,  139  elected  nobles,  59  im- 
perial nominees,  and  44  elected  men  of  mark  :  the  House 
of  Representatives  contains  300  elected  members. 


■fr*'I'i*3»- 


Bi^ish  India.  cgp=^ 


ARLY  Indian  history,  extending  back  millions  of 
years,  is  composed  of  a  confused  mass  of  fabulous 
chronicles.  Research  by  careful  historians  leads  to 
the  belief  that  the  Aryan  Hindoos  settled  the  coun- 
try some  fifteen  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  at 
which  time  the  Brahminical  religion  and  the  social  institution 
of  caste  are  believed  to  have  been  in  existence  in  undeveloped 
shape.  About  five  centuries  before  Christ  the  northwestern 
provinces  of  the  country  were  conquered  by  the  Persian  mon- 
arch Darius,  and  later  Alexander  the  Great  invaded  India  and 
conquered  some  of  its  provinces.  In  the  eighth  century  the 
province  of  Scinde  and  the  Southern  Punjaub  were  invaded  by 
the  Mohammedans,  who  were  later  expelled  by  the  Hindoos. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  they  returned  and 
conquered  all  Northern  India.  At  the  close  of  the  sixtceenth 
century  occurred  the  invasion  of  Tamerlane.  In  1526  Baber, 
the  Mogul  Sultan  of  Cabul,  invaded  India,  and  established  the 
Mogul  dynasty,  whose  strength  culminated  with  Aurungzebe, 
who  subdued  almost  the  entire  peninsula,  and  Mohammed 
Shah.  In  1739  occurred  the  invasioa  of  Nadir  Shah,  King 
of  Persia,  who  overcame  the  empire  and  occupied  Delhi,  from 
which  city  he  removed  enormous  stores  of  precious  stones  and 
metals.  The  restoration  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  was  followed 
by'another  incursion  of  the  Mahrattas,  who  in  the  eighteenth 
century  were  entirely  overthrown  by  the  Afghans.  European 
attention  was  at  last  called  to  the  country,  and  in  the  sixteenth 
century  settlements  were  made  upon  the  coast  by  Portuguese 
explorers  whom  the  Dutch  expelled  later.  Great  Britain,  rep- 
resented by  the  East  India  Company,  effected  settlements 
during  the  seventeenth  century,  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  came  into  conflict  with  the  French,  who  had  also 
gained  a  foothold,  and  after  a  hard  struggle  overcame  them. 


Under  Lord  Clive  the  British  troops  vanquished  the  Emperor 
of  Delhi  and  the  King  of  Oude,  and  gained  possession  of 
Bengal,  Berar  and  other  provinces,  which  acquisitions  were 
added  to  as  years  went  by.  For  many  years  British  rule  was 
quietly  submitted  to  by  the  natives,  its  enforcement  being 
accomplished  by  the  army  of  native  troops,  under  English  offi- 
cers, armed  by  the  East  India  Company. 

In  1857  a  revolt  occurred,  and  the  Kings  of  Delhi  and  Oude, 
at  the  head  of  the  rebellious  Sepoys,  threatened  for  eighteen 
months  to  wrest  the  mastery  of  India  from  England.  Fright- 
ful massacres,  attended  with  indescribable  atrocities,  were  per- 
petrated by  the  rebels,  and  the  measures  of  reprisal  adopted 
by  the  English  were  hardly  less  terrible.  After  the  rebellion 
had  been  crushed  the  British  Government  assumed  direct  con- 
trol of  the  country,  the  East  India  Company  being  deprived  of 
a  monopoly  which  had  brought  in  an  annual  revenue  of  many 
millions.  Since  then  the  British  have  largely  advanced  their 
Indian  frontiers.  In  1876  Queen  Victoria  was  proclaimed 
Empress  of  India. 

The  Government,  which  regulates  the  affairs  of  about 
300,000,000  of  people,  is  practically  a  military  despotism, 
which  is  made  possible  by  the  division  of  the  native  popula- 
tion into  Hindoos  and  Mohammedans.  A  Governor-General, 
appointed  by  the  ruler  of  Great  Britain,  holds  the  executive 
authority  and  acts  under  the  English  Secretary  of  State  for 
India,  who  is  advised  by  a  Council,  a  majority  of  whom  are 
appointed  by  the  Crown.  Lieutenant-Governors  of  the  prov- 
inces and  minor  officers  are  appointed  by  the  Governor-General. 
The  officials  are  almost  all  Englishmen.  Self-government  pre- 
vails in  the  villages  and  townships,  which  lev)' and  expend  their 
own  taxes  under  a  system  which  has  prevailed  in  India  forages, 
and  wliicli  provides  the  only  exception  to  the  rule  that  all  power 
rests  in  the  hands  of  the  resident  Europeans. 


sw 


AFGHANISTAN  AND  I3ELOOCHISTAN— PERSIA. 


"7 


.3" 


^BxaBxg(xaxi^xax)S/ii(xisxaxaE(xaxg&xisxgByii(xsx)BX)$ixgBxa<x> 


Afghanistan  and  Beloochistan.  m 


xaxaxaxa&xaxisxisxaxaxaxisxiBxiSxaxsxgBxaxgsxaxa  x*g 


— #>•■ 


'  S  a  nation,  Afghanistan,  although  only  dating  from 
'  1747,  when  the  successful  soldier  Amhed  Khan 
assumed  regal  power,  and  possessing  but  a  small 
territory  and  population,  has,  by  her  wars  with  for- 
j^3- '  eign  powers,  so  impressed  the  world  with  the  warlike 
character  of  her  people,  that  her  history  possesses  a  unique 
interest.  Amhed  Khan's  most  important  war  was  with  the 
Mahrattas,  whom  he  overthrew  in  1761,  and  when  he  died, 
twelve  years  later,  he  left  to  his  son,  Timour,  an  empire  reach- 
ing from  the  Indus  to  the  Oxus,  while  Khorassan,  Beloochistan 
and  Scinde  acknowledged  his  rule'  as  tributary  provinces.  After 
Timour  came  anarchy,  and  the  Punjaub  and  Scinde  were  lost, 
while  Persian  encroachments  endangered  the  country.  Diplo- 
matic relations  with  the  English,  who  regard  Afghanistan  with 
peculiar  interest,  as  being  the  "key  to  India,"  were  opened 
in  1809,  and  a  permanent  English  resident  at  the  Ameer's 
court  was  appointed  in  1837.  The  relations  of  the  two  coun- 
tries failed  to  remain  friendly,  and  in  1838  Lord  Auckland, 
the  Governor-General  of  British  India,  declared  war  against 
the  Ameer,  Mohammed  Khan,  who  was  defeated.  Satisfied 
with  the  invasion  they  had  accomplished,  the  English  with- 
drew, leaving  an  army  of  occupation  behind  them.  In  1841 
Akbar  Khan,  son  of  the  deposed  Ameer,  organized  a  con- 
spiracy against  the  English  occupants  of  the  country,  which 
resulted  in  the  murder  of  the  British  Resident  and  Envoy, 
after  which  the  invaders  promised  to  leave  the  country,  Akbar 
Khan  agreeing  to  provide  them  with  an  escort.  This  promise 
was  not  kept,  and  the  army,  together  with  camp-followers, 
the  whole  amounting  to  about   26,000  people,  while  leaving 


the  country  by  way  of  the  Khyber  Pass,  in  the  depth  of 
winter,  were  attacked  by  the  fanatical  tribes  of  the  districts, 
who  killed  men,  women  and  children.  Of  the  whole  host 
only  one  man  escaped  to  convey  the  tidings  to  the  nearest 
British  port,  Jelalabad.  An  expedition  was  immediately  fitted 
out  in  India,  and  the  country  was  desolated,  the  fortresses  of 
Ghurzee  and  Cabul  being  taken.  Notwithstanding  this  terri- 
ble lesson,  the  Afghans,  in  1846,  allied  themselves  with  the 
Sikhs  against  the  British,  and  raised  a  revolt  in  the  Punjaub, 
which  was  quelled  only  after  severe  fighting.  The  present 
Ameer,  Abdur  Rahman  Khan,  maintains  the  throne  amid 
vicissitudes  caused  by  the  insurrections  led  by  his  own  rela- 
tives. In  1879  the  inhabitants  of  Cabul  arose  in  revolt,  and 
assassinated  the  British  Resident  and  a  large  number  of  other 
foreigners,  which  led  to  a  war  in  which  the  British  arms,  after 
desperate  fighting,  were  successful,  and  British  influence  in  the 
national  policy  was  firmly  established.  The  Government  of  the 
country  is  a  monarchy.  The  natives  are  divided  into  clans, 
ruled  over  by  chiefs.  Revenue  is  raised  by  taxation,  an  officer 
collecting  it  in  each  province^  Justice  is  administered  in  the 
towns  by  the  Cadis. 

Beloochistan,  a  country  lying  to  the  south  of  Afghanistan, 
is  not  considered  of  strategic  value  by  either  British  or  Rus- 
sians. In  1839  the  British  stormed  the  capital  and  killed  the 
ruler,  after  which  they  occupied  the  country  for  several  years. 
In  1854  a  treaty  was  formed  between  England  and  Beloo- 
chistan, and  another  in  1876,  by  which  Beloochistan  be- 
came a  British  protectorate,  the  Khan  binding  himself  to 
oppose  all  the  enemies  of  Great  Britain,  and  to  have  no 
relations  with  other  foreign  States. 


'c++ 


*    E?EI^SIA.    *     -^ 


UTHENTIC  Persian  history  begins  with  the  revolt 
under  Cyrus  against  Astyages,  the  Median  King, 
which  resulted  in  the  foundation  of  the  Persian 
Empire.  Joining  with  Cambyses  and  Darius,  Cyrus 
subdued  Lydia  and  Asia  Minor,  and  crowned  his 
career  by  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Babylon,  the  metrop- 
olis of  Assyria.     Darius  carried  the  Persian  arms  to  the  bor- 


ders of  Thrace,  but  was  defeated  at  Marathon,  and  his  son 
Xerxes  was  not  less  unfortunate.  About  330  years  before  the 
Christian  era  Persia  was  invaded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  of 
Macedon,  who  extinguished  the  empire,  which  up  to  his  com- 
ing had  ruled  the  world.  After  Alexander's  successors  came 
the  Parthian  dynasty,  which  was  overthrown  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, when  the  ancient  laws   and   religion  were  re-established 


^L 


.}I2 


ARABIA— PALESTINE. 


under  a  descendant  of  the  famous  Cyrus,  and  the  Sassanidae 
dynasty  thus  formed  ruled  with  great  energy  until  628  A.  D., 
when  its  last  representative  was  slain,  and  the  country  fell  a 
prey  to  the  Mohammedan  Arabians  until  868,  when  a  native 
dynasty  was  established.  A  Mongol  invasion  occurred  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  in  the  fourteenth  Tamerlane  swept  the 
land  with  his  Tartar  followers.  Of  the  Suffavean  dynasty  which 
succeeded,  the  most  famous  representative  was  Nadir  Shah, 
who  invaded  India  and  carried  away  $100,000,000  worth  of 
spoils  from  the  city  of  Delhi.  Of  late  years  Persia  has  not 
been  able  to  do  anything  worthy  of  her  ancient  glories.     Rus- 


sian encroachments  havedeprived  her  of  important  provinces.  In 
1 856-57  sheengaged  in  war  with  England  and  was  defeated,  w  hich 
event  led  to  a  friendly  feeling  towards  that  country  which,  doubt- 
less, prompted  the  Shah,  Nasr-ed-Din,  in  1874*  to  visit  Europe. 
The  Government  of  Persia  is  an  unlimited  despotism,  the 
Shah  being  absolute  in  his  monarchial  powers.  Direct  taxa- 
tion defrays  current  expenses,  and  the  country  is  free  from 
national  debt.  Law,  as  laid  down  in  the  Koran,  is  adminis- 
tered by  mollahs  (judges),  whose  decisions  are  given  in  accord- 
ance with  the  side  of  the  case  which  possesses  the  greater 
power  to  bribe  the  court. 


•<£>«"* 


pI^ABIA. 


-^^ 


MiLAIMING  descent  from  Ishmael,  the  Arabs  have 
L  always  been  and  still  are  a  wandering,  wild,  uncon- 
trolable  peop:e,  whose  career  and  present  condition 
I  seem  to  fulfil  the  angelic  prophecy.  The  aborigines 
of  Arabia  were  p-obably  the  Cushites,  who  passed 
into  Africa  and  were  succeeded  by  a  race  descended  from 
Abraham.  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  large  num- 
bers of  Jews  entered  Arabia,  which  subsequently  welcom- 
ed the  doctrines  of  Mohammad,  with  whose  coming  the 
history  of  the  country  really  begins.  Becoming  united,  they 
grew  in  power  until  in  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa  empires 
were  brought  under  their  dominion.     While  producing  impor- 


tant changes  in  the  destinies  of  other  nations,  Arabia  her- 
self underwent  no  great  improvement,  and  when  her  day  of 
conquest  was  over  the  Turks  found  her  an  easy  prey,  and  in 
the  sixteenth  century  captured  Yemen,  which  they  lost  a 
century  later.  The  Portuguese,  too,  conquered  Muscat,  while 
the  Russians  gained  some  temporary  advantages  in  Arabia.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  the  Wahabees  made  their  appearance, 
and,  though  Mehemet  Ali  checked  their  progress,  their  in- 
fluence is  still  felt  throughout  the  land.  Hedjaz  and 
Yemen  are  now  under  Turkish  rule;  while  much  of  the 
remaining  country  is  under  British  influence,  exercised 
in  the  case  of  Oman  through  the  Sultan  of  Muscat. 


*W* 


*  Palestine.  * 


f  RIGINALLY  inhabited  by  distinct  nations,  of  whom 
the  Canaanites,  Amorites,  Jebusites,  Kenites  and 
Perizites  were  the  principal,  and  whose  origin  is  not 
known,  the  land  of  Palestine  was  Invaded  by  the 
Israelites  after  their  escape  from  the  hands  of  their 
Egyptian  masters  and  their  wanderings  in  the  wilderness. 
Acting  under  the  divine  command,  as  interpreted  to  them  by 
their  leaders,  they  entered  upon  a  merciless  war  of  extermina- 
tion of  the  idolatrous  tribes  who  inhabited  the  land,  which  they 
partitioned  off  as  follows:  The  tribes  of  Reuben' and  Gad 
and  one-half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  took  the  territory  east  of 
the  Jordan ;  Judah,  Simeon,  Dan  and  Benjamin  occupied  the 
southern  portion  ;  Zebulon,  Asher  and  Naphtali  obtained  the 


northern  division  ;  while  the  other  half  of  the  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh, together  with  Issachar  and  Ephraim,  secured  the  central 
portion.  Being  provided  for  by  tithes,  the  I.cvitcs  in  their 
priestly  function,  were  not  given  any  separate  territory,  but 
were  scattered  among  the  various  cities  of  the  other  tribes. 
For  over  three  centuries  the  tribes  were  ruled  by  Judges  raised 
to  that  dignity  by  the  people  for  valorous  deeds  in  war  or 
display  of  qualities  of  statesmanship,  and  during  this  time  the 
nation  was  practically  a  confederation  of  republics,  their  bond 
of  union  being  made  up  of  their  common  origin,  language  and 
religion,  and  the  twr-pWBnl  danger  of  invasion  by  external 
foes.  Among  the  most  famous  of  the  fifteen  Judges  who  ruled 
the   land  were   Gideon,   Jcphtha,   Barak,  Samson,  Deborah, 


V 


PALESTINE. 


"7 


3'3 


Eli,  and  Samuel,  who  was  the  last  of  the  Judges  and  the  first 
of  the  Prophets,  but  the  two  latter  exercised  also  priestly 
functions.  Although  their  rule  was  satisfactory,  the  people 
clamored  for  a  King,  and  the  monarchy  was  established  with 
Saul,  a  Benjaminite,  as  ruler.  A  great  warrior,  he  led  the 
hosts  of  Israel  in  a  succession  of  victories,  but  his  merciful 
treatment  of  a  conquered  people  brought  about  the  opposition 
of  Samuel.  The  King's  son-in-law,  David,  having  slain  the 
Philistine  giant  Goliath  in  battle,  became  suddenly  popular, 
and,  as  he  was  taken  up  by  the  priestly  party,  he  first  aroused 
the  jealousy  and  then  incurred  the  enmity  of  Saul,  who  caused 
him  to  flee  from  the  country.  With  an  army  of  brother  out- 
laws David  made  war  upon  the  Philistines,  who  had  befriended 
him  in  his  hour  of  need,  and  on  the  death  of  Saul  and  his  son, 
Jonathan,  his  tribe  of  Judah  proclaimed  him  King.  Saul's 
son,  Ishbosheth,  was  acknowledged  by  the  remainder  of  Israel, 
and  a  civil  war  followed,  which  was  ended  by  the  death  of 
Ishbosheth,  and  the  assumption  of  the  sovereignty  by  David. 
Under  KingDavid  war  was  actively  pursued  against  the  natives. 
Jerusalem  was  wrested  from  the  Jebusites,  and  the  Israelitish 
domain  extended  south  and  west  to  Egypt  and  north  to  the 
land  of  the  Phoenicians.  With  the  last-named  people,  who 
had  attained  a  high  degree  of  civilization  and  were  learned  in 
the  arts  and  sciences,  the  Hebrews  remained  on  terms  of 
friendship.  David's  successor,  Solomon,  raised  the  power  of 
Israel  to  its  pinnacle  of  glory.  Under  his  rule  commerce  and 
trade  were  cultivated,  the  country  was  fortified,  profitable 
foreign  alliances  were  made,  and  the  beautiful  Temple  of  Jeru- 
salem was  built.  Great  attention  was  paid  to  the  military  arm 
of  the  government  ;  the  army  was  enlarged  and  strengthened, 
and  with  its  aid  neighboring  nations  were  kept  in  subjection 
and  forced  to  pay  heavy  tribute.  Internal  disorder  followed  the 
death  of  Solomon,  whose  last  days  were  not  marked  by  the  wise 
and  strong  government  which  preceded,  and  under  the  rule  of 
his  son,  Rehoboam,  the  heavy  taxation  of  the  people  induced,  a 
revolt  of  ten  tribes,  who  proclaimed  Jeroboam  King  in 
Israel,  which  comprised  the  land  beyond  Jordan  and  that  to 
the  north  of  Benjamin.  Judah  and  Benjamin  alone  remained 
loyal.  Many  wars  between  the  rival  nations  followed. 
Under  licentious  Kings  the  people  of  the  ten  tribes  waxed  in 
wickedness,  until  about  700  years  B.C.  the  Assyrians  swept 
down  upon  them,  destroyed  their  capital  of  Samaria  and  car- 
ried the  people  into  captivity.  No  record  of  their  fate  exists. 
They  disappeared  entirely  from  history,  though  every  now  and 
then  some  one  or  other  of  the  nations  of  the  earth  is  recog- 
nized, according  to  Biblical  prophecy,  as  being  the  identical 
"  ten  tribes "  of  Israel.  In  Rehoboam's  reign  Judah  was 
invaded  by  the  Egyptians,  who  pillaged  the  temple.  Wars 
with  the  bordering  nations  occurred  from  time  to  time,  and 
civil  war  was  frequently  aroused  by  the  misrule  of  wicked 
Kings,  whom  even  the  fierce  denunciations  of  the  great  Prophets 
could  not  entirely  restrain.     Weakened  by  these  causes,  the 


country  came  under  tributary  subjection  to  the  Babylonian 
Empire,  and  the  downfall  of  the  people  was  brought  about  by 
the  revolt  of  Zedekiah,  who  declared  the  nation  independent, 
and  defended  gallantly  but  unsuccessfully  the  capital,  Jerusa- 
lem, against  the  Babylonian  armies.  In  588  B.C.  the  city 
was  captured,  its  walls  and  temple  destroyed,  and  its  citizens 
carried  into  Babylon,  where  they  remained  captive  for  seventy 
years.  Their  return  to  their  native  land  was  permitted  when 
the  Babylonians  were  vanquished  by  the  Medo-Persians,  and 
Darius,  Ahasuerus  and  other  Kings  allowed  them  to  rebuild 
their  city  and  temple,  and  granted  them  many  additional  privi- 
leges. Under  these  favorable  conditions  they  increased  in 
strength  and  numbers,  and  when,  about  two  centuries  before 
Christ,  the  Syrians  sought  to  prohibit  the  Hebrew  religion, 
they  arose  in  arm's  and  fought  for  their  religious  liberty  with 
such  courage  and  vigor  that  the  period  of  these  wars,  extend- 
ing from  167  B.C.  to  105  B.C.,  is  looked  upon  as  the  heroic 
era  of  Jewish  history.  Forty  years  later,  however,  the  Romans 
conquered  the  country,  and  Judea  became  a  province  of  that 
great  power.  Native  rulers,  known  as  tetrarchs,  were  given 
slight  local  power,  but  they  were  powerless  to  check  the 
oppressions  of  the  conquerors,  and  sixty-six  years  after  the 
birth  of  Christ,  whose  earthly  ministry  was  made  while  the 
people  were  in  the  depths  of  misery,  the  Jews  rebelled  and 
brought  upon  their  country  a  scourge  in  the  shape  of  Roman 
armies  under  Vespasian  and  Titus.  After  a  four  years'  siege, 
during  which  the  inhabitants  endured  indescribable  sufferings 
with  unparalleled  fortitude,  Jerusalem  fell ;  the  temple  was 
once  more  abased  ;  such  of  the  inhabitants  as  survived  were 
sold  into  slavery  ;  the  Hebrew  nation  as  such  passed  out  of 
existence.  After  the  Roman  rule  passed  away  the  Byzantine 
monarchs  held  the  country.  Christianity  becoming  wide- 
spread, Palestine  became  a  centre  of  religious  interest  as  the 
birthplace  and  scene  of  the  ministry,  death  and  resurrection  of 
the  Savior.  Thousands  of  pilgrims  visited  the  "  Holy  Land," 
and  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  was  commenced.  In  the 
earlier  half  of  the  seventh  century  Palestine  was  conquered 
by  the  Mohammedan  Arabs,  but  in  1099  the  warriors 
of  the  first  Crusade  captured  the  sacred  city,  and  made 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  King  of  Jerusalem,  who  extended 
his  territory  until  it  comprised  the  whole  of  Palestine. 
This  lasted  twenty  years  only,  and  after  further  crusades 
against  the  Saracens,  in  which  the  Christians  were  more  or  less 
successful,  the  latter  were,  in  1 291,  expelled  by  the  Mame- 
lukes, who  ruled  the  land  until  15 17,  when  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  who  still  hold  it.  Several  efforts  have 
been  made  to  have  the  European  Jews  return  to  their  father- 
land, but  they  have  declined  to  abandon  the  profitable  occupa- 
tions elsewhere  to  become  the  agricultural  colonists  of  a  not 
very  fertile  land.  Under  Turkish  rule  Palestine  is  part  of  the 
province  of  Syria,  and  comprises  the  sub-pashalics  of  Acre  and 
Jerusalem. 


%■ 


rzs^zr 


~N9 


V- 


3»4 


SIAM— AFRICA. 


^ 


;iftf  •••••••* 


HM€-      Si  AM.      *MH 


♦nimi 


N« 


_  JlARLY  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  Spanish,  Portu- 
\M*!  i  guese,  Dutch  and  French  obtained  admission  to  the 
3La  Siamese  ports,  and  England  shared  their  privileges 
about  half  a  century  later.  Each  of  these  nations 
made  strenuous  endeavors  to  gain  the  preponderating 
influence  over  the  Siamese,  and  the  French  seemed  for  many 
years  the  favorites  ;  but  in  an  outbreak  which  occurred  several 
of  their  missionaries  and  traders  were  slaughtered,  and  this 
event  was  followed,  on  the  part  of  Siam,  by  the  inauguration 


of  a  policy  of  exclusiveness,  which  lasted  until  about 
fifty  years  ago,  when  Great  Britain,  France  and  the 
United  States  made  treaties  with  Siam.  The  rotal  dignity 
is  nominally  hereditary ;  but  each  sovereign  appoints  his 
own  successor;  and  besides,  about  the  court  is  the  Coun- 
cil of  State,  which,  when  the  King  dies,  may  defeat  his 
will  about  the  succession  of  the  throne.  There  are 
laws  to  which  the  King  must  conform,  and  which  render 
the  Government,  in  effect,  a  constitutional  monarchy. 


aJSMl  ECOXD  only  to  Asia  in  point  of  size,  the  continent 
Tlkl^l     of   Africa,  including   the    islands  contiguous  to  its 


shores,  has  an  area  of  11,854,000  square  miles,  yet 
is  the  least  important  of  all  the  great  divisions  of 
the  globe,  judged  by  the  standard  of  civilization  and 
commercial  prosperity.  It  is  only  within  a  few  years  past  that 
the  true  quality  of  the  interior  of  Southern  Africa  has 
become  known,  through  the  researches  of  European  and 
American  explorers  in  the  "dark  continent."  Attempts  to 
colonize  were  begun  by  the  French,  on  the  west  coast,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  and.  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (the 
southern  extremity  of  the  continent,  which  was  first  doubled 
by  Vasco  da  Gama)  the  Dutch  established  a  port  in  1650. 
An  English  trading  company,  a  century  later,  also  located 
here.  The  earliest  explorers  were  James  Bruce,  who  in  1772 
visited  Abyssinia  and  discovered  the  sources. of  the  Blue  Nile, 
and  Mungo  Park,  who  ascended  the  Niger  in  the  earlier  years 
of  the  present  century,  and  was  killed  in  1806  in  the  kingdom 
of  Houasa  by  the  natives.  The  desire  to  discover  the  source 
of  the  Great  Nile  has  impelled  several  explorers  to  pierce 
Central  Africa.  Up  to  his  time,  the  most  successful  of  these 
was  Dr.  David  Livingstone,  who  travelled  in  1849  through  the 
country  watered  by  the  Zambesi,  and  made  a  vast  number  of 


important  discoveries.  Burton,  Speke  and  Baker,  in  their 
hunt  fur  the  Nile's  headwaters,  discovered  lakes  Tanganyika, 
Victoria  Nyanza  and  Albert  Nyanza,  which  were  also  visiied 
by  Livingstone,  who  defined  the  great  water  system  of  the 
Luala.be  or  Chambexe.  Henry  M.  Stanley,  an  American 
journalist,  acting  in  the  capacity  ef  special  correspondent  of 
the  New  York  Herald,  visited  Africa  on  a  commission  to  find 
Livingstone,  who  had  not  been  heard  from  for  some  years, 
and  in  187 1  he  discovered  him  at  Ujiji  in  great  destitution, 
but  still  anxious  to  prCM  forward  into  the  continent,  for  which 
he  had  organized  a  new  expedition.  In  iS73  Livingstone  died, 
and  in  the  following  year  his  body  was  brought  home  and 
interred  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Stanley,  after  parting  with 
Livingstone,  explored  the  Congo  and  has  since  made 
discoveries  which  place  him  In  the  front  rank  of  African 
travelers.  Commerce  is  following  fast  in  the  footstep*  of 
these  adventurous  men,  and  the  colonization  of  the  fer- 
tile territories  they  have  visited  and  described  is  only  a 
matter  of  time.  In  1890  France  owned  2,300.34s  square 
miles;  Germany,  1.035.7:0;  Great  Britain,  1,909,445; 
I tnlv,  360,000;  Spain,  310,000;  Portugal.  774,993;  while 
the  Congo  Free  State  comprised  1.000.000,  and  Liberia 
about  14,30a 


•- 


TV 


EGYPT— UPPER  AND  LOWER  NUBIA. 


315 


5-^L 


Jm 


<^=r-S:i 


Ggypt. 


( 


ert^T 


JiGYPT  is  another  of  those  countries  whose  prehistoric 
E&J.  I  ages  are  wrapped  in  mystery  as  impenetrable  as  the 
sources  of  her  Nile,  whose  exact  location  long 
baffled  the  most  enterprising  of  explorers.  Great 
interest  attaches  to  the  country's  early  annals,  but 
the  stories  of  the  dynasties  which 
succeeded  Menes,  the  founder  of 
Memphis,  of  the  rule  of  the  Pha- 
raohs, and  the  Ptolemies  and  thr 
Cleopatras,  though  pregnant  with 
true  historical  interest,  cannot  here 
be  told,  and  it  will  suffice  to  quote 
the  language  of  a  graceful  historian, 
who  wrote  :  "  It  (Egypt)  attained 
a  high  position  for  wealth  and  the 
institutions  of  civilized  society  when 
all  the  surrounding  countries  dwelt 
in  the  darkness  of  barbarism.  It 
had  a  well  organized  and  efficient 
government  long  before  the  na- 
tional greatness  of  the  Hebrews." 
Moslem  rule  prevailed  in  the  country 
after  their  conquest  of  it  in  639. 
The  Caliphs  were  expelled  by  the 
Turcomans,  who  gave  way  before 
the  Mamelukes  in  1250,  whose  rule 
continued  until  1517,  when  Selim, 
Sultan  of  Turkey,  put  an  end  to 
their  dominion  and  organized  the 
land  as  a  dependency  of  Turkey. 
For  over  two  centuries  the  descend- 
ants of  the  vanquished  Mameluke 
chieftains  opposed  the  Turks.  A 
descent  upon  Egypt  was  made  by 
the  French  under  Napoleon  in  1798, 
but  they  were  obliged  to  withdraw, 
and  the  Mamelukes  were  not  over- 
come until  the  treacherous  massacre 

of  their  leaders  established  the  Pasha  in  quiet  upon  his  vice- 
regal throne.  Mehemet  Ali,  from  an  obscure  position  as  an 
Egyptian  villager,  rose  to  the  position  of  Viceroy,  after  a 
severe  conflict  with  the  Ottoman  forces,  and  under  him  the 
country  made  great  advancement,  and,  while  nominally  tribu- 
tary to  Turkey,  Egypt  enjoyed  nearly  all  the  attributes 
of  an   independent   nation.      He  died   in    1849,   and  in   1863 


BBBBBBBBEBBBBBBBBBBBEBBBEBB 


"^-a 


Ismail  came  to  the  throne,  a  man  of  such  Oriental  extrava- 
gance, both  in  public  improvements  and  personal  expenditures, 
that  he  became  bankrupt,  and  his  abdication  was  brought  about 
by  the  combined  pressure  of  his  English  and  French  creditors. 
His  son,  Mehemet  Tewfik,  succeeded  him,  but  the  actual 
control  of  the  nation  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  an  International 
Commission  of  Liquidation.  The 
burden  of  paying  the  interest  on 
the  enormous  national  debt  which 
Ismail  rolled  up,  amounting  at  the 
close  of  1890  to  about  $535,000,- 
000,  rests  heavy  upon  the  Egyp- 
tian people,  and  the  rebellion  against 
Tewfik,  under  Arabi  Bey,  and  the 
war  which  England  waged  against 
the  Egyptians,  in  support  of  the 
Khedive,  are  of  too  recent  occur- 
rence to  require  more  than  a  passing 
mention.  Of  late  years  the  influ- 
ence of  England  and  France- — 
Egypt's  largest  creditors — has  alter- 
nately predominated  in  the  manage- 
ment of  Egyptian  affairs,  but  the 
success  of  the  English  arms  in  the 
late  war,  in  which  the  French  de- 
clined to  participate,  has  made  the 
country  virtually  a  protectorate  in 
the  hands  of  England,  whose  con- 
trol of  the  Suez  Canal  is  a  matter 
of  vital  importance  to  that  power. 

*3H 


A  STREET  IN  CAIRO,  EGYPT 


In  1820  the  Egyptian  Viceroy 
Mehemet  Ali  pursued  the  Mam- 
elukes southward  and  into  Nubia,  where  they  took 
refuge.  In  the  following  year  he  conquered  the  country 
and  made  it  an  Egyptian  province.  By  the  rebellion  in 
the  Soudan,  Nubia  was  brought  under  the  sway  of  the 
Mahdi ;  it  is  now  subject  to  his  successor,  Khalifa 
Abdullah  el  Taashi. 


K 


316 


rr 


ABYSSINIA— CAPE  COLONY. 


>••••••>••••• •  •!•■#»•••••••  tMtUt  If 


pBYSSINIA. 


M>m«lllllliMIMIIIII 


»    »<•     '$3 


||ARLY  tradition  says  that  the  famous  Queen  of 
Sheba  included  part  of  this  country  within  her 
realm,  and  that  its  subsequent  rulers  were  descended 
from  her.  Fabulous  as  is  the  early  history  of  the 
country,  there  is  no  doubt  that  its  people  had, 
even  in  remote  antiquity,  made  great  advancement  in  civiliza- 
tion. In  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  Christianity  was 
introduced  and  made  great  headway.  A  couple  of  centuries 
later  the  Abyssinians  invaded  Arabia  and  conquered  a  portion 
of  the  southwestern  province  of  Yemen.  In  the  tenth  century 
the  reigning  dynasty  was  overthrown  by  a  Jewish  princess, 
after  which  the  country  remained  in  anarchy  for  three  cen- 
turies, when  the  restoration  of  the  empire,  under  Icon  Amlac, 
brought  about  an  improved  condition  of  affairs.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  friendly  relations  were  cultivated  with  the 
Portuguese,  under  the  influence  of  whose  missionaries  the 
royal  family  adopted  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  In  1541 
the  Turks  threatened  the  country,  and  the  Portuguese  assisted 


the  Abyssinians,  but  were  defeated ;  and  in  1542  it  was  invaded 
by  the  Gallas,  a  race  from  the  south,  who  conquered  and  held 
a  great  part  of  it.  Although  fairly  well  received  at  first,  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  failed  to  gain  a  strong  hold  upon  the 
people,  who,  in  1632,  arose  against  the  priests,  and,  after  killing 
many  of  them,  expelled  the  remainder.  Theodore,  who  became 
King  in  1855,  proved  a  sagacious  and  energetic  monarch,  and 
under  him  Abyssinia  was  extended  over  several  adjacent  prov- 
inces, which  had  for  years  maintained  their  independence.  A 
misunderstanding  occurring  between  him  and  Great  Britain  in 
i860,  he  imprisoned  the  British  Consul,  with  some  missionaries, 
and  treated  them  cruelly  for  some  years.  In  1868  a  British 
army,  under  Lord  Napier,  invaded  the  country,  captured 
Theodore's  stronghold,  Magdala,  and  released  the  prisoners. 
Theodore,  when  the  battle  turned  against  him,  committed 
suicide,  and  the  country  broke  up  into  various  petty 
States;  which,  however,  under  Menelek  of  Shoa,  are 
being  again  brought  together. 


.  =?f& 


^l_ 


(§APE  (sOLONY. 


-:\ 


IM* 


i486  Bartholomeu  Dias,  a  Portuguese  navigator,  discov- 
ered the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  Vasco  da  Gama 
sailed  round  in  the  following  year.  About  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century  the  Dutch  planted  colonies  near 
the  Cape,  conquering  and  enslaving  the  natives.  Increas- 
ing in  numbers  and  growing  in  strength,  the  colonists,  in  1795, 
rebelled  against  the  mother  country,  whereupon  the  Prince  of 
Orange  sent  an  English  fleet  which  established  British  rule. 
In  1802  the  colony  was  restored  to  the  Dutch,  who,  by  1806, 
had  extended  their  domain  eastward  to  the  Great  Fish  River 


V- 


and  westward  nearly  to  the  Orange  River.  In  that  year  the 
ISritish  again  took  possession  of  the  colony,  which  they  have 
since  retained,  though  not  without  great  difficulty  and  expense, 
the  native  Kaffirs,  a  handsome  and  warlike  race,  proving  a 
stubborn  enemy,  in  the  attempted  subjugation  of  whom  several 
sanguinary  wars  have  been  waged.  Government  at  the  Cape 
w.\>  established,  as  it  now  exists,  in  1853,  when  the  authority 
was  vested  in  a  Governor  and  an  Executive  Council  approved 
by  the  Crown,  while  a  Legislative  Council  of  twenty-two 
members  and  a  House  of  Assembly  represent  the  people. 


?i 


^r 


K~ 


MADAGASCAR— THE  BARKARY  STATES. 


317 


tJtJLJLJLJLJL^LJLJLJLJLJLJLJLJLJt 


f  CQadagasgar.  4 

BaBaBaBaBaBaEaBaBaEaBaBaBaEaBaEBa 


3>-.<*o-<Se 


^ADAGASCAR  became  known  to  commerce  in 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  at  which 
time  the  greater  part  of  the  island  was  under  the 
rule  of  King  Radama  I.,  with  whom  England 
formed  a  treaty  in  1816.  From  the  English 
Radama  learned  the  European  art  of  war,  and  his  drilled  troops 
easily  accomplished  the  subjection  of  the  whole  island.  Dying  in 
1828,  he  was  succeeded  by  Ranavala  I.,  who  used  her  power  to 
crush  out  the  Christian  religion,  which  had  been  readily  received 
by  the  natives.  Europeans  were  banished  from  the  island  and 
the  missionary  schools  were  closed.  Her  cruelties  at  last 
aroused  the  Europeans  to  action,  and  in  1845  a  combined  En- 


glish and  French  force  made  an  attack  upon  the  port  of  Tam- 
tave,  but  were  unsuccessful.  Ranavala  died  in  1862  and  was 
succeeded  by  her  son,  Radama  II.,  who  ceded  territory  to 
France.  He  was  assassinated  in  1863,  and  his  wife,  Rasua- 
herina,  succeeded  him.  At  her  death  a  dispute  between  the 
natives  and  Europeans  over  the  succession  was  ended  by  the 
elevation  of  Rainitaiarivoy  to  the  throne  as  Ranavala  II. 
She  became  a  Christian  and  was  baptized,  together  with  her 
husband,  the  Prime  Minister  and  several  of  the  native  nobility. 
Kalimalaza,  the  chief  idol,  and  the  temple  which  contained  it, 
were  destroyed,  and,  stimulated  by  these  acts  of  devotion,  the 
people  rapidly  became  converted  to  Christianity. 


©he  Barbary  Stages.  ': 


THE  region  in  North  Africa  known  as  Barbary  com- 
prises the  countries  of  Algeria,  Morocco,  Tunis  and 
Tripoli.  Algeria's  history  runs  back  to  the  time 
of  Carthage.  Moors  and  Numidians  at  this  time 
C1^J^  occupied  it ;  later  it  became  a  Roman  province,  and 
after  them  the  Vandals  and  Arabians  held  sway  over  the 
land.  In  the  tenth  century  the  Moors  organized  an  independ- 
ent State,  but  for  several  centuries  Algeria  was  nothing  else 
than  a  nest  of  pirates,  whose  vessels  swept  the  seas  as  far  as  the 
North  Sea,  and  forced  tribute  from  all  countries  which  carried 
on  commerce  by  water.  In  1655  the  capital,  Algiers,  was  at- 
tacked by  the  English,  and  in  1682  and  1683  by  the  French, 
but  no  great  impression  was  made.  A  Spanish  expedition 
against  the  city  in  1775  was  signally  defeated.  In  1815  Com- 
modore Decatur,  of  the  American  navy,  after  defeating  an 
Algerian  squadron  off  Carthagena,  threatened  to  bombard 
Algiers,  and  secured  the  release  of  American  prisoners  held  by 
the  Dey  and  his  abandonment  of  a  claim  he  had  made  for  trib- 
ute. In  1816  a  British  Admiral  bombarded  the  city  and  re- 
leased all  Christians  held  in  bondage.  In  1830  France  sent  an 
expedition  of  100  ships-of-war  and  357  transports  to  Algeria, 
and  July  4  of  that  year  Algiers  surrendered,  and  the  French 


took  possession  of  it  and  established  a  military  regency.  A 
holy  war  was  declared  against  the  invaders,  which,  under  the 
Emir  Abd-el-Kader  was  carried  on  until  1847,  when  he 
surrendered  to  General  Lemonciere.  The  Frencli  proclaimed 
Algeria  a  permanent  possession,  but  the  people  were  restless 
under  the  French  yoke,  the  Kabyles  rising  in  insurrection  in 
1851  and  1857,  and  several  revolts  having  occurred  since.  At 
present  the  country  is  in  quiet  submission  to  France,  where  it 
is  represented  in  both  houses  of  the  National  Assembly. 
The  military  rule  was  abandoned  in  1871,  and  a  civil 
Governor-General  and  a  Colonial  Council  administer  the 
affairs  of  State. 

Morocco,  not  having  enjoyed  the  blessing  of  occupation  by 
foreigners  to  any  very  great  extent,  does  not  show  the  same 
promise  of  advancement  which  Algeria  at  present  affords.  Its 
early  history  consists  of  a  succession  of  wars  and  invasions.  In 
the  eighth  century  the  Arabs  conquered  the  country,  and  since 
then  they  have  ruled  it.  In  147 1  the  seaport  of  Tangier  was 
captured  by  the  Portuguese,  who  ceded  it  to  the  English  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  They  held  it  for  only  a  brief  period,  and 
in  1844  it  was  bombarded  by  the  French.  In  1859  the  Span- 
iards declared  war  against  Morocco  and  captured  Tetuan,  these 


A 


!«T 


V 


3i« 


REPUBLICS  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA. 


visitations  all  resulting  from  the  piratical  habits  of  the  mari- 
time Moors  and  their  enslavement  of  Christians  who  came 
within  their  power.  A  Sultan  rules  over  the  country,  but  his 
control  over  the  interior  is  slight. 

In  the  palmy  days  of  its  great  commercial  city,  Carthage, 
Tunis  was  one  of  the  most  important  countries  of  the  world. 
Its  inhabitants,  descendants  of  the  Phoenicians,  conquered 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  part  of  Spain,  and  visited  the 
Scilly  Islands  and  Albion  in  their  trading  vessels.  Its  famous 
generals,  Hamilcar,  Hannibal  and  Asdrubal,  threatened  the 
Roman  power,  but  the  victory  of  Scipio  brought  the  proud  city 
low,  and  the  country  was  made  a  Roman  province.  Later 
on  the  Vandals  and  Mohammedans  overran  it,  but  in  the 
thirteenth  century  its  people  obtained  their  independence. 
Charles  V.  of  Spain  reduced  Tunis  in  the  sixteenth  century 
and  made  it  subject  to  that  country,  and  in  1575  the  Turks  con- 
quered it.  Like  the  inhabitants  of  the  other  Barbary  States, 
the  Tunisians  practiced  piracy  and  enslaved  Christians,  which 
led  them  into  conflicts  with  various  European  powers. 
Tunis  may  now  be  considered  an  informally  annexed  de- 


pendency of  France,  nominally  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Bey,  but  in  reality  under  the  control  of  a  French 
Resident,  The  late  rulers — Achmet,  Mohammed,  Sadyk 
and  Sidi  Pasha — have  proved  enlightened  sovereigns, 
and  under  their  rule  the  country  has  made  considerable 
advancement. 

Tripoli,  the  least  populous  of  the  Barbary  States,  be- 
came subject  to  Rome  during  the  Punic  wars,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Vandals  in  the  fifth  century,  and  was 
conquered  by  the  Turks  later.  Its  capital,  Tripoli,  was 
bombarded  by  the  French  in  1683,  and  early  in  the  pres- 
ent century  Commodore  Decatur  punished  the  inhabit- 
ants for  injuries  their  pirates  had  inflicted  upon  American 
commerce.  From  1815,  the  time  of  Decatur's  last  visita- 
tion, piracy  and  Christian  slavery  have  not  existed  in 
Tripoli.  It  is  a  Vilayet  or  Province  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  ;  its  government  is  administered  by  a  Governor- 
General  ;  and  the  revenue  is  chiefly  raised  by  tribute. 
The  dominant  religion  of  all  the  Barbary  States  is  Mo- 
hammedanism, 


*m  Republics  in  South  ^f^iga. 


&. •>  >••' 


JARTLY  from  national  sentiment,  but  more  as  a  matter 
of  interest,  the  Dutch  settlers  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  after  the  acquisition  of  their  country  by  Great 
Britain  in  1806,  emigrated  in  large  numbers  and, 
moving  north  and  east,  conquered  from  the  warlike 
Zulus  the  country  which  is  now  known  as  Natal,  and 
settled  there.  More  than  10,000  of  the  Boers,  as  they  were 
called,  had  thus  wandered  away  when  the  British  colonists 
made  claim  to  the  territory  which  they  had  occupied,  and  in 
1842  took  possession  of  it.  Others  of  the  emigrant  Boers  set- 
tled on  the  table-land  region  to  the  north  of  the  Orange  River 
and  founded1  the  Orange  Free  State,  whose  President,  in 
1848,  made  an  attempt  to  drive  out  the  British  residents,  but 
was  defeated  and  driven  from  the  country.  In  1851  the  British 
organized  a  colony  of  the  Free  State,  but  in  1854  they  aban- 
doned the  enterprise  and  permitted  the  Boers  to  organize  a 
government  and  guaranteed  them  complete  independence.  A 
third  attempt  by  the  Boers  to  establish  a  republic  resulted  in 
the  colonization  of  the  Transvaal,  whose  independence  was 
acknowledged  in  1852.  Success  crowned  this  effort  until  the 
year  1877,  when,  the  republic  becoming  bankrupt,  annexation 
to  Great  Britain  was  suggested  as  a  remedy.  A  vote  was  taken 
which  resulted  in  the  British  taking  possession  of  the  country. 
Many  of  the  resident  Boers  claimed  that  only  a  minority  of  the 
inhabitants  voted  upon  the  annexation  question,  and  an  emigra- 
tion westward  began,  which  resulted  in  the  settlement  of  the 
Great  Namaqua  land,  on  the  Western  Coast  north  of  the 
Orange  River,  a  movement  which  was  checked  by  the  British, 


who  claimed  that  the  land  was  under  their  jurisdiction.  In 
1880  the  Transvaal  Boers,  who  had  had  enough  of  British  rule, 
attempted  to  re-establish  the  republic.  War  ensued  and  an  army 
which  the  British  sent  from  Natal  to  quell  the  uprising  was 
defeated  with  great  loss.  Further  engagements  with  the  Boers 
proved  disastrous  to  the  British,  who  finally  abandoned  the 
attempt  to  crush  the  republic 

Among  the  minor  countries  of  Africa  is  Liberia,  a  negro 
republic  on  the  grain  coast  of  Upper  Guinea.  Liberia  is  the 
original  accomplishment  of  an  association  known  as  the  Ameri- 
can Colonization  Society,  of  which  Henry  Clay  was  President, 
and  whose  object  was  the  foundation  of  a  colony  of  emanci- 
pated American  slaves.  Failure  attended  the  earliest  attempt 
of  the  society,  but,  having  obtained  a  suitable  location  in  i>_m, 
operations  were  commenced  which  resulted  sua 
town,  which  was  called  Monrovia,  after  the  President  of  the 
United  States  then  in  office,  was  started,  and  a  lot  of  land  was 
given  to  each  settler.  In  1847  Liberia  declared  an  independent 
republic,  which  in  the  following  year  was  recognized  by  Great 
Britain  and,  later  on,  by  others  of  the  European  p 
Although  the  prime  object  of  the  founders  of  the  republic  has 
never  been  realized,  comparatively  few  emancipated  slaw 
ing  left  America  to  settle  there,  Liberia  has  enjoyed  great 
prosperity  and  a  healthy  growth.  Contiguous  negro  trilK> 
have  been  included  within  its  territories,  which  contain 
about  18,000  Americo-Liberians  and  1,050,000  aborigines. 
A  President,  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  are 
charged  with  the  government  of  the  republic. 


k- 


_N 


K 


OCEANICA. 


319 


Sierre  Leone,  a  British  colonial  settlement  adjacent 
to  and  north  of  Liberia,  was  settled  in  1787  by  a  body  of 
several  hundred  destitute  negroes  who  had  been  removed 
from  London  by  a  society  of  philanthropists.  Three 
years  later  they  were  joined  by  over  a  thousand  negroes 
from  Nova  Scotia.  Although  so  near  to  the  negro  re- 
public founded  under  American  auspices,  the  latter  is  far 
healthier  than  Sierre  Leone,  which,  perhaps,  accounts 
for  its  falling  far  short  of  the  progress  accomplished  in 
Liberia. 

The  Congo  Free  State  has  sprung  out  of  the  dis- 
coveries of  Stanley  and  the  explorations  of  the  Interna- 
tional Association,  founded  at  Brussels  for  the  opening 


up  to  civilization  of  the  Congo  and  its  tributaries.  Its 
autonomy  was  recognized  during  1884  and  1885  by  the 
leading  powers  of  Europe,  and  by  the  United  States, 
conditioned  upon  its  maintaining  the  principles  of  free 
trade.  There  are  twelve  territorial  divisions,  the  capital 
being  Boma.  The  central  government  is  at  Brussels,  and 
consists  of  the  King  of  the  Belgians  as  sovereign,  and 
three  departmental  chiefs.  On  the  Congo  there  is  an 
Administrator-General  and  several  European  adminis- 
trators of  stations  and  districts.  The  rest  of  West  Africa 
is  variously  "protected"  by  England,  France,  Germany 
and  Portugal. 


sCEANICA,  sometimes  called  Oceania,  is  the  name 
applied  to  the  fifth  division  of  the  globe,  which  com- 
prises the  Australian  Continent  and  a  majority  of  the 
islands  lying  between  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the 
r^°  China  Sea  on  the  west,  and  the  American  Continent 
on  the  east.  So  vast  is  the  number  of  these  islands  that  only  the 
historical  facts  relating  to  the  largest  of  them  can  be  mentioned. 
Australia  comes  under  its  own  head.  New  Guinea  was 
discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1 5 1 1 .  It  is  now  divided 
between  Holland,  England  and  Germany ;  the  German 
portion  is  called  Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land. 

Borneo,  which,  until  the  naturalist  Wallace's  explorations 
proved  that  New  Guinea  had  the  greater  area,  was  believed  to 
be  the  largest  island  in  the  world  except  Australia,  was  discov- 
ered in  1578  by  the  Portuguese.  In  1690  they  effected  a  settle- 
ment, but  were  soon  driven  out  from  it.  In  1702  and  1774 
England  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  colonize  the  island,  but 
of  late  years  she  has  managed  to  acquire  a  controlling  influ- 
ence over  the  northwestern  coast  of  the  island. 

Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes  ate  among  the  larger  single  islands, 
while  among  the  most  important  groups  are  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, in  which  these  are  included,  and  almost  all  of  which 
have  been  subjugated  by  the  Dutch,  the  Spaniards,  the  Portu- 


guese and  the  British  ;  the  New  Hebrides  and  Polynesia,  which 
general  terms  include,  among  others,  the  Hawaiian,  which  is  one 
of  the  most  important  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  1829  the  inde- 
pendence of  these  islands  was  acknowledged  by  the  United 
States,  who  were  followed  in  1843  by  the  British,  and  in  1844 
by  the  French.  Queen  Liliuokalani,  who  succeeded 
Kalakaua,  and  is  in  many  respects  a  progressive  ruler,  is 
the  present  sovereign  of  the  islands. 

New  Caledonia,  an  island  lying  to  the  east  of  Queensland, 
was  taken  possession  of  in  1853  by  the  French,  who  established 
there  a  naval  station  and  a  penal  colony,  which  are  still  main- 
tained. 

New  Zealand  was  first  visited  by  the  Dutch  navigator  Tas- 
man  in  1642.  A  colony  was  first  established  in  1840.  Gold 
fields  were  discovered  in  1857  which  brought  a  large  immigra- 
tion. Executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  Governor  appointed 
by  the  Crown  ;  there  is  also  a  General  Assembly  consisting  of 
a  Legislative  Council  and  a  House  of  Representatives. 

Tasmania,  formerly  known  as  Van  Dieman's  Land,  ceased 
being  a  penal  colony  in  1853,  since  which  time  its  population 
and  prosperity  have  largely  increased.  A  Governor  appointed 
by  the  Crown  holds  the  executive;  there  are  also  a  Legislative 
Council  and  a  House  of  Assembly. 


>&^^'&^m®>l 


\ 


" 


320 


^r 


AUSTRALIA. 


-<32==5 


#    pUSTI^ALIA.    # 

<g"^ 


NOTHING  was  known  of  this  vast  island  until  1606, 
when  a  Dutch  sea-captain,  sent  from  Java  in  the 
yacht  Duyfen  on  a  voyage  of  exploration  of  the  New 
Guinea  coast,  viewed  its  northern  shores.  A  Portu- 
guese navigator  the  same  year  passed  through  Torres 
In  1619  the  western  coast  was  seen  by  a  Dutch  captain, 
who  gave  it  the  name  of  Endracht's  Land,  and  in  1622  the  south- 
west coast  was  discovered.  Tasmania  was,  in  1642,  visited  by 
Tasman,  who,  a  month  afterwards,  visited  New  Zealand.  Fre- 
quent new  discoveries  were  made  from  time  to  time,  and  in  1770, 
Captain  Cook,  then  on  his  first  voyage,  explored  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  eastern  coast,  which  he  called  New  South  Wales. 
Passing  through  the  strait  which  bears  his  name,  Dr.  Bass,  a 
navy  surgeon,  ascertained  the  separation  of  Australia  and  Tas- 
mania. In  1788  the  English  established  a  penal  station  at 
Botany  Bay,  New  South  Wales,  which  was  afterwards  removed 
to  Sydney.  The  existence  of  a  convict  colony  in  their  midst 
did  not  harmonize  with  the  spirit  of  those  who  formed  a  free 
colony  in  New  South  Wales,  and  the  station  was  removed  to 
Tasmania,  where  it  remained  until  its  abolition,  in  1853. 
Strenuous  efforts  were  made  to  induce  immigration  to  the 
colony,  but  up  to  1850  only  50,000  Europeans  had  settled 
there.  A  year  later,  however,  the  discovery  of  gold  in  a  dis- 
trict of  New  South  Wales  induced  thousands  to  go  to  the 
mines,  and  within  a  year  the  population  had  increased  by 
200,000.  All  ordinary  occupations  were  given  up,  the  gold 
fever  became  epidemic,  business  was  abandoned,  values  were 
inflated,  and  when  the  inevitable  crash  came,  a  large  amount  of 
suffering  occurred.  At  last  the  crisis  was  passed,  and,  settling 
down  to  the  development  of  the  country,  the  peoole  soon  found 


that  it  had  vast  natural  resources  which  outweighed  in  impor- 
tance even  the  gold  mines  in  productiveness.  A  Governor, 
nominated  by  the  Queen,  holds  the  executive  power  in  New 
South  Wales,  and  all  enactments  passed  by  the  lower  Legisla- 
ture require  royal  sanction  before  becoming  law. 

Queensland,  the  colony  which  occupies  the  northeastern 
portion  of  the  continent,  was  established  in  1859,  It  hasa  Par- 
liament of  two  houses,  the  Legislative  Council  and  Legislative 
Assembly.  A  Governor  appointed  by  the  Queen  holds  the 
executive  power. 

South  Australia  was  first  colonized  in  1836  by  British 
emigrants,  who  suffered  greatly  during  the  earlier  years  of  their 
settlement.  Copper  mines  of  great  richness  were  discovered  in 
1843,  which  gave  impetus  to  the  colony.  Executive  power  is 
vested  in  a  Governor  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  an  Execu- 
tive Council  composed  of  the  responsible  Ministers  and  mem- 
bers especially  appointed.  Legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
Parliament  elected  by  the  people. 

Victoria  was  settled  in  1835,  and  in  1840  an  attempt  was 
made  to  form  a  Government  distinct  from  that  of  New  South 
Wales,  which  was  unsuccessful  In  1851  the  colony  became 
independent,  and,  the  rush  to  the  mines  occurring  in  that  year, 
arrivals  at  the  rate  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand  a  month 
began  to  swell  its  population.  The  Government  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  other  colonies. 

Western  Australia  was  first  settled  in  1829,  and  its  devel- 
opment was  slow  for  many  years.  Lately,  however,  there  has 
been  an  increase  of  agricultural  prosperity.  The  colony 
is  ruled,  since  1890,  by  a  Governor  and  a  Parliament 


AUSTRALASIAN  FEDERATION. 


In  1889  the  premier  of  New  South  Wales  advised  "a 
national  convention  for  the  purpose  of  devising  and  re- 
porting upon  an  adequate  scheme  of  Federal  Govern- 
ment." The  matter  was  taken  up  by  the  Australasian 
governments  and  a  conference  met  in  Melbourne  in  1890 
and  adopted  an  address  to  the  Queen  embodying  resolu- 
tions in  favor  of  federation.  The  Australasian  Federal 
Convention,  which  nssembled  at  Sidney  in  1891,  passed  a 
bill  by  which,  subject  to  consent  of  the  Imperial  Parlia- 
ment and  of  the  colonies  themselves,  a  Federal  Constitu- 
tion comes  to  pass  for  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia ; 


over  which  a  Governor-General,  appointed  by  the  Sov- 
ereign, is  to  hold  sway;  each  "State"  to  contribute  to  the 
Commonwealth  Parliament  representatives  from  its  indi- 
vidual Legislature — this  Parliament  comprising  a  directly 
elected  House  of  Representatives  and  a  Senate  composed 
of  delegates  from  all  the  States.  The  Constitution  pro- 
vides for  seven  Ministers'  to  assist  the  Governor-General, 
to  be  known  as  "the  Queen's  Minister-  of  State  for  the 
Commonwealth  of  Australia;"  for  a  Supreme  Court, 
whose  functions  render  unnecessary  the  Privy  Council; 
and  for  interstate  free  trade. 


'■ 


MAPS  OK 

1 

States  and  Territories, 

With  Comparative  Statistics,  Area, 
Population,  Railroads,  Etc. 


ALASKA  was  purchased  from  Russia  in  1S67  for  $7,500,- 
;»o,  and  the  United  States  Government  has  long  ago  re- 
,1  that  sum  from  the  seal  fisheries. 

Fishing,  1  inning,  trapping  and  mining  are  the  princi- 
pal Industries. 

Population  in  1S90,  4,303  whites,  23,274  Indians,  i.SiQ 
mixed  and  2,399  Mongolians  and  others. 

Climate  modified  by  Pacific  Gulf  stream  and  long 
summer  days. 

The  winter  temperature  at  Sitka  averages  about  the 
as  Washington,  D.  C. 

MAINE  (Pine  Tree  State)— Settled  by  French  at  Bris- 

15;   admitted  to  the   Union,    1820.     Ranks  fifth   in 

heat  and  copper;  eighth  in  hops  and  potatoes; 
eleventh  in  hay;  twenty-first  in  wealth;  twenty-seventh 
in  population;  thirty-third  in  miles  of  railway;  thirty- 
sixth  in  square  miles. 

Industries. — Extensive   lumber  and   ship-building  trade,  fisheries,  cotton,  woolens,  tanned   and  curried   leather,  boots  and  shoes,  lime,  etc.     The 

1  agricultural  portion  of  the  State  lies  in  the  valley  of  St.  John  and  between  the   Penobscot  and  Kennebec  Rivers. 
Salaries  of  State  Officers— Governor,  $2,500;  Secretary  of  State,  $1,500;  Treasurer,  $2,000;  Attorney  General,  $1,500;  Adjotnnt  General.  $1,500;  Sup. 
Common  Schools,  $1,500;  Sec.  Board  of  Agr.,  $1,500;    State    Librarian,  $600;  Chief  Justice,  $3,500;  7  Associated  Justices,  $3,000;  Senators  and  Representatives, 
1150,  mileage,  20  cents;  District  Judge,  $3,500;  Col.  Int.  Rev.,  $2,500;  Collector  of  Customs,  $6,000;  Surveyor  of  Customs,  $4,500;  Pension  Agent,  $4,000. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE  (Granite  State)— First  settlement  by  the  English  at  Little  Harbor,  1623.     Ranks   third  in  manufacture  of  cotton  goods;    fifteenth   in 
Mtatoes;  twenty-second  in  wealth;  thirty-first  in  population;  thirty-seventh  in  miles  of  railway;  forty-first  in  square  miles. 

INDUSTRIES — Largely  engaged  in  manufacturing;  the  abundant  water  power  affords  great  advantages.     Agriculture,  pasturage   and  drainage  occupy  a 
arge  number. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers — Governor,  $2,000;  Sec.  of  State.  $Soo  and  fees;   Treasurer,  $1,800;  Attorney  General,  $2,200;  Supt.  Pub.  Ins.,  $2,000;   3  R. 
ft.  Commissioners,  $2,000  to  $2,500;  Adjutant   General,  $1,000;  Sec.   Bd.  Agriculture,  $1,000;  Librarian,  $Soo;  Chief  Justice,  $3,500;  6  Associated  Justices,  $2,700; 
is.  Representatives,  $3  a  day  and  mileage;  District  Judge,  $3,500;  Pension  Agent,  $4,000;  Collector  Internal  Revenue,  $3,125. 
VERMONT  (Green    Mountain  State) — First   settled  by  the   English,    Ft.   Dummer,   1764.     Ranks  fourth   in   copper;   seventh   in   hops  and  buckwheat; 
;wentv-six  in  wealth;  thirty-second  in  population;  fortieth  in  square  miles;  forty-first  in  miles  of  railway. 


Industries. — 

The  State  is  no* 
.ted  for  its  rich 
quarries  of  mar- 
ble, so  a  p  stone 
and  slate,  which 
arc  worked  a  t 
several  points. 
It  is  also,  noted 
as  a  good  graz- 
ing country.  The 
dairy  products 
are  extensive 
and  valuable. 
Stock  raising  is 
carried  on  to  a 
considerable  ex- 
tent. 

Salaries  of 
State  Officers 
(Vermont)  Gov- 
ernor, $1)500; 
Lieut.  Gov.,  $6  a 
day;  Secretary  of 
State,  $1,700; 
Trtasurer,$i,7oo; 
Auditor,  $2,000; 
Insp.  Finances, 
$500;  R.  R.  Com., 
$500;  Adjutant 
General,  $750; 
Supt.  Public  In- 
struction, $1,400; 
Chief  Justice,  $2,- 
500;  6  Asso.  Jus- 
tices, $2,500; 
Senators,  Repre- 
sentatives, $3  a 
day;  Dist.  Tudjge, 
$3,500;  Col.  Int. 
Revenue,  $2,650; 
Collector  of  Cus- 
toms, $1,000  and 
fees. 

305* 


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MASSACHUSETTS  (Bay 
State) — First  settled  by  Buff* 
lish  at  Plymouth.  Hanks 
first  in  cotton,  woolen  and 
worsted  goods,  cod  and 
mackerel  fishing;  second  in 
commerce;  third  in  manufac- 
tories, printing  and  publish- 
ing; fourth  in  silk  goods; 
fifth  in  soap  and  in  wealth; 
sixth  in  iron  and  steel; 
seventh  in  population;  ninth 
in  agricultural  im piemen!  |* 
twenty-fifth  in  miles  of  rail- 
way; forty-second  in  square 
miles. 

Manufactures  leather 
and  morocco,  bleaching  and 
dyeing,  fiour  and  meal,  lum- 
ber and  furniture,  mol 
and  sugar  refining,  machiu- 
ery,  ship  building,  animal 
and  vegetable  oils,  fish  in- 
dustry. 

Industries. — M  anufac- 


tures  and  commeref 
engage  the   attention 
inU.  The  State 
second    in    commerce, 
third  in  manufacturing 
middle    and    western 
are  fertile.  Farms  are 
cultivated.      The    cod 
mackerel  fishing  is 
portent   industry,     the 
ranking  first  in  this  indt 


1 


Salaries  of  State  Officers. 

Governor t&jHH 

I.t   Governor a^Oflfl 

f  State SJSM 

arer &■!■■■ 

Auditor 

Attorney  Gen 

Chief  Justice  T&M 

6  Asso.  Justices.. 

District  Judge 4.'»0 

Senators  and      /    $050  pctfl 

Representath  1 

i   *  * 

3  Col.  Int.  Rev.,$: 

Col.  of  Cus..  I 

Naval   Officer 


RHODE  ISLAND  (Little  Rhody)— First  settlement  by  the  English,  Providence,  1636.  Ranks  second  in  cotton,  flax  and  linen  goods;  twentieth  in  weattfcfl 
thirty-third  in  population-  forty-sixth  in  square  miles;  forty-seventh  in  miles  of  railway. 

"  Industries — The   State   is  largely  engaged  in  manufacturing,  cotton  and  woolen  goods  being  the  largest.     It  has  considerable  commerce.     Farming  is 

done  to  some  little  extent;  the  chief  productions  are  grains,  fruit,  butter  and  cheese. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers. 

Governor S31000       Commissioner  of  Public  Schools 

Lieutenant  Governor 600       Chief  Justice 


tary  of  State _ 2,500 

General  Treasurer 2,500 

State  Auditor  Insurance  Commissioner 2,500 

Railroad  Commissioner 1,000 

Attorney  General . 3,500 

Adjutant  General (500 

CONNECTICUT  (Nutmeg  State)— First  settlement  by  the  English,  at  Windsor,  1635.     Ranks  first  in  clocks;  third  in  silk  goods;  fourth  in  cotton 
eighth  in  tobacco;  fourteenth  in  wealth;  twenty-third  in  population;  thirty-ninth  in  miles  of  railway;  fortv-fourth  in  square  mile*. 

Manufactures  cotton  and  woolen   goods,  hardware,  worsted,  bleaching  and  dyeing,  jewelry,  plated  ware,  leather  goods. 


4  Associated  Justices 4jb^H 

is  and  Representatives $1  per  day;   mileage  g  < 

District  Judge 

Appraiser  of  Customs. 

Clerk 

3  Collectors. 


2 


Industries. — 
Agriculture  and 
manufact  u  ring 
ate  carried  on  to 
a  considerable 
extent  by  its  in- 
habitants. Sev- 
eral extensive 
granite  and  free- 
st on  e  quarries 
are  successfully 
worked,  as  are 
also  mines  of  sil- 
ver, lead,  copper 
;uul  iron.  Many 
of  t  he  towns 
SO  exten- 
sive coasting 
trade  and  for- 
eign commerce 
with  the  West 
Indies, 

Salaries  or 
State  Offi- 
j,  — Gover- 
nor, ?4,ckx>;  l.t. 
(iovernor,  $500  ; 
Scc'y  of  S 
$1,500;  Trcasur- 
«r, $1*500;  Comp- 
troller, $1,500; 
Bd.  of 
Kducat'n,  $3,000; 
Adjutant   I  ■  ■ 

$1,200;  Ins.  1 
«'5°°i     3    *h      •*■; 

f3yooo;Cbiei 

$4,000;    Sen 

Kept. 

$300   a  n  d    niile- 

ag«;  I>ist.  Judge, 

$3,500;  1  CoL.  Int. 

.    $3,000;      13 

Dspuj 

»Soo    to    $!,• 

775;  Stmpd 
Agent,  $1,500. 

306* 


NEWYORK  (Empire  State) 
— First  settlement  by  the 
Dutch  at  New  York  (New 
Amsterdam),  1614.  Ranks 
first  in  valu  e  of  manufacto- 
ries, population,  soap,  print- 
ing and  publishing,  hops, 
bay,  potatoes,  buckwheat, 
milch  cows,  and  wealth ; 
second  in  salt,  silk  goods, 
malt  and  distilled  liquors, 
and  barley;  third  in  agri- 
cultural implements,  iron 
ore,  iron  and  steel,  oats  and 
rye;  fourth  in  wool  and 
miles  of  railway;  twenty- 
seventh  In  square  miles. 

Industries. — In  popula- 
tion, wealth  and  commerce 
New  York  is  the  first  in  the 
Union.  The  commerce  ex- 
tends to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  Manufacturing  is 
large,  and  constantly  in- 
creasing. Agriculture  is  one 
of  the  chief  pursuits,  wheat 


and  corn  being  the  staple 
productions.  The.  develop- 
ment of  the  salt  springs  of 
the  interior  is  also  one  of 
the  industries  of  the  State. 
Its  magnificent  system  of 
canals  and  railroads  has 
done  much  to  increase  its 
domestic  trade. 

Salaries  of  State  Of- 
ficers—  Governor,  |io,ooo 
and  house;  Lieut.  Governor, 
l5,ooo;  Secretary  of  State, 
$5,000;  Treasurer,  $5,000; 
Comptroller,  $6,000  ;  Attor- 
ney General,  $5,000 ;  Chief 
Justice, $10,000;  Senators  and 
Representatives,  $1,500  and 
10  cents  mileage;  3  District 
Judges, $4,000;  Pension  Ag't, 
$4,000;  Postage  Stamp  AgH, 
$2,500;  Division  Superinten- 
dent Railway  Service,  $2,500; 
12  Collectors  Internal  Reve- 
nue, $2,750  to  $4,000;  Collector 
Customs  New  York,  $12,000; 
Superintendent  Assay  O., 
$4,5°°- 


NEW  JERSEY  (Jersey  Blue)— First  settlement  by  the  Dutch  at  Bergen,  1620.  Ranks  first  in  fertilizing  marl,  zinc,  and  silk  "goods;  fourth  in  iron  ore; 
•fifth  in  iron  and  steel;  sixth  in  buckwheat,  manufactories,  and  soap;  seventh' in  rye;  twelfth  in  wealth;  nineteenth  in  population;  twenty-sixth  in  miles 
of  railway;  forty-third  in  square  miles.  Manufactures:  molasses  and  sugar  refilling,  flour,  machinery,  leather  and  leather  goods,  hats,  caps  and  clothing, 
woolen  arid  cotton  goods,  bleaching  and  dyeing,  glass.  Industries:  The  commerce  of  the  State  is  small,  its  manufactures  large  and  various.  Its  shad  and 
oyster  fisheries  are  extensive.  Mining  is  also  a  leading  industry.  But  its  chief  industry  is  agriculture  and  market  gardening,  the  State  being  one  immense 
garden,  the, mildness  of  its  climate  being  such  that  small  fruits  are  very  productive,  and  being  adjacent  to  the  markets  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  farmers 
and  fruit  raisers  find  large  profits  from  their  labor.  Salaries  of  State  officers.  Governor,  $10,000;  Secretary  of  State,  $6,000;  Treasurer,  $6,000;  Comptroller, 
Jj6,ooo;  Atty.  Gen.,  $7,000;  Supt.  Pub.  Inst.,  $3,000;  Adjutant  Gen.,  $1,200;  Librarian,  $2  000;  Chief  Justice,  $[0,ooo;  8  Asso.  Justices,  $7,000;  Chancellor,  $10,000; 
Senators  and  Representatives,  $500  a  year;  District  Judge,  $3,500;  Superintendent  Lite  Saving  Service,  $1,800;  39  Keepers,  $700. 

PENNSYLVANIA  (Keystone  State)— First  settlement,  English,  Philadelphia,  16S2.  Ranks  first  in  rye,  iron  and  steel,  petroleum  and  coal;  second  in 
wealth,  population,  manufactories,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  printing  and  publishing;  third  in  miles  of  railway,  niilch  cows,  hay,  soap;  fourth  in  oats  and  tobacco; 
fifth  in  silk  goods,  wool,  malt  and  distilled  liquors;  sixth  in  salt,  copper,  and  agricultural  implements;  eighth  in  horses  and  sheep;  thirtieth  in  square  miles. 
Industries:     Pennsylvania  ranks  next  to  New  York  in  wealth,  population  and  manufactures.    The  people   are  largely  engaged  in   agriculture,  mining  and 


£  MAP  OP 

NEW  JERSEY 

Area  Sq  mlles7,45_5 


manufa  c  tu  r  e  s  ; 
wheat,  corn,  or- 
chard fruits,  pota- 
toes, butter  and 
wool  are  the  chief 
prod  ucts.  The 
farms  are  gener- 
al 1  y  large  and 
well  conducted. 
The  manufacto- 
ries are  very  ex- 
tensive, and  com- 
prise a  great  va- 
riety of  articles; 
iron,  cotton  and 
woolen  goods  be- 
ing the  leading 
articles.  In  the 
production  of  coal 
and  iron  Pennsyl- 
v  an  i  a  surpasses 
all  other  States. 

Sal ar  1  es  of 
State  Officers 
— Governor  $  1  o,- 
000;  Lieut.  Gov., 
$3,000;  Secretary 
of  State,  $4,000; 
Treasurer,  $5,000; 
Auditor  General, 
$3,000;  Attorney 
General,  $3  ,500; 
Chief  Justice,  $8,- 
500;  6  Associate 
Justices,  $  8,  o  00; 
Senat'rs  and  Rep- 
resentatives, $  1,- 
000  for  100  days, 
$10  per  day,  mile- 
age 5  cents;  2  Dis- 
trict Judges,  $4,- 
000;  2  Pension 
Agents,  $4,000;  10 
Collectors  Inter- 
nal Revenue,  $2.- 

375  to  $4.5°°;  Co'- 
lector  Customs 
Philadelphia,  $8,- 
000. 

307* 


DELAWARE   mine  Hen 
State)— Fir  ut  by 

Swtdc    a  Capo    Ilenlopcn, 
J627.     Ranks  twenty-first  in 
orchard    products;    t  h  i  rt  y- 
third    in    wealth  ;    thirty- 
seventh  in  population;  forty- 
fifth  in  square  miles;   forty- 
sixth   In    miles     of   railway. 
Industries — The  principal 
pursuits  are  agriculture  and 
mining-.     Fruit    jjmws    in 
.    Consider* 
manufacturing-    is  done 
In  the   northern    part    of   the 
State. 

SALARIES  of  State  Offi- 
(  i  HS-(iov.,  $2,000;  Sec'y  of 
State,  $1,000;  Treasurer,  $i,- 
700;  Auditor,  $1,200;  Adjt. 
General,  $200;  Attv.  Gen., 
$1,500;  Supt.  Public  Ins.,  In- 
state Librarian,  J550; 
Chief  Justice,  $3,000;  Chan- 
cellor, $3,000;  3  Asso.  Jus- 
tices, $2,5005  Senators  and 
Kenresentati ves,  $3  per  day 
and  mileage;  District  Ji  dge, 
$3,500;  District  Attorney, 
$200  and  fees;  Collector  of 
Internal  Revenue,  $2,875. 


Salaries  of  State  Officers — Governor,  $4,500; 


Ranks  first  in  peanuts;  second  in  tobacco;  eighth  in  salt  and  iron  ore,  fourteenth 
-st  in  square  miles.  Industries:  Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry;  tobacco, 
re  vast;   the  mountains  containing  rich  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  valuable  marble. 


MARYLAND.-  I 
t  bv the E: 

Hanks  ftfltj^^H 
in  fisheries;   fourth   in    c 
Seventh    in    I 
in  copper;    ninth  i 
thirteenth  in  wcalth;tw. 
third  in    populati 
first    in     miles    ol 
thirty-ninth  in  sq 

Manufactures:    F  I 
and  meal,  cooper  smell 
sugar  and  molasses  reri; 
cotton    goods,    Inmber 
furniture,  malt  and   di>: 
liquors,  tobacco  and  cigars, 
canned  oysters, fish  and 
tables, 
ing,  printing  and  nublis; 

Fniu  sthiks. — The  c 
industry  is  agriculture: 
wheat  and  tobacco  being  the 
leading     product^ 

large     qnantitil 
other  cereals  are   prod 
Manufacturing  is  la 
Mining  of  coal  is  extent 
The  foreign  commerce  1  ■ 
State  is    carried    on  chiefly 
through    the    city  of   Balti- 
more, which  has  all  th- 
vantages  of  a  seaport.    The 
chief  exports    are    tobacco, 
flour,  canned  fruits  and  oys- 
ters. 

Secretary  of  State,  $2,000;   Treasurer,  $2,500;   Comptroller,  $2,500;   Attorney  General,  $3,000;   Chief 
lusticc,  $3,500;  7  Associate  justices,  $3,500;  District  juo'ge,  $4,000;   Senators  and  Representatives,  $5  per  day  and  mileage;    2  Collectors  Internal    Revenue,  1 
to  $4,500;  Collectors  of  Customs,  $7,000;  2  Collectors,  $250  to  $1,200  and  fees;  Auditor,  $2,500;  Naval  Officer,  $5,000;  Surveyor,  $4,500. 

VIRGINIA  (Old  Dominion)— First  settlers,  English,  Jamestown,  1607. 
in  population;  sixteenth  in  wealth;  eighteenth  in  miles  of  railway;   thirty-first 

wheat,   corn  and  potatoes  being  the  great  staples.     The  mineral  resources  are  vast;   the  mountains  containing  i.„_ 

slate  and  stone  quarries,  with  important  salt  springs.    The  leading  manufactures  are  prepared  tobacco  and  flour.     The  unlimited  water  power  with  rich  mineral 
deposits  must  sooner  or  later  make  Virginia  a  great  manufacturing  State. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers— Governor,  $5,000;  Lieutenant  Governor,  $000;  Secretary  of  State,  $2,000;  Treasurer,  $2,w.  Auditor,  $3,000;  Sec. 
Auditor,  2,000;  Attorney  General,  $2,500;  Superintendent  Public  Instruction,  $2,500;  Adjutant  General,  $600;  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  £300;  ^""^"fl 
ent  of  Land  Office,  $1,300-  President  Supreme  Court,  $3,250;  4  Judges  Supreme  Court,  $3,000;  2  District  Judges,  $3,500;  Senators  and  Representatives,  $540  per 
year;  5  Collectors  Internal  Revenue,  $3,000  to  $4,500. 

WEST  VIRGINIA  (Pan  Handle  State)— First  settlers  English,  Wheeling,  1774.  Admitted  to  Union,  1863.  Ranks  fifth  in  salt  and  coal;  eighth  in  buck- 
wheat, iron  and  steel;  twenty-ninth  in  population;  thirty-fourth  in  miles  of  railway;  thirty-eighth  in  square  miles. 

Industries — 
Agricu  1 1  u  r e  is 
the  leading  in- 
dustry, the  prin- 
cipal staples  be- 
Ing  tobacco, 
wheat  and  corn. 
The  mountain 
pastures  are  well 
adapted  to  stock 
raising.  Its  min- 
eral resources  are 
rich  deposits  ot 
coal,  iron  and 
numerous  oil 
wells  and  salt 
springs. 

Sala  ries  of 
State  Officers 
— Governor,  $2,- 
700;  Secretary  of 
State,  $1,000  and 
fees;    Treasurer, 

$1,4  00  ;    Auditor, 

$  2,  000  and  fees; 

Superintendent  of 

Schools,  $1,- 
500;  Attv.  Gen., 
$1,300;  Presiding 
J  u  d  g  e  Supreme 
Court,  $2,250:  v  _ 
so,  iate  Judges, 
$2,250;  Senators 
and  Representa- 
tives, $4  p<  1 
mile.!- 

District    J  u  d  g  c, 
$3,500: 

1  titer.     ltev« 


908* 


NORTH  CAROLINA  (Old 
"North  State)— First  settlers, 
dish.  Cowan  river,  1650. 
Ranks  tirst  in  tar  and  tur- 
pentine; second  in  copper; 
third  in  pea  nuts  and  tobacco; 
fourth  in  rice;  ninth  in  cot- 
ton; fifteenth  in  population; 
twentieth  in.  miles  of  rail- 
way; twenty -third  in  wealth; 
twenty-sixth    in     square 

Industries  — Agriculture 
is  the  leading  industry,  the 
thief  articles  being  corn, 
wheat,  tobacco,  sweet  pota- 
toes, oats,  rice  and  cotton. 
Vast  forests  furnish  three 
times  as  much  pitch,  tar  and 
resin  as  all  the  other  States 
together.  Valuable  go)  d 
mines  are  extensive; 
wrought  iron,  copper  and 
coal  also  abound. 

Salaries  of  State 
Offic  e  r  s — Governor,  $3,- 
000;  Secretary  of  State,  $2,- 
000;  Treasurer,  $3,000;  Audi- 
tor, $1,500;  Attorney  Gener- 
al, $2,000;  Superintendent 
Public  Instruction,  $1,500; 
Adjutant  Gen.,  $600;  Com- 
missioner of  Agriculture, 
$1,200$  State  Librarian,  $750; 
Chief  Justice,  $2,500;  2  Asso- 


A. 


ciatc  Justices,  $2,500;  Sena- 
tors and  Represents 
$4  per  day,  mileage  10  cents; 
4  Collectors  Internal  Reve- 
nue, $2,500  to  $3,750;  64  Depu- 
ty Collectors,  $300  to  $1,700. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA  (Pal- 
metto State) — First  settlers, 
English,  Ashley  river.  1 
Ranks  first  in  phosphates 
and  rice;  fifth  in  cotton; 
twentieth  in  population; 
twenty-eighth  in  miles  of 
railway;  thirtieth  in  wealth; 
thirty- seventh  in  square 
miles. 

Industries  — Agriculture 
is  the  principal  industry,  the 
State  producing  a  larger 
amount  of  rice  than  any 
other  State.  "Sea  Island  Cot- 
ton" is  of  the  finest  quality, 
and  superior  to  all  other, 
and  is  raised  on  several  isl- 
ands along  the  coast  of  this 
State  and  Georgia.  Corn, 
oats,  wheat,  sweet  potatoes 
and  tobacco  are  extensively 
raised.  The  export  of  rice 
and  cotton  is  large.  But  few 
manufactures  are  as  yet  es- 
tablished in  the  State,though 
considerable  attention  is  be- 
ing given  to  them. 


Salaries  of  State  Officers— Governor,  $3,500;  Lieut.  Governor,  $1,000;  Secretary  of  State,  $2,100:  Treasurer,  $2,100;  Comptroller  General,  $2,100; 
Attorney  General,  $2;ioo;  Superintendent  Public  Instruction,  $2,100;  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  $2,100;  Adjutant  and  Inspector  General,  $1,500;  Chief  Justice, 
$4,000;  Associate  Justices,  $3,500;  Clerk  of  Supreme  Court,  $1,000;  Senators  and  Representatives,  $5  per  day,  mileage  10  cents;  District  Judge,  $3,500;  Collector 
of  Internal  Revenue,  $3,250. 

GEORGIA  (Empire  State  of  South) — First  settlement,  by  the  English,  Savannah,  1733.  Ranks  second  in  rice  and  sweet  potatoes;  third  In  cotton  and 
molasses;  fourth  in  sugar;  seventh  in  mules;  tenth  in  hogs,  thirteenth  in  population;  fifteenth  in  miles  of  railway;  nineteenth  in  square  miles;  twenty-fifth  in 
wealth. 

Industries— The  leading  industry  is  agriculture,  the  products  being  corn,  rice,  cotton  and  sweet  potatoes,  and  manufacturing,  in  which  it  leads  all  other 
Southern  States,  having  fine  facilities.     Gold,  iron,  marble  and  slate  abound. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers— Governor,  $3,000;  Secretary  of  State,$2,ooo;  Treasurer,  $2,000;  Comptroller  General,  $2,000;  Attorney  General,  $2,000;  Com- 
missioner of  Agriculture,  $2,500;  Chief  Justice,  $2,500;  Associate  Justices,  $2,500;  Senators  and  Representatives,  $4  per  day  and  mileage;  3  District  Judges, 
43,500;  Div.  Supt.  Railway  Service,  $2,500;  Collectors  Internal  Revenue,  $2,500  to  $3,125;  24  Deputy  Collectors,  $300  to  $1,700;  Customs  Surveyor,  $1,000  and  fees. 

Admitted  to  the  Union,  1845.     Ranks  third  in  sugar  and   molasses; 
vay;  thirty-fourth  in  population;  thirty-sixth  in  wealth. 


FLORIDA  (Peninsula  State) — First  settlement,  by  the  Spaniards,  at  St.  Augustine,  1565. 
tixth  in  rice;  tenth  in  cotton;  twenty-first  in  square  miles;  twenty-seventh  in  miles  of  railv 


Indus t  rif.  s — 
The  inhabitants 
confine  the  m- 
selves  to  agricul- 
ture. The  chief 
products  are  cot- 
ton, sugar  cane, 
rice ,  corn  and 
sweet  potatoes, 
and  tropical  fruits 
of  great  variety. 
There  is  consid- 
erable trade  also 
in  lumber. 

Salaries  of 
State  Officers 
— Gov'nor,  $3,500; 
Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor, $500;  Sec- 
retary of  State, 
$1,500;  Treasurer, 
$2,000;  Comptrol- 
ler, $2,000;  Attor- 
ney General,  $1,- 
500;  Superintend- 
ent Pub.  Instruc- 
tion,$1,500;  Adju- 
tant General,  $1,- 
t;oo;  Land  Com- 
nfissioner,  $1,200; 
Chief  Justice,  $3,- 
[00;  2  Asso.  Just's 
13,000;  Senators 
and  Representa- 
tives, $6  per  day 
and  10  cents  mile- 
a  g  e  ;  2  District 
Judges,  $3,5°°  \ 
Collector  Internal 
Revenue,  $3,000; 
Surveyor  Gen'ral, 
$1,800;  Chief  C'k., 
$1,600. 

309* 


ALABAMA-First  settle- 
ment, by  the  French,  at  Mo- 
bile, 171 1 .  Admitted  to  the 
'Tni'>n,  1819.  Ranks  fourth 
in  cotton,  fifth  in  mules  and 
I  lata,  sixth  in  sugar, 
t.cvcnth  in  rice  and  iron  ore, 
tenth  in  bituminous  coal, 
uteenth  in  population, 
nineteenth  in  miles  of  rail- 
way, twenty-sixth  in  square 
miles  and  twenty-eighth  in 
■wealth. 

I  j  rsxRiES — The  com- 
merce of  the  State  is  consid- 
erable, its  manufacturing  in- 
terests are  increasing  rapid- 
ly, chiefly  cotton  ana  cotton 
(roods,  yarn,  thread,  iron, 
eather  and  lumber.  Its  min- 
ing interests  are  very  COD* 
siuerable;  but  the  principal 
industry  is  agriculture,  cot- 
ton and  corn  being  the  lead- 
i  n  g    productions;    other 

? grains,  sugar  cane,  rice  and 
obacco  are  also  produced. 
Salaries  ok  State  Offi- 
cers— Governor,  $3,000;  Sec, 
State,  $1,800;  Treasurer,  $2,- 
100;  Auditor,  $1,800:  Attor^y 
Gen.,  $1,500;  Supt.  Pub.  Ins. 
$2,250;  Librarian,  $1,500;  3 
K.  K.  Corners,  $2,000  to  $3,- 
500;  Chief  Justice,   $3,000;    2 


per  day  and  20  cei 
age;  3  Dirt.  Judfft 
2  Collectors  ! 

■ 

C.  llJQOOtot 


Admitted  to  the  1 
Ranks  Mrcond  in- 
in  rice,  sixth    in 
molasses,    seventh  in  m 
eighteenth      in       pnpul. 
-  -fnurth    in     mi!' 
railway  and  twenty-ninth  in 
square  miles  and  wealth. 

IlfDUSTKIfta—  Mississippi 
is  aJiit  ■  ly  am   ag- 

ricultural State.  Great  «, 
tities  of  rice,  corn  and  1 
and  sweet  potatoes  are 
duccd.     Many  tropical  fruita 
grow  in  abundance.  The  la- 
bor is  largely  performed   by 
colored  persona.      Horses, 
mules,  swine  and  cattle  are 
extensively  raised. 

Salaries  or  State  Offi- 
cers— Governor,  $4,000;  Lt. 
Governor,  $800;  Scc'y  State, 
$2,500;  Treasurer,  $2,500:  Au- 
ditor, $2,500;  Attorney  Gen- 
eral, $2,500;  Supt.  Pub.  Edu- 


cation, $2,000;  Commissioner  Agriculture,  $1,000;  Land  Commissioner,  $1,000;  Adjutant  General, $500;  Librarian,  $Soo;  Chief  Justice,  $3,500;  2  Associate  Justice*, 
$3,500;  Senators  and  Representatives,  $400  a  year;  2  District  Judges,  $3,500;  Collector  Internal  Revenue,  $2,750. 

KENTUCKY  (Corn  Cracker  State) — First  settled  by  English,  Boonesboro,  1775.  Admitted  to  Union,  1702.  Ranks  first  in  tobacco,  fourth  in  malt  and 
distilled  liquors,  sixth  in  hogs,  seventh  in  corn,  eighth  in  rye,  coal,  mules  and  population,  fifteenth  in  wealth,  twenty-third  in  miles  of  railway  and  thirty-fourth 
in  square  miles.  Industries:  Agriculture  is  the  main  pursuit.  Wheat,  con,  hemp,  flax  and  tobacco  are  the  staple  productions.  Fruits  of  an  excellent  quality/ 
abound.  Horses  and  cattle  are  reared  in  grea,t  numbers.  Thousands  of  swine  fatten  in  the  woods.  Mining  is  carried  on  to  a  large  extent.  Manufacture* 
and  commerce  receive  much  attention.  Kentucky  produces  nearly  one-half  the  tobacco  raised  in  the  United  States.  Salaries  of  State  officers:  GoTernor.  $cjooo; 


TENNESSEE  (Rig  Bend  State)— First  settlers,  English,  Fort  London,  1757.     Admitted  to  Union,  1796.     Ranks  second  in  peanuts,  third  in  mule-:,  sixth  in 
tobacco,  seventh  in  copper  and  hogs,  ninth  in  corn,  twelfth  in  population,  eighteenth  in  wealth,  twentv-hrst    in    miles   of  railway  and    thirty-second  in  square 
miles.     Industries:  Agriculture  is  the  most   important  industry,  the  great  staples  being  wheat,  cotton,  corn,  hemp  and  tobacco.     In   the  production   of 
the  State  ranks  third.     The  iron  and  coal  interests  are  growing  rapidly,  and  will  in  time  prove  one  o<    its   richest    resources.     The    marbles   ol    the    State    are 

esteemed  for  their 
color  and  variety. 
Immense  numbers 
of  swine  and 
mules  are  raised 
in  the  State.  The 
manufac  tu  r  1  n  g 
Industries  are 
more  developed 
than  in  any  of  the 
Southern  central 
A  large 
Internal  com- 
merce is  carried 
on  through  the 
ids  and  riv- 
ers of  the  State. 

Salaries  of 

State  Officers 

■  rnor,  $4,000; 

S<  1  n  t;iry     State, 

$1,800  and  fees; 

Treasurer,  $2,700; 

Comptroller,    $2,- 

OO;  Att'v    Gen'l, 

13,000;      Supcrin- 

t     Public 

Instnicti'n.$i,coo; 

Adjutant     (ien'l, 

$1,200;  Committer 

■    $-.- 

500;     3    Rat! 

iissi  o  ners, 
$2,000;    Librarian, 

Chief  Jus- 
tice, flLf.cxm;   Sens- 

1  1 1 

I  ives,  $4  per 
day  ami  to  cents  a 

m  lie;  ]D 

>  *  3*5  °°  » 

I  LT  *■  I»  t . 

;  I   rn.il     Krv- 
enue,  $2,250  to  $4,- 

375* 

310* 


LOUISIANA  (Creole  Stata] 

— First  settlement,  by  the 
Fremh,  at  Iberville,  1699. 
Admitted  to  the  Union,  1S1*. 
Ranks  first  in  sugar  and  mo- 

third  in  rice;  ninth  in 
salt;  twenty-second  in  popu- 
lation ;  twenty-seventh  in 
wealth;  twenty-eighth  i  n 
square  miles;  twenty-ninth 
In  miles  of  railway. 

IXDUSTR  IBS— H  Ol  dl  n  (J,    as 
,     the    outlet     to     the 

tppi  Valley,  the  State 
to  control  both  the 
forti^n  and  domestic  trade 
of  this  large  and  rich  section. 
Hence  commerce  is  large  and 
important.  The  manufactur- 

'  rests  are  compara- 
tively small,  except  in  sugars 
and  molasses.  Agriculture 
is  the  chief  pursuit.  This 
I  lie  only  part  of  our 
country  producing  sugar  in 
large  quantities.      Cotton    is 


largely  cultivated,  Louisiana 
ranking  fourth  in  its  produc* 
tion.  The  rice  crop  is  also 
large.  Indian  corn  and  other 
cereals  are  also  produced  to 
a  considerable  extent.  Tha 
tropical  fruits  arc  abundant. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers. 

Governor $4,000 

Lieut.  Governor,. $8  per  day 

Treasurer 82,000 

Sec'y  of  State 1,800 

Auditor 2,500 

Attorney   General 3,000 

Adjutant  General 2,000 

Supt.  Pub.  Ins 2,000 

Com.  Ag.  and  Immig,  2,000 

Chief  Justice 5,000 

4  Associate  Justices 5,000 

Senators  and  Represen- 
tatives, $4  per  day  &  mil'ge 
2  Dist.  Judges,  $3,500  to  $4,500 
Col.    of  Customs  New 
Orleans 7,000 


TEXAS  (Lone  Star  State) — First  settlement,  by  the  Spaniards,  at  San  Antonio,  1692.  Admitted  to  the  Union,  1845.  Ranks  first  in  cattle  and  cotton  and 
square  miles;  second  in  sugar,  sheep,  mules  and  horses;  sixth  in  miles  of  railway;  seventh  in  milch  cows;  eighth  in  rice  and  hogs;  eleventh  in  population;  nine- 
teenth in  wealth.  Industries:  Stock  raising  is  the  leading  industry,  Texas  ranking  first  in  this  production.  Agriculture  extensively  engages  tne  attention  of 
its  inhabitants;  corn,  wheat  and  the  other  cereals  are  raised  in  the  northern  part;  sweet  potatoes,  sugar  cane,  tobacco  and  tropical  fruits  in  the  southern  part. 
Its  commerce  consists  of  exports  of  cotton,  hides  and  live  stock.  The  State  has  vast  resources  that  have  not,  as  yet,  been  fully  developed;  an  abundance  of  most 
valuable  timber,  large  deposits  of  coal,  iron  and  salt,  and  other  useful  minerals. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers. 


Governor $4,000 

Lieutenant  Governor $5  per  day 

Secretary  of  State 2,000 

Treasurer 2,500 

Attorney  General. 4.000 

Adjutant  General 2,000 

Land   Commissioner 2,500 


Railroad  Commissioner $3,000 

Chief  Justice 3,500 

2  Associate  Justices 3,500 

Senators  and   Representatives $5  per  day  and  mileage 

3  District  Judges 3,500 

Collectors  Internal  Revenue $2,500  to  2,750 

17  Deputy  Collectors $300  to  1,850 


ARKANSAS  (Bear  State)— First  settlement,  by  the  French,  at  Arkansas  Post,  16S5.    Admitted  to  the  Union  in  1836.     Ranks  fifth  in  cotton,  ninth  in 


n         12/ £      \ 


mules,  twenty- 
second  in  miles  of 
railway,  twenty- 
fifth  in  population 
and  in  square 
miles,  thirty-first 
in  wealth. 

Industri  es — 
The  mineral  re- 
sources 0  f  t  h  e 
State  are  very 
large,  and  receiv- 
ing much  atten- 
tion. Stock  rais- 
ing is  extensive. 
Agriculture  is  the 
chief  industry: 
corn,  cotton  ana 
wheat  being  the 
leading  produc- 
tions. Oats,  tobac- 
co, sweet  potatoes 
and  fine  fruits  are 
also  produced  to 
a  considerable  ex- 
tent. 

Salaries  of 
State  Officers 
—Governor  $Z,W0 
Sec.  State,  $i,Soo; 
Treasurer,  $2,250; 
Auditor,  $2,250; 
Att'y  Gen.  $1,500; 
Sup.  Public  Inst., 
$1,600;  La'dCom., 
$i,Soo;  Chief  Jus., 
$3,000;  2  Associate 
justices,  $3,000; 
Senators  and  Rep- 
resentativeSj  $6  a 
day;  2  Distr*ct 
Judges,  $3,  500  ; 
District  Attorney, 
$200  and  fees;  2 
Asst.  District  At- 
torneys, $1,  200, 
$1,000 ;  Collector 
Internal  Rev'nue, 
$2,750;  10  Deputy 
Collectors,  £1,200 
to  $1,500. 

311* 


OHIO  (Buckeye  State)  — 
First  settled,  by  the  English, 
M  Marietta,  1788.    Admitted 

to  Union,  1803.  Ranks  iirst 
in  agricultural  implements 
and  wool,  second  in  petro- 
leum, iron  and  steel,  third  in 
population,  wheal,  sh  ee  p, 
COal,  malt  and  distilled  li- 
quors, fourth  in  printing  and 
publishing,  salt,  soap  and 
wealth,  fifth  in  milch  cows, 
hogs,  horses,  hay,  tobacco, 
Iron  ore  and  miles  of  rail- 
way, thirty-third  in  square 
miles. 

In-oustkiks— The  agricul- 
tural interest  is  very  large. 
Cnat  crops  of  wheat,  corn, 
oats,  barley,  hay,  potatoes, 
garden  ana  orchard  products 
are  raised;  also  flax,  tobacco 
and  grapes.  Coal  and  iron 
mining  are  extensively  car- 
ried on  in  the  eastern  and 
southern  parts,  and  large 
numbers  of  live  stock  are 
sent  to  the  Eastern  markets. 
It  is  the  foremost  State  in 
sheen  raising,  the  wool  pro- 
duction being  more  than 
20,000,000  pounds  a  year.  In 
manufacturing  it  ranks  as 
the  fourth  State  in  the  Union. 


Its  commerce  by  lake,  river, 
canal  and  railroad  traaJ^^H 
tation  is  very  large.  (J 
wealth,  population  and  pt*M 
gressiveness  the  State  tsfcoJ 
front  rank,  being  the  third 
in  population. 

Salaries  of  State  Officer*. 

Governor $8jMM 

Secretary  of  State ftjNN 

Treasurer SJMM 

Auditor SjMH 

Attorney  General &>MM 

School  Commissioner.  UHV 
Supt.  Ins.  Department.  UHH 

Railroad  Com SJQtl 

Secretary  Board  Agr. .  l^M 
Com.  Labor  Statistics.  :.v<j 
Judge  Supreme  Court.  4,000 
Senators  and  Repress, 

$600  a  year  and  iac.  a  miles 
2  District  Judges,  $3,500  4,00*1 

Pension  Agent AMti 

8  Col.  In.  Rev. $2^00  to  4.500 


Governor $5,000 

Lieut.  Governor 1,000 

Secretary  of  State 2,000 

Treasurer 3,000 

Auditor 1,500 


Industries 


Senators  and  Rcpres'tatives,  j6  a  dav,  » 

District  Judge $3.:d0 

Pension  Agent 

6  Collectors  Internal  Revenue $„ 

Surveyor  of  Customs $1,000  ai 


products  are  verv 
large.     The  State 


INDIANA  (Iloosier  State)  First  settlement,  by  the  French,  Vincennes,  1730.    Admitted  to  the  Union,  1816.     Ranks  second  in  wheat,  fourth  in  com,  h< 
and  agricultural  implements;  sixth  in  coal  and  population,  seventh  in  horses,  oxen  and  other  cattle,  malt  and  distilled  liquors  and  wealth,   eighth    in 
railway,  ninth  in  hay  and  milch  cows,  thirty-fifth   in  square  miles.     Industries:    The  inhabitants  are  largely  engaged  in  agriculture;   large  quantit: 
wheat,  oats,  pork  and  beef  being  exported.     Its  mining  and  manufacturing  are  considerable,  and  constantly  increasing. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers. 

Attorney  General $2,500 

Superintendent  Public  Instruction 2,500 

Sec'y  Board  of  Agriculture 1,200 

Librarian 1,200 

5  Judges 4,000 

ILLINOIS  (Prairie  or  Sucker  State)— First  settled,  by  the  French,  Kaskaskia,  1682.     Admitted  to  the  Union,  1S1S.     Ranks  first  in  corn,  whea 
packing,  lumber  traffic,  malt  and  distilled  liquors  and  miles  of  railroad;  second  in  rye,  coal,  agricultural  implements,  soap  and  hogs;  third  in  wealth,  I 
population,  manufactories,  hay,  potatoes,  iron  and  steel,  mules,  milch  cows  and  other  cattle;  twenty-secona  in  square  miles. 

gricultural  State,  surpassing  all  others  in  the  production  01  wheat  and  corn,  and  second  to  none  in  the 

extent  of  stock 
raising.  It  ranks 
the  fourth  in  pop- 
ulation, and  next 
t  o  Missouri  1  n 
manufact  u  r  i  n  g, 
and  the  sixth  in 
the  Union.  Its 
fruit  and  orchard 
nr, 
lai 

abounds  in  min- 
eral productions, 
COal,  lead  and 
■  alt  being  the 
chief.  Its  great 
rivers  and  lakes 
present  natural 
Facilities  t  0  t  U 
extensive  c  o  m- 
merco.  The  rail- 
roads of  the  State 
are  greater  in  the 
number  of  miles 
within  the  State 
than  any  other. 

Salarii 
State  Officers 
rnor,  $6,000; 
Sec.  State,  13*500; 

'irer,  $3,500; 
Auditor,  J;v: 

Atfv  ( ten. ,13,500; 
Chief  Jus.,  >,. 
Sector*  ami  Rep- 
resentatives, $5  a 
day,   ralli 

■  d;  -•  District 
.. 

$4,0  o  o  ;     Pension 

■ 
Collectors      Inter- 
nal Hev'ue,  $i,i25 
to  $4.5" 

I   ■istotns, $7,- 
OO  1]    Auditor,    $i,- 

200;    Appi 

miner, 

$J,00O. 

81*1 


MICHIGAN  (Wolverine 
State)— First  settled,  by  the 
French,  ;it  Detroit,  1650.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  Union,  1837. 
Ranks  first  in  copper,  lum- 
ber and  salt,  second  in  iron 
ore,  third  in  buckwheat  and 
wool,  fifth  in  hops  and  pota- 
toes,  sixth  in  wheat,  barley 
and  wealth,  seventh  in  agri- 
cultural implements,  ninth 
in  oats,  population  and  miles 
of  railway  and  twentieth  in 
square  miles. 

IXDUSTRXSS — Agriculture, 
mining,  lumbering,  manu- 
facturing and  commerce 
command  the  attention  of 
the  inhabitants.  Large  crops 
of  wheat,  corn,  oats  and  po- 
tatoes are  produced,  as  also 
treat  quantities  of  wool, 
utter  and  cheese.  Fruit 
raising  is  extensively  fol- 
lowed, the  value  of  the  or- 
chard products  exceeds  that 
of  New  Jersey  or  California. 
The  copper  mines  of  the 
State  are  the  richest  known 
and  are  extensively  worked. 


The  production  ot  hawed 
lumber  is  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  State.  The  value 
of  manufacturing  exceeds 
$100,000,000.  The  fisheries 
form  one  of  the  secondary, 
yet  important  sources  of 
wealth,  large  quantities  be- 
ing taken  for  home  use  and 
export. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers. 

Governor $1,000 

Lieut.  Gov $3  a  day 

Sec'y  of  State $  800 

Treasurer 1,000 

Auditor  Gen 2,000 

Sunt.  Pub.  Inst'n 1,000 

Adjutant   Gen 1,000 

Sec'y  Board  Agr 1,500 

Insurance  Com 2,000 

Railroad  Com 2,500 

Immigration  Com 2,000 

Chief  Justice 4,000 

Senators    and    Repre- 
sent, $3  a  day,  10c.  a  mile 

2  District  Judges $3,500 

Pension  Agent 4,000 

4  Col.  In.  Re  v.  $3,875  to  2,625 


third  in  barley 


WISCONSIN  (Badger  State)— First  settlement,  by  the  French,  Green  Bay,  1660.  Admitted  to  the  Union,  184S. 
and  potatoes,  fourth  in  rye  and  buckwheat,  fifth  in  oats  and  agricultural  implements,  seventh  in  iron,  steel  and  wool,  eighth  in  nay  ana  miicn  cows,  ntntn  in 
copper,  tenth  in  wealth,  eleventh  in  miles  of  railway,  sixteenth  in  population  and  twenty -third  in  square  miles.  Industries:  The  chief  industry  is  agriculture, 
with  large  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  hay,  potatoes  and  hops,  as  the  staple  productions.  Live  stock  is  largely  raised.  In  the  production  of  wool  and 
cheese  it  is  among  the  leading  States.  The  manufacturing  interests  are  large  and  increasing.  The  great  pine  forests  in  abundance,  and  the  most  valuable 
timber,  lead,  iron,  zinc  and  marble  mines  are  extensively  worked.  Lakes  Michigan  and  Superior  and  the  Mississippi  afford  great  natural  highways  for  commerce. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers. 

Chief  Justice 5,000 

4Associate  Justices 5,000 

2  District  Judges 3,500 

Senators  and  Representatives,  $500  per  year 

[and  10  cents  mileage 
MINNESOTA  (Gopher  State)— First  settlement,  by  Americans,    Red  River,    1812.     Admitted   to   the   Union,    1S58.     Ranks  fourth    in  wheat 
eighth  in  oats  and  hay,  twelfth  in  miles  of  railway,  thirteenth  in  square  miles,  seventeenth  in  wealth,  twenty-sixth  in  population. 


Governor $5,000 

Secretary  of  State 5,000 

Treasurer 5.000 


lev 

>ad 


Railroad  Commissioner $3,000 


Pension  Agent S4.000 

Indian  Agent 1,500 

4  Collectors  Internal  Revenue $2,750  to  4,500 

23  Deputy   Collectors $300  to  1800 

Collector  of  Customs $1,000  and  fees 

nd  barley, 


Industri  e  s  — 

The  leading  in- 
dustries are:  1. 
Agriculture,  the 
staple  produc- 
tions being  corn, 
wheat  and  oats, 
while  other  ce- 
reals are  largely 
raised.  2.  Lum- 
bering, great 
quantities  of  lum- 
ber are  sawed  in 
this  State,  and 
immense  rafts  of 
logs  are  floated 
down  the  Missis- 
sippi to  be  sawed 
in  other  States.  3. 
Manufactu  ring, 
the  principal  arti- 
cles being  sawed 
lumber  and  flour. 


Salariesof 
State  Officers 
— Gov'or,  $5,000; 
Lieut.  Governor, 
$600;  Sec'y  State, 
'3,500;  Treasurer, 
3,500;  Auditor, 
l,ooo;  Attorney 
eneral,  $3,500; 
S  u  pe  ri  ntendent 
Public  Instruct'n, 
$2,500;  Adjutant 
General,  $  1,500; 
Public  Examiner, 
$3,000;  Insurance 
Commis'r,  $2,000; 
Commissioner  of 
Statistics,  $2,000; 
Railroad  C  o  m- 
missioner,  $3,000; 
St  ate  Librarian, 
$2,000;  Chief  Jus- 
tice, $4,500;  Sena- 
tors and  Repre- 
sentatives, $5  per 
day  and  15  cents 
mileage;  District 
Judge,  $3,500. 


313* 


IOWA  (Ilawkcyc  State)— 
First  settlement,  by  the 
French  Canadians,  Burling- 
ton, 17S8.  Admitted  to  the 
Union,  1S46.  Ranks  first  in 
hogs,  second  in  miles  of 
railway,  milch  cows,  oxen 
and  other  cattle,  corn,  hay 
and  oats;  third  in  horses, 
fifth  in  barley,  sixth  in  pota- 
toes and  rye,  seventh  in  coal 
and  wheat,  tenth  in  popula- 
t  i  o  n,  eleventh  in  wealth, 
twenty-fourth  in  square 
miles. 

Industries  — Agriculture 
and  mining  are  the  leading 
pursuits.  The  State  takes  a 
leading  position  in  the  pro- 
duction of  wheat,  corn  and 
cattle.  The  manufactures 
are  important,  and  show 
great  progress  annually. 


Salaries  of  State  Officers. 

Governor « 

Lieut.  Governor 1#M 

Sec'y  of  State 2J0O 

Treasurer 2J0O 

Auditor 2^10 

Attorney  General 

[and  |B  t  isfll 
Superintendent  Public 
Instruction $2^00 

3  Railroad  Com'rs ; 

Librarian 1.500 

Chief  Jastice 3,000 

4  Associate  Justices...  3jtw 
Senators  and  Represen- 
tatives  $550  per  year 

a  District  Judges $3,500 

Pension  Agent... 
4    Collectors    Internal 
Revenue.... $2^00  to  4,500 


NEBRASKA— First   settlement,  by  Americans.    Admitted  to  the  Union  in  1867.     Ranks  eighth  in  corn  and  barley,   ninth  in  rye,  fourteenth  in  miles  ot 
railway,  fifteenth  in  square  miles,  thirtieth  in  population,  thirty-second  in  wealth. 

Industries — Beef  cattle  and  other  live  stock  are  raised  in  great  numbers  upon  the  grazing  section.    Corn,  wheat  and  other  cereals  and  fruit  growing 
are  carried  on  extensively  and  with  great  success.   The  cheap  and  fertile  lands  offer  great  inducements  for  settlement  to  emigrants. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers. 


Governor $2,500 

Lieut.  Governor $10  a  day 

Secretary  of  State $2,000 

Treasurer 2,500 

Auditor  Public  Accounts 2,500 

Attorney   General 2,000 

Superintendent  Public  Instruction 2,000 

Secretary  Board  of  Agriculture 1,000 

THE  DAKOTAS— Settlement, by  Americans,  at  Pembina.     Organized  as  a  Territory,  1861.    Admitted  into  the  Union   as  two  States,  North   and   South 


Commissioner  of  Public  Lands $2,000 

Chief  Justice 2^00 

Senators  and  Representatives $3  a  day  and  10 cents  mileage 

District  Judge $3,500 

Collector  Internal    Revenue 

Surveyor  General 

3  Indian  Agents $1,2*  to  LflOO 


Dakota,  1  885). 
Ranks  third  in 
gold  and  square 
miles,  ninth  in 
silver,  thirteenth 
in  miles  of  rail- 
way, thirty-ninth 
in  pop  illation. 

Special  census  of 
Dakota  in  1885, 
showed  a  popula- 
tion of  415.610.  In 
1800  the  popula- 
tion of  N.  Dakota 

was  1S/.71.J;  and 

the  population  of 
S.  Dakota  was 
328,808.  The  total 
assessment  of 
property  in  1886 
was  $106,400,549, 
and  in  1SS7,  $157,- 
084,365. 

Salaries  op 
State  Officers 
—North  Dakota— 
Governor,  $3,000] 
I-ieut.    Gmernnr, 

$1,000;  Secretory 
of  State,   I  • 

Auditor,  .  ia,ooo; 
Treasurer,ia,ooo; 
Com.  Ins.,  $. 
Att*y    General, 
$0,000;  Bapt,  Pub. 

lnstruc'n,  $ 

See  H.  EL  Corns., 
$j,ooo;  Chief  Jus- 
tice, $4,500;  Asso. 
Justice,  $4.v 

South  Dakota— 
Governor,  |  . 

Lieut.  Gov,,  $ooo\ 

I '  v  of  State, 

$1,8001       Auditor, 

Si  ,8oo;Treasarer, 
$  1, Son;  Bapt  Poo. 
lnstruc'n,   S   . 

PUD.  I. and, 
lljBOO;  Attornty- 
Gi'tht.iI,  f\  £0O| 
Com,  Labor,  $1,- 
o<«o;  Tub.  Exam* 
iner,  $1,^00, 

•814 


MISSOURI  (Pennsylvania 
pf  the  West)— First  settle- 
ment, by  the  French,  at  Stc. 
Genevieve,  1764.  Admitted 
to  the  Union,  1S21.  Ranks 
first  in  mules,  third  in  oxen, 
bops,  corn  and  copper;  fifth 
In  population,  sixth  in  iron 
Ore,  wool,  milch  cows  and 
horses ;  seventh  in  oats, 
eighth  in  wealth,  wheat  and 
tobacco,  ninth  in  sheep  and 
potatoes,  tenth  in  miles  of 
railway,  sixteenth  in  square 
miles. 

Industries  — Agriculture 
Is  the  leading  occupation. 
Mining  is  extensively  car- 
ried on  in  the  section  south 
Of  St.  Louis.  The  iron  re- 
sources of  the  State  exceed 
that  of  any  other.  The  man- 
ufacturing interests  are  large 
and  increasing.  The  chief 
agricultural    products    are 

KANSAS  (Garden  of  the  West)— Settled  by  Americans.  Admitted  to  the  Union,  1861.  Ranks  fifth  in  cattle,  corn  and  rye, 
railway,  ninth  in  hogs,  horses,  wheat  and  coal,  fourteenth  in  square  miles,  twenty-first  in  population,  twenty-fourth  in  wealth. 

Industries — Agriculture  and  stock  raising  form  the  chief  pursuits  of  the  inhabitants.  Every  variety  of  cereal  and  farm 
quantities.     Nearly  2,000,000  acres  are  mineral  lands.     Three-fourths  of  the  State  is  suited  for  agriculture. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers. 


great  crops  of  corn,  wheat, 
rye,  tobacco,  hemp  and 
grapes. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers. 

Governor $5,000 

Sec'y  of  State 3,000 

Treasurer 3,000 

Auditor 3,000 

Attorney  Gen 3,000 

Adjutant  Gen 2,000 

Supt.  Public  Schools..  3,000 

Register  of  Lands 3,000 

3  Railroad  Com'rs 3,000 

Supt.   Ins.  Dep't 4,000 

Chief  Justice 4,500 

Senators   and  Repre's, 

$5  a  day,  mileage  and   $30 

2  District  Judges 83,500 

5  Col.  In.  Rev. $2,250  to  4,500 
Surveyor  of  Customs, 

St.  Louis 5,000 

seventh  in  hay  and  miles  of 
products  is  raised   in   great 


Governor $3,000 

Secretary  of  State 2,000 

Trt :;isin er 2,500 

Auditor 2,000 

Attorney  General , 2,500 

Superintendent  Public  Instruction 2,000 

Secretary  Board  of  Agriculture 2,000 

Insurance  Commissioner , 2,500 

COLORADO  (Centennial  State) — First  settlement,  by  Americans,  near  Denver,  about 

Ranks  first  in  sil- 


3  Railroad  Commissioners 

State  Librarian 

Chief  Justice... . , 

2  Associate  Justices , 

Senators  and   Representatives. 

District  Judge 

Pension  Agent 

Collector  Internal  Revenue. . . . , 


.S3 


Organized  as  a  Territory,  1861 


$3,000 

1,500 

3,000 

3,000 

per  dny  and  15  cents  mileage 

$3,500 

4,000 

2,750 

Admitted  to  the  Union,  1S76. 


v  e  r,  fourth  i  n 
gold,  eighth  i  n 
square  miles, 
seven  tee  th  in 
miles  of  railway, 
th  irty  -  fifth  in 
population  and 
wealth. 

Industries — 
About  one-third 
of  the  State  is 
good  agricultural 
land  and  easy  of 
irrigation,  bring- 
ing fourth  bounti- 
ful harvests  of  all 
the  cereals.  As  a 
grazing  and  dairy 
country  it  is  un- 
surpassed, its  nu- 
tritious grasses 
h  a  v  i  ng  peculiar 
advantages  for 
herding.  Its  chief 
production  is  min- 
ing; in  its  yield 
of  gold  and  silver 
it  is  the  leading 
State  of  the  Un- 
ion. 

Sa  laries  of 
State  Officers 
Govern'or,  $5,000; 
Lieut.  Governor, 
$1 ,000;  Secretary 
of  State,  $3,000 ; 
Treasurer,  $3,000; 
Auditor,  $2,500; 
Attorn -y  Gen'ral, 
$2,000;  Chief  Jus- 
tice, $5,000;  2  As- 
sociate Justices, 
$5,000 ;  Senators 
and  Representa- 
tives, $4  per  day, 
15  cents  mileage; 
Dist.  Judge,  £5,- 
500;  Collector  In- 
ter'l  Rev.,  $2,875; 
Sur.  Gen.,  $2,500; 
Ute  Indian  Agt., 
$1,400. 

315* 


NEVADA(Sage  Hen  State) 
,-First  settlement, by  Amer- 
icans, ir.  1850.  Admitted  to 
the  Union,  1864.  Ranks 
second  in  gold,  fourth  in  sil- 
eventh  in  square  miles, 
thirty  -  seventh  in  wealth, 
thirty-eighth  in  population, 
fortieth  in  miles  of  railway. 

Industries— The  leading 
industry  is  mining.  The 
mines  of  the  State  yield  over 
three-fifths  of  all  the  silver 
produced  i  n  the  United 
States.  Stock  raising  is  also 
largely  followed,  having  a 
large  amount  of  fine  pasture 
land. 


Salaries  of  State  Officer** 

Governor IVJOt 

Lieut.  Governor 2,509 

Sec'yof  State X009 

Treasurer .  1,099 

Comptroller 

Attorney  General 3.009 

Superintendent  Public 

Instruction -/JQO 

Chief  Justice <.JX* 

iate  Justices...  6/309 
- 1  and  Represen- 
ts a  day, 40c.  mileage 

District  Judge 3,509 

Surveyor  Gen 

Chief  Clerk 2.009 

Draftsman 1,909 

Collector  Inte'nal'Rcv 
enue 2,375 


CALIFORNIA  (Golden  State) — First  settlement,  by  the  Spaniards,  1769,  at  San  Diego.     Admitted  to  the  Union,  1S50.   Ranks  first  in  barley,  grape  cultoftjfl 
gold  and  quicksilver,  second  in  wool  and  square  miles,  third  in  hops,  fifth  in  wheat  and  salt,  seventh  in  silk  goods,  eighth  in  soap  and  silver 
sixteenth  111  miles  of  railway,  twenty-fourth  in  population.     Industries:   Mining,  manufacturing,  stork  raising  and  agriculture  form  the  principal  indu-' 
the  State.    Commerce  is  extensive  with  China,  Japan,  the  East  Indies  and  Australia,  and  with  other    States   and   Territories.      The   State  ranks  first  in   the 
culture  of  the  grape,  and  one  of  the  foremost  in  wheat  raising.     No  State  in  the  Union  has  developed  so  rapidly. 

Salaries  of  State  Officers. 


Governor $o,000 

Secretary  of  State 3,000 

Treasurer 3,01  a  t 

Comptroller 3,000 

Superintendent  Public  Instruction 3,000 

Attorney    General 3,000 

Surveyor  General 3,000 

State  Librarian 3,000 


District  Judge i$|^| 

Senators  and  Representatives 98  a  day,  10  cents  mileage  and  $3 

3  Collectors  Internal  Revenue $3,125  to 

Collector  Customs,  San  Francisco 

Pension   Agent 

Superintendent  of  Mint 

yer 3.UU9 


OREGON— First  settled,  by  Americans,  1811 


MAP  OP 
CALIFORNIA 

Arw  nq.mllw  l»,»w 


Territory  organized,    1848.     Became  ■  State  in  1S59. 
fifteenth  in  wheat, 
thirty-second    i  n 

miles  of  railway, 
thirty-fourth  i  n 
wealth,  thirty-six 
in  population. 

iNDL'STRI  E  S — 
Agriculture,  stork 
raising  and  lum- 
bering are  the 

chief  pursuits; 
wheat  being  the 
.ii  tii  H  1  4 
the  former,  while 
must  of  the  ce- 
reaif  of  the  Mid- 
dle States  flour- 
ish. Cutting  tim- 
ber from  the  im- 
mense pine  for- 
t     the    State 

gives  employment 
:it   munbera 

of  inhabitants. 

s  a  l  aries  op 
State  Offii 

— Gov'nor,  \  1 
Secret " 

Auditor  ,V  Comp- 
troller, $  1,  <;  00  ; 
I  teasurer,    $8  O  O; 

Superintendent  01 

PoDllc    Instruct*!). 

$i*S°p;    st.it.    1  I 

l'r;iriaii,(ii  .*- 

Justice,    Jj.ooo;    -* 

\     ■  1    1 .   I 

and     Re] 

tiv.s,  f$  a  da 

t     J    II  d  g  e. 

$  3,  5  00;    Dl 

$  a 00 

ami  fees;  (.    t) 

or   Int. 

■ 

■ 
1  at,  |-\5oo. 

316* 


Ranks   seventh   in    fisheries,   tenth    in    sqi 


MONTANA 
Ranks  fourth  in  silver 
»nd  square  miles,  fifth  in 
gold,  fifteenth  in  cattle, 
thirty-sixth  in  miles  of  rail- 
vnv  and  forty-fourth  in  pop- 
ulation. The  population  of 
Montana,  according  to  cen- 
sus of  18S0,  was  39,159,  but  in 
1884  the  total  vote  cast  for 
delegate  to  Congress  was 
26,otK,,  and  in  1886,  32,26:!. 
In  1890  the  population  num- 
bered 132,159.  First  settle- 
ment, by  Americans,  1852. 
Organized  as  a  Territory, 
1864  Admitted  to  the  Union 
in  1S89. 


I  £^£5       2L-  _JJU3K>a.p_a. 


Fl<,t!,r,).l 

:■„    Martina 

<-■>■. 

waAtagtai 

MAP  OF1 

MONTANA 

Area  ■ij.infTes  145,310 


Salaries  of  State  Officers. 

Governor $5,000 

Secretary 3,000 

Treasurer 3,000 

Auditor 3,000 

Supt.  Public  Inst'n  . . .  2,500 

Chief  Justice 4,000 

2  Asso.  Justices,, 4,000 

Senators  and   Repre'es 

[$4  per  day,  20c.  mileage 

Surveyor  Gen $2,500 

ChiefClerk 1,800 

Chief  Draftsman 1,600 

Collector  Int.  Rev 2,500 

5  Deputy  Collectors  In- 
ternal Revenue 1,600 

Assayer 2,500 

Melter 2,250 


IDAHO— Ranks  sixth  in  gold,  seventh  in  silver,  twelfth  in  square  miles,  forty-third  in   miles  ot   railway,  forty-fifth   in   population. 
84.3^5.     First  settlement,  by  Americans.  1S42.     Organized  as  a  Territory,  1863.     Admitted  to  the  Union  in  1890. 

Salaries  of  Territorial  Officers. 


Population,  lSoo, 


Governor $3,000 

Secretary 1,800 

Treasurer 1,000 

Auditor 1,800 

Librarian 250 

Chief  Justice 3,000 

2  Associate  Justices 3,000 

WASHINGTON— Ranks  eighth  in  gold,  seventeenth  in  square  miles,  forty-first  in  population,  forty-second  in   miles  of   railway. 

to  territorial  cen- 


Senatorsand  Representatives $4  per  day  and  20c.  mileage 

2  District  Attorneys $25°  and  fees 

Collector  Internal  Revenue $2,250 

3  Deputy  Collectors $1,400  to  1,600 

Assayer , 2,000 

Assistant  Assayer 1,440 


Population,  according 


sus  in  1085,  127,- 
292;  U.  S.  Census 
1890,349,300.  First 
settle  ment,  by 
Americans,  at 
Astoria,  181 1.  Or- 
ganized as  a  Ter- 
ritory, 1853.  Ad- 
m  i  1 1  e  d  to  the 
Union,  1889. 

Salaries  of 
State  Officers 
Gov'nor,  $4,000; 
Secretary,  $2,500; 
Treasurer,$2,ooo; 
Auditor,  $2,000; 
Su  peri  ntendent 
Public  Instruct'n, 
$2,500;  Librarian, 
$400;  ChT  Justice, 
$3,000;  3  Asso'ate 
Justices,  $  3,0  o  o; 
Senat'rs  and  Rep- 
resentatives, $4  a 
day  and  20  cents 
mileage;  Survey- 
o  r  General,  $2,- 
500;  Chief  Clerk, 
$1,800;  C'f  Drafts- 
man, $1,700;  Col- 
lector of  Customs, 
$1,000  and  fees; 
Collector  Intern,l 
Revenue,  $2,250  ; 
3  Deputy  Collect- 
ors Internal  Rev- 
enue, $1,200  to$i,- 
600. 

317* 


ARIZONA 

Ranks  fifth  in  silver,  sixth 
in  square  miles,  eighth  in 
sheep,  ninth  in  gold,  thirty- 
eighth  in  miles  of  railway, 
forty-third  in  population. 
First  explored,  by  the  Span- 
iards, in  1526.  Organized 
as  Territory,  1863. 


Salaries  of  Territorial 
Officers. 

Governor $2^50 

Secretary lfW 

Treasurer 1,000 

Auditor i.rjoo 

Supt.  Public  Iost-n 2Mfl 

Librarian tjQO 

Chief  Justice 3.0W 

2  Asso.  Justices 3,000 

Senators    and     Repre- 
sentatives. .$4  per  day 

[and  30  cents  mileage 

3  District  Judges $3,000 

Collector  Int.  Rev. 

2  Deputy  Collectors... 

[•1,600  to  1,700 
Clerk 1,100 


UTAH— Ranks  third  in  silver,  tenth  in  gold,  eleventh   in   square  miles,  fifteenth  in  coal,  thirty-fifth   in  miles  of  railway,  thirty-eighth  in  population. 
First  settlement,  by  Americans,  at  Salt  Lake  City,  1S47.    Organized  as  a  Territory,  1850. 


Salaries  of  Territorial  Officers 
Governor $2,000 

6ccrctary 1,800 

Treasurer cqq 

Auditor 1,500 

Superintendent  Public  Instruction j  50Q 

Librarian 250 

Chief  Justice 3(00o 

NEW  MEXICO 


2  Associate  Justices $3,000 

Senators  and  Representatives ,  ..$4   per  day  and  20  cents  mileage 

District  Attorney , .  .$250  and  fee* 

1 1  United   States  Commissioners fee* 

Collector  Internal   Revenue $2,500 

2  Deputy  Collectors $1,600  to  1.800 


Ranks  fifth  i  n 
square  miles, 
eighth  in  silver, 
eleventh  in  gold, 
nineteenth  in 
•  be«  p,  twenty- 
second  in  cattle, 
thirtieth  in  miles 
of  railroad,  for- 
tieth in  popula- 
tion. First  settle- 
ment,  by  the 
Spaniards,  at 
Santa  Fe,  1537. 
Organized  as  ter- 
ritory, 1850. 
Salaries  of 
Ter ritorial 
Officers  — 
Governor,  $2,600; 
Secretary,  $1,800; 
Treasurer,$2,ooo; 
Auditor,  $2,000; 
Com.  Immigra'n, 
$900;  Librarian, 
$600;  Ch'f  Justi.  e, 
$3,000;  2  Asm 
1  .[slices,    $3,000  ; 

Senttori  and 

Keprescntatlv  r  s, 
$4  a  day  and  20c. 
mileage;  Collect- 
or Internal  Kive- 
nue,  $2,500;  2  Dep- 
uty Collectors  In- 
ternal Revenue, 
$1,200  to  $  1,700; 
Surveyor  Gener'l, 
$2,500;  Translator 
and  Chief  Clerk, 
93,000, 

318* 


WYOMING 

Ranks  ninth  in  square  miles, 
twelfth  in  cattle,  fourteenth 
in  gold,  sixteenth  in  coal, 
forty-fourth  in  miles  of  rail- 
way, forty-sixth  in  popula- 
tion. First  settlement,  by 
Americans,  1867.  Organ- 
ire  il  as  a  Territory, 
Admitted  to  the  Union  in 
iSoa. 


Salaries  of  State 
Officers. 

Governor $2,600 

Secretary 2,000 

Treasurer 2,000 

Auditor , 2,000 

Supt.  Public  Instr'n.,,.  2,000 

Librarian 400 

Chief  Justice 3,000 

2  Associate  Justices...  3,000 
Senators   and  Repre*s, 

[$4  a  day,  20c.  mileage 

Zo\.  Inter.   Rev 82,000 

2  Deputy  Col.  Int.  Rev. 

[$1,400  to  1,500 

Surveyor  Gen 2,500 

Chief  Clerk 2,000 

Chief  Draftsman 1,800 


THE  INDIAN  TERRITORY  was  originally  set  apart  as  a  reservation  for  peaceful  tribes.  Organized  in  1834,  Dut  not  under  tne  same  forms  of  govern- 
ment as  the  other  Territories.  The  lands  are  held  in  common  by  the  Indians,  each  being  allowed  to  cultivate  as  much  as  desired,  and  whites  can  hold  land 
only  by  marrying  an  Indian.  Grazing  and  agriculture  are  the  leading  industries.  Oklahoma  was  opened  up  to  white  settlers  in  1889.  Ranks  eighteenth  in 
square  miles  and  forty-fifth  in  miles  of  railway. 

Indian  Agencies. 


ARAPAHOE. 

Agent $   900 

CHEYENNE. 

Agent «. $2,200 

Physician 1,200 

KAW. 

Superintendent $1,600 

Physician 1,200 


KIOWA  AND  COMANCHE. 

Agent : $1,000 

Physician 1,000 

OAKLAND. 

Superintendent $1,000 

3  Teachers 600 


MEXICO    AND 
CUBA. 

The  Republic  of 
Mexico  comprises 
twenty  -seven 
States,  a  Federal 
District  and  the 
territory  of  Low- 
er California. 

Agri  culture, 
mining  and  stock 
raising  constitute 
the  principal  in- 
dustries. The  cli- 
mate in  the  ele- 
vated interior  is 
mild  and  health- 
ful, but  along  the 
coast  it  is  very 
hot  and  pestilen- 
tial. The  Mexi- 
cans are  a  very 
mixed  race,  about 
one  -  tenth  being 
Creoles,  descend- 
ants of  Spanish 
colonists. 


319* 


ONTARIO 

Is  the  most  important  Province  of  Canada.  Principal 
products,  grain,  fruit,  lumber,  petroleum,  copper  and 
Iron.  The  population  of  Ontario  is  one-third  of  the 
whole  Dominion.  Toronto,  the  capital,  is  the  nana* 
factoring  and  educational  center.  The  population  of 
this  Province  is  largely  of  British  descent. 


W3j£~T  Nortr.h„wrer 

"  ""<__    ONTARIO 


"^  MAP  OF 

ONTARIO 


^YfTOWVlVV^- 


QUEBEC 

was  originally  settled  by  the  French,  and  the  present 
population  is  largely  composed  of  descendants 
Voyagers.  The  capital,  Quebec,  is  the  oldest  city  in 
the  Dominion.  Its  fortifications  were  at  or 
considered,  next  to  Gibraltar,  the  strongest  in  the  world. 
Nevertheless,  the  fortress  was  captured  by  General 
Wolfe.  The  metropolis,  Montreal,  is  noted  fur  its 
churches. 


MANITOBA 

Is  a  great  wheat-growing   country,    and  furs  are  also  a 
leading    product.     The    first    settlers,  1731,  were    French, 
and     Kn^Iish     traders    first     made    their     appears 
1767.     The    Province    is   now   traversed    by  the    I 
Pacific   Railway.     1  erj   Mvarc   in   winter,  but 

n.illy  hoi  in  'iiiniiuT.     The  soil  is  such  that  wheat 
ripens  in  no  days.     Winnipeg  is  the  capital. 


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Pbkiods. 


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POLITICAL  PARTIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Popular  Vote. 


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f 


nsfc-The  Eighteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World.    2S 


(.Name  of  Victorious  Nation  Appears  First.) 


Conquest 

ence 
Invasion  resisted 
International  and  poli 


T 


V 


iVSC 


l±t 


MILITARY  and  NAVAL  STRENGTH  of  VARIOUS  GKINTRIES. 

Based  on  the  numerical  strength  of  the  respective  armies  on  a  war  footing;  where  more  than  one  number  is  given,  besides 
the  number  of  war  vessels,  the  first  represents  the  standing  army. 


NORWAY 

and 
SWEDEN 
64,000 
War  footing^ 
5^9.510 
116 

Vessels 


V 


K" 


COMPARATIVE  AREA  IN  SQUARE  MILES  I  STATES  *  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES. 


337 


rMMM^»^^l'« 


n  mCTIONRKY  DF- DRIES, 


i^^&^^X^%^^\^k^&^^ 


Thrt  World's   Progress  as  shown   in  an  Alphabetical   Record  of  Notable  Events  and   Discoveries. 

<>  ■  * — <> 


Air-Balloons  invented  by  Gusmac,  a  Jesuit,  in 
1729.  Revived  in  France  by  M.  Montgolfier,  in 
1783- 

Air-Guns  invented  by  Guhr,  of  Nuremberg,  in 
1656. 

Air-Pumps  invented  in  1650. 

Algebra,  known  in  Europe  in  1300;  in  general 
use  in  1590. 

Almanacs  6rst  published  in  1470,  by  Martin 
Hku.-,,  at  Buda.  The  first  almanac  in  England 
was  printed  at  Oxford,  in  1673. 

Alien  and  Sedition  Acts  passed  by  Congress 
in  1793  ;  expired,  by  limitation,  Jan.  26,  1801. 

Alphabet.  The  Ionic  alphabet  was  introduced 
399  years  before  Christ.  Before  this  time  the 
Greek  letters  were  but  sixteen  in  number. 

Anaesthesia  discovered  1844. 

Anchors  invented  in  587. 

Anti  Slavery  Society  (American)  organized 
Dec.  6,  1833,  at  Philadelphia. 

Argand  Lamps  invented  by  Aime  Argand,  of 
Geneva,  about  the  year  1782. 

Arquebus  introduced  about  1520,  and  remained 
in  use  until  after  1567,  when  the  matchlock  sup- 
planted it.  In  1630  the  flint  lock  was  invented, 
and  the  musket  was  introduced. 

Banking.  The  first  bank  in  Europe  was  the 
Bank  of  Venice,  1171.  The  Bank  of  England 
was  established  in  1694,  the  Bank  of  North 
America,  1781. 

Barometers  invented  in  1626;  wheel  barometers 
in  1668,  phosphoric  in  1675,  pendant  in  1695,  and 
marine  in  1700. 

Battering-Ram  invented  441  years  before 
Christ. 

Bayonets  invented  at  Bayonne  in  1670.  First 
used  in  England  in  1693.  At  first  these  had 
wooden  handles  fitting  into  the  guns,  but  in  1699 
the  socket  bayonet  was  introduced. 

Bellows. — Strabo  informs  us  that  the  invention 
of  bellows  is  due  to  the  Scythian  philosopher, 
Anacharsis,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Solon. 

Bells  invented  by  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola,  in 
Campagnia,  in  or  about  the  year  400.  They  were 
first  used  in  France  in  550,  in  Greece  in  864,  and 
in  the  churches  of  Europe  in  900.  In  Switzer- 
land they  first  appeared  in  1020. 

Blankets  first  mads  in  England  in  1340. 

Blood,  circulation  of,  discovered  in  1619. 

Blue  (Prussian)  first  made  in  Berlin,  in  1704. 

Bombs  invented  at  Venlo,  in  15S8,  and  used  first 
in  the  service  of  France  in  1634. 

Books,  in  thctr  present  form,  were  invented  by 
Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus,  in  887. 

Boots  invented  907  years  before  Christ. 

Boston  Fire  Nov.  9,  1872.    Loss,  $73,600,000. 

Bread  first  made  with  yeast  by  the  English  about 
1650. 

Bricks  first  used  in  England  by  the  Romans.  In 
1625  their  regular  size  was  fixed  by  Charles  I. 

Bridges.  The  first  bridge  of  stone  in  England 
was  ihat  built  at  Bow,  near  Stratford,  in  1087. 

Buckles  invented  about  1680. 

Bullets  of  stone  used  in  1514.  Iron  bullets  first 
mentioned  in  1550. 


23 


Bullion  (Assaying  of)  introduced  in  1354. 

Butter. — The  first  mention  of  butter  is  that  of 
Herodotus,  who,  in  describing  the  Scythians, 
says  :  "  These  people  pour  the  milk  of  their  mares 
into  wooden  vessels,  cause  it  to  be  violently 
stirred  or  shaken  by  their  blind  slaves,  and  sep- 
arate the  part  that  arises  to  the  surface,  as  they 
consider  it  more  valuable  than  that  which  is  col- 
lected below  it."  Soon  after  the  death  of  Hippoc- 
rates, we  read  that  the  Greeks  thought  the  but- 
ter which  the  Thracians  ate  a  wonderful  kind  of 
food.  The  ancient  Ethiopians  appear  to  have 
used  butter  as  food.  The  ancient  Germans  were 
butter-makers. 

Calico-Printing  and  the  Dutch-loom  engine 
first  used  in  1670. 

Camera  Obscura  invented  by  Baptista  Porta, 

in  1515. 

Canal. — The  first  English  navigable  canal  was 
finished  in  1134. 

Candles  of  tallow  took  the  place  of  prepared 
splinters  of  wood  in  1290. 

Cannon   invented   in   1130.     First  used  by   the 

English  in  1346;  used  first  in  England  in  1445; 

in  Denmark  in  1354;  by  the  Spaniards  in  1406. 

The  first  iron  cannon  were  made  in  England,  in 

1547' 
Caps  first  worn  in  1449. 

Cards  invented  for  the  amusement  oi  Charles  VI., 
in  1380. 

Carriages  introduced  in  England  in  1580;  in 
Vienna  in  1515. 

Chain  Shot  invented  by  De  Wit,  Dutch  Ad- 
miral, in  1666. 

Chess  invented  608  years  before  Christ. 

Chicago  Fire,  Oct.  8-n,  1871.  Loss,  $290,- 
000,000 ;  about  250  persons  perished,  and  98,500 
rendered  destitute ;  25,000  buildings  destroyed. 

Chimes  on  Bells  invented  at  Alvest  in  1487. 
Chimneys  first  introduced  in  England  in  1200, 

but  at  first  only  in  the  kitchen  or  large  hall. 
China  made  at  Dresden,  in  Saxony,  in  1706  ;  at 

Chelsea  (England)  in  1752;   by  Mr.  Wedgwood 

in  1762. 

Civil  Bights  Bill  passed  by  Congress  1866. 

Civil  Service  Reform  Bill  introduced  in 
congress  Jan.  20,  1867.  Act  for  rules  to  be  pre- 
scribed by  the  President  for  civil  service  exam- 
inations passed  March  3,  1871,  and  commis- 
sioners for  that  purpose  appointed  June  28,  with 
G.  W.  Curtis  as  chairman. 

Clay's  Compromise,  tariff,  1833;  slavery,  1850. 

Clocks,  called  water-clocks,  were  first  used  in 
Rome  158  years  before  Christ.  Clocks  and  dials 
were  first  put  up  in  churches  in  913.  In  801 
clocks  were  made  to  strike  the  hours  by  the 
Arabians,  and  by  the  Italians  in  1300.  A  strik- 
ing-clock was  used  at  Westminster  in  1368.  The 
first  portable  striking-clock  was  made  in  1530. 
Richard  Harris,  of  London,  invented  clocks 
with  pendulums  about  1641 .  To  distinguish 
these  from  dials,  they  were  first  called  sun- 
"  nocturnal,  or  night-dials."  Repeating  clocks 
and  watches  were  invented  by  a  maker  named 
Barlow  in  1676. 

Coaches.  Covered  carriages  appear  to  have 
been  used  by  the  old  Romans.  In  the  year 
1588,  Duke  Julius  of  Brunswick  published  an  act 


against  riding  in  coaches.  Philip  II,  of  Pomtr- 
ania-Stettin,  published  a  similar  document  in 
1608.  Coaches  appear  to  have  been  used  in 
France  very  early.  An  ordinance  of  Philip  the 
Fair,  issued  in  1294,  for  suppressing  luxury,  for- 
bids citizens'  wives  to  ride  in  coaches.  Coaches 
were  first  used  in  England  in  1565,  the  first  being 
that  made  for  the  Earl  of  Rutland.  In  1601  an 
act  was  passed  to  prevent  men  riding  in  coaches, 
on  the  scoreof  its  effeminacy.  Coaches  began  to 
be  common  in  1605,  and  were  petitioned  against 
by  the  saddlers  and  others.  Hackney  coaches 
introduced  in  1634.  In  1661,  a  stage  coach  was 
two  days  going  from  London  to  Oxford,  and  the 
"Flying  Coach"  was  thirteen  hours,  even  in 
summer  weather,  when  the  roads  were  at  their 
best. 
Coal  first  dug  for  fuel  in  1234. 

Coin.  Silver  was  first  coined  by  Phidon,  King 
of  Argos,  869  B.C.  In  Rome,  silver  money  was 
first  coined  .269  B.C.  Gold  and  silver  coins  first 
used  in  the  East.  Coin  first  used  in  Britain  25 
B.C.,  and  in  Scotland  not  until  248  years  later. 
In  1101,  round  coins  were  first  used  in  England. 
Silver  halfpence  and  farthings  were  coined  in  the 
reign  of  John,  and  pence  were  the  largest  cur- 
rent coins.  Gold  was  first  coined  in  England  in 
1087;  in  Bohemia  in  1301.  In  1531,  groats  and 
half-groats  were  the  largest  silver  coin  in  Eng- 
land. Gold  was  first  coined  in  Venice  in  1346. 
Shillings  were  first  coined  in  England  in  1068. 
Crowns  and  half-crowns  were  first  coined  in 
1551.  Henry  III  introduced  copper  money  into 
France  in  1580.  Copper  money  introduced  into 
England  by  James  I  in  1620.  The  process  of 
milling  coin  introduced  in  1662.  The  mint  of 
the  United  States  of  America  was  established  in 
1793- 

Coining  with  a  die  first  invented  in  1617,  and 
first  used  in  England  in  1620, 

Compass  (Mariner's)  invented  in  China  1120 
B.C.;  used  in  Venice  1260 ;  improved  at  Naples 
in  1302.  Its  variations  observed  in  1500;  its 
dipping  in  1576. 

Copyright.  The  copyright  law  was  first  passed 
by  Congress  in  1791,  the  term  being  made  four- 
teen years ;  amended,  and  term  extended  to  28 
years,  with  renewal  for  14  more,  in  1831. 

Cotton.  The  first  raised  in  the  United  States 
was  in  1621,  in  Virginia  ;  first  exported  from  U. 
S.  in  1747. 

Cotton  Gin  invented  in  1793,  by  Eli  Whitney. 
Culverins  first  made  in  England  in  1534. 

Daguerreotypes  first  made  in  France,  1839. 
Declaration  of  American  Independence,  1776; 

recognition,  1782. 

Delf  (or  Delft)  earthenware  invented  at  Firenze 

in  1450. 

Diamonds  first  cut  and  polished  at  Bruges  in  j  489. 

Dice  invented  1500  B.C. 

Dinning  Needle  invented  by  Robert  Norman, 

Distilling  first  practiced  in  1150. 

Diving-Bell.  This  machine  appears  to  have 
been  known  in  1509,  and  repeated  mention  of  its 
use  occurs  in  historical  chronicles  from  that  date. 

Electric  Light.  Invented  at  London,  in  1874, 
by  two  Russians,  Lodyguiu  and  Kosloff.     The 


4vH 


IK 

338 


A  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES. 


Tablochkoff  candle  proved  successful  in  1878  in 
lighting  the  streets  of  Paris.  In  the  United 
States,  the  Sawyer-Man  light  appeared  in  1878, 
and  Ldison  began  his  expenments  in  electric 
lighting  in  the  same  year. 

Emancipation  Proclamation.    January  i, 

i86j. 

Engraving*  on  metal  invented  in  1423  ;  on  cop- 
Mf  la  iui.  Improved  process  introduced  by 
Prince  Rupert  ot  Palatine  in  1648.  Engraving 
process  for  tints  invented  by  Barablc,  a  French- 
man, in  1 761.  Engraving  on  wood  invented  at 
Fl.im.lers  in  1423,  and  revived  in  1511  by  Albert 
Durer.  Engraving  on  glass  invented  at  Paris  in 
1799,  by  Uondicr. 

Envelopes  for  letters  were  first  used  in  1839. 

Etching'  on  copper  with  aqua  fortis  was  intro- 
duced in  151a. 

Ether  was  first  used  in  surgical  operations  in 
1844. 

Express.  The  first  American  express  was  ope- 
rated between  New  York  and  Boston,  in  1821,  by 
W.  F.  Harnden. 

False  Hair  introduced  by  the  courtesans  in 
Italy,  and  first  brought  into  England  from 
France  in  1572. 

Fenian  Raids  into  Canada,  May  31.  1866;  re- 
sumed February  3,  1870. 

Filibustering-  raids  of  Wm.  Walker,  1853-60. 

Fire  Engines,  to  force  water,  existed  in  very 
ancient  times.  The  first  of  the  kind  now  in  use, 
but  of  a  vastly  inferior  character,  was  invented 
by  two  Dutchmen,  each  named  Jan  van  der 
Hcide.  at  Amsterdam,  in  1518.     In  1657  an  im- 

5  roved  engine  was  introduced  at  Nuremberg  by 
ohn  Hantsch.  Fire-engines  were  first  known 
at  Paris  in  1699.  The  first  volunteer  fire  com- 
pany in  America  was  the  Union  of  Philadelphia, 
about  1736. 
Flag.  The  American  flag  was  first  used  by 
Washington  at  Cambridge,  January  1,  1776. 

Fortification.  The  present  mode  introduced 
about  15^0. 

Forks  are,  comparatively  speaking,  quite  a 
modem  invention.  They  were  first  known  in  Italy 
toward  the  end  of  the  15th  century.  They 
began  to  be  known  in  France  by  the  end  of  the 
i6tli  century.     Introduced  in  England  in  1608. 

Free  Soil  Party.  The  first  national  conven- 
tion was  held  at  Buffalo,  Aug.  9,  1848. 

Fugitive  Slave  Law  passed  by  Congress, 
Sept.  12,  1850. 

Gamut  in  music  invented  by  Guy  L'Aretin  in 
102  s. 

Gas  was  first  evolved  from  coal  by  Dr.  Clayton  in 
1739.  Its  first  application,  as  an  illuminating 
medium,  was  made  by  Mr.  Murdoch,  in  Corn- 
wall, England,  in  1792.  Sir  H.  Davy,  before  a 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  declared  it 
was  not  practicable  to  light  London  with  gas. 
The  first  display  of  gaslight  was  in  Birmingham, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  peace  rejoicings  0*1802. 
It  was  introduced  for  lighting  the  shops  and 
streets  of  London,  generally,  in  1814.  In  the 
United  States  it  was  introduced  in  1822,  in 
Boston. 

Gilding,  with  gold  leaf,  invented  in  1273. 

Glass  introduced  into  England,  by  Benedict,  a 
monk,  in  674.  First  used  in  England,  for  bottles, 
etc.,  in  1557.  The  first  plate-glass,  made  at 
Lambeth,  In  1673.  Window  glass  first  made  in 
England  in  1557. 

Grist  Mills  invented  in  Ireland  in  314. 

Gunpowder  was  invented  by  the  monk  Schwartz 
in  1310,  although  used  by  the  Chinese  A.D.  80. 
The  Byzantines  used  Greek  fire  AD.  668. 

Guns  invented  in  1330;  used  by  the  Moors  at  the 
siege  of  Algcciras,  in  Spain,  in  1344  ■  at  the  battle 
of  Crccy  in  1546,  and  at  the  siege  of  Calais  in 
the  year  following.  Adopted  by  Denmark  in 
1354;  used  by  the  Venetians,  at  se»,  against  the 
Genoese,  in  1377.  First  used  by  the  Spanish  in 
1106.  The  early  English  guns  were  first  made 
ot  brass  In  1635  ;  in  :  547  they  were  made  of  iron. 
Bombs  and  mortars  were  invented  in  1543. 


Hartford  Convention  (anti-war),  Dec.15,1814. 
Handkerchiefs  were  first  manufactured  at  Pais- 

lejTj  In  .->■■, lund,  in  1743. 

Heraldry  originated  in  the  year  1100. 

Homoeopathy  was  introduced  into  the  United 
btaUj  in  1825. 

Horseshoes-  Although  the  ancients  protected 
the  hoots  of  their  horses  with  some  covering, 
horseshoes,  of  the  kind  now  known,  were  not  in 
general  use  until  the  ninth  century. 

Hour-Glasses  invented  in  Alexandria  240. 

Hydrometer.  The  oldest  mention  of  this  in- 
strument belongs  to  the  5th  century,  but  its 
invention  has  been  attributed  to  Archimedes. 

Infallibility.  The  dogma  of  Papal  Infallibility 
promulgated^  1870. 

Inoculation  for  small-pox,  first  tried  on  crimi- 
nals in  172:.  Vaccine  discovered  by  Dr.  Jcnner 
in  1796, 

Insurance.  The  first  fire  insurance  office  in 
America  was  in  Boston,  1724.  The  first  for  Ufa 
insurance  in  London,  1772  ;  the  first  American,  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1812.  Marine  insurance  dates 
back  to  2598  in  England,  and  to  1721  in 
America. 

Interior  Department  established  March  3, 
1849. 

Jesuits.  The  order  was  founded  by  Ignatius 
Loyola  in  1541. 

Judiciary  Act  passed  by  Congress  Feb.  13, 
1801. 

Knitting:  Stocking's  invented  in  Spain  about 

>55o. 
Knives  were  first  used  in  England  about  1550. 
Know-Nothing"  Party   (American)  arose    in 

New  York  in  1853.    National  platform  adopted 

and  candidate  for  the  Presidency  (Fillmore)  in 

1856. 

Lace.  The  knitting  of  lace  is  a  German  inven- 
tion, first  known  about  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century. 

Lamp  (Sir  Humphry  Davy*s  safety)  for  pre- 
venting explosions  by  fire  damp  in  coal  mines, 
1815. 

Lanterns  invented  by  Alfred  the  Great  800. 

Leyden  Jar  invented  in  1745. 

Liberty  Party,  national  convention  at  Buffalo, 
Aug.  30,  1843. 

Library.  The  oldest  American  library  is  that  of 
Harvard  College,  Cambridge.  1638.  The  first 
subscription  library  was  established  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1731. 

Lig'htning'-rods  were  first  used  by  Benjamin 
Franklin  about  1752. 

Life-Boats  invented  by  Greathead,  who  received 
a  premium  from  Parliament  in  May,  1802. 

Linen  when  first  made  in  England  was  regarded 
as  a  great  luxury,  and  was  very  costly.     A  com- 
pany of  linen-weavers  from  the  Netherlands  was 
■Ji.shcd  in  London  in  1386. 

Lithograph)  j  Printing*  first  brought  into  Eng- 
land in  1S01 . 

Magic  La  .items  invented  in  1253. 

Magna  Charta  signed  1215. 

M agmify in g- Glasses  first  made  in  England 
by  Roger  Bacon  1260. 

Maps  and  Globes  invented  by  Anaaimandcr 
600  B.<        I 

Marble  Paper.  A  German  invention  belonging 
to  the  17th  century. 

Matches.     Friction  matches  first  used  in  1839. 

Mecklenburg*  county,  N.  C,  Declaration  of 
Independence  issued  May  31,  1776. 

Medicinal  Simples  first  brought  Into  Europe, 
from  the  but,  in  1200. 

Microscopes  BrW  u*ed  in  Germany  in  16.11 .  lm 
proved  by  Torricelli  in  1624. 

Military  Academy,  West  Point,  founded  by 
Congress  March  16,  leot. 

Missouri  Compromise  passed  March  3,  iftso, 
and  rep  1,  1854-    It  restricted  slavery 

to  south  of  360  jo\ 


Mirrors  (Silvering)  invented  by  Praxiteks  aaS 
years  I 

Monroe  Doctrine  declared  in  the  iniwg.i  of 
President  Monroe,  Dec.  2#  1825. 

Mormons  arrived  at  Salt  Lake  V-Ocy,  Utah, 
July  24,  1847. 

Musical  Notes  invented  in  1070 ;  iraprovedi  j3o ; 
printed  1502. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  tolerating  Protestants,  issued 
April  13,  1598;  revocation,  Oct.  33,  1665. 

Needles  first  made  in  England  by  a  native  of 

India  in  1545;  re-invented  by  Christopher  Green- 
ing in  1560. 

Netherlands,  revolt  of,  1565  to  1580. 

New  Orleans,  Battle  of,  Jan.  8,  18x5,  Jackson 
defeating  the  British.  Captured  by  Farragut 
April  26,  1862. 

Newspaper.  The  first  authentic  newspaper 
was  printed  in  1404;  first  daily,  Franltfort 
Gazette,  1615.  The  first  English  was  the  Weekly 
Arutes,  1622;  the  first  in  France,  Gazette  at 
France,  1631 .  The  first  advertisement  appeared 
in  1648.  The  first  American  newspaper  was 
printed  in  Boston,  Sept.  25,  1690,  and  was  called 
Publick  Occurrences,  Foreign  and  Domestic. 
The  first  continuously  printed  in  America  was 
the  Boston  News  Letter,  170a;  first  daily,  The 
Pennsylvania  Packet,  1784. 

Nullification  Ordinance  passed  by  South 
Carolina  Nov.  19,  1832,  The  proclamation  of 
Presi  lent  Jackson  denouncing  the  same  was 
issued  Dec.  10, 1832. 

Omuibuses  were  first  used  in  New  York  in  1830. 

Organs  were  invented  in  750. 

Ostend  Manifesto,  issued  Oct.  21, 1854. 

Paper  Hang-ins*.  The  invention  of  hangings 
of  paper  to  take  the  place  of  other  more  costly 
hangings,  has  been  attributed  to  a  manufacturer 
of  paper  hangings,  named  Breitkopf,  of  Leipsic. 
That  kind  known  as  velvet-paper  is  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Jerome  Lanyer,  an  English- 
man, who  received  a  patent  tor  it  in  1634,  al- 
though the  invention  has  also  been  claimed  for 
Francois,  a  Frenchman,  who  is  asserted  to  have 
introduced  it  at  Rouen  in  1620. 

Paper  made  of  cotton,  in  use  in  1000.  Made  of 
linen  rags  in  1319.  First  introduced  in  FjfjyM* 
in  1588.  White  paper  first  made  there  in  1690. 
Paper  was  made  from  straw  in  1800. 

Paper  Money  first  used  in  America  in  1740,  and 
revived  in  1788. 

Parchment  invented  by  King  Attalus,  of  Per- 
gamus,  807  B.C. 

Patent  Big-ht  Law  first  enacted  in  U.  S.,  April 
1 5 .  '  79°- 

Paving  with  Stones  first  introduced  at  Paris 
in  1 186. 

Philadelphia  was  founded  by  William  Penn  in 
1682.  Kiou.,  native  American  and  Irish,  May  6 
to  8,  1844. 

Penny  Post  introduced  for  London  and  its  sub- 
urbs by  an  upholsterer  named  Murray  in  1681. 
Adopted  by  the  government  in  1711.  First  set 
up  in  1774  in  Dublin.  Carried  out  on  an  enlarged 
scale  in  1794,  and  made  a  twopenny  post  in  1801. 

Pens.  The  style,  or  point  or  bone  and  metal, 
which  was  used  for  writing  on  tables  coated  with 
wax,  gave  place  to  the  reed,  pointed  and  split, 
and  used  as  a  pen  with  some  colored  liquid*. 
These  were  gradually  abandoned  in  favor  of 
quill*  The  first  known  record  of  quill*  being 
used  for  pens  is  that  of  Isidore,  who  died  in  630* 
but  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  at  an 
earlier  date.  The  substitution  of  steel  for  quill 
pens  took  place  early  in  the  present  century,  yet, 
strange  to  say,  nothing  is  known  with  certainty 
of  the  person  who  first  invented  the  metallic  pen 

Phonograph  Invented  in  1877  by  T.  A.  Rdfooa. 

Phosphorus  bsl  made  in  1677. 

Photographs  were  first  produced  in  England  in 
1803  ;  perfected  in  1841. 

Pianoforte  invented  about  1710  in  Italy. 

Pilgrims  landed  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  Dec  si, 
iteo,  although  the  date  is  commonly  gives  as 
Dec.  22. 


_\ 


V 


A   DICTIONARY  OF  DATES. 


7 


339 


Pins  were  brought  from  France,  and  first  used  in 
England  by  Catherine  Howard,  Queen  of  Henry 
VIII.  Before  that  time  both  sexes  used  ribbons, 
loop-holes,  laces  with  points  and  tags,  hooks  and 
eyes,  and  small  skewers  made  of  gold,  silver,  and 
brass.  Pins  were  first  made  by  machinery  in 
America  in  1832. 

Pii>6S  Of  Lead,  for  water,  first  cast  in  1539. 

Pistols  first  used  by  the  cavalry  in  1544. 

Pitch,  and  tar  first  made  from  pit  coal  at  Bristol 
in  1779. 

Plaster  of  Paris.  Casting  with  it  from  the 
face  invented  in  1470. 

Porcelain  of  Saxony  greatly  improved  in  1767. 

Port- Holes  introduced  for  ships  of  war  in  1545. 

Post-Office  first  established  between  Vienna  and 
Brussels  in  1516.  Posts  established  regularly 
between  London  and  all  the  principal  towns 
throughout  England  in  1635.  Postage  stamps 
were  introduced  in  England  in  1840;  in  the 
United  Stales  in  1847. 

Pottery  improved  greatly  by  Wedgwood  in 
1763. 

Printing-  The  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 
used  clay  tablets,  and  wooden  blocks  were  used 
by  the  Chinese  as  early  as  952.  Printing  from 
movable  types  was  invented  by  Faust  in  1441, 
and  made  public  by  Gutenberg  m  1454,  although 
the  invention  is  also  claimed  for  L.  Koster  of 
Haarlem  as  early  as  1423.  The  first  Bible  was 
printed  by  Faust  and  Schoffer  in  1456,  and  they 
also  printed  the  first  book  with  date,  a  Latin 
Psalter,  in  1457.  Wooden  type  first  introduced 
into  England,  by  William  Caxton,  a  London 
merchant,  in  1477.  The  first  English  press  was 
set  up  in  Westminster  Abbey,  where  it  remained 
until  1494.  The  first  American  book,  "  Escala 
Espiritual,"  was  printed  by  Juan  Hablas,  Mexico, 
about  1535.  The  first  press  in  the  United  States 
was  that  of  Stephen  Daye,  at  Cambridge,  Mass. , 
1639.  Printing  in  colors  was  first  introduced  in 
1626. 

Pyramids  first  erected  about  2170  B.C. 

Quicksilver  first  used  for  refining  silver  ore  in 
1540. 

Railroad.  The  first  passenger  railroad  was 
opened  in  England  Sept.  27,  1825;  the  first  in 
America,  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  1828,  although 
freight  was  moved  by  rail  at  the  granite  quarries 
of  Quincy,  Mass.,  as  early  as  1826.  The  first 
steam  railroad  was  operated  in  the  United  States 
in  1830,  from  Albany  to  Schenectady — 16  miles. 

Reformation  in  Germany,  151 7;  in  England, 
1532- 

Republican  Party.  The  first  convention  was 
held  at  Pittsburgh,  Feb.  22, 1856.  ' 

Resumption  of  Specie  Payments  in  the  United 
States — Act  approved  1875;  took  effect  Jan.  1, 
1879. 

Ribbon  Looms.  It  has  been  asserted  that 
these  looms  were  first  known  to  the  Swiss,  but 
others  claim  their  invention  for  a  German  in  the 
town  of  Dantzic  in  the  16th  century. 

Ruling1  -Machines  invented  by  a  Dutchman 
in  London  in  1792. 

Saddles.  Pliny  informs  us  that  one,  Pele- 
thronius,  was  the  first  to  introduce  a  piece  of 
leather  fastened  to  the  back  of  a  horse  for  the 
accommodation  of  its  rider.  For  a  long  time 
these  cloths  and  pieces  of  leather  were  regarded 
as  unmanly,  ana  were,  therefore,  regarded  by 
soldiers  with  great  scorn.  The  old  German 
races  despised  the  Roman  cavalry  for  riding  on 
such  effeminate  contrivances.  Saddles  of  the 
kind  now  used  appear  to  have  been  in  use  in 
385.  Side-saddles  first  used  in  1380.  Previous 
to  their  introduction  women  always  rode  astride. 

Sailcloth,  first  made  m  England  In  1590. 

Salting*  Herrings  after  the  Dutch  method  first 
used  in  1416. 

Saltpeter  first  manufactured  in  England,  in  1625. 

Saws.  The  inventor  of  the  saw  is  said,  by  the  old 
Greek  writers,  to  be  Talus  or  Perdox.  Pliny 
ascribes  the  invention  to  Dcedalus,but  Hardouin 
affirms  that  the  passage  in  which  he  does  so  refers 
to  Talus,  and  not  to  Daedalus.     Talus  was  the 


son  of  a  sister  of  Doedalus,  and  the  invention  is 
said  to  be  due  to  his  using  the  jawbone  of  a  snake 
to  cut  through  a  piece  of  wood.  His  master 
grew  jealous  of  the  honor  Talus  won  by  this  in- 
vention, and  caused  him  to  be  privately  put  to 
death. 

Sedan  Chairs  introduced  into  England  in  1734. 

Sewing1  ^Machine  first  patented  in  England,  in 
1755.  The  first  complete  machine  was  con- 
structed by  an  American,  Elias  Howe,  in  1846. 

Sextant  invented  by  Tycho  Brahe,  at  Augsburg, 
in  1550. 

Shay's  Rebellion,  in  Massachusetts,  1786-87. 

Sleeping1- Cars  were  first  used  in  1858.  Pull- 
man's patent  dates  from  1864/ 

Soap  first  made  in  London  and  Bristol  in  1524. 
The  first  express  mention  of  soap  appears  in 
Pliny  and  Galen.  The  former  speaks  of  it  as  an 
invention  of  the  Gauls. 

Speaking-Trumpets  invented  by  Kircher,  a 

Jesuit,  in  1652. 

Spinning*-  W heel  invented  at  Brunswick,  1530. 

Spectacles  invented  by  Spina,  a  monk,  of  Pisa, 

in  1299. 

Stamp  Act  enacted  March  22,  1765;  repealed 
March  19,  1766. 

Statutes  of  the  United  States  first  revised  and 
codified  in  1873. 

Steam.  The  steam  engine  boilerwas  discovered 
by  the  Marquis  of  Worcester,  in  1663.  New- 
commen's  engine  was  patented  in  1 705,  and  the  in- 
vention was  perfected  by  James  Watt,  in  1773. 
The  high  pressure  engine  was  invented  by  an 
American,  Oliver  Evans,  in  1779.  The  first 
steam  vessel  of  which  there  is  any  record  was 
that  of  Papin  (France),  in  1707.  Then  follow 
those  of  Jonathan  Hulls  (England),  1736;  Will- 
iam Henry  (Conestoga  river,  Pa.),  1703;  James 
Rumsey  (Md.),  1786;  John  Fitch  (Delaware 
river),  same  year.  In  1806  Robert  Fulton  con- 
structed the  Clermont,  which  plied  regularly  be- 
tween New  York  and  Albany,  at  a  speed  of  five 
miles  per  hour.  The  first  steamer  crossing  the 
Atlantic  made  the  voyage  from  Savannah  to 
Liverpool  in  twenty-five  days,  A.D.  1819. 

Steel.  The  invention  of  steel  is  of  very  great  an- 
tiquity.!; the  Jtcocss  of  hardening  iron  is  de- 
scribed inthe  Old  Testament  (Isaiah  xliv,  12). 
The  helmet  of  Hercules,  described  in  Hesiod, 
appears  to  have  been  of  steel.  Homer  refers  to 
the  process  of  hardening  steel  by  immersing  it, 
while  red  hot,  in  cold  water. 

Stereotype  Printing:  invented  by  William 
Gid,  agoTdsmiih,  of  Edinburgh,  in  1735. 

Stirrups,  according  to  a  statement  made  by  the 
Emperor  Mauritius,  were  first  used  in  the  6th 
century.  Hippocrates  and  Galen  speak  of  a 
disease  which,  in  their  time,  was  occasioned  by 
long  and  frequent  riding,  because  the  legs  hung 
down  without  any  support. 

Sugrar  is  first  mentioned  in  625  by  Paul  Eginetta, 
a  physician.  It  came  originally  from  China  and 
the  East;  was  produced  in  Sicily  in  1148,  in 
Madeira  in  1419,  in  the  Canary  Islands  in  1503. 
and  in  the  West  Indies  by  the  Portuguese  ana 
Spaniards  in  1510.  In  1641  it  was  cultivated  at 
Barbadoes.  Sugar-refining  was  first  carried  out 
by  a  Venetian  in  1503,  and  this  process  was 
adopted  in  England  in  1569.  Sugar  cane  was 
first  cultivated  in  the  United  States  in  1751,  near 
New  Orleans,  the  first  sugar  mill  being  con- 
structed in  1758. 

Sunday  Schools  were  first  established  by 
Robert  Raikes,  Gloucester,  England,  in  1781. 

Sun-dials  invented  558  B.C.  The  first  in  Rome, 
308  B.C.,  was  that  erected  by  Papirius  Cursor, 
when  time  was  divided  into  hours. 

Tanning:  Leather.  A  new  and  more  expedi- 
tious method  than  that  previously  in  use  was 
invented  in  1795. 

Tax.  The  first  tax  levied  on  the  people  was  by 
Solon,  540  B.C. 

Tea  first  known  in  Europe  in  1610,  being  brought 
from  India  by  the  Dutch. 

Tel etrraphs  (mechanical)  invented  in  1687.  First 
used  by  the  French  in  1794,  and  by  the  English 
in  1 796.    The  first  electric  telegraph  was  operated 


from  Paddington  to  Drayton,  England,  in  1835, 
the  same  year  in  which  Morse's  telegraph  was 
invented.  The  first  telegraph  line  in  operation 
in  America  was  between  Baltimore  and  Washing- 
ton in  1844.  The  first  submarine  cable  was  laid 
in  1851,  between  Dover  and  Calais,  and  the  first 
Atlantic  cable  was  operated  in  1858. 
Telephone.  A.  Graham  Bell  first  presented  a 
speaking  telephone  at  the  Centennial  Exposition, 
Philadelphia,  in  1876. 

Telescopes.  The  first  reflecting  telescope  made 
on  the  principle  discovered  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
in  1692. 

Thread  first  made  at  Paisley  in  1732. 
Thermometers    first    invented    by  Drebel,    a 
Dutchman,  in   1620  ;  improved  by  Reaumur  in 

1730,  and  by  Fahrenheit  in  1749. 

Tobacco  was  first  introduced  into  England,  from 
Virginia, in  1583. 

Union  of  England  and  Scotland,  1707;  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  1801, 

Vaccination.     See  Inoculation. 

Ventilators  first  introduced  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Hales  in  1740, 

Violins  of  the  modem  kind  invented  about  2477. 

Introduced  into  England  by  Charles  II. 
"Wall-papers  first  used  in  Spain  and  Holland  in 

1555.    Flock  or  velvet  wall-papers  were  first  used 
in  1620. 

War  Ships.  In  1814  Sir  Robert  Seppings  in- 
troduced various  most  important  improvements 
for  the  construction  of  war  ships.  The  lower 
parts  of  the  frames  of  ships  of  war  were  then, 
for  the  first  time,  filled  in,  a  system  of  diagonal 
trussing  was  introduced,  the  stern  was  altered  in 
form,  so  that  it  no  longer  remained  open  to  the 
fire  of  an  enemy,  and  the  upper  decks  were  en- 
larged. Sir  W.  Symonds  altered  them  so  as  to 
decrease  the  quantity  of  ballast  required  in  1832. 
In  the  International  Exhibition  of  1851  various 
improvements  in  this  direction  were  shown,  but 

freat  iron-cased  ships  were  not  then  thought  of. 
n  July,  1854,  the  first  of  a  new  class  of  screw, 
fin  vessels  was  launched  for  use  during  the 
ussian  war.  To  operate  with  these,  vessels  of 
iron  were  constructed  to  bombard  the  fortresses 
in  the  Baltic.  The  first  French  iron-cased  ship 
was  a  frigate  called  the"Gloire,"  and  this  was 
quickly  followed  by  the  first  English  ship  of 
that  kind,  the  "  Warrior."  Since  then  vessels  of 
this  kind  have  been  subject  to  a  variety  of  alter- 
ations and  experiments  tending  to  improve  both 
their  strength  and  their  sailing  qualities.  The 
first  battle  between  iron  ships  of  war  occurred  in 
the  war  for  the  Union,  the  Merrimac  and  Mon- 
itor being  the  contestants. 

Watches  were  invented  at  Nuremberg  in  1477, 
and  were  first  introduced  into  England  from 
Germany  in  1577. 

Water  Mills  for  grinding  corn  are  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Relisarius  when  Rome  was  be- 
sieged by  the  Goths  in  555.  Pliny,  however, 
mentions  wheels  turned  by  water. 

Weather-Cocks.  The  earliest  mention  of  a 
weather-cock  is  that  made  by  Vitruvius,  con- 
cerning that  on  the  tower  built  at  Athens  by  An- 
dronicus  Cyrrhestes. 

Wild-Fire  invented  by  a  Greek  in  663. 

Wilmot  Proviso,  to  restrict  slavery,  offered  in 
the  House  of  Representatives,  Aug.  8,  1846,  by 
David  Wilmot,  of  Pa. 

Wire  invented  at  Nuremberg  in  1351. 

Wire-Drawing'.  The  first  record  we  have  of 
this  art  is  probably  that  contained  in  Holy  Writ, 
where  we  are  told  that  gold  was  beaten  and  cut 
to  threads,  so  that  it  could  be  interwoven  in 
cloth.  The  present  mode  of  forming  metallic 
threads,  that  known  as  wire-drawing,  was  first 
known  in  the  14th  century. 

Woolen  Cloth.  Although  the  making  of 
woolen  cloth  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  arts,  its 
manufacture  was  not  known  in  France  until 
1646,  when  it  was  made  at  Sedan.  It  was  first 
made  in  England  in  1331,  but  was  not  dyed  or 
dressed  until  1667. 

Yellowstone  National  Park  established  by 
Act  of  Congress,  Feo.  28,  1871. 


"* a  > 


34© 


SCIENTIFIC    DEPARTMENT. 


=7?F 


|E  are  all  children  of  one  Father,  and 
His  works  it  should  be  our  delight 
to  study.  As  the  child,  standing  by 
its  parent's  knee,  asks  explanations  alike  of  the 
simplest  phenomena  and  of  the  most  profound 
problems,  so  should  man,  turning  to  Nature,  the 
living,  visible  oracle  of  his  Creator,  continually 
ask  for  knowledge. 

In  scientific  language,  Nature  is  defined  as 
"the  united  totality  of  all  that  the  senses  can 
perceive ; "  in  the  language  of  theology,  it 
"embraces  everything  that  cannot  be  made  by 
man,"  hence  is  synonymous  with  "  God's  crea- 
tion." 

In  Nature  there  is  no  such  thing  as  chance. 
Every  effect  has  its  cause,  as  Nature  herself  is 
but  a  name  for  an  effect  whose  cause  is  God. 
When  Newton  observed  an  apple  fall  to  the 
ground  he  asked  the  cause, and  in  answer  to  his 
inquiry  came  one  of  the  grandest  discoveries  of 
science — a  discovery  which  let  in  a  flood  of 
light  upon  the  human  mind,  and  led  the  way  to 
the  true  knowledge  of  many  things  theretofore 
shrouded  in  error  or  mystery.  Montgolfier  first 
conceived  the  idea  of  air-balloons  while  watch- 
ing fogs  floating  in  the  atmosphere,  and  all  the 


wonderful  discoveries  of  science  may  thus  be 
traced  to  simple  phenomena,  carefully  pondered 
and  diligently  studied  in  all  their  bearings  as  to 
cause  and  effect. 

"  Nature,"  says  Whipple,  "  does  not  capri- 
ciously scatter  her  secrets  as  golden  gifts  to  lazy 
pets  and  luxurious  darlings,  but  imposes  tasks 
when  she  presents  opportunities,  and  uplifts  him 
whom  she  would  inform.  The  apple  that  she 
drops  at  the  feet  of  Newton  is  but  a  coy  invita- 
tion to  follow  her  to  the  stars."  The  greatest 
philosophers  have  been  those  who  have  clung 
to  the  demonstrative  sciences,  and  have  held 
that  a  simple  truth,  well  ascertained,  is  greater 
than  the  most  ingenious  theory  founded  upon 
questionable  premises.  The  discoveries  of 
Newton  have  borne  the  searching  test  of  time 
because  he  snatched  at  nothing,  leaped  over  no 
chasm  to  establish  a  favorite  dogma,  but  learned 
to  read  Nature  correctly  by  regarding  the 
merest  trifles  as  well  as  the  highest  phenomena. 
Thus  he  discovered  a  letter  in  each  atom,  a  word 
in  each  blade  of  grass,  a  sentence  in  each  phe- 
nomenon, and  in  the  volume  thus  composed  he 
read  the  wisdom  and  the  power  of  the  Almighty. 
Every  flower,  every  ray  of  light,  every  drop  of 


*7  * 


-'-. 


^ 


SCIENTIFIC    DEPARTMENT. 


i£ 


7 


34i 


dew,  each  flake  of  snow,  the  lowering  cloud,  the 
bright  sun,  the  pale  moon,  the  azure  of  the 
heavens  by  day  and  the  twinkling  stars  of  night, 
all  are  eloquent  of  the  great  Hand  that  made 
them. 

From  the  earliest  ages  man  has  sought  to 
read  the  open  leaves  of  the  book  of  Nature,  but 
even  now,  after  centuries  of  research  and  dis- 
covery, he  does  not  grasp  it  all,  cause  and  effect 
being  followed  up  step  by  step  until  the  mind  is 
lost  in  the  search.  One  discovery  only  leads  to 
another,  and  the  scientist  of  twenty  centuries 
hence  will  be  compelled  to  acknowledge  that 
one-half  of  the  wonderful  book  is  still  a  mys- 
tery. However,  all  may  peruse  its  pages,  and 
all  will  find  pleasure  and  profit  in  observing 
what  is  daily  going  on  around  them  in  earth, 
sea  and  sky.  It  is,  indeed,  only  by  a  study  of 
the  material  world  that  discoveries  are  accom- 
plished. Let  an  attentive  observer  watch  a  ray 
of  light  passing  from  the  air  into  the  water,  and 
he  will  see  it  deviate  from  the  straight  line  by 
refraction.  Let  him  seek  the  origin  of  a  sound, 
and  he  will  discover  that  it  results  from  a  shock 
or  a  vibration.  This  is  physical  science  in  its 
infancy. 

In  the  pages  following  it  is  purposed  to  pre- 
sent in  brief  and  entertaining  form  much  useful 
as  well  as  practical  scientific  knowledge.  It  has 
been  sought  to  convey  to  the  mind  of  the  un- 
initiated, in  as  simple  and  practical  a  way  as 
possible,  a  general  idea  of  the  various  branches 
of  science,  as  well  as  to  state  scientific  facts 
briefly  and  in  proper  consecutive  order,  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  advanced  student  may  freshen 
his  memory  and  revive  his  interest.  Technical 
terms  have  been  avoided  as  much  as  possible, 
and  where  they  are  used  of  necessity  the  con- 
text will  furnish  ample  explanation. 

When  a  person  who  is  a  stranger  seeks  to  be 


directed  to  some  point  in  a  large  and  poorly 
laid-out  city,  whose  streets,  courts  and  places 
start  from  everywhere  and  end  nowhere,  cross- 
ing each  other  in  a  perverse  and  confusing  man- 
ner, it  were  worse  than  useless  to  attempt  to. 
give  him  all  the  directions  at  once.  The  better 
way  would  be  to  point  out  to  him  the  general 
direction,  and  then  let  him  inquire  as  he  pro- 
gresses on  the  journey.  In  this  connection  it 
may  be  said  that  there  is  nothing  so  conducive 
to  loss  of  time  as  short  cuts  to  those  who  are 
not  familiar  with  them.  They  generally  verify 
the  axiom  that  "  Haste  makes  waste."  With 
these  introductory  remarks  we  will  take  the 
reader  to  the  broad  fields  of  Science,  and  point 
out  to  him  the  general  direction  of  the  respec- 
tive paths,  noting  in  our  way  the  most  promi- 
nent turns,  and  if  our  readers  desire  more  spe- 
cific information  we  will  refer  them  to  the 
writings  of  those  great  men  who  have  devoted 
their  lives  to  the  solution  of  Nature's  problems, 
and  have  enabled  us  to  give  the  reason  for  many 
things  which,  but  for  their  genius  and  unremit- 
ting labors,  would  still  be  shrouded  by  the  veil 
of  ignorance. 

Among  the  various  works  that  have  aided  in 
the  familiar  exposition  of  science  presented  in 
this  work  may  be  mentioned  the  following : 
"  Les  Recreations  Scientifiques,"  by  Gaston 
Tissandier ;  "  Astronomy,"  in  the  series  of  New 
Works  on  Physics  by  J.  A.  Gillet  and  W.  J. 
Rolfe ;  "  Physik  und  Meteorologie,"  by  Dr.  E. 
Lommel;  "The  Teacher's  Examiner,"  by  A.  H. 
Thompson  ;  "  Guide  to  Familiar  Science,"  by 
Rev.  E.  C.  Brewer  ;  "  Lockyer's  Solar  Physics," 
Newcomb's  "  Popular  Astronomy,"  etc.,  etc. 
We  desire  in  an  especial  manner  to  thank  Pro- 
fessors Rolfe  and  Gillet  for  the  use  of  a  number 
of  beautiful  and  accurate  astronomical  illustra- 
tions from  their  excellent  work. 


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342 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  — PHYSICS. 


THE    FORCES   OF  NATURE,  AND  THE   LAWS  WHICH    GOVERN  THEM. 
THE    ELEMENTS   OF  NATURAL  SCIENCE. 


= 

■" 


nATURE  is  revealed  to  us  by  objects  and  by  phenomena. 
An  object  is  a  thing  which  occupies  space  and  which  is 
susceptible  to  feeling  and  to  sight.  The  heavenly  bodies 
may  also  be  classed  as  objects,  although  we  cannot  touch  them. 
Phenomena  include  those  results  which  are  perceptible  by  only 
one  sense,  as  thunder.  Light  and  sound  may  also  be  classed  as 
phenomena.  A  stone  is  a  natural  object.  We  take  it  up,  open 
our  fingers,  and  it  falls.  The  motion  of  that  object  is  a  phe- 
nomenon. We  know  it  falls  because  we  see  it  fall,  and  it 
possesses  what  we  term  weight ;  but  we  cannot  tell  why  it 
possesses  weight.  A  cause  of  a  phenomenon  being  independent 
of  human  will  is  called  a  force,  and  the  stone  falls  by  the  force 
of  gravitation,  or  that  natural  law  which  compels  every  material 
object  to  approach  every  other  material  object.  A  single  force 
may  produce  a  great  number  of  phenomena. 

Nature  being  revealed  to  us  by  objects,  and  by  means  of 
phenomena,  we  have  two  branches  of  science  extending  from 
such  roots,  namely,  Natural  History, the  Science  of  Objects; 
and  Natural  Philosophy,  the  Science  of  Phenomena. 

Both  of  these  branches  have  been  subdivided  thus  : 

ZoSlogy,  referring  10  Animals.   1      Bl0logy. 

Botany,  referring  to  Plants.        ) 

M  ineralogy,  1      refcrring  to  Mineralj#  etc. 

Geology,        J 

Physics.     Phenomena  without  essential  change 

of  the  objects. 
Chemistry.      Phenomena    with    change   of  the 

objects. 
Physiology.    Phenomena  of  animated  objects. 

The  two  great  divisions  comprehend,  in  their  extended  senses, 
all  that  is  known  respecting  the  material  world. 

We  have  spoken  of  objects.  Objects  occupy  space.  What  is 
space  ?  Space  is  magnitude  which  can  1*  conceived  as  extend- 
ing in  three  directions — length,  breadth  and  depth.  MATTER 
occupies   portions   of  space,  which   is   infinite.     Matter,  when 


Natural  History. 


Natural  Philosophy. 


finite,  is  termed  a  body  or  object.  A  molecule  is  the  smallest 
portion  of  a  body  which  we  can  conceive  of  as  retaining  it; 
identity.     An  atom  is  a  division  of  a  molecule. 

Suppose  we  take  a  quantity  of  water  and  conceive  it  to  be 
divided  until  we  reach  a  limit.  The  last  particle  which  we  could 
call  water  would  be  a  molecule.  Now  let  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity be  passed  through  a  quantity  of  water,  and  it  is  separated 
into  two  gases,  essentially  different  from  each  other,  and  differ- 
ent from  water.  A  given  quantity  of  water  will  produce  a 
certain  quantity  of  gas,  the  proportion  in  volume  of  the  two 
kinds  being  as  1  to  2.  If  one  pint,  say,  of  water  produces 
one  volume  of  one  gas,  and  two  of  the  other,  one-half  pint 
would  produce  one-half  the  arount  of  one  gas  and  one-half 
the  amount  of  the  other,  and  so  on  down  until  we  have  made 
the  ultimate  division,  which,  for  convenience,  we  call  a  molecule. 
Then  we  can  truly  say  that  the  molecule  is  composed  of  fwt 
parts  of  one  gas  and  one  part  of  the  other,  and  for  convenience 
we  call  these  parts  of  the  molecules,  atoms. 

Physics  deals  only  with  masses  and  molecules.  Chemistry 
deals  with  atoms.  When  we  tear  a  piece  of  paper  in  pieces,  or 
grind  it  to  a  pulp,  we  separate  molecules  and  have  effected  a 
physical  change  only.  When  we  burn  the  paper  in  the  fire  we 
lepanta  atoms  and  have  effected  a  chemical  change.  In  the 
first  case  we  have  effected  a  change  of  form,  but  the  matter  is 
identically  the  saaie.  In  the  second  case,  the  gases  and  ashes 
produced  by  the  burning  are  totally  different,  and  the  paper  has 
lost  its  identity. 

The  sounding  of  a  bell  and  the  falling  of  a  stone  axe  physical 
phenomena,  for  the  object  which  causes  the  sound  or  the  fall 
undergoes  no  change.  Heat  is  set  free  when  coal  bums,  and 
tins  disengagement  of  heat  is  a  physical  phenomenon;  but  the 
change  during  combustion  which  coal  undergoes  is  a  chemical 
phenomenon. 


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Vf 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  — PHYSICS. 


343 


The  General  Properties  of  Matter 

Are  magnitude,  impenetrability,  inertia,  divisibility,  porosity, 
elasticity,  compressibility,  expansibility  and  indestructibility. 

Magnitude  is  the  property  of  occupying  space.  Size  is  the 
amount  of  space  a  body  fills.  Every  body  has  three  dimensions 
— length,  breadth  and  thickness;  and,  in  order  to  measure 
these,  some  standard  of  measurement  is  required. 

Impenetrability  is  the  property  of  so  occupying  space  as  to 
exclude  all  other  bodies ;  for  no  two  bodies  can  occupy  the 
same  space  at  the  same  time.  We  sometimes  speak  of  one  sub- 
stance penetrating  another.  Thus,  a  needle  penetrates  cloth,  a 
nail  penetrates  wood,  etc. ;  but  on  a  moment's  reflection  it  will 
be  plainly  seen  that  they  merely  push  aside  the  fibers  of  the 
cloth  or  wood,  and  so  press  them  closer  together. 

Inertia  is  the  property  of  passiveness.  Matter  has  no  power 
of  putting  itself  in  motion  when  at  rest.  A  body  will  never 
change  its  place  unless  moved,  and  if  once  started  will  move 
forever  unless  stopped.  It  is  difficult  to  start  a  wagon  because 
we  have  to  overcome  its  inertia,  which  tends  to  keep  it  at  rest. 
When  the  wagon  is  in  motion  it  requires  as  great  an  exertion  to 
stop  it,  since  then  we  have  again  to  overcome  its  inertia,  which 
tends  to  keep  it  moving. 

Inertia  causes  the  danger  of  jumping  from  cars  when  in 
motion.  The  body  has  the  speed  of  the  train,  while  the  motion 
of  the  feet  is  stopped  by  contact  with  the  ground.  One  should 
jump  as  nearly  as  he  can  in  thg  direction  in  which  the  train  is 
moving,  and  with  his  muscles  strained,  so  as  to  break  into  a  run 
the  instant  his  feet  touch  the  ground.  Then  with  all  his  strength 
he  can  gradually  overcome  the  inertia  of  his  body,  and  after  a 
few  feet  can  turn  as  he  pleases. 

Divisibility  is  that  property  of  a  body  which  allows  it  to  be 
separated  into  parts.  It  would  be  impossible  to  find  a  particle 
so  small  that  it  still  could  not  be  made  smaller.  Practically 
speaking,  there  is  no  limit  to  the  divisibility  of  matter;  but 
philosophers  hold  that  there  is  in  theory.  When  we  attempt  to 
show  how  far  matter  can  be  divided,  the  brain  refuses  to  grasp 
the  infinity.  A  pin's  head  is  a  small  object,  but  it  is  gigantic  com- 
pared to  some  animals,  of  which  millions  would  occupy  a  space  no 
larger  than  the  head  of  a  pin.  These  tiny  animals  must  have 
organs  and  veins,  and  those  veins  must  be  full  of  blood  globules. 
Prof.  Tyndall  says  a  drop  of  blood  contains  three  millions  of 
red  globules.  But  there  is  something  even  more  astonishing  than 
this.  It  is  stated  that  there  are  more  animals  in  the  milt  of  a 
single  codfish  than  there  are  men  in  the  world ;  and  that  one 
grain  of  sand  is  larger  than  four  millions  of  these  animals, 
each  of  which  must  be  possessed  of  life  germs  of  an  equal 
amount,  which  would  grow  up  as  it  grew  to  maturity.  This 
carries  us  back  again,  and 

"  Imagination's  utmost  stretch 
In  wonder  dies  away." 

Porosity  is  the  property  of  having  pores.  By  this  is  meant 
not  only  such  pores  as  are  familiar  to  all,  and  to  which  we  refer 
when,  in  common  language,  we  speak  of  a  porous  body,  as  bread, 
wood,  unglazed  pottery,  a  sponge,  etc.,  but  a  finer  kind,  as  in- 
visible to  the  eye  as  the  atoms  themselves.     These  pores  are 


caused  by  the  fact  that  the  molecules  of  which  a  body  is  com- 
posed are  not  in  actual  contact,  but  are  separated  by  extremely 
minute  spaces. 

Elasticity  is  classed  both  among  the  general  and  the  specifis 
properties  of  matter.  It  is  thought  that  all  bodies  have  elas- 
ticity, yet  some  have  it  in  such  a  degree  that  it  serves  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  other  bodies. 

Compressibility  is  that  property  of  matter  by  virtue  of  which 
ifmay  be  made  to  occupy  less  space.  It  is  a  result  of  porosity, 
the  molecules  being  pressed  closer  together. 

Expansibility  is  the  opposite  of  compressibility. 

Indestructibility  is  the  property  which  renders  matter  inca- 
pable of  being  destroyed.  No  particle  of  matter  can  be  annihi- 
lated, except  by  God,  its  creator.  We  may  change  its  torm,  but 
we  cannot  deprive  it  of  existence. 

The   Specific  Properties  of  Ivj't.er 

Are  those  which  are  found  only  in  particular  kinds  of  matter. 
The  most  important  are  ductility,  malleability,  tenacity,  elas- 
ticity, hardness  and  brittleness. 

A  ductile  body  is  one  which  can  be  drawn  into  wire.  Some 
of  the  most  ductile  are  gold,  silver,  and  platinum. 

A  malleable  body  is  one  which  can  be  hammered  or  rolled 
into  sheets.  Gold  is  the  most  malleable  or  all  metals,  and  can 
be  beaten  into  sheets  1315^  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  Copper  is 
so  malleable  that  it  is  said  that  a  workman,  witn  his  hammer, 
can  beat  out  a  kettle  from  a  solid  block  of  the  metal. 

A  tenacious  body  is  one  which  cannot  be  easily  pulled  apart. 
Iron  is  the  most  tenacious  of  the  metals. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  elasticity — elasticity  of  compression, 
elasticity  of  expansion,  and  elasticity  of  torsion. 

Solids — Liquids — Gases. 

Matter  is  present  in  Nature  in  three  conditions.  We  find  it 
as  a  solid,  a  liquid,  and  a  gas.  To  test  the  actual  existence  of 
matter  in  one  or  other  of  these  forms  our  senses  help  us.  We 
can  touch  a  solid,  or  taste  it  and  see  it.     But  touch  is  the  test. 

A  solid  is  a  body  whose  molecules  cohere  so  that  their  rela- 
tive positions  cannot  be  changed  without  the  application  of  con- 
siderable force.     A  solid  will  retain  any  shape  given  it. 

A  liquid  is  a  body  whose  molecules  cohere  so  slightly  that 
their  relative  positions  may  be  changed  on  the  application  of 
slight  force.  A  liquid  will  assume  the  form  of  the  vessel  con- 
taining it,  and  the  free  surface  will  always  be  horizontal,  each 
molecule  seeking  its  lowest  level  by  the  force  of  gravity. 

A  gas  is  a  body  whose  molecules  separate  almost  indefinitely 
from  each  other.  Essentially  there  is  no  difference  between  a 
gas  and  a  vapor.  The  term  gas  is  generally  applied  to  those 
bodies  which  are  ordinarily  in  a  gaseous  state,  and  the  term 
vapor  to  that  which  is  formed  by  heating  a  liquid  or  solid. 
Steam  is  the  vapor  of  water,  but  it  is  a  gas  as  much  as  oxygen 
or  hydrogen. 

The   Forces  of   Nature. 

Force  is  a  cause — the  cause  of  motion  or*  of  rest.  It  requires 
force  to  set  an  object  in  motion,  and  this  object  would  never 
stop  unless  some  other  force  or  forces  prevented  its  movement 


=^ 


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344 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY-  PHYSICS. 


beyond  a  certain  point.  Force,  therefore,  is  the  cause  of  a 
change  of  *'  state  "  in  matter.  The  forces  of  Nature  are  three  in 
number — gravity,  cohesion,  and  affinity,  or  chemical  attraction. 

Gravity. 

Gravity,  or  gravitation,  is  the  mutual  attraction  between  dif- 
ferent portions  of  matter  acting  at  all  distances — the  force  of 
attraction  being,  of  course,  in  proportion  to  the  respective  mass 
of  the  bodies.  The  greatest  body,  so  far  as  our  purposes  are 
concerned,  is  the  earth,  and  the  attraction  of  the  earth  is  gravity, 
or  what  we  call  weight  If  we  jump  from  a  chair  we  shall 
come  to  the  floor,  and  if  there  were  nothing  between  us  and  the 
actual  ground,  sufficient  to  sustain  the  force  of  the  attracting 
power  of  the  earth,  we  should  fall  to  the  earth's  surface.  In  a 
teacup  the  spoon  will  attract  air-bubbles,  and  large  air-bubbles 
will  attract  small  ones,  till  we  find  a  small  mass  of  bubbles 
formed  in  the  center  of  the  cup  of  tea.  Divide  this  bubble,  and 
the  component  parts  will  rush  to  the  sides  of  the  cup. 

Two  balls  of  equal  magnitude  will  attract  each  other  with 
equal  force,  and  will  meet,  if  not  opposed,  at  a  point  half-way 
between  the  two.  But  they  do  not  meet,  because  the  attraction 
of  the  earth  is  greater  than  the  attraction  they  relatively  and 
collectively  exercise  toward  each  other.  If  the  size  of  the 
balls  be  different,  the  attraction  of  the  greater  will  be  more 
evident. 

FALLING   BODIES. 

Gravity  is  the  cause  of  the  phenomena  of  falling  bodies,  be- 
cause every  object  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  very  much 
smaller  than  the  earth  itself,  and,  therefore,  all  bodies  fall  toward 
the  center  of  the  earth.  On  the  earth  a  body,  if  let  fall,  will 
pass  through  a  space  of  sixteen  feet  in  the  first  second ;  and  as 
the  attraction  of  the  earth  still  continues  and  is  exercised  on  a 
body  already  in  rapid  motion,  this  rate  of  progress  must  be  pro- 
portionately increased.  The  space  a  falling  body  passes  through 
has  been  calculated,  and  found  to  increase  in  proportion  to  the 
square  of  the  time  it  takes  to  fall.  For  instance,  suppose  you 
drop  a  stone  from  the  top  of  a  cliff  to  the  beach,  and  it  occupies 
two  seconds  in  falling.  If  you  multiply  2  by  2  and  the  result  by 
16,  you  will  find  how  high  the  cliff  is  —  64  feet.  The  depth  of 
a  well  can  be  ascertained  in  the  same  way,  leaving  out  the  effect 
of  air  resistance. 

But  if  we  go  up  into  the  air,  the  force  of  gravity  will  be 
diminished.  The  attraction  will  be  less,  because  we  arc  more 
distant  from  the  center  of  the  earth.  This  decrease  is  scarcely, 
if  at  all,  perceptible,  even  on  very  high  mountains,  because  their 
size  is  not  great  in  comparison  with  the  mass  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face. The  rule  for  this  is  that  gravity  decreases  in  proportion  to 
the  square  of  the  distance.  So  that  if  at  a  certain  distance  from 
the  earth's  surface  the  force  of  attraction  be  I,  if  the  distance  be 
doubled  the  attraction  will  be  only  one-quarter  as  much  as  be- 
fore —  not  one-half. 

Gravity  has  exactly  the  same  influence  upon  all  bodies,  and 
the  force  of  the  attraction  is  in  proportion  to  the  mass.  AH 
bodies  of  equal  mass  will  fall  in  the  same  time  in  a  given  dis- 
tance. Two  coins,  or  a  coin  and  a  feather,  in  vacuo,  will  fall 
together.     But  in  the  air  the  feather  will  remain  far  behind  the 


coin,  because  nearly  all  the  atoms  of  the  former  are  resisted  by 
the  air,  while  in  the  coin  only  some  particles  are  exposed  to  the 
resistance,  the  density  of  the  latter  preventing  the  air  from  reach- 
ing more  than  a  few  atoms,  comparatively  speaking. 

Drops  of  water  falling  from  the  clouds  do  not  strike  with  a 
force  proportional  to  the  laws  of  falling  bodies.  This  is  because 
they  are  so  small  that  the  resistance  of  the  air  nearly  destroys 
their  velocity.  If  it  were  not  for  this  wise  provision,  a  shower 
of  raindrops  would  be  as  fatal  as  one  of  minie  bullets. 

The  weight  of  a  body  varies  on  different  portions  of  the 
earth's  surface.  It  will  be  least  at  the  equator :  (1 )  because,  on 
account  of  the  bulging  form  of  our  globe,  a  body  is  there 
pushed  out  from  the  mass  of  the  earth,  and  so  removed  from  the 
center  of  attraction ;  (2)  because  the  centrifugal  force  is  there 
the  strongest.  It  will  be  greatest  at  the  poles :  (1)  because,  on 
account  of  the  flattening  of  the  earth,  a  body  is  there  brought 
nearer  its  mass  and  the  center  of  attraction ;  (2)  because  there 
is  no  centrifugal  force  at  those  points.  At  the  center  of  the 
earth  the  weight  of  a  body  is  nothing,  because  the  attraction  is 
there  equal  in  every  direction. 

THE  CENTER   OF  GRAVITY. 

The  center  of  gravity  is  that  point  on  which,  if  supported,  a 
body  will  balance  itself.  In  our  daily  actions  are  found  many 
physiological  applications  of  the  center  of  gravity.  When  we 
wish  to  rise  from  the  chair,  we  bend  forward,  in  order  to  bring 
the  center  of  gravity  over  out  feet,  our  muscles  not  having 
sufficient  strength  to  raise  our  bodies  without  this  aid.  And 
when  we  walk,  we  lean  forward,  so  as  to  bring  the  center  of 
gravity  as  far  in  front  as  possible. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

Specific  gravity  is  the  weight  of  a  substance  compared  with 
the  weight  of  the  same  bulk  of  another  substance.  It  is  really 
a  method  of  finding  the  density  of  a  body.  Water  is  taken  as 
the  standard  for  solids  and  liquids,  and  air  for  gases. 

THE   TENDULUM. 

The  pendulum  consists  of  a  weight  so  suspended  as  to  swing 
freely.  Its  movements  to  and  fro  are  termed  vibrations  or 
oscillations.  The  path  through  which  it  passes  is  called  the  arc, 
and  the  extent  to  which  it  goes  in  either  direction  is  styled  its 
amplitude. 

As  "  heat  expands  and  cold  contracts,"  a  pendulum  increases 
in  length  in  summer  and  shortens  in  winter.  Therefore,  a 
clock  loses  time  in  summer  and  gains  in  winter. 

CENTRIFUGAL  AND  CENTRIPETAL  FORCE. 

Centrifugal  force,  which  means  "flying  from  the  center,"  is 
the  force  which  causes  an  object  to  describe  a  circle  with  uni- 
form velocity,  and  fly  away  from  the  center.  The  force  that 
counteracts  it  is  called  the  centripetal  force. 

To  represent  its  action,  an  ordinary  glass  tumbler  may  be 
used.  The  tumbler  should  be  placed  on  a  round  piece  of  card- 
board, held  firmly  in  place  by  cords.  Some  water  is  then 
poured  into  the  glass,  and  it  can  be  swung  to  and  fro  and  round, 
without  the  water  being  spilt,  even  when  the  glass  is  upside 
down. 


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NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY -PHYSICS. 


345 


V 


Cohesion. 

Cohesion  is  the  attraction  of  particles  of  bodies  to  each  other 
at  very  small  distances  apart.  Cohesion  has  received  various 
names  in  order  to  express  its  various  degrees.  For  instance,  we 
say  a  body  is  tough  or  brittle,  or  soft  or  hard,  according  to  the 
degrees  of  cohesion  the  particles  exercise.  We  know  if  we 
break  a  glass  we  destroy  the  cohesion  ;  the  particles  cannot  be 
reunited.  Most  liquid  particles  can  be  united,  but  not  all.  Oil 
will  not  mix  with  water. 

The  force  of  cohesion  depends  upon  heat.  Heat  expands 
everything,  and  the  cohesion  diminishes  as  temperature  in- 
creases. 

There  are  some  objects  or  substances  upon  the  earth  the 
particles  of  which  adhere  much  more  closely  than  others,  and 
can  only  be  separated  with  very  great  difficulty.  These  are 
termed  solids.  There  are  other  substances  whose  particles  can 
easily  be  divided,  or  their  position  altered.  These  are  called 
fluids.  A  third  class  seem  to  have  little  or  no  cohesion  at  all. 
These  are  termed  gases. 

ADHESION. 

Adhesion  is  also  a  form  of  attraction,  and  is  cohesion  existing 
on  the  surfaces  of  two  bodies.  When  a  fluid  adheres  to  a  solid 
we  say  the  solid  is  wet.  We  turn  this  natural  adhesion  to  our 
own  purposes  in  many  ways — we  whitewash  our  walls,  and 
paint  our  houses ;  we  paste  our  papers  together,  etc. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  fluids  will  not  adhere.  Oil  and 
water  have  already  been  instanced.  Mercury  will  not  stick  to  a 
glass  tube,  nor  will  the  oiled  glass  tube  retain  any  water.  We 
can  show  the  attraction  and  repulsion  in  the  following  manner  : 
Let  one  glass  tube  be  dipped  into  water  and  another  into  mer- 
cury; you  will  see  that  the  water  will  ascend  slightly  at  the  side, 
owing  to  the  attraction  of  the  glass,  while  the  mercury  will  be 
higher  in  the  center,  for  it  possesses  no  attraction  for  the  glass. 
If  small,  or  what  are  termed  capillary  (or  hair)  tubes,  be  used, 
the  water  will  rise  up  in  the  one  tube,  while  in  the  other  the 
mercuiy  will  remain  lower  than  the  mercury  outside  the  tube. 

The  law  of  adhesion  is  what  necessitates  the  spout  on  a 
pitcher.  The  water  would  run  down  the  side  of  the  pitcher  by 
the  force  of  adhesion,  but  the  spout  throws  it  into  the  hands  of 
gravitation  before  adhesion  can  catch  it. 

Affinity,  or  Chemical  Attraction. 

Affinity,  or  chemical  attraction,  is  the  force  by  which  two 
different  bodies  unite  to  form  a  new  and  different  body  from 
either.     This  force  will  be  fully  considered  in  Chemistry. 

It  is  needless  for  us  to  dwell  upon  the  uses  of  these  forces  of 
Nature.  Gravity  and  cohesion  being  left  out  of  our  world,  we 
can  imagine  the  result.  The  earth  and  sun  and  planets  would 
wander  aimlessly  about ;  we  should  float  away  into  space,  and 
everything  would  fall  to  pieces,  while  our  bodies  would  dissolve 
into  their  component  parts. 

Motion. 

Motion  is  a  change  of  place.  Absolute  motion  is  a  change 
without  reference  to  any  other  object.  Relative  motion  is  a 
change  with  reference  to  some  other  object. 


Rest  is  either  absolute  or  relative.  Velocity  is  the  rate  at 
which  a  body  moves.  Force,  as  has  been  said,  is  that  which 
tends  to  produce  or  destroy  motion. 

The  principal  resistances  to  motion  are  friction,  resistance  of 
the  air,  and  gravity. 

Friction  is  the  resistance  caused  by  the  surface  over  which  a 
body  moves.  If  the  surface  of  a  body  could  be  made  perfectly 
smooth,  there  would  be  no  friction ;  but  in  spite  of  the  most 
exact  and  complete  polish,  the  microscope  reveals  minute  projec- 
tions and  cavities. 

Momentum  is  the  quantity  of  motion  in  a  body. 

Two  laws  of  motion :  I.  A  body  once  set  in  motion  tends  to 
move  forever  in  a  straight  line.  2.  A  force  acting  upon  a  body, 
in  motion  or  at  rest,  produces  the  same  effect,  whether  it  acts 
alone  or  with  other  forces. 

Circular  motion  is  a  variety  of  compound  motion  produced 
by  two  forces,  called  the  centrifugal  and  the  centripetal.  The 
former  tends  to  drive  a  body  from  the  center ;  the  latter  tends  to 
draw  a  body  toward  the  center. 

Reflected  motion  is  produced  by  the  reaction  of  any  surface 
against  which  an  elastic  body  is  thrown. 

Curved  motion. — Whenever  two  or  more  instantaneous  forces 
act  upon  a  body,  the  resultant  is  a  straight  line.  When  one  is 
instantaneous  and  the  other  continuous,  it  is  a  curved  line.  And 
when  a  body  is  thrown  into  the  air,  unless  it  be  in  a  vertical 
line,  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  instantaneous  force  of  projection  and 
the  continuous  force  of  gravity,  and  so  passes  through  a  line 
which  curves  toward  the  earth. 

Machines 

Enable  us  to  apply  and  direct  the  forces  of  nature.  The  lever 
and  the  inclined  plane,  and  their  modifications,  the  screw,  the 
wedge,  the  wheel  and  axle  and  the  pulley,  constitute  the  elemen- 
tary forms  of  machinery. 

Power  or  energy,  multiplied  by  the  distance  through  which  it 
moves,  equals  the  weight,  load  or  resistance  multiplied  by  the 
distance.  The  fundamental  law  is,  that  what  is  gained  in  power 
is  lost  in  time  or  distance.  Thus,  two  pounds  of  power  moving 
through  ten  feet  equals  twenty  pounds  moving  through  one  foot. 

A  lever  is  an  inflexible  bar  capable  of  turning  on  a  fixed 
point.  The  force  used  is  called  the  power,  the  object  to  be 
moved,  the  weight,  and  the  fixed  point  or  pivot,  the  fulcrum. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  levers,  as  follows:  I.  Power  at  one 
end,  weight  at  the  other,  fulcrum  between  them.  2.  Power  at 
one  end,  fulcrum  at  the  other,  and  weight  between  them.  3. 
Fulcrum  at  one  end,  weight  at  the  other,  and  power  between 
them. 

The  compound  lever  consists  of  several  levers  connected 
together  in  such  a  way  that  the  short  arm  of  one  acts  upon  the 
long  arm  of  the  next,  and  so  on. 

The  wheel  and  axle  is  a  modification  of  the  lever  in  which 
the  center  of  the  axis  of  the  wheel  is  the  fulcrum,  the  distance 
from  the  rim  of  the  wheel  to  the  axis,  or  the  length  of  the  crank, 
the  long  arm,  and  the  distance  from  the  circumference  of  the 
axis  to  its  center,  its  short  arm. 

Theputley  is  a  modification  of  the  lever  in  which  the  distances 


/ 


\ 


*V~ 


o  -■ 


K 


346 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY-  PHYSICS. 


from  the  axis  to  the  circumference  represent  equal  arms  of  the 
lever.  No  advantage  is  gained  in  a  fixed  pulley  except  change 
of  direction.  By  means  of  a  number  of  movable  pulleys  the 
power  distance  is  increased,  the  cord  having  to  pass  through  a 
greater  distance  to  gain  greater  power. 

The  inclined  plane  is  a  smooth,  hard  surface  inclined  so  as  to 
make  an  angle  with  direction  of  the  force  to  be  overcome. 
Comparing  it  with  the  lever,  the  length  corresponds  to  the  long 
arm  and  the  height  to  the  short  arm. 

The  wedge  is  simply  a  movable  inclined  plane,  its  power 
depending  upon  friction  as  well  as  upon  its  form. 

The  screw  is  an  inclined  plane  wound  around  a  cylinder. 

Perpetual  Motion. 
Nothing  can  be  more  utterly  impracticable  than  to  make  a 
machine  capable  of  perpetual  motion.  No  machine  can  pro- 
duce power ;  it  can  only  direct  that  which  is  applied  to  it.  We 
know  that  in  all  machinery  there  is  friction ;  hence,  this  must 
ultimately  exhaust  the  power  and  bring  the  motion  to  rest. 
These  principles  show  the  uselessness  of  all  such  attempts. 

HYDROSTATICS   AND    HYDRAULICS. 

Hydrostatics  treats  of  liquids  at  rest.  Its  principles  apply  to 
all  liquids,  but  water,  on  account  of  its  abundance,  is  taken  as 
the  type  of  the  class,  and  all  experiments  are  based  upon  it. 

Liquids  transmit  pressure  in  all  directions.  Pascal's  law  is 
as  follows  :  Pressure  exerted  anywhere  upon  a  mass  of  liquid  is 
transmitted,  undiminished,  in  all  directions,  and  acts  with  the 
same  force  upon  equal  surfaces,  and  in  a  direction  at  right 
angles  to  those  surfaces.  A  necessary  inference  from  this  law 
is  that  surfaces  of  vessels  sustain  a  pressure  proportional  to  their 
area. 

A  practical  application  of  Pascal's  law  is  the  hydrostatic 
press,  more  generally  called  the  hydraulic  press.  This  is  a  very 
powerful  machine,  by  means  of  which  a  pressure  of  several  hun- 
dred tons  may  be  obtained. 

Artesian  wells  are  so  named  because  they  have  been  used  for 
a  long  time  in  the  province  of  Artois,  in  France ;  they  were, 
however,  employed  by  the  Chinese,  from  early  ages,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  procuring  gas  and  salt  water.  These  are  on  the  principle 
above  stated,  that  liquids  press  equally  in  all  directions — that 
water  "  always  seeks  its  level."  By  boring  through  strata  of 
rocks,  or  earth  impervious  to  water,  and  striking  a  basin  of  water 
which  has  descended  from  a  greater  height,  through  a  porous 
strata,  a  well  is  formed  which  throws  water  to  almost  the  height 
of  the  fountain  head,  being  retarded  only  by  friction  and  resist- 
ance of  the  air. 

The  surface  of  standing  water  is  said  to  be  level ;  this  is  true 
for  small  sheets  of  water,  but  for  larger  bodies  an  allowance 
must  be  made  for  the  circular  figure  of  the  earth. 

The  spirit  level  is  an  instrument  used  by  builders  for  leveling; 
it  consists  of  a  slightly  curved  glass  tube,  so  nearly  full  of  alco- 
hol that  it  holds  only  a  bubble  of  air.  When  the  level  is  hori- 
zontal, the  bubble  remains  at  the  center  of  the  tube. 

Modern  engineers  carry  water  across  a  river  by  means  of 
pipes  laid  under  the  bed  of  the  river,  knowing  that  the  water 


will  rise  on  the  opposite  side  to  its  level.  The  ancients  appear 
to  have  understood  this  principle,  but  were  unable  to  construct 
pipes  capable  of  resisting  the  pressure. 

Hydraulics  treats  of  liquids  in  motion.  In  this,  as  in  hydro- 
statics, water  is  taken  as  the  type.  In  theory,  its  principles  are 
those  of  falling  bodies,  but  they  are  so  modified  by  various 
causes  that  in  practice  they  cannot  be  relied  upon,  except  as 
verified  by  experiment.  The  discrepancy  arises  from  changes  of 
temperature,  which  vary  the  fluidity  of  the  liquid,  from  friction, 
the  shape  of  the  orifice,  etc. 

A  fall  of  only  three  inches  per  mile  is  sufficient  to  give  motion 
to  water,  and  produce  a  velocity  of  as  many  miles  per  hour. 
The  Ganges  descends  but  800  feet  in  1,800  miles;  its  waters 
require  a  month  to  move  down  this  long  inclined  plane.  A  fall 
of  three  feet  per  mile  will  make  a  mountain  torrent 

Barker's  Mill  consists  of  an  upright  cylinder  with  horizontal 
arms,  and  with  apertures  in  the  opposite  sides,  the  cylinder  being 
so  arranged  as  to  turn  easily.  When  water  is  poured  into 
the  cylinder,  the  pressure  being  equal  in  all  directions,  it  would 
remain  at  rest,  did  it  not  flow  out  at  the  orifices,  thus  relieving 
the  pressure  on  the  one  side,  causing  the  arm  to  move  in  the 
opposite  direction  and  the  cylinder  to  revolve.  The  Turbint 
water-wheel  is  a  practical  application  of  this  principle. 

PNEUMATICS 

Treats  of  the  general  properties  and  the  pressure  of  gases. 

Gases  have  weight,  compressibility,  expansibility  and  elas- 
ticity, and  the  principles  of  transmission  of  pressure,  specific 
gravity  and  buoyancy  of  liquids  apply  to  them  as  well.  The 
pressure  of  the  air  has  l)ecn  several  times  referred  to.  The  force 
of  air  can  very  soon  be  shown  as  acting  with  considerable  pres- 
sure on  an  egg  in  a  glass.  By  blowing  in  a  small  wine  glass, 
containing  a  hard-boiled  egg,  it  is  possible  to  cause  the  egg  to 
jump  out  of  the  glass,  and  with  practice  and  strength  of  lungs  it 
is  not  impossible  to  make  it  pass  from  one  glass  to  another.  The 
force  of  heated  air  ascending  can  be  ascertained  by  cutting  a 
card  into  a  spiral  and  holding  it  above  a  lamp  or  a  stove.  The 
spiral,  if  lightly  poised,  will  revolve  rapidly. 

The  barometer  is  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  pressure  of 
air,  and  consists  essentially  of  an  apparatus,  first  used  by  Torn- 
celli,  who  took  a  glass  tube  about  a  yard  in  length,  closed  at  one 
end,  and  filled  it  with  mercury.  Placing  his  thumb  over  the 
closed  end,  he  immersed  it  in  a  vessel  of  mercury.  Removing 
his  thumb,  the  mercury  sank  until  it  stood  at  the  height  of  30 
inches.  The  space  above  the  mercury  was  as  nearly  a  complete 
vacuum  as  has  ever  been  attained.  By  this  experiment  he 
proved  that  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  equal  to  the 
weight  of  a  column  of  liquid  which  it  will  sustain. 

The  barometer  is  used  to  indicate  the  weather,  and  to 
measure  the  height  of  mountains. 

Three  opposing  forces  act  on  the  air,  viz.:  gravity,  which 
binds  it  to  the  earth,  and  the  centrifugal  and  the  repellant  (heat) 
forces,  which  tend  to  hurl  it  off  into  space.  Under  the  action  of 
the  latter  forces,  the  atmosphere,  like  a  great  bent  spring,  is  ready 
to  bound  away  at  the  first  opportunity ;  but  the  attraction  of  the 
earth  holds  it  firmly  in  its  place. 


JM 


K 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  — PHYSICS. 


347 


"7[ 


h4r 


The  rise  and  fall  of  the  barometric  column  shows  that  the  air 
is  lighter  in  foul  and  heavier  in  fair  weather.  In  fair  weather, 
the  moisture  of  the  air  is  an  invisible  vapor,  mingled  with  it,  and 
adding  to  its  pressure,  while  in  foul  weather  the  vapor  is  sepa- 
rated in  the  form  of  clouds. 

The  common  pump  is  an  application  of  air  pressure.  The 
piston,  or  sucker,  being  raided,  the  water  is  forced  up  the  tube 
by  the  pressure  of  the  air  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  well, 
there  being  no  resistance  in  the  tube,  for  the  piston  lifts  out  the 
air.  As  the  piston  descends,  the  valve  in  it  opens  upward  and 
allows  the  water  to  pass  through  above  the  valve,  which,  closing 
as  it  rises  again,  the  water  is  lifted  out  and  more  is  forced  into 
the  tube  below.  Owing  to  the  necessary  imperfection  of  the 
parts,  water  cannot  be  raised  by  atmospheric  pressure  more  than 
about  27  feet. 

The  air-pump  is  a  machine  for  removing  the  air  from  within 
a  vessel.  It  consists  of  a  cylinder  supplied  with  a  valve  open- 
ing inward  and  one  opening  outward,  and  a  piston  fitting  accu- 
rately. When  the  piston  is  raised,  the  air  rushes  into  the  cylinder 
through  the  first  valve  to  fill  the  vacuum.  As  the  cylinder 
descends,  the  air  closes  the  first  valve  and  opens  the  second,  and 
is  driven  out,  every  stroke  of  the  piston  thus  removing  a  portion 
of  air.  The  escape  valve  may  be  in  the  side  of  the  cylinder  or 
in  the  piston  itself. 

The  siphon  consists  of  a  tube,  bent  in  the  shape  of  a  letter  U, 
with  unequal  arms.  Fill  the  siphon  with  water,  closing  both 
ends  with  the  fingers.  Insert  the  short  arm  in  a  vessel  of  water, 
with  the  long  arm  on  the  outside,  with  its  end  lower  than  the 
end  of  the  short  arm.  The  column  of  water  in  the  long  arm 
will  run  out  by  its  own  weight,  and  the  tendency  would  be  to 
produce  a  vacuum  in  the  bend  of  the  tube,  but  the  water  is 
forced  up  by  the  pressure  of  air  through  the  short  arm,  and  thus 
the  stream  is  kept  up  so  long  as  the  outside  arm  is  lower  at  its 
orifice  than  the  orifice  of  the  inside  arm.  The  flow  may  be 
started  by  exhausting  the  air  from  the  long  arm  by  suction,  and 
then  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  fill  the  siphon  with  water. 

ACOUSTICS. 

Acoustics  treats  of  the  doctrine  of  sound.  The  term  sound  is 
used  in  two  senses  —  the  subjective,  that  which  has  reference  to 
our  mind ;  and  the  objective,  that  which  refers  only  to  the  objects 
around  us. 

In  the  subjective  sense,  sound  is  the  sensation  produced  upon 
the  organ  of  hearing  by  vibrations  in  matter.  In  this  use  of  the 
word,  there  can  be  no  sound  where  there  is  no  ear  to  catch  the 
vibrations. 

In  the  objective  sense,  sound  is  those  vibrations  of  matter 
capable  of  producing  a  sensation  upon  the  organ  of  hearing.  In 
this  use  of  the  word,  there  can  be  a  sound  in  the  absence  of  the 
ear.  An  object  falls  and  the  vibrations  are  produced,  though 
there  may  be  no  organ  of  hearing  to  receive  an  impression  from 
them. 

The  velocity  of  sound  depends  on  the  elasticity  and  density 
of  the  medium  through  which  it  passes.  The  higher  the  elastic- 
ity, the  more  promptly  and  rapidly  the  motion  will  be  trans- 
mitted, since  the  elastic  force  acts  like  a  bent  spring  between  the 


molecules.  The  greater  the  density,  the  more  molecules  to  be 
set  in  motion,  and  hence  the  slower  the  transmission. 

Sound  travels  through  the  air  (at  the  freezing  point)  at  the 
rate  of  1,090  feet  per  second.  A  rise  in  temperature  diminishes 
the  density  of  the  air,  and  thus  sound  travels  faster  in  warm  and 
slower  in  cold  air.  Through  water  sound  travels  at  the  rate  of 
4,700  feet  per  second.  Water  is  denser  than  air,  and  for  that 
reason  sound  should  travel  in  it  much  slower;  but  its  elasticity, 
which  is  measured  by  the  force  required  to  compress  it,  is  so 
much  greater  that  the  rate  is  quadrupled.  Sound  travels  through 
solids  faster  than  through  air ;  and  the  velocity  in  iron  is  nearly 
ten  times  greater.  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  all  sounds 
travel  with  the  same  velocity. 

When  a  sound-wave  strikes  against  the  surface  of  another 
medium,  a  portion  goes  on  while  the  rest  is  reflected.  The  law 
which  governs  reflected  sound  is  that  of  reflected  motion  —  the 
angle  of  incidence  is  equal  to  that  of  reflection. 

The  air  at  night  is  more  homogeneous  than  by  day ;  conse- 
quently, sounds  are  heard  more  clearly  and  farther  than  in  the 
daytime. 

If  two  sounds  meet  in  exactly  opposite  phases,  and  the  two 
forces  are  equal,  they  will  balance  each  other,  and  silence  will 
ensue.  Thus,  a  sound  added  to  a  sound  will  produce  silence. 
In  the  same  way,  two  motions  may  produce  rest ;  two  lights  may 
cause  darkness ,   and  two  heats  may  produce  cold. 

The  difference  between  noise  and  music  is  only  that  between 
irregular  and  regular  vibrations.  Whatever  may  be  the  cause 
which  sets  the  air  in  motion,  if  the  vibrations  be  uniform  and 
rapid  enough,  the  sound  is  musical.  If  the  ticks  of  a  watch 
could  be  made  with  sufficient  rapidity,  they  would  lose  their 
individuality,  and  blend  into  a  musical  tone. 

Wind  instruments  produce  musical  sounds  by  means  of  in- 
closed columns  of  air.  Sound-waves  run  backward  and  forward 
through  the  tube,  and  act  on  the  surrounding  air  like  the  vibra- 
tions of  a  cord. 

The  Telephone  is  an  instrument  which  has,  in  a  few  years, 
come  into  almost  general  use,  and  which  is  beginning  to  rival 
the  electric  telegraph  as  a  means  of  rapid  communication.  By 
means  of  it  articulate  speech  or  other  sounds  are  reproduced  at 
great  distances.  In  the  acoustic,  or  string  telephone,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  have  a  membrane  which  can  be  set  in  vibration  by 
the  impulses  of  the  air  made  by  the  voice  on  an  instrument,  and 
a  string  or  wire  attached  to  it  to  carry  the  vibrations  to  a  similar 
membrane  at  the  other  end.  This  second  membrane  gives 
back  to  the  air  the  same  kind  of  vibration  received  at  the  other 
end.  In  the  electric  telephone  the  vibrations  of  the  membrane 
cause  changes  in  the  electric  current,  produced  by  a  battery, 
these  changes  being  capable  of  reproducing  the  same  kind  of 
vibrations  in  the  membrane  at  the  opposite  end. 

The  Microphone  is  an  instrument  which,  in  its  main  features, 
consists  of  a  carbon  "  pencil,"  so  suspended  that  one  end  rests 
upon  a  carbon  "  die."  The  instrument,  being  connected  with  a 
telephone  by  the  circuit  wires,  will  reproduce  faint  sounds  very 
distinctly.  The  upright  carbon  is  thrown  into  vibrations  by  the 
impulse  of  the  sound,  which  alternately  lengthens  and  shortens 
it.     This,  by  impairing  or  strengthening  the  connection  of  the 


Y- 


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348 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  — PHYSICS. 


circuit,  alternately  lessens  and  strengthens  the  force  of  the  cur- 
rent. Corresponding  to  these  electric  changes,  the  membrane 
of  the  telephone  vibrates  and  gives  out  sound.  It  is  so  sensitive 
that  the  walking  of  a  fly  on  the  sounding-board  may  be  dis- 
tinctly heard  at  the  telephone,  and  the  ticking  of  a  watch  sounds 
like  blows  of  a  hammer. 

The  Phonograph  is  an  instrument  which  registers  the  differ- 
ent vibrations  produced  by  sound,  and  reproduces  them  in  cor- 
respondence with  this  registration.  It  consists  of  a  mouth-piece 
and  vibrating  membrane,  the  same  as  the  telephone,  with  a 
needle  attached  to  the  center  of  the  membrane,  the  vibrations  of 
which  cause  the  needle  to  make  impressions  on  a  strip  of  tin  foil, 
rolled  on  a  grooved  revolving  cylinder.  By  so  adjusting  the 
machine  that  the  needle  may  retrace  its  path  on  the  tin  foil,  the 
membrane  is  set  in  vibration  again  and  the  sounds  are  given 
back  exactly  as  they  were  received.  Articulate  speech,  as  well 
as  all  other  noises,  is  reproduced  with  wonderful  distinctness. 

With  the  Photophone,  sounds  may  be  heard  at  a  distance  by 
means  of  light.  Changes  are  produced  in  the  electric  current 
by  the  light  falling  on  a  plate  of  "selenium."  With  this  excep- 
tion the  principle  is  the  same  as  in  the  ordinary  telephone. 

The  Audiphont  is  an  instrument  to  convey  sound  to  the  ear, 
to  supplement  it  when  partial  or  temporary  deafness  has  occur- 
red. The  instrument  has  the  appearance  of  a  large,  black  fan, 
is  made  of  vulcanized  rubber,  and  consists  of  a  long,  flexible 
disc,  supported  by  a  handle.  To  the  upper  edge  of  the  "  fan  " 
are  attached  cords,  which  pass  through  a  clip  on  the  handle. 
If  the  person  who  wishes  to  hear  by  means  of  the  audiphone 
will  hold  the  fan  against  the  upper  teeth — the  convex  side  of  the 
fan  outward  —  he  or  she  will  hear  distinctly,  for  the  vibrations 
of  sound  are  collected  and  strike  upon  the  teeth  and  bones,  and 
act  upon  the  auditory  nerves  from  within,  precisely  as  the  vibra- 
tions act  from  without  through  the  auricle. 

The  Topophone,  an  apparatus  for  discovering  the  position  of  a 
sound,  is  based  upon  the  well-known  theory  of  sound-waves.  It 
is  claimed  for  this  apparatus  that  it  stands  in  the  same  relation 
to  the  sailor  as  his  old  and  trusty  friends  the  compass  and 
sextant,  as  it  will  tell  him  whence  a  sound  arises,  and  this  in  a 
fog  is  no  mean  advantage.  The  whole  theory  of  the  topo- 
phone, however,  depends  for  its  usefulness  upon  the  same  note 
being  sounded  by  all  horns  and  whistles.  The  note  C  treble, 
caused  by  about  260  vibrations  per  second,  has  been  found 
most  applicable,  and  if  all  whistles  and  fog-horns  can  by  law  be 
compelled  to  adjust  themselves  to  this  note,  the  topophone  will 
prove  a  real  and  lasting  benefit. 

OPTICS 

Is  the  science  which  treats  of  light  and  vision.  Light  is  a 
vibratory  motion,  like  sound  and  heat,  transmitted  through  a 
medium  called  tthtr.  This  medium  is  a  very  elastic  substance 
surrounding  us,  and  constituting  a  kind  of  universal  atmosphere, 
diffused  throughout  all  space.  It  is  so  subtle  that  it  fills  the 
pores  of  all  bodies,  eludes  all  chemical  tests,  passes  in  through 
the  glass  receiver  and  remains  even  in  the  vacuum  of  an  air- 
pump. 


A  luminous  body  is  one  that  emits  or  sends  forth  light.  A 
non-luminous  body  is  one  that  reflects  light,  and  is  visible  only 
in  the  presence  of  a  luminous  body.  A  medium  is  any  sub- 
stance through  which  light  passes.  A  transparent  body  is  one 
that  offers  so  little  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  light  that  we 
can  see  objects  through  it.  A  translucent  body  is  one  that  lets 
some  light  pass,  but  not  enough  to  render  objects  visible  through 
it.     An  opaque  body  is  one  that  does  not  transmit  light. 

The  three  great  laws  governing  light  are  :  I.  Light  pastes  off 
from  a  luminous  body  equally  in  every  direction.  2.  Light 
travels  through  a  medium  of  uniform  density  in  straight  lines. 
3.  The  intensity  of  light  decreases  as  the  square  of  the  distance 
increases. 

The  velocity  of  light  is  about  185,000  miles  per  second.  This 
is  so  great  that,  for  all  distances  on  the  earth,  it  is  practically  in- 
stantaneous. 

When  a  beam  of  light  from  a  luminous  body  falls  upon  the 
surface  of  an  opaque  body  a  portion  is  reflected  and  a  portion 
absorbed.  When  light  passes  from  one  medium  to  another  of 
different  density  it  is  refracted,  that  is,  bent  out  of  its  regular 
course. 

Diffraction  of  light  is  caused  by  a  beam  of  light  passing  along 
the  edge  of  some  opaque  body.  As  the  waves  of  ether  strike 
against  it,  they  put  in  motion  another  set  of  waves  on  the  oppo- 
site side  which  interfere  with  the  first  system. 

The  rainbow  is  formed  by  the  refraction  and  reflection  of  the 
sunbeam  in  drops  of  falling  water.  Halos,  coronas,  sundogs, 
circles  about  the  moon,  the  gorgeous  tinting  at  sunrise  and  sun- 
set, are  all  produced  by  the  refraction  and  reflection  of  the  sun's 
rays  when  passing  through  the  clouds  in  the  upper  regions  of 
the  atmosphere.  The  phenomenon  familiarly  known  as  the 
"  sun's  drawing  water"  consists  merely  of  the  long  shadows  of 
broken  clouds. 

The  mirage  is  fully  explained  under  the  nead  of  Physical 
Geography. 

If  a  sunbeam  be  passed  through  a  prism  the  light  is  decom- 
posed and  appears  as  a  band  of  seven  colors,  viz.:  violet,  indigo, 
blue,  green,  yellow,  orange,  red.  These  are  called  the  colors  of 
the  solar  spectrum. 

A  lens  is  a  transparent  body,  generally  of  glass,  having  one  or 
two  curved  surfaces.  A  convex  lens  converges  the  rays  of  light, 
or  brings  them  to  a  focus  at  a  point,  varying  in  distance,  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  convexity.  A  concave  lens  causes  the  rays 
of  light  to  diverge.  If  the  eye  be  placed  at  the  point  where  the 
rays  from  an  object  are  brought  to  a  focus  by  a  convex  lens,  the 
object  will  appear  magnified,  while  the  same  object  seen  through 
a  concave  lens  will  appear  diminished.  A  "  burning  glass  "  is 
a  convex  lens,  converging  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

Rays  which  pass  through  a  lens  near  the  edge  are  brought  to 
a  focus  sooner  than  those  near  the  center;  therefore,  when  an 
image  is  clear  around  the  edge,  it  will  be  indistinct  at  the  center, 
and  vice  versa.  This  wandering  of  the  rays  from  the  focus  is 
termed  spherical  aberration. 

Chromatic  aberration  is  caused  by  the  different  refrangibility 
of  the  several  colors  which  compose  white  light.  The  violet, 
being  bent  most,  tends  to  come  to  a  focus  sooner  than  the  red, 


V- 


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NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY—  PHYSICS. 


349 


rr 


which  is  bent  least.  This  causes  the  play  of  colors  seen  around 
the  image  produced  by  an  ordinary  glass.  It  is  remedied  by 
using  a  second  lens  of  different  dispersive  power,  which  counter- 
acts the  effects  of  the  first. 

Microscopes  are  of  two  kinds — simple  and  compound.  The 
former  consists  of  a  double  convex  lens ;  the  latter  contains  at 
least  two  lenses. 

Telescopes  are  of  two  kinds — reflecting  and  refracting.  The 
former  contains  a  large,  metallic  mirror,  which  reflects  the  rays 
of  light  to  a  focus ;  the  latter,  like  the  microscope,  contains  an 
object-lens  which  forms  an  image. 

The  opera-glass  contains  an  object-glass  and  an  eye-piece. 
The  latter  is  a  double  concave  lens.  This  increases  the  visual 
angle  by  diverging  the  rays  of  light,  which  would  otherwise 
come  to  a  focus  beyond  the  eye-piece. 

The  camera  used  by  photographers  contains  a  double  convex 
lens,  which  throws  an  inverted  image  of  the  object  upon  the 
ground  glass  screen.     - 

The  three  kinds  of  mirrors  are  plane,  concave  and  convex. 
The  first  has  a  flat  surface;  the  second,  one  like  the  inside,  and 
the  third,  one  like  the  outside  of  a  watch  crystal.  The  general 
principle  of  mirrors  is  that  the  image  is  always  seen  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  reflected  ray  as  it  enters  the  eye. 

HEAT 

Is  now  known  to  be  a  series  of  vibrations,  or  vibratory  motions, 
as  sound  vibrations,  which  we  cannot  hear  nor  see,  but  the 
effects  of  which  are  known  to  us  as  light  and  heat.  In  other 
words,  heat  is  now  believed  to  be  the  effect  of  the  rapid  motion 
of  all  the  molecules  of  a  body.  If  this  motion  be  increased  the 
body  is  said  to  be  heated ;  if  decreased,  it  is  cooled.  Cold  is  a 
merely  relative  term,  indicating  the  absence  of  heat  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree. 

The  sources  of  heat  are  the  sun,  moon  and  stars,  mechanical 
and  chemical  action.  The  greater  part  of  the  heat  of  our  globe 
comes  from  the  sun,  and  only  a  very  minute  quantity  from  the 
other  heavenly  bodies.  Great  heat  may  be  developed  by 
mechanical  action,  as  friction  and  concussion.  Count  Rumford 
caused  water  to  boil  by  the  friction  of  metals.  A  blacksmith 
can  make  a  piece  of  iron  red  hot  by  hammering.  The  flint 
strikes  fire  from  the  steel,  particles  of  the  metal  being  torn  off 
and  heated  to  redness.  Chemical  action  is  seen  in  the  combus- 
tion of  fuel,  the  union  of  oxygen  with  carbon  and  hydrogen. 

All  bodies  expand  under  the  effects  of  heat,  for  by  its  addi- 
tion the  molecules  are  urged  into  swifter  motion,  and  therefore 
pushed  further  apart,  increasing  the  size  of  the  body.  Hence 
the  law,  "  Heat  expands  ;  cold  contracts." 

If  heat  be  applied  to  a  liquid,  the  temperature  rises  until  the 
boiling  point  is  reached,  when  it  stops.  The  expansion,  how- 
ever, continues  until  the  motion  is  so  violent  as  to  overcome  the 
cohesive  force  and  to  throw  off  particles  of  the  liquid.  When  we 
heat  water,  the  bubbles  which  pass  off  first  contain  merely  the 
air  dissolved  in  the  liquid ;  next  bubbles  of  steam  form  on  the 
bottom  and  sides  of  the  vessel,  and,  rising  a  little  distance,  are 
crushed  in  by  the  cold  water  and  condensed.     In  breaking  they 


produce  that  peculiar  sound  known  as  "simmering,"  and  ascend 
higher  and  higher  as  the  temperature  of  the  water  rises,  until  at 
last  they  break  at  the  surface,  and  the  steam  passes  off  into  the 
air. 

Any  substance  which  increases  the  cohesive  power  of  water 
elevates  the  boiling  point,  and  for  this  reason  salt  water  boils  at 
a  higher  temperature  than  fresh  water. 

Evaporation  is  a  slow  formation  of  vapor,  which  takes  place 
at  all  ordinary  temperatures.  It  is  hastened  by  an  increase  of 
surface  and  a  gentle  heat.  This  principle  is  made  useful  in  the 
arts  for  separating  a  solid  from  the  liquid  which  holds  it  in 
solution. 

Vacuum  pans-  are  largely  employed  in  condensing  milk,  in 
the  manufacture  of  sugar,  etc. ;  and  are  so  arranged  that  the  air 
above  the  liquid  in  the  vessel  may  be  exhausted,  and  then  the 
evaporation  takes  place  very  rapidly,  and  at  so  low  a  tempera- 
ture that  all  danger  of  burning  is  avoided. 

Absorption  and  reflection  are  intimately  connected  with  radi- 
ation. A  good  absorber  is  also  a  good  radiator,  but  a  good 
reflector  can  be  neither.  Snow  is  a  good  reflector  but  a  poor 
absorber  or  radiator.  Light  colors  absorb  less  and  reflect  more 
than  dark  colors.  White  is  the  best  reflector,  and  black  the  best 
absorber  and  radiator. 

On  the  Desert  of  Sahara,  where  "  the  soil  is  fire  and  the  wind 
is  flame,"  the  dry  air  allows  the  heat  to  escape  through  it  so 
readily  that  ice  is  sometimes  formed  at  night.  The  dryness  of 
the  air  at  great  elevations  accounts,  in  part,  for  the  coldness 
which  is  there  felt  so  keenly. 

The  thermometer  is  an  instrument  to  measure  the  tempera- 
ture by  means  of  the  expansion  of  mercury.  The  principal 
scales  used  are :  Fahrenheit's,  in  which  the  space  between  the 
two  fixed  points,  boiling  and  freezing,  is  divided  into  180 
degrees ;  the  Centigrade,  in  which  this  space  is  divided  into  loo 
degrees;  Reaumur's,  in  which  it  is  divided  into  80  degrees. 
Mercury  freezes  only  at  390  Fahr.  below  zero,  and  consequently 
it  is  most  generally  used  in  thermometers.  Alcohol  is  used  only 
for  very  low  temperatures. 

Water  changes  from  the  liquid  to  the  gaseous  state,  or  boils, 
at  the  level  of  the  sea,  at  a  temperature  of  2 1 2°  F.  As  we  ascend 
above  this  level  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  less,  and  it 
boils  at  a  lower  degree. 

The  steam  engine  is  a  machine  for  using  the  elastic  force  of 
steam  as  a  motive  power.  There  are  two  classes  of  engines — 
the  high-pressure  and  the  low-pressure.  In  the  former  the 
steam,  after  being  employed  to  do  its  work,  is  forced  out  into 
the  air;  in  the  latter  it  is  condensed  in  a  separate  chamber  by  a 
spray  of  cold  water.  As  the  steam  is  condensed  in  the  low- 
pressure  engine  a  vacuum  is  formed  behind  the  piston,  while 
the  piston  of  the  high-pressure  engine  acts  against  the  pressure 
of  the  air.  The  governor  is  an  apparatus  for  regulating  the 
supply  of  steam.  When  a  machine  is  going  too  fast,  the  balls 
fly  out  by  centrifugal  force  and  shut  off  a  portion  of  the  steam ; 
when  too  slowly,  they  fall  back,  and,  opening  the  valve,  let  on 
the  steam  again.  The  fly-wheel,  by  its  inertia,  serves  to  render 
the  movement  of  the  machinery  uniform. 


YL 


a! 


tc 


35° 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS. 


-~A 


MAGNETISM    AND    ELECTRICITY. 

Magnetism  is  that  branch  of  science  which  treats  of  the 
properties  of  the  magnet.  Certain  specimens  of  iron  ore  have 
the  property  of  attracting  iron  and  some  of  its  ores,  and  are 
called  natural  magnets  or  loadstone.  When  freely  suspended 
they  will  point  to  the  poles.  An  artificial  magnet  is  a  magnet- 
ized piece  of  steel,  either  straight  or  bent  in  the  form  of  a 
horseshoe. 

The  production  of  magnetism  by  induction  is  a  curious 
phenomenon.  If  a  permanent  magnet  is  brought  near  a  hand- 
ful of  iron  nails  it  will  attract  them  to  it,  and  as  soon  as  a  nail 
becomes  attached  to  the  magnet  it  becomes  a  magnet  itself  and 
attracts  another  nail,  which  in  turn  becomes  a  magnet  and 
attracts  another,  and  so  on,  the  magnetic  power  of  each  new 
nail  attracted  becoming  constantly  less  than  that  of  the  preced- 
ing one.  It  is  not  even  necessary  that  the  nail  should  absolutely 
touch  the  magnet  in  order  to  assume  this  magnetic  power,  for  it 
will  be  transmitted  through  short  spaces  from  one  to  the  other. 
This  power  which  a  body  acquires  by  being  brought  near  a 
magnet  is  called  magnetic  induction.  An  important  fact  in 
this  connection  is  that  when  a  coil  of  iron  wire  is  made  to  sur- 
round a  permanent  magnet  it  becomes  magnetic  itself  by  induc- 
tion, and  is  capable  of  inducing  magnetism  in  another  bar  of 
iron  surrounded  by  it.  This  principle  is  made  practical  use  of 
in  the  construction  of  the  telephone  and  magnetic  telegraph. 

The  greatest  electric  power  of  a  magnet  is  at  its  ends,  which 
are  called  poles.  The  end  pointing  to  the  north,  when  sus- 
pended, is  the  north  or  positive  pole,  the  other  being  the  south 
or  negative.  Like  poles  repel,  and  unlike  poles  attract  each 
other. 

The  compass  is  a  magnetic  needle  used  by  mariners,  survey- 
ors, etc.  It  is  very  delicately  poised  over  a  card,  on  which  the 
"  points  of  the  compass  "  are  marked.  The  needle  does  not 
often  point  directly  north  and  south.  The  "line  of  no  varia- 
tion," as  it  is  called,  runs  in  an  irregular  course  through  the 
United  States  from  Cape  Lookout,  across  Lake  Erie  to  Hudson's 
Bay.  East  of  this  the  variation  is  toward  the  west,  and  west  of 
it  it  is  toward  the  east.  The  earth  itself  is  a  great  magnet,  and 
this  explains  why  the  needle  points  north  and  south. 

A  dipping  needle  is  one  which  is  free  to  turn  in  a  vertical 
plane.  At  the  equator  it  is  horizontal,  but  as  it  is  carried 
toward  the  north  it  dips,  or  inclines  toward  the  center  of  the 
earth.  At  a  place  near  Hudson's  Bay  it  stands  vertical.  This 
is  called  the  north  magnetic  pole.  It  does  not  coincide  with 
the  geographical  pole. 

Electricity  is  that  science  which  unfolds  the  phenomena  tad 
laws  of  the  electric  fluid.  Electricity  may  be  generated  by 
means  of  friction,  percussion,  heat,  chemical  action,  cleavage, 
and  by  magnets.  The  effects  of  electricity  in  its  various  forms 
are  manifested  as  attraction,  repulsion,  light,  heat,  violent  com- 
motions and  chemical  decomposition. 

The  first  method  of  producing  electricity,  discovered  in  the 
earlier  ages,  was  by  rubbing  amber,  and  so  the  term  electricity 
was  derived  from  the  Greek  word  elektron,  signifying  amber. 
It  was  afterward  found  that  certain  other  substances,  when 
rubbed,  assumed  electrical  properties,  and  would  attract  or  repel 


other  materials.  This  electricity  produced  by  rubbing  or  fric- 
tion can  be  held  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  and  hence  it 
has  received  the  name  of  stationary  or  statical  electricity.  This 
is  the  only  form  of  electricity  that  we  can  store  up  and  keep  for 
a  time.  What  is  known  now  as  the  storage  battery  does  not 
really  store  up  electricity,  but  only  energy,  which  can  be  trans- 
formed into  electricity  at  will. 

Dynamical  electricity,  or  electricity  in  motion,  circulates  only 
in  a  conductor  or  along  a  wire,  and  cannot  be  held.  It  was  first 
discovered  by  Galvani  in  experimenting  on  frogs'  legs,  and 
hence  it  is  often  called  galvanic  electricity.  It  is  now  ordinarily 
produced  by  means  of  galvanic  batteries  and  dynamo  machines. 

The  third  form  of  electricity  is  called  magnetic  electricity,  or 
magnetism. 

According  to  the  generally  accepted  theory,  there  are  two  so- 
called  electrical  fluids,  and  these  two  are  commingled  in  equal 
proportions  in  all  bodies ;  and  hence  all  the  processes  for 
getting  electricity  must  result  in  pulling  these  two  electrical 
fluids  apart,  and  in  taking  a  portion  of  one  away  from  a  body. 
These  two  fluids  are  called,  one  positive  and  the  other  negative 
electricity.  It  is  found  that  when  two  bodies  are  electrified 
with  the  same  kind  of  electricity  they  repel  each  other;  but 
when  the  two  bodies  are  charged  with  opposite  kinds  of  elec- 
tricity, or  when  one  body  is  charged  with  either  kind  while  the 
other  is  left  in  its  normal  condition,  then  the  two  bodies  attract 
each  other. 

When  a  piece  of  sealing-wax  is  rubbed  it  manifests  electrical 
properties  for  some  time,  but  certain  other  substances,  like 
metals,  for  instance,  after  being  rubbed  in  the  same  manner, 
show  no  electrical  properties,  and  this  is  because  the  electricity 
easily  gets  away  from  them.  Thus  we  find  that  while  certain 
substances  remain  electrified  for  some  time,  others  do  not,  and 
hence  these  bodies  are  named  conductors  and  non-conductors. 
These  terms  are  not  absolute,  but  only  comparative.  The 
metals,  carbon,  gypsum  and  acids  are  called  good  conductors, 
while  amber,  glass,  sulphur  and  silk  are  poor  conductors.  If 
we  want  to  insulate  electricity  and  keep  it  from  running  off  into 
surrounding  objects,  we  surround  the  object  containing  it  with  a 
poor  conductor.  Thus,  the  glass  insulators  on  telegraph  poles 
prevent  the  electricity  from  leaving  the  wires  and  running  off 
into  the  ground,  and  the  non-conducting  materials  placed  around 
the  wires  of  the  Atlantic  cable  so  protect  it  that  a  small  charge 
of  electricity  will  carry  a  message  from  here  to  Europe. 

Great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  experimenting  with  statical 
electricity,  because  it  so  easily  gets  away.  All  substances  are 
conductors  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  including  the  dust  in  the 
air  and  the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  Perfect  insulation  and 
a  warm,  dry  air  are,  therefore,  favorable  conditions  for  holding 
statical  electricity.  The  rexson  it  was  not  used  earlier  for  prac- 
tical purposes  was  because  it  was  so  difficult  to  manage.  The 
electricity  which  is  produced  on  glass  by  friction  is  called  vitreous 
or  positive,  while  that  produced  in  the  same  manner  on  shellac 
ur  sealing-wax  is  called  resinous  or  negative  electricity. 

All  bodies  are,  as  has  been  said,  charged  with  an  equal  amount 
of  the  two  electrical  fluids  called  positive  and  negative,  but  when 
a  body  is  electrified  these  two  fluids  are  separated  so  that  one 


VL 


— 


~7 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS. 


351 


remains  in  excess  of  the  other.  There  is  always  a  passage  of  the 
electrical  fluid  in  two  directions,  along  a  conductor,  but  when  the 
direction  of  the  current  is  spoken  of,  it  is  the  direction  of  the 
positive  current  that  is  always  meant.  Statical  electricity  can 
also  be  produced  by  pressure,  as  when  certain  crystals  are  firmly 
pressed  together ;  by  cleavage,  as  when  two  layers  of  mica  are 
split  apart;  and  by  heat,  as  well  as  by  friction.  It  may  also  be 
produced  by  torsion.  It  is  found  that  the  charge  of  electricity, 
if  collected  in  a  spherical  body,  is  on  the  outside,  and  not  within 
the  body;  and  if  it  is  not  a  spherical  body,  the  electricity  collects 
chiefly  at  the  part  most  nearly  pointed. 

Electrical  Machines. 
Machines  for  producing  statical  electricity  are  usually  based 
on  the  friction  method.  The  old-fashioned  machine  consisted  of 
a  circular  glass  plate,  which  was  rotated  between  two  cushions, 
and  the  electricity  thus  produced  was  taken  off  and  carried  to  a 
metallic  cylinder,  called  the  prime  conductor,  by  means  of  metal 
points.  Silk  and  glass  as  insulators  prevented  the  electricity 
from  running  off  into  neighboring  objects.  More  recently 
machines  have  been  constructed  on  the  principle  of  induction,  as 
illustrated  in  the  electrophorus. 

The  Leyden  Jar. 

The  condensation  of  electricity  is  illustrated  in  the  Leyden  jar. 
This  is  a  sort  of  bottle,  lined  up  to  a  short  distance  from  its  top, 
both  inside  and  outside,  by  tin-foil,  and  in  the  stopper  is  a  brass 
knob,  which  is  connected  with  the  tin-foil  on  the  inside  of  the 
jar  by  a  chain.  When  the  knob  is  charged  with  positive  elec- 
tricity from  a  machine,  it  collects  on  the  tin-foil  inside  the  jar, 
while  a  corresponding  amount  of  negative  electricity  collects  on 
the  outside  of  the  jar.  By  this  means  a  large  amount  of  elec- 
tricity may  be  collected  and  held  by  the  jar  until  discharged,  by 
making  connection  between  the  tin-foil  on  the  inside  and  that  on 
the  outside  of  the  jar.  The  electricity  is  held,  not  on  the  tin-foil, 
but  on  the  surface  of  the  glass.  This  is  proved  by  means  of  a  jar 
that  can  be  taken  to  pieces  after  being  charged.  Although  the 
two  pieces  of  metal  which  lined  the  inside  and  outside  are  now 
brought  in  contact,  yet  when  the  whole  is  put  together  again, 
the  charge  is  found  to  remain,  and  it  is  discharged  by  connecting 
the  knob  with  the  metal  lining  of  the  outside.  All  that  these 
metal  linings  accomplish  here  is  to  make  a  large  conducting  sur- 
face over  the  whole  of  the  glass  upon  which  the  electricity  collects. 

The  discharge  of  electricity  from  such  a  jar,  or  a  battery  of 
several  of  them  connected,  produces  a  variety  of  results.  The 
spark  will  pass  through  a  thin  plate  of  glass  or  a  card,  and  make 
a  hole  in  them  by  disrupting  them ;  or,  in  passing  through  points 
of  metal,  it  heats  them  to  a  high  temperature  and  vaporizes  them, 
so  that  we  get  luminous  effects  from  them. 

Lightning 
Is  only  the  discharge  of  a  Leyden  jar  on  the  grand  scale  upon 
which  Nature  performs  her  operations.  Two  clouds  charged 
with  opposite  electricities,  and  separated  by  the  non-conducting 
air,  approach  each  other.  When  the  tension  becomes  sufficient 
to  overcome  the  resistance,  the  two  forces  rush  together  with  a 
blinding  flash  and  terrific  pea!.     The  lightning  moves  along  the 


line  where  there  is  the  least  resistance,  and  so  describes  a  zig-zag 
course.  If  we  can  trace  the  entire  length,  we  call  it  chain  light- 
ning ;  if  we  only  see  the  flash  through  intervening  clouds,  it  is 
sheet-lightning ;  and  if  it  is  the  reflection  of  distant  discharges, 
we  term  it  heat-lightning.  The  report  of  thunder  is  caused  by 
the  clashing  of  the  atoms  of  displaced  air.  The  rolling  of  the 
thunder  is  produced  by  the  reflection  of  the  sound  from  distant 
clouds/  Sometimes  the  clouds  and  the  earth  become  charged 
with  opposite  electricities,  separated  by  the  non-conducting  air. 

Lightning-rods  are  based  on  the  principle  that  electricity 
always  seeks  the  best  conductor. 

Providence  has  provided  a  harmless  conductor  in  every  leaf, 
spire  of  grass,  and  twig.  A  common  blade  of  grass,  pointed  by 
Nature's  exquisite  workmanship,  is  three  times  more  effectual 
than  the  finest  cambric  needle,  and  a  single  pointed  twig  than 
the  metallic  point  of  the  best  constructed  rod. 

The  duration  of  the  lightning  flash  has  been  estimated  at  one- 
millionth  of  a  second.  Some  idea  of  its  instantaneousness  can 
be  formed  from  the  fact  that  the  spokes  of  a  wheel,  revolved  so 
rapidly  as  to  become  invisible  by  daylight,  can  be  distinctly  seen 
by  a  spark  from  a  Leyden  jar.  Wheatstone  considered  the  ve- 
locity of  lightning  through  a  copper  wire  to  be  288,000  miles  per 
second. 

Lightning  sometimes  passes  upward  from  the  earth,  both 
quietly  and  by  sudden  discharge. 

Dynamical  Electricity. 
Now,  a  few  words  in  regard  to  dynamical  electricity.  Galvani 
discovered,  in  experimenting  on  frogs,  that  when  two  pieces  of 
metal,  like  copper  and  zinc,  were  placed  in  contact  with  the 
frog's  leg  and  their  ends  connected,  a  movement  of  the  leg 
would  take  place.  Volta  developed  the  voltaic  pile,  which  at 
first  consisted  of  alternate  layers  of  zinc,  wet  paper,  and  copper, 
piled  one  on  top  of  the  other  in  varying  numbers.  It  was  found 
that  when  the  top  layer  was  connected  with  the  bottom  one,  by 
means  of  wires,  a  current  of  electricity  was  set  up.  It  became 
understood  then,  that  the  electricity  was  produced  by  the  chem- 
ical action  of  the  water  in  the  paper  on  the  zinc,  and  so  more 
solvent  fluids  came  to  be  used  instead  of  water,  and  cloth  was 
substituted  for  the  paper. 

The  Galvanic  Battery 
Is  simply  a  combination  by  which  we  produce  this  chemical 
action,  and  zinc  is  the  metal  acted  upon.  If  a  piece  of  copper 
and  a  piece  of  zinc  be  placed  in  water,  containing  a  little  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  the  ends  of  the  copper  and  zinc  be  brought 
together,  or  connected  by  wires,  a  current  of  electricity  will  be 
established  between  them.  A  spark  may  be  seen  in  the  dark  if 
the  two  wires  are  brought  near  together,  but  not  in  actual  con- 
tact. This  electricity  is  produced  by  the  chemical  action  of  the 
acid  on  the  metal,  and  is  called  voltaic  or  galvanic  electricity. 
A  glass  vessel  containing  the  metals  and  acid  is  called  a  cell, 
and  several  cells  connected  together  constitute  the  battery.  The 
metal  plate  in  which  the  chemical  action  is  greatest  is  called  the 
positive  plate,  and  the  other  the  negative  plate.  The  free  ends 
of  the  wires  are  called  electrodes.  The  one  attached  to  the  posi- 
tive plate  is  the  negative  electrode,  and  vice  versa. 


J^ 


Q k. 


K- 


352 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  — PHYSICS. 


While  zinc  is  universally  used  for  one  element,  the  second 
element  in  the  battery  may  be  composed  of  different  kinds  of 
metals,  according  to  convenience. 

A  difficulty  in  using  zinc  as  the  positive  element  was  soon 
found  in  the  fact  that  little  local  currents  were  set  up  between 
it  and  the  impurities  contained  in  it,  and  this  caused  an  unneces- 
sary waste  of  the  zinc.  So  it  became  customary  to  amalgamate 
the  zinc  in  order  to  prevent  this  local  action  of  the  fluid  upon  it. 
The  next  improvement  made  was  to  prevent  the  little  bubbles 
of  hydrogen  from  collecting  on  the  surface  of  the  copper,  thus 
keeping  the  liquid  from  coming  in  contact  with  it  in  all  parts — 
that  is,  to  prevent  the  "polarization"  of  the  copper.  For  this 
purpose  certain  substances  came  to  be  used  to  absorb  the 
hydrogen.  The  first  of  these  substances  was  the  sulphate  of 
copper  as  used  in  the  Daniells  battery.  This  consisted  of  a 
copper  vessel  containing  a  porous  cylinder  in  which  was  sus- 
pended a  rod  of  zinc.  Dilute  sulphuric  acid  was  contained  in 
this  cylinder,  and  in  the  copper  vessel  outside  of  the  cylinder 
was  placed  a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  copper.  In  this  battery 
the  hydrogen  set  free  decomposes  the  sulphate  of  copper,  form- 
ing with  it  sulphuric  acid,  and  sets  free  copper  which  collects 
on  the  copper  element. 

Grove's  battery  consists  of  a  glass  vessel  containing  a  porous 
cup,  surrounded  on  the  outside  by  a  coil  of  amalgamated  zinc, 
and  on  the  inside  is  suspended  a  rod  of  platinum,  instead  of 
copper.  The  vessel  outside  of  the  porous  cup  is  filled  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  inside  with  strong  nitric  acid.  The 
nitric  acid  absorbs  the  hydrogen  set  free  by  the  sulphuric  acid 
and  zinc.  In  the  bichromate  battery,  the  bichromate  of  potash 
dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid  is  used  to  absorb  the  hydrogen,  and 
chromic  acid  is  formed.  So  the  three  substances  in  use  for 
absorbing  the  hydrogen  in  different  kinds  of  batteries  are  sul- 
phate of  copper,  nitric  acid  and  bichromate  of  potash.  Bunsen 
suggested  the  use  of  gas  carbon  to  take  the  place  of  the  copper. 
His  battery  consists  of  a  cylinder  of  carbon  immersed  in  a  vessel 
containing  nitric  acid,  and  within  this  cylinder  is  a  porous  cell 
containing  sulphuric  acid,  in  which  the  zinc  is  suspended.  To 
avoid  using  the  porous  cups,  the  force  of  gravity  has  been 
brought  into  play  in  the  construction  of  the  so-called  '*  gravity 
battery."  This  consists  of  a  glass  vessel  with  plates  of  copper 
at  its  bottom,  and  upon  this  crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper  are 
scattered,  while  over  all  is  poured  pure  water,  in  the  upper  por- 
tion of  which  is  suspended  a  plate  of  zinc.  A  very  little 
sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  start  the  battery,  mid  then  its  action 
will  keep  up.  Gravity  here  keeps  the  two  liquids  apart — the 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  at  the  bottom,  and  the  dilute 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid  at  the  top.  This  battery  produces  a 
constant  current,  and  will  run  for  a  very  long  time.  The 
Leclanche  battery  consists  of  a  porous  cup  containing  sal  ammo- 
niac, in  which  is  suspended  a  rod  of  zinc,  and  this  cup  is 
surrounded  by  the  oxide  of  manganese  as  a  depolarizer, 
immersed  in  which  is  the  carbon.  This  battery  is  used  when  a 
current  of  electricity  is  desired  for  a  very  short  time  at  once,  as 
in  striking  burglar  alarms,  signal  bells,  etc.  The  galvanic  bat- 
tery is  now  being  replaced  for  many  purposes  by  dynamo-electric 
machines. 


Electrolysis  and  Galvanoplasty. 

A  current  of  electricity  passed  through  certain  substances  will 
decompose  them,  and  this  process  is  called  electrolysis.  Water 
may,  for  example,  lie  thus  separated  into  two  gases,  oxygen  and 
hydrogen.  The  process  of  depositing  metals  by  means  of  elec- 
tricity is  known  as  galvanoplasty. 

Electroplating,  sometimes  called  galvanizing,  is  the  process 
of  coating  one  metal  with  another  by  means  of  a  galvanic 
battery.  Gold  and  silver  are  deposited  most  readily  on  German 
silver,  brass,  copper,  or  nickel  silver,  the  last  mentioned  being  a 
composition  of  copper,  zinc  and  nickel.  Vessels  to  be  plated 
with  silver,  for  example, are  thoroughly  cleansed,  and  then  hung 
in  a  solution  of  silver  from  the  negative  pole,  while  a  plate  of 
silver  is  suspended  on  the  positive  pole.  In  about  fire  minutes 
a  mere  "  blush"  of  the  metal  will  be  deposited,  which  perfectly 
conceals  the  baser  metal  and  is  susceptible  of  a  high  polish. 

A  vessel  is  gold-lined  by  filling  it  with  a  solution  of  gold,  sus- 
pending in  it  a  slip  of  gold  from  the  positive  pole  of  the  battery, 
and  then  attaching  the  negative  pole  to  the  vessel;  while  the 
current  passing  through  the  liquid  causes  it  to  bubble  like  soda- 
water,  and  in  a  few  moments  deposits  a  thin  film  of  gold. 

Electrotyping  is  a  process  much  used  in  copying  medals, 
wood  cuts,  type,  etc.  An  impression  of  the  object  is  taken 
with  gutta-percha,  or  wax  ;  the  surface  to  be  copied  is  brushed 
over  with  black-lead  to  render  it  a  conductor.  The  mold  is 
then  suspended  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  from 
the  negative  pole  of  the  battery;  a  plate  of  copper  is  hung 
opposite  on  the  positive  pole.  The  electric  current  decomposes 
the  sulphate  of  copper ;  the  metal  goes  to  the  negative  pole  and 
is  deposited  upon  the  mold,  while  the  acid,  passing  to  the 
positive  pole,  dissolves  the  copper,  and  thus  preserves  the 
strength  of  the  solution. 

The  Electric  Light,  Telegraph,  Etc. 

If  a  strong  current  of  electricity  is  sent  along  a  good  con- 
ductor, it  passes  very  easily ;  but  if  passed  along  a  poor  con- 
ductor, it  makes  it  hot.  This  is  the  principle  upon  which  is 
based  the  incandescent  electric  light.  A  current  sent  over  a  fine 
thread  of  carbon  heats  it  to  a  white  heat,  and  thus  produces  a 
brilliant  light.  The  same  principle  holds  in  the  arc  light,  where 
the  air  acts  as  the  poor  conductor.  Here  two  pointed  sticks  of 
carbon  are  placed  in  contact  until  a  current  is  started  through 
them,  and  then  they  are  gradually  separated  for  a  short  distance, 
when  the  resistance  offered  by  the  air  to  the  passage  of  the  elec- 
tricity from  one  point  to  the  other  heats  them  to  incandescence, 
and  small  particles  of  carbon  in  a  state  of  combustion  are  broken 
off  and  carried  through  the  air,  thus  causing  an  arc  of  light 
between  the  carbon  points.  The  incandescent  electric  light  and 
the  arc  light  form  two  systems  of  electric  lighting. 

The  galvanometer  is  the  most  convenient  method  of  measuring 
a  current  of  electricity.  This  is  a  rotating  needle,  around  which 
the  current  is  passed. 

The  electric  telegraph  is  an  arrangement  for  sending  messages 
by  means  of  signals  made  by  breaking  and  closing  a  voltaic 
circuit. 

The  telephone,  microphone,  etc.,  have  been  explained  under 
the  head  of  Aeon  ■■■. 


/ 


^J 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  — CHEMISTRY. 


353 


-E^EK 


CHEMISTRY. 


Ij^^F 


-*£3-*H=&- 


/YHEMISTRY  is  the  science  of  atoms.  It  detects  their  rela- 
l/j  tive  power,  their  laws  of  combination  and  their  means  of 
'  decomposition.  It  enables  us  to  understand  the  construc- 
tion of  bodies,  and  is  one  of  the  most  instructive  and  useful 
studies.  As  astrology  preceded  astronomy,  so  alchemy  paved 
the  way  for  chemistry.  For  centuries  learned  but  misguided 
men  sought  in  vain  the  "  elixir  of  life,"  a  universal  medicine  to 
enable  man  to  attain  the  longevity  of  the  antediluvians,  and 
groped  for  the  "philosopher's  stone,"  which,  it  was  believed, 
could  turn  the  baser  metals  into  gold  and  silver.  Gradually, 
however,  the  fallacy  of  alchemy  was  revealed,  until  Chemistry 
enlightened  the  world  and  demonstrated  that  it  is  impossible  to 
change  one  element  into  another. 

In  nature  we  have  simple  and  compound  bodies,  and  the 
former  are  called  elements.  These  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  so-called  elements  —  earth,  air,  fire  and  water,  which 
are  really  compound  bodies.  An  element  in  chemistry  is  any 
substance  which  cannot  be  separated  into  two  or  more  distinctly 
different  substances.  The  number  of  these  simple  elements  at 
present  recognized  is  65,  divided  into  non-metallic  and  metallic. 
The  non-metallic  elements  are  called  "metalloids."  The  list  of 
the  elements  is  as  follows : 


Non-Metallic 
Elements. 


O 
H 

N 

CI 

I 

F 

C 

s 
p 

As 

Si 

B 

Se 

Te 


Oxygen 

Hydrogen*! 

Nitrogen    >  Gaseous 

Chlorine    J 

Iodine 

Fluorine 

Carbon 

Phosphorus 

Arsenic* 

Silicon 

Boron 

Silenium 

Tellurium 

Bromine Fluid 

Metals. 

Aluminium    Al 

Antimony  (Stibium) ...  Sb 

Barium Ba 

Bismuth Bi 

Cadmium Cd 

Caesium Cs 

Calcium   Ca 

Cerium   Ce 

Chromium Cr 

Cobalt Co 

Copper  Cu 

Didymium D 

Erbium E 

Gallium Ga 

Glucinum Gl 

Gold Au 

Indium   In 


1-  be  ■ 
o  c  « 

...16 


..  14 

-  35 
..127 
..19 
. .  ia 

..  32 
••  3i 
••  75 

..  28 
..  11 
••  79 
..129 
..  80 


•  27 
.122 

•137 
.210 
.112 

•133 

.  40 
.141 

•  52 

•  58 

•  63 

•  M7 

•  7° 

•  9 
.197 
.113 


Metals. 

(continued.) 


©  E  « 


Iridium 

Iron 

Lanthanum   , 

Lead   

Lithium 

Magnesium   

Manganese 

Mercury , 

Molybdenum 

Nickel 

Niobium  (Cdlumbium). 

Osmium  

Palladium 

Platinum 

Potassium  (Kalium) . . . 

Rhodium    , 

Rubidium 

Ruthenium 

Silver  (Argentum) 

Sodium  (Natrium) 

Strontium 

Tantalum 

Terbium 

Thallium    

Thorium 

Tin  (Stannum) 

Titanium   

Tungesten  (Walpam). . 

Uranium , 

Vanadium 

Yttrium 

Zinc 

Zirconium 


..198 

..  56 

•■*39 
.'.207 

•       7 
..  24 

55 


Ir    . 

Fe  . 
La  . 

Pb  , 
Li  . 
Mg.. 
Mn  .. 
Hg  ..  .200 
Mo  ...  96 
Ni  ...  58 
Nb  ...  94 
Os  .  199 
PI  ...106 
Pt  ...197 
K  ...  39 
Rh  . . .  104 
Rb  ...  85 
Ru  . ..104 
Ag  ...108 
Na  ...  23 
Sr  ...  87 
Ta  ...182 

Tr  ... 

Tl 

Th 

Sn 

Ti 

W 

U 

V 

Y 


,  .204 
,.230 
..118 
..  50 
..184 
..240 
i.  51 
■  •  93 
Zn  ...  65 
Zr   ...  80 


*  Sometimes  considered  a  non-metallic  and  sometimes   a   metallic  sub- 
stance. 


The  term  "combining  weight"  requires  a  little  explanation. 
Water,  for  instance,  is  made  up  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in 
certain  proportions.  The  proportions  are  in  eighteen  grains  or 
parts  of  water,  sixteen  parts  (by  weight)  of  oxygen,  and  two 
parts  (by  weight)  of  hydrogen.  These  are  the  weights  or  pro- 
portions in  which  oxygen  and  hydrogen  combine  to  form  water, 
and  such  weights  are  always  the  same  in  these  proportions. 
Chemical  combination  always  occurs  for  certain  substances  in 
certain  proportions  which  never  vary  in  those  compounds,  and 
if  we  wish  to  extract  oxygen  from  an  oxide  we  must  take  the 
aggregate  amount  of  the  combining  weights  of  the  oxide,  and 
we  shall  find  the  proportion  of  oxygen;  for  the  compound 
always  weighs  the  same  as  the  sum  of  the  elements  that  compose 
it.  To  return  to  the  illustration  of  water.  The  molecule  of 
water  is  made  up  of  one  atom  of  oxygen  and  two  atoms  of 
hydrogen.  One  atom  of  the  former  weighs  sixteen  times  the 
atom  of  the  latter.  The  weights  given  in  the  foregoing  table  are 
atomic  weights,  and  the  law  of  their  proportions  is  called  the 
Atomic  Theory. 

An  atom  in  chemistry  is  usually  considered  the  smallest 
quantity  of  matter  that  exists,  and  is  indivisible.  A  molecule  is 
supposed  to  contain  two  or  more  atoms,  and  is  the  smallest  por- 
tion of  a  compound  body.  The  standard  atom  is  hydrogen, 
which  is  put  down  as  1,  because  we  find  that  when  one  part  by 
weight  of  hydrogen  is  put  in  combination,  it  must  have  many 
more  parts  by  weight  of  others  to  form  a  compound.  Two  grains 
of  hydrogen,  combining  with  sixteen  of  oxygen,  makes  eighteen 
of  water,  as  we  have  already  seen. 

The  red  oxide  of  mercury  contains  sixteen  parts  by  weight  of 
oxygen  to  two  hundred  parts  by  weight  of  mercury  (we  see  the 
same  numbers  in  the  table);  these  combined  make  two  hundred 
and  sixteen  parts  of  oxide.  So,  to  obtain  sixteen  pounds  of 
oxygen,  we  must  get  two  hundred  and  sixteen  pounds  of  the 
powder.  It  is  the  same  all  through,  and  it  will  be  found  by 
experiment,  that  if  any  more  parts  than  these  fixed  proportions 
be  taken  to  form  a  compound,  some  of  that  element  used  in 
excess  will  remain  free.  Lime  is  made  up  of  calcium  and  oxy- 
gen. We  find  calcium  combining  weight  is  forty,  oxygen 
sixteen.  Lime  is  oxide  of  calcium  in  these  proportions  (by 
weight). 

When  we  wish  to  express  the  number  of  atoms  in  a  compound, 
we  write  the  number  underneath  when  more  than  one;  thus 
water  is  H2  O.     Sulphuric  acid,  H2  S04. 

In  chemistry  we  have  acids,  alkalis  and  salts,  with  metallic 
oxides,  termed  bases,  or  bodies  that,  when  combined  with  acids, 
form  salts.     Alkalis  are  bases. 


24 


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NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY— CHEMISTRY 


Acids  are  compounds  which  possess  an  acid  taste,  impart  red 
color  to  vegetable  blues,  but  lose  their  qualities  when  combined 
with  bases.  Hydrogen  is  present  in  all  acids.  There  are  insol- 
uble acids.  Silicic  acid,  for  instance,  is  not  soluble  in  water, 
has  no  sour  taste,  and  will  not  redden  the  test  litmus  paper.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  are  substances,  not  acids,  which  possess 
the  characteristics  of  acids,  and  most  acids  have  only  one 
or  two  of  these  characteristics.  Thus  it  has  come  to  pass  that 
the  term  "  acid  "  has,  in  a  measure,  dropped  out  from  scientific 
nomenclature,  and  salt  of  hydrogen  has  been  substituted  by 
chemists.  For  popular  exposition,  however,  the  term  is  re- 
tained. 

Alkalis  are  bases  distinguished  by  an  alkaline  taste.  The 
derivation  is  from  the  Arabic,  al-kali.  They  are  characterized 
by  certain  properties,  and  they  change  vegetable  blues  to  green, 
and  will  restore  the  blue  to  a  substance  which  has  been  red- 
dened by  acid.  They  are  soluble  in  water,  and  the  solutions 
are  caustic  in  their  effects.  Potash,  soda  and  ammonia  are 
alkalis,  or,  chemically,  the  oxides  of  potassium ;  sodium,  ammo- 
nium, lithium  and  caesium  are  all  alkalis.  Potash  is  sometimes 
called  "  caustic "  potash.  There  are  alkaline  earths,  such  as 
oxides  of  barium,  strontium,  etc.  Bases  may  be  defined  as  the 
converse  of  acids. 

Acids  and  alkalis  are  then  evidently  opposite  in  character, 
and  yet  they  readily  combine,  and  we  find  that  unlike  bodies  are 
very  fond  of  combining  (just  as  opposite  electricities  attract  each 
other),  and  the  body  made  by  this  combination  differs  in  its 
properties  from  its  constituents. 

Salts  are  composed  of  acids  and  bases,  and  are  considered 
neutral  compounds,  but  there  are  other  bodies,  not  salts,  which 
likewise  come  under  that  definition — sugar,  for  instance.  As  a 
rule,  when  acids  and  alkalis  combine  salts  are  found. 

Chemical  phenomena  are  divided  into  two  groups,  called  in- 
organic and  organic,  comprising  the  simple  and  compound 
aspects  of  the  subject,  the  elementary  substances  being  in  the 
first,  and  the  chemistry  of  animals  or  vegetables,  or  organic  sub- 
stances, in  the  latter.  In  the  inorganic  section  we  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  elements  and  their  combinations  so  often  seen 
as  minerals  in  nature.  Chemical  preparations  are  artificially  pre- 
pared. To  consider  these  elements  we  must  have  certain  appli- 
ances, and  indeed  a  laboratory  is  needed.  Heat,  as  we  have 
already  seen   plays  a  great  part  in  developing  substances,  and 


by  means  of  heat  we  can  do  a  great  deal  in  the  way  of  chemical 
decomposition.  It  expands,  and  thus  diminishes  cohesion;  it 
counteracts  the  chemical  attraction.  Light  and  electricity  also 
decompose  chemical  combinations. 

The  earth,  and  its  surrounding  envelope,  the  atmosphere,  con- 
sist of  a  number  of  elements,  which  in  myriad  combinations 
give  us  everything  we  possess.  The  air  we  breathe,  the  water 
we  drink,  the  fire  that  warms  us,  are  all  made  up  of  certain  ele- 
ments or  gases.  Water  is  hydrogen  and  oxygen ;  air,  oxygen 
and  nitrogen.  Fire  is  combustion  evolving  light  and  beat. 
Chemical  union  always  evolves  heat,  and  when  such  union  pro- 
ceeds very  rapidly  fire  is  the  result. 

But  in  all  these  combinations  not  a  particle  or  atom  of  matter 
is  ever  lost.  It  may  change  or  combine  or  be  "  given  off,"  but 
the  matter  in  some  shape  or  way  exists  still.  Wc  may  bum 
things,  and  rid  ourselves,  as  we  think,  of  them.  We  do  rid  our- 
selves of  the  compounds,  but  the  elements  remain  somewhere. 
We  only  alter  the  condition.  During  combustion,  as  in  a  candle 
or  a  fire,  the  simple  bodies  assume  gaseous  or  other  forms,  such 
as  carbon,  but  they  do  not  escape  far.  True,  they  pass  beyond 
our  ken,  but  nature  is  so  nicely  balanced  that  there  is  a  place 
for  everything,  and  everything  is  in  its  place,  under  certain  con- 
ditions which  never  alter.  We  cannot  destroy  and  we  cannot 
create.  We  may  prepare  a  combination,  and  science  has  even 
succeeded  in  producing  a  form  like  the  diamond — a  crystal  of 
carbon  which  looks  like  that  most  beautiful  of  all  crystals,  but 
we  cannot  make  a  diamond  after  all.  We  can  only  separate  the 
chemical  compounds.  We'  can  turn  diamonds  into  charcoal,  it 
is  true,  but  we  cannot  create  "  natural "  products.  We  can  take 
a  particle  of  an  element  and  hide  it,  or  let  it  pass  beyond  our 
ken,  and  remain  incapable  of  detection,  but  the  particle  is  there 
all  the  time,  and  when  we  retrace  our  steps  we  shall  find  it  as 
it  was  before. 

This  view  of  chemistry  carries  it  as  a  science  beyond  the  mere 
holiday  amusement  we  frequently  take  it  to  be.  It  is  a  grand 
study — a  study  for  a  lifetime.  The  more  we  inquire,  the  more 
we  shall  find  we  have  to  learn.  In  this  work  it  was  only  pos- 
sible to  give  a  brief  introduction.  There  are  numerous  excellent 
treatises  on  chemistry,  but,  exhaustive  as  they  are,  they  do  not 
tell  us  all.  Nature,  however,  is  always  willing,  like  a  kind, 
good  mother,  to  render  up  her  secrets,  if  we  inquire  respectfully 
and  lovingly. 


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The  Wonders  of  the  Heavens  as  Revealed  by  the  Telescope. 

A  History  of  the  Progress  of  Astronomical  Science. 


ASTRONOMY  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  and  the  laws  which  govern  them.  The  space  in 
which  the  celestial  orbs  are  set  is  infinite  and  known  as 
the  "  firmament "  or  "  heaven."  We  can  see  a  few  stars,  com- 
paratively speaking,  but 
there  are  numbers  whose 
light  has  never  yet  reached 
the  earth.  When  we  calm- 
ly reason  upon  the  im- 
measurable distances,  and 
the  awful  rapidity  of  mo- 
tion, with  the  masses  of 
matter  thus  in  movement, 
we  are  constrained  to  ac- 
knowledge that  all  our 
boasted  knowledge  is  as 
nothing  in  the  wondrous 
dispensation  of  Him  who 
"  telleth  the  number  of  the 
stars  and  calleth  them  all 
by  their  names." 

Astronomy  is  the  most 
ancient  of  all  sciences. 
The  study  of  the  stars  is, 
without  doubt,  as  old  as 
man  himself,  and  hence 
many  of  its  discoveries  date 
back  of  authentic  records, 
amid  the  dim  mysteries  of 
tradition. 

The  Chinese  possess  an 
account  of  a  conjunction  of  four  planets  and  the  moon,  which 
must  have  occurred  a  century  before  the  flood.  They  have  also 
the  first  record  of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  took  place  about 
two  hundred  and  twenty  years  after  the  deluge. 


Fig.  I.    The  Solar  System. 


The  Chaldean  shepherds,  watching  their  flocks  by  night  under 
the  open  sky,  could  not  fail  to  become  familiar  with  many  of 
the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The  Chaldeans  in- 
vented the  sun-dial,  and  also  discovered  the  "  Saros,"  or  "Chal- 
dean Period,"  which  is  the 
length  of  time  in  which  the 
eclipses  of  the  sun  and 
moon  repeat  themselves  in 
the  same  order. 

Thales,  who  was  noted 
for  his  .electrical  discov- 
eries, and  acquired  much 
renown,  established  the 
first  school  of  astronomy 
in  Greece.  He  taught  that 
the  earth  is  round,  and  that 
the  moon  receives  her  light 
from  the  sun.  He  also 
introduced  the  division  of 
the  earth's  surface  into 
zones,  and  the  theory  of  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 
He  predicted  an  eclipse  of 
the  sun  which  is  memorable 
in  ancient  history  as  having 
terminated  a  war  between 
the  Medes  and  the  Lyd- 
ians.  These  nations  were 
engaged  in  a  fierce  battle, 
but  the  awe  produced  by 
the  darkening  of  the  sun 

was  so  great  that  both  sides  threw  down  their  arms  and  made 

peace. 

Anaximander  and  Anaxagoras  were  pupils  of  Thales.    Anax- 

imander  taught  that  the  stars  are  suns,  and  that  the  planets  are 


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356 


ASTRONOMY. 


inhabited.  Anaxagoras  maintained  that  there  is  but  one  God, 
that  the  sun  is  solid,  and  as  large  as  the  country  of  Greece,  and 
attempted  to  explain  eclipses  and  other  celestial  phenomena  by 
natural  causes.  For  his  audacity  and  impiety,  as  his  countrymen 
considered  it,  he  and  his  family  were  doomed  to  perpetual  ban- 
ishment. 

Pythagoras  founded  the  second  celebrated  astronomical  school 
at  Crotona,  at  which  were  educated  hundreds  of  enthusiastic 
pupils.  He  knew  the  causes  of  eclipses,  and  calculated  them 
by  means  of  the  Saros.  Pythagoras  was  most  emphatically  a 
dreamer.  He  conceived  a  system  of  the  universe  in  many  re- 
spects correct;  yet  he  advanced  no  proof,  and  made  few  con- 
verts to  his  views,  and  they  were  soon  well  nigh  forgotten.  He 
held  that  the  sun  is  the  center  of  the  solar  system,  and  that  the 
planets  revolve  about  it  in  circular  orbits;  that  the  earth  revolves 
daily  on  its  axis,  and  yearly  around  the  sun  ;  that  Venus  is  both 
morning  and  evening  star;  that  the  planets  are  inhabited  —  and 
he  even  attempted  to  calculate  the  size  of  some  of  the  animals 
in  the  moon ;  that  the  planeis  are  placed  at  intervals  correspond- 
ing to  the  scale  in  music,  and  that  they  move  in  harmony,  mak- 
ing the  "music  of  the  spheres,"  but  that  this  celestial  concert  is 
heard  only  by  the  gods — the  ears  of  man  being  too  gross  for 
such  divine  melody.  Pythagoras  believed  the  sun  to  be  44,000 
miles  from  the  earth,  and  75  miles  in  diameter. 

Eudoxus  held  that  the  heavenly  bodies  are  set,  like  gems,  in 
hollow,  transparent  crystal  globes,  so  pure  that  they  do  not 
obstruct  the  view,  and  that  they  all  revolve  around  the  earth. 

Hipparchus,  who  flourished  in  the  second  century  B.C.,  has 
been  called  the  "Newton  of  Antiquity."  He  was  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Greek  astronomers ;  he  calculated  the  length 
of  the  year  within  six  minutes,  discovered  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  and  made  the  first  catalogue  of  the  stars  — 1,081  in 
number. 

Egypt,  as  well  as  Chaldea,  was  noted  for  its  knowledge  of  the 
sciences  long  before  they  were  cultivated  in  Greece.  It  was  the 
practice  of  Grecian  philosophers,  before  aspiring  to  the  rank  of 
teacher,  to  travel  for  years  through  these  countries,  and  gather 
wisdom  at  its  fountain-head.  Pythagoras  thus  spent  thirty  years 
in  traveling. 

About  two  hundred  years  after  Pythagoras  the  celebrated 
school  of  Alexandria  was  established.  Here  were  concentrated 
in  vast  libraries  and  princely  halls  nearly  all  the  wisdom  and 
learning  of  the  world ;  here  flourished  all  the  sciences  and  arts, 
under  the  patronage  of  generous  kings. 

The   Ptolemaic   System. 

Ptolemy  of  Alexandria  (A.D.  130-150)  was  the  founder  of 
a  theory  called  the  Ptolemaic  system,  based  largely  upon  the 
materials  gathered  by  previous  astronomers,  such  as  Hipparchus, 
already  mentioned,  and  Eratosthenes,  who  computed  the  size  of 
the  earth  by  means  even  now  considered  the  best — the  measure- 
ment of  an  arc  of  the  meridian.  The  advocates  of  the  Ptolemaic 
theory  assumed  that  every  planet  revolves  in  a  circle,  and  that 
the  earth  is  the  fixed  center  around  which  the  sun  and  the  heav- 
enly bodies  move.  They  conceived  that  a  bar,  or  something 
equivalent,  is  connected  at  one  end  with  the  earth ;  thai  at  some 


part  of  this  bar  the  sun  is  attached ;  while  between  that  and  the 
earth,  Venus  is  fastened,  not  to  the  bar  directly,  but  to  a  sort  of 
crank;  and  farther  on,  Mercury  is  hitched  on  in  the  same  way. 
They  did  not  fully  understand  the  nature  of  these  bars — whether 
they  were  real  or  only  imaginary — but  they  did  comprehend  their 
action,  as  they  thought;  and  so  they  supposed  the  bar  revolved, 
carrying  the  sun  and  planets  along  in  a  large  circle  about  the 
earth;  while  all  the  short  cranks  kept  flying  around,  thus  sweep- 
ing each  planet  through  a  smaller  circle. 

The  movements  of  the  planets  were  to  the  ancients  extremely 
complex.  Venus,  for  instance,  was  sometimes  seen  as  ■  evening 
star"  in  the  west;  and  then  again  as  "morning  star"  in  the 
east.  Sometimes  she  seemed  to  be  moving  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  sun,  then,  going  apparently  behind  the  sun,  she  appeared 
to  pass  on  again  in  a  course  directly  opposite.  At  one  time  she 
would  recede  from  the  sun  more  and  more  slowly  and  coyly, 
until  she  would  appear  to  be  entirely  stationary ;  then  she  would 
retrace  her  steps,  and  seem  to  meet  the  sun.  All  these  facts 
were  attempted  to  be  accounted  for  by  an  incongruous  system  of 
"cycles  and  epicycles." 

The  system  of  Ptolemy  passed  current  for  1400  years,  and 
during  this  time 

Astrology 
was  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  knowledge. 
Star  diviners  were  held  ir.  the  greatest  estimation,  and  the  issue 
of  any  important  undertaking,  or  the  fortune  of  an  individual,  was 
foretold  by  means  of  horoscopes  representing  the  position  of  the 
stars  and  planets.  The  system  of  the  astrologers  was  very  com- 
plicated, and  corlained  regular  rules  to  guide  the  interpretation, 
so  intricate  that  years  of  study  were  required  for  their  mastery. 
Venus  foretold  love;  Mars,  war;  the  Pleiades,  storms  at  sea. 
Not  only  the  i^n  irant  were  the  dupes  of  this  system,  Lord  Bacon 
believing  in  it  nt  jst  firmly. 

The  Copernican  System. 

The  system  ts  now  accepted  is  called  the  Copernican  system, 
after  Nicholas  .'.Copernik,  or  Copernicus,  who,  in  1543,  breaking 
away  from  the  theory  of  Ptolemy,  revived  that  of  Pythagoras. 
He  saw  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  considering  the  sun  the  grand 
center  about  which  revolve  the  earth  and  all  the  planets.  He 
noticed  how  constantly,  when  we  are  riding  swiftly,  we  forget 
our  motion,  and  think  that  objects  really  stationary  are  gliding 
by  us  in  the  contrary  direction.  He  applied  this  thought  to  the 
movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  maintained  that,  instead 
of  the  starry  hosts  revolving  about  the  earth  once  in  twenty-four 
hours,  the  earth  simply  turns  on  its  own  axis;  that  this  produces 
the  apparent  daily  revolution  of  the  sun  and  stars,  while  the 
yearly  motion  of  the  earth  about  the  sun,  transferred  in  the  same 
manner  to  that  body,  would  account  for  its  various  move- 
ments. 

Tycho  Brahe  opposed  the  Copernican  theory,  but  made  many 
important  investigations.  Then  came  Kepler,  who  adopted  the 
Copernican  theory,  and  whose  observations  upon  the  planet  M  an 
cleared  away  manycompllcations.  He  laid  down  three  laws,  as 
follows:  /.  Planets  rtvokre  in  ellipses,  with  the  sun  at  one 
focus.     2.  A  line  connecting  the  center  of  the  earth  with  the 


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ASTRONOMY. 


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center  of  the  sun  passes  over  equal  spaces  in  equal  times.  J.  The 
squares  of  the  times  of  revolution  of  the  planets  about  the  sun  are 
proportional  to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the  sun. 
Kepler  also  remarked  that  gravity  was  a  power  existing  be- 
tween all  bodies,  and  reasoned  upon  the  tides  being  caused  by 
the  attraction  of  the  moon  for  the  waters.  About  this  time,  viz. : 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  telescope  was  in- 
vented, and  logarithms  came  into  use.  The  telescope  did  not 
penetrate  into  Southern  Europe  till  1608-9. 

Galileo,  who  had  discovered  the  laws  of  the  pendulum  and 
of  falling  bodies,  learned  that  a  Dutch  watchmaker  had  invented 
a  contrivance  for  making  distant  objects  appear  near.  With  his 
profound  knowledge  of  optics  and  philosophical  instruments,  he 
instantly  caught  the  idea,  and  soon  had  a  telescope  completed 
that  would  magnify  thirty  times.  With  this  instrument  he  ex- 
amined the  moon,  discovered  its  .  mountains  and  valleys,  and 
watched  the  dense  shadows  sweep  over  its  plains.  Near  Jupiter 
he  saw  three  bright  stars,  as  he  considered  them,  which  were 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  Shortly  after,  he  noticed  those  stars 
had  changed  their  relative  positions.  Being  somewhat  per- 
plexed, he  waited  three  days  for  a  fair  night  in  which  to  resume 
his  observations.  The  fourth  night  was  favorable,  and  he  again 
found  the  three  stars  had  shifted.  After  continued  observations 
he  discovered  a  fourth  star,  and  finally  found  that  they  were  all 
rapidly  revolving  around  Jupiter,  each  in  its  elliptical  orbit,  with 
its  own  rate  of  motion,  and  all  accompanying  the  planet  in  its 
journey  around  the  sun.  Here  was  a  miniature  Copernican 
system,  hung  up  in  the  sky  for  all  to  see  and  examine  for  them- 
selves. Galileo  met  with  the  most  bitter  opposition.  A  great 
many  refused  to  look  through  the  telescope,  lest  they  might  be- 
come victims  of  the  philosopher's  magic.  Some  prated  of  the 
wickedness  of  digging  out  valleys  in  the  fair  face  of  the  moon ; 
while  others  doggedly  clung  to  the  theory  they  had  held  from 
their  youth  up. 

Then  Newton  promulgated, his  immortal  discovery  of  the  law 
of  gravitation — that  every  particle  of  matter  in  the  universe  at- 
tracts every  other  particle  of  matter  with  a  force  directly  propor- 
tional to  its  quantity  of  matter,  and  decreasing  as  the  square  of 
the  distance  increases — and  the  relations  of  the  sun  and  planets 
became  more  evident. 

Subsequent  researches  brought  astronomy  into  prominence 
more  and  more.  The  spectroscope  has,  in  the  able  hands  of 
living  astronomers,  revealed  to  us  elements  existing  in  the 
vapors  and  composition  of  the  sun  and  other  heavenly  bodies. 
Stars  are  now  known  to  be  suns,  some  bearing  a  great  resem- 
blance to  our  sun,  others  differing  materially.  The  nebula: 
have  been  analyzed,  and  found  to  be  stars,  or  gas,  burning  in 
space— hydrogen  and  nitrogen  being  the  chief  constituents  of 
this  glowing  matter.  Instruments  for  astronomical  observation 
have  now  been  brought  to  a  pitch  of  perfection  scarcely  ever 
dreamed  of,  and  month  by  month  discoveries  are  made  and  re- 
corded, while  calculations  as  to  certain  combinations  can  be 
made  with  almost  miraculous  accuracy.  The  transit  of  Venus, 
the  approaches  of  comets,  eclipses,  and  the  movements  of  stars, 
are  now  known  accurately  and  commented  on  long  before  the 
events  can  take  place. 


THE    SOLAR    SYSTEM. 

Gravitation  is  the  force  which  keeps  the  planets  in  their 
orbits.  The  sun  attracts  the  planets,  and  they  influence  him  in 
a  minor  degree.  Likewise  the  moon  and  stars  and  our  earth 
attract  each  other.  But  as  the  sun's  mass  is  far  greater  than  the 
masses  of  the  planets  he  influences  them  more,  and  could  absorb 
them  all  without  inconvenience  or  disturbance  from  his  center 
of  gravity. 

Every  body  will  remain  at  rest  unless  force  compels  it  to 
change  its  position,  and  it  will  then  go  on  forever  in  a  straight 
path,  unless  something  stops  it.  But  if  this  body  be  acted  on 
simultaneously  by  two  forces  in  different  directions  it  will  go  in 
the  direction  of  the  greater  force.  Two  equal  forces  will  tend 
to  give  it  an  intermediate  direction,  and  an  equal  opposing 


Fig.  a. 
The  Surface  of  the  Sun  as  seen  through  a  Powerful  Telescope. 

force  will  stop  it.  The  last  axiom  but  one — viz.,  the  two  equal 
forces  in  different,  not  opposing  directions — gives  us  the  key  to 
the  curving  line  of  the  planetary  motions.  Were  it  not  for  the 
attraction  of  the  sun,  the  planets  would  fly  off  at  a  tangent ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  were  not  the  impelling  force  as  great 
as  it  is,  they  would  fall  into  the  sun.  Thus  they  take  an  inter- 
mediate line,  and  circle  round  the  center  of  the  solar  system — 
the  Sun. 

The  solar  system  consists  of :  (1)  The  sun — the  center;  (2) 
the  major  planets — Vulcan  (undetermined),  Mercury,  Venus, 
Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  Neptune ;  (3)  the  asteroids, 
or  minor  planets,  at  present  (January,  1892)  322  in  number; 
(4)  the  satellites,  or  moons,  which  revolve  around  the  different 
planets;  (5)  meteors  and  shooting  stars;  (6)  comets. 


-M 


K" 


^ 


358 


ASTRONOMY. 


The  stars  called  planets  have  certain  motions,  going  from  east 
to  west,  from  west  to  east,  and  sometimes  again  appearing  quite 
motionless.  This  change  of  place,  appearing  now  at  one  side 
of  the  sun  and  now  at  another,  has  given  them  their  title  of 
"wanderers."  The  planets  and  their  satellites,  the  asteroids, 
comets  and  meteors,  all  circle  round  the  sun  in  more  or  less 
regular  orbits.  And  there  must  be  families  of  comets  that  have 
not  yet  appeared  to  us,  and  whole  systems  of  meteors  as  yet 
unseen. 

THE   SUN. 

When  we  consider  the  power  and  grandeur  of  the  sun,  we 
may  well  feel  lost  in  the  contemplation.  He  balances  the 
planets  and  keeps  them  in  their  orbits.  He  gives  us  light  and 
heat,  and  in  darkness  nothing  will  come  to  maturity.  We  obtain 
rain  and  dew  owing  to  his  evaporative  power,  and  no  action 
could  go  on  upon  the  earth  without  him. 

The  sun  is  not  solid  so  far  as  we  can  tell.  It  is  apparently  a 
mass  of  white-hot  vapor,  and  is  enabled  to  shine  by  reason  of 
its  own  light,  which  the  planets  and  stars  cannot  do,  they  shin- 
ing only  by  the  sun's  reflected  light.  From  this  we  might  con- 
clude that  the  sun  is  entirely  gaseous,  but,  in  the  recent  researches 
in  spectrum  analysis,  the  light  of  the  sun  has  been  examined  by 
means  of  the  spectroscope,  and  split  up  into  its  component  colors, 
and  scientists  have  discovered  that  a  number  of  elements  exist 
in  the  sun  in  a  vaporous  state.  Hydrogen  is  there,  with  other 
gases  unknown  to  us,  and  many  metals,  discovered  by  their 
spedra,  which  are  the  same  under  similar  circumstances.  The 
sun  is  supposed  to  be  spherical  in  shape  —  not  flattened  at  the 
poles,  as  our  earth  is  —  and  to  be  composed  of  materials  similar 
to  those  which  constitute  the  earth,  only  that  in  the  sun  these 
materials  are  still  in  a  heated  condition.  Thus  we  can  argue,  by 
analogy  from  the  spectra  of  earthly  elements,  that  as  the  sun  and 
star  light  give  u«  similar  spectra,  the  heavenly  bodies  are  com- 
posed of  the  same  elements  as  our  globe. 

When  the  surface  of  the  sun  is  examined  with  a  good  tele- 
scope, under  favorable  atmospheric  conditions,  it  appears  to  be 
composed  of  minute  grains  of  intense  brilliancy  and  of  irregular 
form,  floating  in  a  darker  medium  and  arranged  in  groups  and 
streaks,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  With  a  rather  low  power  the  gen- 
eral effect  of  the  surface  is  much  like  that  of  rough  drawing- 
paper. 

The  sun's  average  distance  from  the  earth  is  91,500,000  miles. 

The  volume  of  the  sun  is  1,253,000  times  that  of  the  earth, 
but  its  density  is  only  about  one-fourth  that  of  the  earth.  The 
attraction  of  gravitation  at  the  sun  must  be  more  than  that  of  the 
earth's  surface  twenty-seven  times.  A  body  dropped  near  the 
surface  of  the  sun  would  fall  436  feet  in  the  first  second,  and 
would  then  have  attained  a  velocity  of  ten  miles  a  minute. 

The  light  of  the  sun  is  equal  to  5,563  wax  candles,  held  at  a 
distance  of  one  foot  from  the  eye.  It  would  require  800,000 
full  moons  to  produce  a  day  as  brilliant  as  one  of  cloudless  sun- 
shine. 

The  amount  of  heat  we  receive  annually  is  sufficient  to  melt  a 
layer  of  ice  thirty-eight  yards  in  thickness,  extending  over  the 
whole  earth. 


The  sun  appears  to  be  about  half  a  degree  in  diameter,  so  that 
36b  disks  like  the  sun,  laid  side  by  side,  would  make  a  half  cir- 
cle of  the  celestial  sphere.  It  seems  a  little  larger  to  us  in  win- 
ter than  in  summer,  as  we  are  3,000,000  miles  nearer  it. 

The  sun  makes  the  apparent  circuit  of  the  heavens  in  365  d. 
6  h.  9  m.  9.6  s.;  the  transit  from  one  vernal  equinox  to  the  next 
being  only  365  d.  5  h.  48  m.  48.6  s.,  owing  to  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes,  explained  elsewhere. 

The   Sun's   Apparent   Motion. 

If  we  rise  early  in  the  moming  we  shall,  as  the  reader  will 
say,  see  the  sun  rise — that  is,  he  appears  to  us  to  rise  as  the 
earth  rotates.     By  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  3)  we  can 


Fig.  3.     The  Sun's  Apparent  Motion. 

understand  how  Sol  makes  his  appearance,  and  how  he  comes  up 
again.  The  earth  rotates  from  west  to  east,  and  so  the  sun 
appears  to  move  from  east  to  west.  If  we  look  at  the  diagram 
we  shall  see  that  after  rising  at  O  the  sun  advances  toward  the 
meridian  in  an  oblique  arc  to  A,  the  highest  or  culminating 
point — midday.  He  then  returns,  descending  to  W ;  this  path 
is  the  diurnal  arc.  At  Q  similarly,  during  his  passage  in  the 
nocturnal  arc,  he  reaches  the  lowest  or  inferior  culmination. 
H  H  is  the  meridian. 

On  the  2Ist  of  March  this  path  brings  the  sun  on  the  •'  equi- 
noctial" line.  Day  and  night  are  then  of  equal  duration,  as 
the  arcs  are  equal.  So  this  is  the  vernal  (or  spring)  equinox. 
Some  weeks  after  the  sun  is  at  midday  higher  up  at  S',  and  so, 
the  diurnal  arc  being  longer,  the  day  is  longer.  (Z  is  the 
zenith,  7.'  is  the  nadir,  P  V  is  the  celestial  axis.)  From  that 
time  he  descends  again  toward  the  equinoctial  to  the  autumnal 
equinox,  and  so  on,  the  diurnal  arc  becoming  smaller  and 
smaller  until  the  winter  solstice  is  reached  (S). 

Now,  the  sun  has  a  two-fold  apparent  motion — vii.,  a 
circular  motion  obliquely  ascending  from  the  horizon,  which  is 
explained  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  and  by  our  position,  0,  to 
the  earth's  axis,  /  /',  and  also  by  a  rising  and  setting  motion 
between  the  solstitial  points,  S  and  S',  which  causes  the  inequal- 
ity of  the  days  and  nights.  Independently  of  the  daily  motion 
of  the  sun,  we  observe  that  at  the  summer  solstico,  on  the  21st 
of  June,  at  midday,  the  sun  is  at  S',  and  one  half  year  later, 
viz.,  on  the  21st  of  December,  at  midnight,  the  sun  is  at  1, 
from  which  he  arrives  again  in  the  space  of  half  a  year  at  S'; 
so  we  are  able  to  represent  this  annual  motion  of  the  sun  by  a 


/ 


^1 


ASTRONOMY. 


£ 


V 


359 


circle,  the  diameter  of  which  is  the  line  S'  s.     This  circle  is 
called  the  Ecliptic. 

The  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  S'  s,  cuts  the  plane  of  the  equinoc- 
tial, A  Q,  at  an  angle  of  23^°,  and  the  axis  of  the  ecliptic,  S'7/ 
s",  makes  the  same  angle  with  the  axis  of  the  heavens,  P  P. 
The  two  parallel  circles  S'  s'  and  S  i  include  a  zone  extend- 

B' -S" 


Fig.  4.     The  Ecliptic. 

ing  to  both  sides  of  the  equinoctial,  and  beyond  which  the  sun 
never  passes.  These  circles  are  called  the  tropics,  from  trcpo, 
I  turn,  because  the  sun  turns  back  at  these  points,  and  again 
approaches  the  equinoctial.  The  parallel  circles  S"  s"  and 
g///y//  described  by  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic,  S'"  s",  about  the 
celestial  poles,  P  P,  are  called  the  arctic  and  antarctic  circles. 

Whenever  the  sun  crosses  the  equinoctial,  there  is  the  equi- 
nox ;  but  the  points  of  intersection  are  not  invariably  the  same 
every  year.  There  is  a  gradual  westerly  movement,  so  it  is  a 
little  behind  its  former  crossing-place  every  year.  This  is  the 
"precession  of  the  equinoxes"  because  the  time  of  the  equi- 
noxes is  hastened,  but  it  is  really  a  retrograde  movement. 
Hipparchus  discovered  this  motion,  which  amounts  to  about 
fifty  seconds  in  a  year.  So  the  whole  revolution  will  be  com- 
pleted in  about  28,000  years. 

Sun-Spots. 
Sun-spots,  as  they  are  generally  called,  are  hollows  in  the 
sun's  vapory  substance,  and  are  of  enormous  extent ;  and  there 
are  brilliant  places  near  those  spots,  which  are  termed  faculce. 
These  spots  have  been  observed  to  be  changing  continuously, 
and  passing  from  east  to  west  across  the  sun,  and  then  to  come 
again  at  the  east,  to  go  over  the  same  space  again.  Now  this 
fact  has  proved  that  the  sun  turns  around  upon  his  axis,  and, 
although  he  does  not  move,  as  we  imagine,  from  east  to  west, 


round  the  earth,  the  orb  does  move  —  in  fact,  the  sun  has  three 
motions  :  one  on  his  axis ;  secondly,  a  motion  about  the  center 
of  gravity  of  the  solar  system,  and  a  progressive  movement 
toward  the  constellation  Hercules. 

Solar  Prominences. 

During  solar  eclipses  the  sun  exhibits  what  are  termed  "  red 
prominences," — the  luminous  vapors  existing  around  it.  When 
the  orb  is  eclipsed,  bright-colored  vapors  can  be  seen  shooting 
out  from  underneath  the  dark  shadow.  These  red  prominences 
were  first  observed  in  1842,  and  in  1 85 1  it  was  proved  that  they 
appertained  to  the  sun,  for  the  moon  hid  them  as  the  eclipse 
began.  "  The  luminosity  of  these  prominences  is  intense,"  says 
Secci,  "  and  they  often  rise  to  a  height  of  80,000  miles,  and  occa- 
sionally to  more  than  twice  that;  then,  bending  back,  they  fall 
again  upon  the  sun  like  the  jets  of  fountains.  Then  they  spread 
into  figures  resembling  gigantic  trees,  more  or  less  rich  in 
branches." 

THE    PLANETS. 

The  ancients  knew  five  of  the  planets  and  named  them 
Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter  and  Saturn.  In  later  years  a 
great  number  were  discovered,  but  we  must  confine  ourselves 
to  the  consideration  of  the  principal  ones,  eight  in  number,  in- 
cluding our  own  Earth,  Uranus  and  Neptune  completing  the 
list.  Of  these,  Venus  and  Mercury  are  the  interior  (or  inferior) 
planets,  moving  between  us  and  the  sun  ;  the  others  are  called 
exterior  (or  superior),  and  pass  quite  round  the  heavens.  All 
the  planets  are  spheroids,  and  they  vary  greatly  in  size.  Their 
comparative  distance  and  magnitude  are  thus  interestingly 
illustrated  by  Sir  John  Herschel : 

"  Choose  any  well-leveled  field,  and  on  it  place  a  globe  two 
feet  in  diameter  to  represent  the  sun.  Mercury  will  be  repre- 
sented by  a  grain  of  mustard  seed  on  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  164  feet  in  diameter  for  its  orbit;  Venus,  a  pea,  on  a 
circle  284  feet  in  diameter ;  the  Earth,  also  a  pea  on  a  circle 
430  feet ;  Mars,  a  rather  large  pin's  head  on  a  circle  of  654  feet ; 
Juno,  Ceres,  Vesta,  and  Pallas,  grains  of  sand  in  orbits  of  1,000 
to  1,200  feet;  Jupiter,  a  moderate-sized  orange  on  a  circle 
nearly  half  a  mile  across;  Saturn,  a  small  orange  on  a  circle 
four-fifths  of  a  mile ;  and  Uranus,  a  full-sized  cherry,  or  small 
plum,  upon  the  circumference  of  a  circle  more  than  a  mile  and 
a  half  in  diameter." 


Comparative  Table  showing  the  Diameter,  Distance  from  the  Sun 

,  Volume 

Density,  etc 

.,  of  the  Planets  of  the  Solar  System.* 

Diameter 

in 

Miles. 

Mean  distance 

from  the  sun, 

in  miles, 

(about). 

Sidereal  period 

of  revolution. 

(Length  of 

year). 

Time  of 
rotation  on 
their  axes. 

Average 
velocity. 
Miles  per 
second. 

Volume, 
earth  being  i . 

Density, 

earth 
being  i. 

Weight, 

earth  being  i. 

Date  of 
Discovery. 

The  Sun  

888,646 

3.089 

7,896 

7,926 

4,070 

92,164 

75,070 

36,216 

33,6io 

35,000,000 

66,000,000 

91,000,000 

139,000,000 

476,000,000 

872,000,000 

1,753,000,000 

2,746,000,000 

d.        b.      m. 

87     23     16 

224     16     50 

365      6      9 

686    23    31 

4,332     14      2 

io,759       5     16 

30,686     17     21 

60,126     17       5 

d.           h. 

24          $% 

23         2IJ3 

23  56 

24  37^ 
9      55^ 

10      15 

9       30 

30 
22 
:8 
15 
8M 

3% 

1,41^,225.00 
0.05 
0.99 
1. 00 
0.13 
1,491.00 
772.00 
86.50 
76.60 

0.25 
1.22 
0.90 
j  .00 
0.97 
0.22 
0.13 
0,16 
0.3a 

354,936.00 
0.07 
0.91 
z.oo 

0.J3 
33871 

101.36 
M-Z5 

18.98 

Antiquity. 
Antiquity. 

Earth 

Antiquity. 
Antiquity. 

Antiquity. 
Herschel,  1781, 

Oalle,  1846. 

*  The  planet  Vulcan,  discovered  in  1859,  ant*  having  its  orbit  next  to  the  sun,  is  still  undetermined, 
that  of  Uranus. 


Prof.  Tice  estimates  that  its  diameter  is  as  large  as 


V- 


^ 


^ 


360 


ASTRONOMY. 


"7f 


The  planets  revolve  upon  their  axes  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  earth.  This  we  know  by  telescopic  observation  to  be  the 
case  with  many  planets,  and  by  analogy  the  rule  may  be  ex- 
tended to  all.  Conformably  to  the  principles  of  gravitation, 
their  velocity  is  greatest  at  those  parts  of  their  orbit  which  are 
nearest  the  sun,  and  least  at  the  parts  which  are  most  distant 
from  it ;  in  other  words,  they  move  quickest  in  perihelion,  and 
slowest  in  aphelion. 

The  question  whether  the  planets  are  inhabited  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  answered.  There  are  many  who  think  that  the 
only  object  God  can  possibly  have  in  making  any  world  is  to 
form  an  abode  for  man.  Our  own  earth  was  evidently  fitted  up, 
although  perhaps  not  created,  for  this  express  purpose.  When 
we  turn  to  the  planets  we  do  not  know  but  God  has  other  races 
of  intelligent  beings  who  inhabit  them,  or  even  entirely  different 
ends  to  attain.  Of  this,  however,  we  are  fully  assured,  that,  if 
inhabited,  the  conditions  on  which  life  is  supported  vary  much 
from  those  familiar  to  us. 


Fig.  5.    General  Appearance  of  a  Sun-Spot. 

Satellites,  or  "planetary  moons,"  are  plainly  perceived  at- 
tending upon  the  great  planets.  One  we  are  all  familiar  with — 
the  moon,  which  lends  a  beauty  to  our  nights  which  no  other 
light  that  we  can  command  can  ever  do. 

Mars  possesses  two  moons  and  Jupiter  four ;  Uranus  rejoice* 
in  the  latter  number ;  Neptune  has  only  one ;  no  less  than  eight 
satellites  wait  upon  Saturn.  No  doubt  there  are  many  more  of 
these  moons  to  be  found,  and  every  year  will  doubtless  bring  us 
further  knowledge  respecting  them.  Mars'  moons  were  dis- 
covered only  in  1877,  although  known  to  exist.  Jupiter's  moons 
are  supposed  to  be  as  large  as  our  own  moon ;  Neptune  and 
Uranus  can  boast  of  equally-sized  attendants. 

MERCURY. 

The  distance  of  Mercury  from  the  sun  Is  less  than  half  that  of 
our  earth,  and  so  it  receives  much  more  heat  and  light  than  we 
do.     The  sun  to  the  Mercurians,  if  there  be  any  inhabitants  upon 


the  planet,  must  appear  about  seven  times  larger  than  he  does 
to  us.  When  the  sky  is  very  clear  we  may  sometimes  see 
Mercury,  just  after  the  setting  of  the  sun,  as  a  bright,  sparkling 
star  near  the  western  horizon.  Its  elevation  increases  evening 
by  evening,  but  never  exceeds  300.  And  if  we  watch  it  closely, 
we  shall  find  that  it  again  approaches  the  sun  and  becomes  lost 
in  his  rays.  Some  days  afterward,  just  before  sunrise,  we  can 
see  the  same  star  in  the  east,  rising  higher  each  morning,  until 
its  greatest  elevation 
equals  that  which  it 
before  attained  in  the 
west.  Mercury's  or- 
bit is  the  most  eccen- 
tric of  any  of  the 
eight  principal  plan- 
ets, so  that,  although 
when  in  perihelion  it 
approaches  to  within 
28,000,000  miles,  in 
aphelion  it  speeds 
away  15,000,000 
miles  farther,  or  to 
the  distance  of  43,- 
000,000  miles.  Being  so  near  the  sun,  its  motion  in  its  orbit  is 
correspondingly  rapid  —  thirty  miles  per  second. 


Fig.  6.    A  Sun-Spot  as  seen  by  Secchi. 


VENUS. 
Venus,  the  nearest  planet  to  the  earth,  is  somewhat  smaller 
than  the  latter.  This  planet  is  both  a  morning  and  evening 
star,  and  is  very  brilliant — so  much  so,  that  close  observation 
with  the  telescope  is  impossible.  When  at  her  nearest  point 
she  is  invisible,  as  she  passes  between  us  and  the  sun,  and  of 
course  when  fully  illuminated  she  is  directly  beyond  the  sun, 
and  inclosed  in  his 
rays.  But  under 
other  circumstan- 
ces she  is  distinctly 
visible  as  a  cres- 
cent in  the  even- 
ing, and  nearly  full 
as  a  morning  star. 
Venus  has  long 
been  celebrated  as 
the  morning  and 
evening  star,  as 
"Lucifer"  and 
"  Hesperus."  ««•  7-    A  Sun-Spot  ..  seen  by  Nasmith. 

That  Venus  possesses  an  atmosphere  denser  than  our  own  can 
scarcely  be  doubted.  The  observations  made  during  successive 
transits  seem  to  have  established  the  fact  that  aqueous  vapor 
exists  around,  and  water  in,  Venus.  No  satellite  can  be  found, 
although  the  ancients  reported  such  an  attendant.  A  transit  of 
Venus,  like  one  of  Mercury,  is  simply  a  passing  of  the  planet 
across  the  illuminated  disc  of  the  sun.  The  transits  afford 
means  to  ascertain  the  volume,  distance,  etc.,  of  the  sun.  The 
last  occurred  in  1882,  and  there  will  not  be  another  for  more 


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ASTRONOMY. 


361 


than  a  hundred  years.  The  seasons  in  Venus  must  be  very 
different  from  ours.  As  her  inclination  is  greater  than  that  of 
our  earth,  and  as  the  sun  is  so  much  nearer  to  her  than  to  us, 
her  tropical  and  polar  regions  are  close,  and  a  vertical  sun  is 
scarcely  enjoyed  by  two  places  for  three  successive  days,  and  she 
may  have  two  winters  and  summers,  two  springs  and  autumns. 


Fig.  8.    A  Solar  Prominence. 

The  evidence  of  an  atmosphere,  as  well  as  of  mountains,  rests 
very  much  upon  the  peculiar  appearance  attending  her  crescent 
shape.  The  luminous  part  does  not  end  abruptly ;  on  the  con- 
trary its  light  diminishes  gradually.  This  diminution  may  be 
entirely  explained  by  the  twilight  on  the  planet.  The  existence 
of  an  atmosphere  which  diffuses  the  rays  of  light  into  regions 
where  the  sun  has  already  set,  has  hence  been  inferred.  Thus, 
on  Venus,  the  evenings,  like  ours,  are  lighted  by  twilight,  and 
the  mornings  by  dawn.  The  edge  of  the  illuminated  portion  of 
the  planet  is  uneven  and  irregular,  and  this  appearance  is  doubt- 
less the  effect  of  shadows  cast  by  mountains. 

OUR  EARTH  AND  HER  SATELLITE. 

It  seems  rather  strange  to  class  our  earth,  which  is  dark  and 
opaque,  and  which  appears  to  us  so  vast,  among  the  bright 
heavenly  bodies.  Nevertheless  it  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the 
principal  planets  of  the  solar  system,  and  although  we  see  in  it 
no  motion,  while  the  orbs  about  us  seem  constantly  changing 
their  position,  science  has  demonstrated  that  it  revolves  around 
the  sun,  in  an  orbit  of  nearly  600,000,000  miles,  at  the  tremen- 
dous rate  of  eighteen  miles  per  second,  or  65,000  miles  an  hour. 
To  other  worlds  our  earth  appears  as  a  star  does  to  us.  In 
studying  astronomy  we  must  consider  that  it  is  a  planet  shining 
brightly  in  the  heavens,  held  in  its  course  by  the  invisible  power 
of  gravitation,  and  that  in  reality  it  is  small  and  insignificant 
beside  some  of  the  mighty  globes  that  so  gently  shine  upon  us 
from  distances  almost  inconceivable ;  that  our  earth,  in  fact,  is 
only  one  atom  in  a  universe  of  worlds,  all  firm  and  solid,  and 
all,  perhaps,  equally  well  fitted  to  be  the  abode  of  life. 

Science  teaches  us  that  the  earth  was  doubtless  once  a  glow- 
ing star,  and  under  the  head  of  Physical  Geography  we  can  see 


that  the  Scriptures  confirm  this  doctrine.  The  crust  upon  which 
we  thrive  is  only  the  cinders  and  ashes  of  a  fearful  conflagra- 
tion, and  the  air  we  breathe  is  only  the  gas  left  over  when  the 
fuel  was  consumed. 

The  earth  has  two  motions— one  from  east  to  west,  in  its 
course  round  the  sun,  and  one  on  its  own  axis.  If  we  send  a 
ball  rolling  we  perceive  that  it  turns  round  as  it  proceeds.  So 
the  earth  turns  on  its  axis,  the  extremities  of  which  are  called 
the  poles.  The  horizon  appears  to  us  stationary,  and  so  the 
stars  we  see  at  night  seem  to  move.  Those  on  the  west,  which 
are  passed  over  and  hidden,  seem  to  have  sunk  or  set,  and  those 
on  the  east  seem  to  have  moved  above  or  risen.  The  sun  seems 
to  move  by  day,  and  the  stars  by  night,  but  this  is  a  mere  optical 
delusion — a  delusion  in  which  the  untaught  mind  is  confirmed 
by  the  relative  fixity  of  everything  on  our  globe,  the  apparent 
rest  of  everything  around. 

The  earth's  rotation,  according  to  sidereal  time,  is  less  than 
solar  time,  and  we  have  365  solar  days  and  366  sidereal 
days.  A  person  going  round  the  world  would  gain  or  lose  a 
day,  as  he  traveled  east  or  west,  according  to  his  reckoning  as 
compared  with  the  reckoning  of  friends  at  home.  We  can  best 
ascertain  the  earth's  motion  by  watching  the  stars  rise  and  set. 
The  earth  proceeds  at  its  tremendous  pace  round  the  sun  in  an 
ellipse  or  oval  track,  600,000,000  miles  in  length,  from  which  it 
never  moves,  year  by  year,  in  any  appreciable  degree.  Now 
what  prevents  this  earth  of  ours  from  rushing  off  by  itself  into 


The  Earth  in  Space. 


space?  The  reason  is  because  the  sun  holds  it  back.  The 
force  of  the  sun's  gravitation  is  so  enormously  great  that  it  suf- 
fices to  retain  our  globe  and  all  the  planets  in  their  various 
orbits,  and  to  counteract  the  force  which  launches  them  through 
space.  If  the  earth  were  suddenly  to  increase  her  velocity  or 
the  sun  to  contract  his  mass,  we  should  be  flung  into  infinite 


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362 


ASTRONOMY. 


space,  and  in  a  short  time  would  be  frozen  up  completely.  Our 
present  diurnal  course  would  probably  proceed,  but  all  life 
would  cease  as  we  whirled  with  distant  planets  through  in- 
finity. If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  earth  were  to  stop  suddenly, 
an  amount  of  heat  would  be  engendered  sufficient  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  a  globe  of  lead  the  same  size  as  our  globe 
384,000°  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer,  and,  as  Prof.  Tyndall 
says,  the  greater  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  our  planet  would  be 
reduced  to  vapor.  But  against  such  a  catastrophe  we  are  as- 
sured by  the  immutability  of  God's  laws.  The  variation  in  the 
earth's  revolution  has  not  exceeded  the  hundredth  part  of  a 
second  in  2,000  years. 

The  Seasons. 
In  the  diagram  (Fig.  10)  we  shall  at  once  find  the  explana- 
tion of  the  constantly  recurring  seasons,  and  the  amount  of 


Fie-  ">•    The  Seasons. 

our  globe  which  is  illuminated  by  the  sun  at  various  times.  It 
will  be  easily  understood  that  the  poles  have  six  months  day 
and  six  months  night.  When  the  earth  is  at  an  equinox,  one- 
half  of  the  surface  is  illuminated  and  the  other  half  in  shade ; 
therefore  the  days  and  nights  are  equal.  But  when  the  north 
pole  turns  more  and  more  toward  the  sun,  the  south  pole  is 
turning  away  from  it  in  the  same  ratio, — the  days  and  nights  re- 
spectively are  getting  longer  and  longer,  and  at  the  north  and 
south  poles  day  and  night  are  continuous,  for  the  small  spaces 
round  the  poles  are,  drring  a  certain  period,  wholly  in  sunshine 
and  shade  respectively. 

When  the  earth  is  in  Libra,  and  also  when  in  Aries,*  the  rays 

•When  we  say  Iliat  the  earth  is  in  Libra,  wc  mean  that  a  spectator  placed 
at  the  sun  would  tee  the  earth  in  that  part  of  the  heavens  which  is  occu- 
pied by  the  sign  of  Libra.     See  Zodiac  (Dictionary  of  Astronomical  Terms). 


strike  vertically  at  the  equator,  and  more  and  more  obliquely  in 
the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres,  as  the  distance  from  the 
equator  increases,  until  at  the  poles  they  strike  almost  horizon- 
tally. This  variation  in  the  direction  of  the  rays  produce*  a 
corresponding  variation  in  the  intensity  of  the  sun's  heat  and 
light  at  different  places,  and  accounts  for  the  difference  between 
the  torrid  and  polar  regions.  As  the  earth  changes  its  position, 
the  angle  at  which  the  rays  strike  any  portion  is  varied.  For  in- 
stance, take  the  earth  as  it  enters  Capricornus,  and  the  sun  in 
Cancer.  He  is  now  overhead  23^°  north  of  the  equator.  His 
rays  strike  less  obliquely  in  the  northern  hemisphere  than  when 
the  earth  was  in  Libra.  Let  six  months  elapse :  The  earth  is 
now  in  Cancer  and  the  sun  in  Capricornus ;  and  he  is  overhead 
23^°  south  of  the  equator.  His  rays  strike  less  obliquely  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  than  before,  but  in  the  northern  hem- 
isphere more  obliquely. 
These  six  months  have 
changed  the  direction  of 
the  sun's  rays  on  every 
part  of  the  earth's  surface. 
This  accounts  for  the  dif- 
ference in  temperature  be- 
tween summer  and  winter. 
At  the  equinoxes  one- 
half  of  each  hemisphere  is 
illuminated;  hence  the 
name  equinox  {trquus, 
equal,  and  nor,  night). 
At  these  points  of  the  orbit 
the  days  and  nights  are 
equal  over  the  entire  earth, 
each  being  twelve  hours  in 
length. 

When  the  earth  is  at  the 
summer  solstice,  about  the 
21st  of  June,  the  sun  is 
overhead  2$%"  north  of 
the  equator,  and  if  its  ver- 
tical rays  could  leave  a 
golden  line  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth  as  it  revolves, 
they  would  mark  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer.  The  sun  is  at  its  furthest  northern  declination, 
ascends  the  highest  it  is  ever  seen  above  our  horizon,  and  rises 
and  sets  23^3°  north  of  the  east  and  west  points.  It  seems  now 
to  stand  still  in  its  northern  and  southern  course  ;  and  hence  the 
name  solstice  (  sol,  the  sun,  sto,  to  stand).  The  days  in  the  north 
temperate  zone  are  longer  than  the  nights.  It  is  our  summer, 
and  the  21st  of  June  is  the  longest  day  of  the  year.  In  the 
south  temperate  zone  it  is  winter,  and  the  shortest  day  of  the 
year.  The  circle  that  separates  day  from  night  extends  23^* 
beyond  the  north  pole ;  and  if  the  sun's  rays  could  in  like  man- 
ner leave  a  golden  line  on  that  day,  they  would  trace  on  the  earth 
the  Arctic  Circle.  It  is  the  noon  of  the  long,  six-months  polar 
day.  The  reverse  is  true  at  the  Antarctic  Circle,  and  it  is  there 
the  midnight  of  the  long,  six-months  polar  night. 


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ASTRONOMY. 


363 


The  earth  crosses  the  aphelion  point  the  1st  of  July,  when  it 
is  at  its  furthest  distance  from  the  sun,  which  is  then  said  to  be 
in  apogee.  The  sun,  each  day  rising  and  setting  a  trifle  further 
toward  the  south,  passes  through  a  lower  circuit  in  the  heavens. 
We  reach  the  autumnal  equinox  the  22d  of  September.  The 
sun  being  now  on  the  equinoctial,  if  its  vertical  rays  could  leave 
a  line  of  golden  light,  they  would  mark  on  the  earth  the  circle  of 
the  equator.  It  is  autumn  in  the  north  temperate  zone,  and 
spring  in  the  south  temperate  zone.  The  days  and  rights  are 
equal  over  the  whole  earth, 
the  sun  rising  at  6  A.M.,  and 
setting  at  6  p.m.,  exactly  in 
the  east  and  west  where 
the  equinoctial  intersects  the 
horizon. 

The  sun,  after  passing  the 
equinoctial  —  "crossing  the 
line,"  as  it  is  called  —  sinks 
lower  toward  the  southern 
horizon  each  day.  We  reach 
the  winter  solstice  the  2ist  of 
December.  The  sun  is  now 
directly  overhead  23^°  south 
of  the  equator;  and  if  its  rays 
could  leave  a  line  of  golden 
light,  they  would  mark  on 
the  earth's  surface  the  Trop- 
ic ot  Capricorn.  It  is  at  its 
furthest  southern  declination, 
and  rises  and  sets  23^° 
south  of  the  east  and  west 
points.  It  is  our  winter,  and 
the  2 1  st  of  December  is  the 
shortest  day  of  the  year.  In 
the  south  temperate  zone  it 
is  summer  and  the  longest 
day  of  the  year.  The  circle 
that  separates  day  from  night 
extends  23^°  beyond  the 
south  pole;  and  if  the  sun's 
rays  in  like  manner  could 
leave  a  line  of  golden  light, 
they  would  mark  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle.  It  is  there  the 
noon  of  the  long  six-months 
polar  day.  At  the  Arctic 
Circle  the  reverse  is  true; 
the  rays  fall  23^°  short  of 

the  north  pole,  and  it  is  there  the  midnight  of  the  long  six- 
months  polar  night.  Here,  again,  the  sun  appears  to  us  to  stand 
still  a  day  or  two  before  retracing  its  course,  and  it  is  therefore 
called  the  winter  solstice. 

The  earth  reaches  its  perihelion  about  the  31st  of  December. 
It  is  then  nearest  the  sun,  which  is,  therefore,  said  to  be  in  peri- 
gee. The  sun  rises  and  sets  each  day  further  and  further  north, 
and  climbs  up  higher  in  the  heavens  at  midday.     Our  days 


gradually  increase  in  length,  and  our  nights  shorten  in  the  same 
proportion.  On  the  21st  of  March  the  sun  reaches  the  equi- 
noctial, at  the  vernal  equinox.  He  is  overhead  at  the  equator, 
and  the  days  and  nights  are  again  equal.  It  is  our  spring,  but 
in  the  south  temperate  zone  it  is  autumn. 

We  are  nearer  the  sun  by  3,000,000  miles  in  winter  than  in 
summer.  The  obliqueness  with  which  the  rays  strike  the  north 
temperate  zone  at  that  time  prevents  our  receiving  any  special 
benefit  from  this  favorable  position  of  the  earth.     We  notice 

that  we  do  not  have  our  great- 
est heat  at  the  time  of  the 
summer  solstice  nor  our 
greatest  cold  at  the  time  of 
the  winter  solstice.  After 
the  2 1st  of  June,  the  earth, 
already  warmed  by  the 
genial  spring  days,  continues 
to  receive  more  heat  from  the 
sun  by  day  than  it  radiates 
by  night ;  thus  its  temperature 
still  increases.  On  the  other 
hand,  after  the  21st  of  De- 
cember, the  earth  continues 
to  become  colder,  because 
it  loses  more  heat  during  the 
night  than  it  receives  during 
the  day. 

As  the  sun  is  not  in  the 
center  of  the  earth's  orbit,  but 
at  one  of  'Us  foci,  that  portion 
of  the  orbit  which  the  earth 
passes  through  in  going  from 
the  vernal  to  the  autumnal 
equinox  comprises  more  than 
one-half  the  entire  ecliptic. 
On  this  account  the  summer 
is  longer  than  the  winter. 

The  velocity  of  the  earth 
varies  in  different  portions  of 
its  orbit.  When  passing  from 
the  vernal  equinox  to  aphe- 
lion, the  attraction  of  the  sun 
tends  to  check  its  speed; 
from  that  point  to  the 
autumnal  equinox,  the  attrac- 
tion is  partly  in  the  direction 
of  its  motion,  and  so  in- 
creases its  velocity. 
If  the  axis  of  the  earth  were  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic,  the 
sun  would  always  appear  to  move  through  the  equinoctial.  He 
would  rise  and  set  every  day  at  the  same  points  on  the  horizon, 
and  pass  through  the  same  circle  in  the  aeavens,  while  the  days 
and  nights  would  be  equal  the  year  round.  There  would  be 
near  the  equator  a  fierce  torrid  heat,  while  north  and  south  the 
climate  would  melt  away  into  temperate  spring,  and,  lastly,  into 
the  rigors  of  a  perpetual  winter. 


Moon  by  Earth-light. 


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ASTRONOMY. 


If  the  equator  were  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic,  odd  results 
would  follow.  To  a  spectator  at  the  equator,  as  the  earth  leaves 
'.he  vernal   equinox,  the   sun   would   each   day   pass   through 


Fig.  It.    Telescopic  View  of  the  Full  Moon. 

a  smaller  circle,  until  at  the  summer  solstice  he  would 
reach  the  north  pole,  when  he  would  halt  for  a  time 
and  then  slowly  return  in  an  inverse  manner.  In  our 
own  latitude,  the  sun  would  make  his  diurnal  revolu- 
tions in  the  way  we  have  just  described,  his  rays  shining 
past  the  north  pole  further  and  further,  until  we  were  in- 
cluded in  the  region  of  perpetual  day,  when  he  would 
seem  to  wind  in  a  spiral  course  up  to  the  north  pole,  and 
then  return  in  a  descending  curve  to  the  equator. 

The  sun  and  moon  appear  flattened  when  near  the 
horizon,  because  the  rays  from  the  lower  edge  pass  through 
a  denser  layer  of  the  atmosphere,  and  are,  therefore,  re- 
fracted about  4'  more  than  those  from  the  upper  edge. 
The  effect  of  this  is  to  make  the  vertical  diameter  appear 
about  4'  less  than  the  horizontal,  and  so  distort  the  Ggure 
of  the  disk  into  an  oval  shape. 

The  dim  and  hazy  appearance  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
when  near  the  horizon  is  caused  not  only  by  the  rays  of 
light  having  to  pass  through  a  larger  space  in  the  atmos- 
phere, but  also  by  their  traversing  the  lower  and  denser 
part.  The  intensity  of  the  solar  light  is  so  greatly  di- 
minished by  passing  through  the  lower  strata,  that  we  are 
enabled  to  look  upon  the  sun  at  that  time  without  being 
dazzled  by  his  brilliant  beams. 


The  glow  of  light  after  sunset,  and  before  sunrise,  which  we 
term  twilight,  is  caused  by  the  refraction  and  reflection  of  the 
sun's  rays  by  the  atmosphere. 

The  diffused  light  of  day  is  produced  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  of  twilight.  The  atmosphere  reflects 
and  scatters  the  sunlight  in  every  direction.  Were  it 
not  for  this,  no  object  would  be  visible  to  us  out  of  di- 
rect sunshine ;  every  shadow  of  a  passing  cloud  would 
be  pitchy  darkness ;  the  stars  would  be  visible  all  day ; 
no  window  would  admit  light  except  as  the  sun  shone 
directly  through  it,  and  a  man  would  require  a  lan- 
tern to  go  round  his  house  at  noon. 

The  blue  light  reflected  to  our  eyes  from  the  atmos- 
phere above  us,  or  more  probably  from  the  vapor  in  the 
air,  produces  the  optical  delusion  we  call  the  sky. 
Were  it  not  for  this,  every  time  we  cast  our  eyes  up- 
ward we  should  feel  like  one  gazing  over  a  dizzy  preci- 
pice ;  while  now  the  crystal  dome  of  blue  smiles  down 
upon  us  so  lovingly  and  beautifully  that  we  call  it 
heaven. 

THE  MOON. 

"Fancy,"  says  Lockyer,  "a  world  without  ice, 
cloud,  rain,  snow ;  without  rivers  or  streams,  and  there- 
fore without  vegetation  to  support  animal  life ;  —  a 
world  without  twilight  or  any  gradations  between  the 
fiercest  sunshine  and  the  blackest  night ;  —  a  world, 
also,  without  sound,  for,  as  sound  is  carried  by  the 
air,  the  highest  mountain  on  the  airless  moon  might 
be  riven  by  an  earthquake  inaudibly."  If  it  were 
possible  to  reach  the  moon,  as  Jules  Verne's  travelers 
did,  we  should  find  a  very  irregular  and  corrugated 


/  1*        r' - 


\mV  "*  imam 


Fig.  13.    A  Map  of  the  Moon. 


YL 


=7? 


ASTRONOMY. 


L~ 


365 


surface  —  plains  and  mountains  without  water.  There  being 
no  atmosphere,  we  should  be  able  to  see  the  stars  in  the  day- 
time. The  appearance  of  our  earth  from  the  moon,  and  the 
beauty  of  the  stars  in  the  unclouded  and  waterless  space 
around  the  satellite,  must  be  very  grand,  as  depicted  in  a 
measure,  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  11). 

When  we  look  steadily  at  the  full  moon  through  a  telescope 
we  perceive  upon  its  surface  dark  and  light  tracts,  called  "  seas," 
though  they  are  dried'up  now.     Thus,  we  hear  of  the  "  Sea  of 

G 


Fig.  14.    The  Moon's  Path  through  Space. 


Serenity,"  the  "  Sea  of  Storms  "  and  the  "  Sea  of  Tranquility." 
The  hill  ranges  extend  for  hundreds  of  miles,  and  the  elevation 
reaches  30,000  feet,  and  even  more.  The  so-called  craters  do 
not  resemble  volcanoes  when  viewed  closely,  but  appear  like 
basins  or  valleys  surrounded  by  lofty  hills.  One  great  plain, 
called  Copernicus,  is  more  than  fifty  miles  across. 

The  moon  moves  around  us  in  271/.  "]h.  43m.  11.461*.  Its 
diameter  is  about  2,160  miles,  and  it  is  much  less  dense  than 
our  earth,  and  so  the  force  of  gravity  is  less  there  than  here. 
Its  mean  distance  from  us  is  238,833  miles.  The  moon  goes 
through  certain  changes  or  phases  every  twenty-nine  days  or  so ; 
and  while  rotating  on  its  own  axis  our  satellite  goes  round  the 
earth,  so  that  we  only  see  one  side  of  the  moon,  inasmuch  as 
the  two  motions  occupy  almost  exactly  the  same  length  of  time. 
So  we  generally  see  the  same  space  of  the  moon,  though  at 
times  there  is  a  slight  variation.  This  movement  or  swaying  of 
the  central  point  is  called  the  moon's  "libration,"  and  is  an 
optical  effect,  due  to  the  inequalities  in  the  motion  of  the  moon 
in  its  orbit,  and  to  the  inclination  of  its  equator  and  orbit  to  the 
ecliptic. 

The    Phases   of  the   Moon. 

The  moon,  as  we  have  seeH,  revolves  around  the  earth  in  the 
same  time  as  she  turns  upon  her  own  axis,  and  always  presents 
one  side  to  us  when  she  appears.  Any  one  can  ascertain  this  if 
he  will  put  a  candle  upon  a  round  table,  and  walk  round  it 
facing  the  candle.  The  experimentalist  will  find  that  he  will 
turn  upon  his  own  axis  as  well  as  turn  around  the  table.  Thus 
we  shall  see  how  the  moon  changes. 

The  time  intervening  between  one  "  new  "  moon  and  another 
is  291/.  12.4.  44m.  2s.,  and  is  termed  a  synodic  revolution.  This 
is  longer  than  the  sidereal  revolution,  because  the  earth  is  also 
moving  in  the  same  direction,  and  the  moon  has  to  make  up  the 
time  the  earth  has  got  on  in  front,  as  it  were.  So  the  moon 
travels  nearly  thirteen  times  round  the  earth  while  the  latter  is 
going  round  the  sun. 

The  revolutions  of  the  moon  have  been  a  measurement  of 
time  for  ages,  and  her  varying  appearances  during  lunation  are 
always  observed  with  interest.     The  illustration  (Fig.  15)  will 


assist  us  materially.  The  sun's  rays  fall  in  a  parallel  direction 
unon  the  earth  and  moon,  and  let  us  suppose  that  S  is  the  sun 
in  the  diagram  and  T  the  earth ;  c  at  the  various  points 
is  the  moon,  the  capital  letters,  A,  B,  C,  etc.,  indicating  the 
planet  as  she  appears  from  the  sun,  and  the  small  letters  show- 
ing how  she  appears  to  us  from  the  earth.  Let  us  suppose  that 
the  sun,  earth  and  moon  are  in  conjunction — that  is,  in  a  direct 
line.  The  phases  C  and  G  are  the  moon's  "  quadratures."  At 
A  we  see  the  sun  shining  on  the  moon,  but  we  only  have  the 
dark  side.  It  is  then  "  new  moon."  But  by  degrees,  as 
she  goes  round  in  her  orbit,  we  perceive  a  small  crescent- 
shaped  portion,  lighted  up  by  the  sun  at  B  and  b.  At  </ 
we  have  the  first  quarter  or  half-moon,  and  so  on  to  the 
last  quarter. 

The  moon  revolves  round  the  earth  in  a  changeable 
elliptical  orbit,  intersecting  the  ecliptic  at  certain  points 
called  nodes.  When  the  moon  is  nearest  to  the  earth  she 
is  said  to  be  in  perigee ;  when  farthest  from  us  she  is 
in  apogee.  The  line  uniting  these  points  is  the  line  of  apsides, 
the  difference  in  distance  being  about  4,000  miles. 

Eclipses. 
The  moon  passes  the  sun  periodically,  and  so,  if  she  moved 
in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  there  would  be  eclipses  of  the  sun 

■fya 


O 

Fig.  15.    The  Phases  of  the  Moon. 

and  moon  twice  a  month ;  but,  as  the  orbit  is  inclined  a  little, 
she  escapes  by  moving  north  or  south. 

There  are  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  of  the  moon.  The  former 
occur  at  the  time  of  new  moon,  and  the  latter  at  full  moon  ; 
and  this  will  be  at  once  understood  when  we  remember  that 
the  sun  is  eclipsed  by  the  moon  passing  between  us  and  the 


V- 


*fe 


366 


ASTRONOMY. 


sun ;  and  the  moon  is  eclipsed  because  the  shadow  of  the  tarlh 
falls  upon  her  when  she  is  opposite  the  sun,  and  therefore  "  full." 

There  are  total,  partial,  and  annular  eclipses.  The  last  of 
these  terms  is  derived  from  "annulus,"  a  ring;  for  a  ring  of 
light  is  left  around  the  dark  portion  eclipsed,  and  is  only  seen 
in  solar  eclipses.  In  one  sense  the  eclipse  of  the  sun  is  really  an 
eclipse  of  the  earth,  because 
it  is  caused  by  the  shadow  of 
the  moon  falling  upon  the 
earth. 

Various  singular  appear- 
ances always  attend  a  total 
eclipse.  Around  the  sun  is 
seen  a  beautiful  corona,  or 
halo  of  light,  like  that  which 
painters  give  to  the  head  of 
the  Virgin  Mary.  Flamesofa 
blood-red  color  play  round 
the  disk  of  the  moon ;  and, 
when  only  a  mere  crescent  of 
the  sun  is  visible,  it  seems  to 
resolve  itself  into  bright  spots, 
interspersed  with  dark 
spaces,  havingthe  appearance 
of  a  string  of  bright  beads. 

The  Tides. 

The  ebb  and  flow  of  tidal 
waters  depend  upon  the  moon 
to  a  great  extent.  Twice  ev- 
ery day  we  have  the  tides, 
twelve  hours  apart,  and  the 
flow  and  ebb  are  merely  examples  of  the  attraction  of  gravita- 
tion which  is  exercised  on  all  bodies,  whether  liquid  or  solid. 
The  tides  may  be  compared  to  a  great  wave,  which,  raised  by 
the  moon's  attraction,  follows  her  in  her  course  round  the  earth. 
The  sun  also  aids  in  this  effect,  but  as  the  moon  is  so  much 
nearer  the  earth  her  influence  is  far  greater.  The  tides  are 
highest  at  the  equator  and 
lowest  at  the  poles,  because  the 
tropics  are  more  exposed  to 
the  lunar  attraction. 

'  MARS 
Appears  to  the  naked  eye  as  a 
bright  red  star,  rarely  scintillat- 
ing, and  shining  with  a  steady 
light,  which  distinguishes  it 
from  the  fixed  stars.  Its  ruddy 
appearance  has  led  to  its  being 
celebrated  among  all  nations. 
The  Jews  gave  it  the  appellation  of  "  blazing,"  and  it  bore  in 
other  languages  a  similar  name.  The  orbit  of  Mars  is  exterior 
to  the  earth's,  as  is  proved  by  his  never  appearing  "  horned," 
nor  ever  passing  across  the  sun's  disc.  Therefore,  no  transits 
of  Mars  can  take  place  as  transits  of  Venus  and  Mercury.     When 


Pig.  15.    The  Corona  as  seen  in  1857. 


Fir.  17. 


in  "  opposition,"  or  on  the  opposite  side  of  us  from  the  sun, 
Mars  is  at  his  brightest  This  happened  in  September,  1877. 
He  will  come  close  again  to  us  in  iS02.  Of  all  the  planets  Mars 
has  the  most  eccentric  orbit.  He  curls  about,  so  to  speak,  in 
loops  and  curves,  in  a  very  irregular  manner,  and  therefore  his 
distance  from  the  earth  varies  considerably. 

Mars  is  most  like  the  earth 
of  all  the  planets,  and  its  in- 
habitants—  if,  indeed,  it  is 
now  inhabited  —  must  have 
a  beautiful  view  of  us  when 
the  weather  is  fine,  for  we 
are  so  much  larger.  When 
examined  with  a  good  tel- 
escope, the  seas  and  con- 
tinents  of  Mars  can  be  dis- 
tinctly perceived.  At  the 
poles  there  appears  to  be  a 
white  or  snowy  region  at 
varying  periods,  which  would 
lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  atmospheric  changes  and 
the  seasons  are  similar  to  our 
own ;  and  as  the  inclination 
of  the  planet  is  nearly  the 
same  as  the  earth,  this  sup- 
position may  be  accepted  as 
a  fact. 

The  seasons  of  Mars  are 
not  equal,  in  consequence  of 
his  wandering  propensities, 
and  winter  is  warmer  up 
there  than  our  winter,  while  summer  is  cooler  than  our  sum- 
mer. That  there  are  clouds  and  an  aqueous  atmosphere  sur- 
rounding the  planet  we  learn  from  analysis  and  spectroscopic 
observation.  Respecting  the  question  of  habitation,  Richard 
Proctor  says :  "  I  fear  my  own  conclusion  about  Mars  is  that 
his  present  condition  is  very  desolate.     I  look  on  the  ruddiness 

of  tint  as  one  of  the  signs  that 
the  planet  of  war  has  long 
since  passed  its  prime.  There 
are  lands  and  seas  in  Mars,  the 
vapor  of  water  is  present  in 
his  air,  clouds  form,  rains  and 
snows  fall  upon  his  surface, 
and  doubtless  brooks  and  rivers 
irrigate  his  soil,  and  carry  down 
the  moisture  collected  on  his 
wide  continents  to  the  seas 
whence  the  clouds  had  origin- 
ally been  formed.  But  I  do  not 
think  there  is  much  vegetation  on  Mars,  or  that  many  living  crea- 
tures of  the  highertypes  of  Martian  life  as  it  once  existed  still  re- 
main. All  that  is  known  about  the  planet  lends  to  show  that  the 
time  when  it  attained  that  stage  of  planetary  existence  through 
which  our  earth  is  now  passing  must  be  set  millions  of  years. 


The  Rotation  of  Mars,  as  shown  by  the  Movement  of 
the  Spots  on  its  Disc. 


VL. 


=^ 


V 


ASTRONOMY. 


367 


perhaps  hundreds  of  millions  of  years  ago.  He  has  not  yet,  in- 
deed, reached  that  airless  and  waterless  condition,  that  extrem- 
ity of  internal  cold,  or  in  fact  that  utter  unfitness  to  support 
any  kind  of  life,  which  would  seem  to  prevail  in  the  moon. 
The  planet  of  war  in  some  respects  resembles  a  desolate  battle- 
field, and  I  fancy  that  there  is  not  a  single  region  of  the  earth 
now  inhabited  by  man  which  is  not  infinitely  more  comfortable 
as  an  abode  of  life  than  the  most  favored  regions  of  Mars  at  the 
present  time  would  be  for  creatures  like  ourselves." 

Mars  is  attended  by  two  satellites,  or  moons,  discovered  in 
1877 — both  being  very  small,  their  diameter  not  exceeding  six 
miles,  although  late  astronomers  have  reasoned  that  they  must 
be  three  times  as  large. 

JUPITER,    THE    GIANT    PLANET, 

Is  thirteen  hundred  times  larger  than  our  earth.  His  inclination 
is  very  small,  and  he  therefore  enjoys  very  small  changes  of 
seasons.  He  has  four  satellites.  Jupiter  himself  was  well 
known   to   the   ancients,   but    his   moons    were   discovered   by 


*            1 

A 

M 

J* 

-i^t-r 

tp^-^j 

1 

1 

- 

UliiJJii    -_^B 

^i 

-■I 

Fig.  18.    Jupiter  as  shown  by  the  Telescope. 

Galileo.  These  moons  were  found  to  revolve  around  Jupiter  in 
times  varying  from  nearly  two  days  to  nearly  sixteen  days,  ac- 
cording as  they  were  at  a  less  or  greater  distance  from  him. 
They  were  also  found  to  have  their  times  of  eclipses  and 
transits.  They  act  with  respect  to  Jupiter  very  much  as  the 
inner  planets  act  with  respect  to  the  sun,  for  observation  showed 
Galileo  that  the  satellites  sometimes  appeared  on  one  side  of  the 
planet,  and  at  other  times  on  the  opposite  side. 

Jupiter  is  the  largest  of  the  planets,  and  only  Venus  is 
brighter.  He  revolves  at  a  distance  of  476,000,000  of  miles 
from  the  sun,  and  his  year  is  equal  to  nearly  twelve  of  ours, 
while  his  day  is  scarcely  ten  hours  long,  showing  a  rapidity 
more  than  twenty  times  the  rate  of  our  earth.  Jupiter,  there- 
fore, must  have  a  very  much  greater  diameter  than  the  earth. 

There  is  much  less  sunlight  and  heat  found  on  Jupiter  than 
upon  earth,  because  he  is  so  much  farther  from  the  sun   than 


we  are.  There  is  but  little  difference  in  the  length  of  his  days 
and  nights,  which  are  each  of  about  five  hours'  duration.  At  the 
poles  the  sun  is  visible  for  nearly  six  years,  and  then  remains  set 
for  the  same  length  of  time.  The  seasons  vary  but  slightly. 
Summer  reigns  near  the  equator,  while  the  temperate  regions 
enjoy  perpetual  spring. 

When  Jupiter  is  examined  with  the  telescope  it  will  be  seen 
that  he  is  crossed  by  belts  of  vapor ;  and  when  we  consider  the 
results  of  the  spectrum  analysis  of  the  planet,  we  may  fairly 
assume  that  Jupiter  is  in  a  very  heated  state,  and  that  we  can- 
not really  perceive  the  actual  body  of  the  planet.  There  is  an 
immense  quantity  of  water  thus  surrounding  Jupiter,  and  he 
seems  to  be  still  in  the  condition  in  Which  our  earth  was  before 
geology  grasps  its  state,  and  long  ere  vegetation  or  life  appeared. 
The  waters  have  yet  to  be  "  gathered  together  unto  one  place," 
and  the  dry  land  has  yet  to  appear.  Under  these  conditions  we 
can  safely  assume  that  there  are  no  inhabitants  on  the  "  giant 
planet."  The  belts  or  zones  of  Jupiter  vary  in  hue,  and  the  con- 
tinual changes  which  are  taking  place  in  this  cloud  region  tend 
to  show  that  disturbances  of  great  magnitude  and  importance 
are  occurring. 

It  is  useless  to  speculate  upon  what  will  happen  in  Jupiter 
when  the  disc  is  eventually  cooled.  The  planet,  we  know,  has 
not  nearly  reached  maturity ;  the  earth  is  in  the  full  prime  of  its 
life,  and  the  moon  is  dead  and  deserted.  What  the  millions  of 
years  which  must  elapse  before  Jupiter  has  cooled  may  bring  forth 
we  need  not  try  to  find  out.  The  earth  will  then,  in  all  proba- 
bility, be  as  dreary  as  the  moon  is  now,  and  we  shall  have  re- 
turned to  dust. 

The  velocity  of  light  was  discovered  by  an  attentive  exam- 
ination of  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  moons,  by  Romer,  a  Daniih 
astronomer,  in  1617,  who  was  led  to  discover  the  progressive 
motion  of  light.  Before  him,  it  had  been  considered  instantan- 
eous. He  noticed  that  the  observed  times  of  the  eclipses  were 
sometimes  earlier  and  son^times  later  than  the  calculated  times, 
according  as  Jupiter  was  nearest  or  farthest  fromthe  earth.  His 
investigations  convinced  him  that  it  requires  about  161^  minutes 
for  light  to  traverse  the  orbit  of  the  earth.  Romer's  conclusion 
has  since  been  verified  by  the  phenomena  of  aberration  of  light. 

SATURN 

Is  an  immense  globe,  surrounded  by  a  beautiful  bright  ring, 
or,  rather,  series  of  rings,  and  attended  by  eight  moons.  He 
appears  to  possess  much  the  same  constitution  as  Jupiter,  but 
is  enveloped  in  an  even  denser  atmosphere.  He  revolves  on 
an  inclined  axis,  and  has  seasonal  alterations  of  unequal 
length.  The  rings  of  Saturn  are  apparently  broad,  and  flat, 
and  thin,  resembling  roughly  the  horizon  of  a  globe,  and  are 
supposed  to  be  a  close  agglomeration  of  stars,  or  satellites, 
revolving  around  the  planet,  and  encircling  him  in  a  belt. 
The  two  outermost  rings  are  very  bright,  the  inner  ring  being 
darker,  and  partially  transparent,  for  the  ball  of  Saturn  can  be 
perceived  through  it.  The  rings  are  not  always  so  plainly  seen 
as  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  19).  Sometimes  they  appear  as  a 
mere  line  of  light  on  each  side  of  the  planet.  This  occurs  at 
the  time  of  the  equinox.     By  degrees,  however,  as  they  become 


<a •>. 


K 


368 


ASTRONOMY. 


inclined,  they  appear  broader.  The  inner  ring  may  be  formed 
of  vapor,  but  the  outer  ones  are  of  something  more  solid,  as 
indicated  by  the  shadows  they  cast  upon  the  planet,  and  it  casts 
upon  them  at  certain  times.  Saturn  possesses  eight  moons, 
seven  of  them  revolving  in  orbits  on  the  plane  of  the  rings 
but  one  more  inclined. 

Saturn,  on  account  of  its  distance,  shines  with  a  feeble, 
but  steady,  pale  yellow  light,  which  distinguishes  it  from  the 
fixed  stars.  Its  orbit  is  so  vast  that  its  movement  among 
the  constellations  may  be  easily  traced  through  one's  lifetime. 
It  requires  two  and  a  half  years  to  pass  through  a  single  sign 
of  the  zodiac;  hence,  when  once  known,  it  may  be  easily 
found  again. 

As  the  earth  and  Saturn  occupy  different  portions  of  their 
orbits,  the  distances  between  them  at  different  times  may  vary 
200,000,000  miles. 

The  light  and  heat  of  the  sun  at  Saturn  are  only  ,J5  that 
which  we  receive.  The  axis  of  the  planet  is  inclined  from  a 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  about  310.  The  seasons, 
therefore,  are  similar  to  those  on  the  earth,  but  on  a  larger  scale. 


.  m 

Jvt 

^ 

^^^ 

^fc^> 

tj$8*^r~ 

' 

Fig.  19.    Saturn  and  his  Rings. 

The  sun  climbs  in  summer  about  8°  higher  above  the  horizon,  and 
sinks  correspondingly  lower  i  n  winter.  The  tropics  are  1 6°  further 
apart,  and  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  circles  8°  further  from  the 
poles.  Each  of  Saturn's  seasons  lasts  more  than  seven  of  our 
years.  There  is  about  fifteen  years'  interval  between  the  autumn 
and  spring  equinoxes,  and  between  the  summer  and  winter 
solstices.  For  fifteen  years  the  sun  shines  on  the  north  pole, 
and  a  night  of  the  same  length  envelopes  the  south  oole. 

URANUS. 

Uranus  was  discovered  by  Herschel,  in  1781,  and  has  been 
called  after  its  discoverer,  and  sometimes  the  "  Georgium  Siclus." 
It  revolves  at  an  enormous  distance  from  the  sun — viz. :  1,753,- 
000,000  of  miles.  It  takes  about  eighty-four  of  our  years  (30,686 
days)  to  go  round  the  sun,  and  possesses  four  moons.  It  is  very 
much  larger  than  the  earth— about  four  times  the  diameter,  and 
forty  times  its  volume.  We  can  only  speculate  concerning  its 
physical  constitution,  which  is  assumed  to  be  similar  to  that  of 
Jupiter,  while  the  changes  of  temperature  and  seasons  must  vary 
immensely.  Uranus  has  four  moons,  called  Ariel,  Umbriel,  Ti- 
tania  and  Obcron.  The  outer  pair  can  be  seen  without  much 
difficulty. 


NEPTUNE 

Is  the  far-off  sentinel  at  the  very  outposts  of  the  solar  system. 
The  existence  of  this  planet  was  determined  by  calculation 
before  it  had  been  seen  at  all.  Uranus  was  observed  to  be  dis- 
turbed in  his  orbit,  moving  sometimes  faster  than  at  others; 
and  even  before  Uranus  had  been  discovered  Saturn  and  Jupiter 
had  been  seen  to  be  afiected  by  some  body  in  the  system.  Lever- 
rier  determined  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  this,  and  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  some  other  planet  was  influencing  Uranus.  The 
Newtonian  theory  here  received  a  most  convincing  proof.  While 
I.everrier  was  calculating,  Mr.  Adams,  of  Cambridge,  leaped  to 
the  same  conclusion,  and  wrote  the  result  of  his  calculations  to 
Professor  Airy,  and  the  planet  was  seen,  but  not  reported  upon. 
Meantime  Leverrier  published  his  calculations,  and  the  observers 
at  Berlin  detected  the  new  planet  in  September,  1846. 

Very  little  can  be  said  concerning  Neptune,  as  its  distance  is 
too  great  for  observation.  It  has  one  moon,  which  moves  round 
the  planet  in  5  d.  21  h.,  and  is  of  great  size. 

THE  ASTEROIDS,   OR  MINOR    PLANETS. 

The  Asteroids  are  smaller  planets  circulating  outside  the 
orbit  of  Mars.  They  are  all  at  distances  from  the  sun  ranging 
between  200,000,000  and  300,000,000  miles,  the  periods 
of  sidereal  revolution  ranging  from  1,100  to  3,000  days. 
Consequently  their  years  are  from  three  to  nine  times  as  long 
as  ours.  Nearly  335  of  these  minor  planets  have  been  dis- 
covered, and  they  are  all  very  much  smaller  than  the  earth, 
some,  indeed  being  only  a  few  miles  in  diameter. 

In  olden  times  astronomers  noticed  a  very  considerable 

gap  between  Mars  and  Jupiter,  which  was  remarkable  when 

the  regular  progression  of  the  distances  between  the  planets 

was  remembered.     The  discovery  of  Ceres  in  1801  led  to 

other  discoveriee,    and  now  we  have  nearly  two  hundred 

asteroids.     Pallas  was  discovered  in  1802;  Jrso,  1804;  Vesta, 

1807;  Astr.*a,  1845,  and  since  1848  every  year  has  added  to 

the  list. 

The  hypothesis  that  all  these  asteroids  are  fragments  of  one 
large  planet  which  has  been  destroyed  was  started  by  Olbers; 
and  in  confirmation  of  this  view  it  has  been  determined  that  the 
asteroids  have  essentially  the  same  character.  The  orbits  of 
these  minor  planets  are  different  from  the  larger  "  wanderers," 
and  cross  each  other,  so  that  a  collision  may  one  day  ensue. 

Vesta  is  the  first  in  order  in  the  system,  and  revolves  in  1 ,325 
days,  at  a  mean  distance  of  225,000,000  of  miles  from  the  sun. 
Juno  and  Ceres  take  each  about  four  of  our  years  to  revolve  in 
their  orbits,  at  greater  distances  still,  averaging  260,000,000 
of  miles.  Pallas  and  Ceres  are  most  alike  in  their  periods  and 
distance  from  the  sun.  The  principal  asteroids  are  only  about. 
300  miles  in  diameter. 

METEORS. 

Meteors  are  small  erratic  bodies  rushing  through  the  planet- 
ary   system,   and,  getting   hot  in    the   process,   appear  in   the 
atmosphere  surrounding  our  earth  as  "shooting  stars."     Some 
■  falling  bodies  have  reached  the  earth,  and  such   are 


k_ 


-» — »* 


"Iv 


ASTRONOMY. 


369 


called  "aerolites"  or  "meteorites."  Numbers,  of  course,  are 
burnt  up  before  they  reach  us,  and  who  can  tell  what  destruction 
such  a  catastrophe  may  represent,  or  whether  it  be  or  be  not  an 
inhabited  world  which  has  thus  been  plunged  to  destruction  by 
fire  ?  They  are  of  a  metallic  or  stony  nature.  On  certain  nights  in 
August  and  November  it  has  been  calculated  that  these  meteors 


Fig.  Jo.    An  Exploding  Meteor. 

will  appear.  They  fall  from  certain  constellations,  after  which 
they  are  named ;  as  Leonides,  from  Leo,  in  the  November 
displays. 

The  star  showers  sometimes  present  the  appearance  of  a  beau- 
tiful display  of  rockets.     Millions  of  them  rush  round 
the  sun,  and  when,  as  occasionally  happens,  our  earth 
comes  near  them,  we  have  a  grand  display  of  celestial 
fireworks. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  average  number  of  meteors 
that  traverse  the  atmosphere  daily,  and  which  are 
large  enough  to  be  visible  to  the  eye  on  a  dark,  clear 
night,  is  7,500,000;  and  if  to  these  the  telescopic 
meteors  be  added,  the  number  will  be  increased  to 
400,000,000.  In  the  space  traversed  by  the  earth 
there  are,  on  the  average,  in  each  volume  the  size  of 
our  globe  (including  its  atmosphere),  as  many  as 
13,000  small  bodies,  each  one  capable  of  furnishing 
a  shooting  star  visible  under  favorable  circumstances 
to  the  naked  eye. 

COMETS. 

It  has  been  lately  suggested  that  there  is  a  great 
degree  of  affinity  between  comets  and  meteors  —  in 
fact,  that  a  comet  is  merely  an  aggregation  of  meteors. 
Comets  have  been  supposed  to  be  bodies  of  burning 
gas.  Their  mass  is  very  great,  and  their  brilliant  tails 
are  many  millions  of  miles  in  extent.  In  their  orbits, 
they  differ  greatly  from  the  planets.  While  the  latter 
are  direct  in  their  wanderings,  comets  are  most  irreg- 
ular and  eccentric.  When  first  seen,  the  comet  re- 
sembles a  faint  spot  of  light  upon  the  dark  back- 
ground of  the  sky.  As  it  comes  nearer,  the  brightness 
increases  and  the  tail  begins  to  show  itself. 

The  term  comet  signifies  a  hairy  body.  A  comet  consists 
usually  of  three  parts :  the  nucleus,  a  bright  point  in  the  center 
of  the  head;  thecoma  (hair),  the  cloud-like  mass  surrounding 


the  nucleus ;  and  the  tail,  a  luminous  train  extending  generally 
in  a  direction  from  the  sun. 

It  is  not  understood  whether  comets  shine  by  their  own  or  by 
reflected  light.  If,  however,  their  nuclei  consist  of  white-hot 
matter,  a  passage  through  such  a  furnace  would  be  anything  but 
desirable  or  satisfactory. 

It  is  to  Halley  that  the  discovery  of  the  elliptical  orbit  of 
comets  is  due.  A  comet  had  been  observed  in  1607,  and  Halley 
made  a  calculation  that  it  would  reappear  in  1757.  The  expected 
visitor  passed  the  perihelion  in  1759.  This  comet,  on  its  appear- 
ance at  Constantinople,  is  said  to  have  cause-i  much  consterna- 
tion, and  Christians  regarded  it  as  a  ''sigiV  for  the  Turks 
had  just  then  captured  Constantinople  and  were  threatening 
Europe.     Halley's  comet  was  last  observed  in  1835. 

Encke's,  Biela's  and  the  comets  of  1843  and  1858  are  com- 
paratively recent.  Others  came  in  1861,  1874,  1883.  In  1881 
two  comets  appeared.  Some  comets  of  antiquity  were  very 
remarkable,  and  are  reputed  to  have  equaled  the  sun  in  magni- 
tude. One  tail  is  usually  supposed  to  be  the  distinguishing 
mark  of  a  comet,  but  in  1 774  one  appeared  with  six  tails, 
arranged  something  like  a  fan.  Sometimes  the  tail  is  separated 
from  the  head.  Some  comets  appear  at  regular  intervals,  and 
their  approach  can  be  determined  with  accuracy.  Of  course  we 
only  see  those  which  are  attracted  by  the  sun,  or  those  which 


Fig.  ai.    Various  Forms  of  Comets. 

revolve  in  the  solar  system.     There  must  be  thousands  of  other 
comets  which  we  never  see  at  all. 

The  comet  of  1680  pursued  its  course  for  two  months  at  a 


25 


K- 


37° 


ASTRONOMY. 


velocity  of  800,000  miles  an  hour.  The  tail  was  estimated  to 
extend  123,000,000  of  miles,  and  a  length  of  60,000,000  of 
miles  was  emitted  in  two  days.  This  comet  appeared  B.C.  34, 
and  again  at  intervals  of  about  575  years,  and  will  reappear 
about  2255. 

Biela's  comet  was  the  cause  of  much  anxiety  in  1832,  for  a 
collision  with  the  earth  was  feared.  A  month,  however,  inter- 
vened between  the  period  at  which  the  comet  was  expected  at 
a  certain  place  in  the  system  and  the  earth's  arrival  at  that  spot, 
and  so  the  comet  was  60,000,000  miles  away  when  the  collision 
was  apprehended.     What  the  effect  of  such  a  collision  would 


Pig.  H.    Orbits  of  the  Comets. 

be,  cannot  be  said.  Wonderful  atmospheric  phenomena  and 
increased  temperature  would,  however,  certainly  result.  If 
comets,  as  is  believed,  consist  partly  of  solid  particles,  a  collision 
would  certainly  be  unpleasant;  but  their  weight  is  probably  a 
mere  nothing  compared  to  their  vapory  volume,  which  must  be 
enormous.  That  the  tails  must  be  of  a  very  attenuated  medium, 
is  evident,  as  the  stars  can  be  seen  through  them,  although  a 
very  thin  cloud  will  obscure  a  star. 

THE   ZODIACAL    LIGHT. 

This  phenomenon,  which  may  be  seen  in  the  western  horizon 
on  any  clear  winter  or  spring  evening,  after  twilight,  and  also  in 
the  eastern  horizon,  just  before  daybreak,  in  summer  or  autumn, 
consists  of  a  faint  luminosity,  extending  out  on  each  side  of  the 
sun,  and  lying  nearly  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  It  can  gen- 
erally be  traced  to  about  90  degrees  from  the  sun.  growing 
fainter  as  it  rises  above  the  horizon.  In  a  very  clear  tropical 
atmosphere,  however,  it  forms  a  complete  ring,  ami  may  In- 
traced  all  the  way  across  the  heavens.     These  appearances  seem 


to  indicate  that  it  is  due  to  a  lens-shaped  appendage  surrounding 
the  sun  and  extending  a  little  beyond  the  earth's  orbit.  Various 
attempts  have  been  made  to  explain  the  phenomenon,  but  the 
most  probable  theory  is  that  it  is  due  to  an  immense  number  of 
meteors  revolving  round  the  sun,  and  which  lie  mostly  within 
the  earth's  orbit,  each  reflecting  a  sensible  portion  of  sunlight, 
but  far  too  small  to  be  separately  visible. 

THE  FIXED  STARS. 

Those  stars  which  shine  with  a  clear,  distinct  light,  and  visibly 
change  their  position  with  respect  to  the  others,  are  called 
planets,  and  these  have  been  fully  described  according  to  their 
order  in  our  solar  system.  Those  stars  which  apparently  re- 
main immovable,  and  shine  with  a  shifting,  twinkling  light, 
are  termed  fixed stars,  although  it  is  now  known  that  they  also 
are  in  motion.  Arcturus,  for  instance,  moves  at  the  rate  of 
fifty  miles  a  second,  and  others  less,  but  only  the  rates  of  a 
few  are  known. 

In  the  daytime  we  cannot  see  the  Mars  because  of  the  supe- 
rior light  of  the  sun ;  but  with  a  telescope  they  can  be  traced, 
and  an  astronomer  will  find  certain  stars  as  well  at  noon  as  at 
midnight.  When  looking  at  the  sky  from  the  bottom  of  a 
deep  well  or  lofty  chimney,  if  a  bright  star  happens  to  be  di- 
rectly overhead,  it  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  even  at 
midday. 

In  reality,  we  never  see  the  stars.  This  assertion  seems  par- 
adoxical, yet  it  is  strictly  true.  So  far  are  the  stars  removed 
from  us  that  we  see  only  the  light  they  send,  but  not  the  sur- 
face of  the  worlds  themselves. 

The  number  of  the  stars  is  beyond  our  calculation.  Those 
visible  only  in  the  telescope  amount  to  millions,  and  are  called 
telescopic  stars.  The  stars  visible  to  the  unaided  eye  amount  to 
about  six  thousand.  There  are  more  visible  in  the  southern 
than  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  magnitudes  of  the 
stars  range  in  classes  according  to  the  brightness  of  the  stars 
observed,  for  this  is  really  the  test  from  the  first  magnitude  to 
the  sixth ;  after  that  the  telescopic  stars  are  seen  up  to  the 
fifteenth  or  sixteenth.  We  can  only  see  about  three  thousand 
stars  at  one  time  from  any  place,  although,  as  remarked  above, 
many  millions  may  be  observed  with  a  good  telescope,  and  as 
many  more,  probably  twenty  mil- 
lions, are  invisible. 

The  Motion  of  the  Heaven- 
ly Bodies. 
Attentive  observation  of  the* 
starry  heavens  will  convince  us 
that  all  the  visible  stars  describe 
circles  which  are  the  smaller  the 
nearer  the  stars  are  to  a  certain 
point  of  the  heavens,  P  (Fig.  23). 
Near  this  point  there  is  a  toler- 
ably bright  star,  the    Pole-star,  which   appears  to  the  eye  as 
always  occupying  the  same  position.     A  line,  P  P',  drawn  from 
the  star  through  the  center  of  the  earth,  C,  represents  the  axis 


The  Celestial  Axis. 


V 


ASTRONOMY. 


371 


Fig.  34. 


around  which  all  the  heavenly  bodies  perform  their  apparent 
motions.  The  part  of  the  celestial  axis,  PP',  passing  through 
the  earth,  is  the  earth's  axis;  the  North  Pole,/),  is  on  the  same 
side  as  the  Pole-star,  and  the  South  Pole,/',  is  on  the  opposite 
side.  Thus  //'  is  the  earth's 
axis,  and  the  line  aq,  the 
plane  of  which  cuts  the 
earth's  axis  at  right  angles, 
is  the  equator,  equally  dis- 
tant from  both  poles.  Now 
if  we  suppose  the  plane  of 
the  equator  to  be  extended 
to  the  heavens,  we  have  the 
celestial  equator,  A  Q,  or 
equinoctial,  dividing  the 
heavens  into  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres. 
The  equinoctial  cannot  be 
actually  described  or  made 
visible,  but  its  line  of  direction 
may  be  imagined  by  observ- 
ing the  stars  through  which 
it  passes. 

By  assigning  to  an  observer 
stations  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face differing  in  relation  to  the  earth's  axis,  the  aspects  of  celestial 
phenomena  will  be  essentially  modified.  One  of  these  stations 
may  be  supposed  to  be,  for  example,  at  one  of  the  two  poles,  at 
/,  or  at  any  point  of  the  equator,  as  at  q, 
or,  finally,  on  any  portion  of  the  earth's 
surface  which  lies  between  the  pole  and 
the  equator,  as,  for  example,  0. 

The  Constellations. 

At  a  very  early  period  in  the  history 
of  astronomy  the  observers  of  the  heavens 
grouped  stars  together  in  fancied  resem- 
blances to  men  and  animals,  and  these 
constellations,  as  they  are  termed,  are  com- 
binations of  fixed  stars.  Many  of  the  con- 
stellations are  familiar  by  name  to  every- 
body. Illustrations  of  some  of  the  more 
interesting  are  given.  We  shall  find  that 
the  forms  are  in  greater  part  due  to  the 
imagination  of  the  ancients,  and  do  not 
bear  our.  our  ideas  of  the  animals,  etc.,  they 
are  supposed  to  represent,  while  at  the  same 
time  they  cross  and  recross  with  other  con- 
stellations in  the  skies  in  a  very  puzzling 
manner.  The  twelve  maps  of  the  stars  pre- 
sented in  subsequent  pages  will,  however, 
enable  us  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  con- 
stellations as  they  appear  on  the  sky  on 
any  night  during  the  year. 

The   arrangement  of  the  constellations   is   plunged  in  the 
obscurity    of   ages,   but  B.C.  370  there  were    forty-five  thus 


grouped.  The  brighter  stars  have  all  proper  names,  but  most  of 
the  names  have  dropped  entirely  out  of  astronomical  use, 
though  many  are  popularly  retained.     The  brighter  stars  are 

now  generally  designated  by  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet 

alpha,  beta,  gamma,  delta, 
etc., — to  which  is  appended 
the  genitive  of  the  Latin 
name  of  the  constellation. 
Thus  Aldeboran  would  be 
designated  as  Alpha  Tauri. 
When  the  letters  of  the  Greek 
alphabet  are  exhausted,  those 
of  the  Roman  alphabet  are 
employed.  The  fainter  stars 
in  a  constellation  are  usually 
designated  by  some  system 
of  numbers. 


Doable  and  Multiple 
Stars. 

Many  stars  which  appear 
single  to  the  naked  eye  are 
really  double  when  seen 
through  the  telescope,  that 
is,  they  are  composed  of  a 
Pairs  of  stars  are  not  considered 


The  Constellation   Ursa  Major,  or  the  Great  Bear,  contain 
ing  the  Great  Dipper,  or  Charles'  Wain. 


Fig.  35.    Virgo  (The  Virgin). 


pair  of  stars  lying  side  by  side, 
double  unless  the  components  are  so  near  together  that  they 
both  appear  in  the  field  of  view  when  examined  with  a  tele- 
scope. When  what  appears  as  a  single  star 
is  resolved  into  more  than  two  components 
by  the  telescope,  it  is  called  a  multiple 
star. 

New  and  Variable  Stars. 
There  are  many  stars  which  undergo 
changes  of  brilliancy,  sometimes  slight, 
but  occasionally  very  marked.  These 
changes,  in  some  cases,  are  apparently 
irregular,  and  in  others  periodic.  All  such 
stars  are  said  to  be  variable.  Algol,  in 
the  constellation  Perseus,  is  a  variable  star, 
whose  period  is  now  known  to  be  2d.  zoh. 
49  m.  Mira,  in  the  constellation  Cetus,  is 
generally  invisible,  but  at  intervals  of  about 
eleven  months  it  shines  forth  as  a  star  of  the 
second  or  third  magnitude.  The  star  7  of 
the  constellation  Argo  (Eta  Argus),  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  is  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  variable  star  in  the  heavens. 
It  was  first  observed  by  Sir  John  Herschel, 
while  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  He 
says:  "On  the  16th  of  December,  1837, 
my  astonishment  was  excited  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  new  candidate  for  distinction 
among  the  very  brightest  stars  of  the  first  magnitude  in  a  part 
of  the  heavens  where  I  was  certain  that  no  such  brilliant  object 
had  ever  been  seen.     *    *    *     I  finally  became  satisfied  of 


*7^=? 


_M 


ASTRONOMY. 


■!■', 

;^7  HYAOtS 

raitots 

»    ■   ? . 


•■>  1  ,-■ 


its  identity  with  my  old  acquaintance  Eta  Argus,  although 
its  light  was  nearly  tripled."  It  continued  to  increase  until 
January  2,  1838,  then  faded  a  little  till  April  following.  In 
1842  and  1843  it  blazed  up  brighter  than  ever,  and  in  March  of 

the  latter  year 
was  second  only 
to  Sirius.  Dur- 
ing the  twenty- 
five  years  follow- 
ing it  slowly  but 
steadily  dimin- 
ished; in  1867 
it  was  barely  vis- 
ible to  the  naked 
eye,  and  the  next 
year  it  vanished 
entirely  from  the 
unassisted  view, 
and  has  not  yet 
begun  to  recover 

its  brightness. 
Fig.  26.    Orion  and  Taurus.  ,, 

New  or  tempo- 
rary stars  are  such  as  have  suddenly 
appeared,  and  even  become  very  brilliant, 
and  then  faded  away  and  disappeared. 
They  are  now  classified  by  astronomers 
among  the  variable  stars,  their  changes 
being  of  very  irregular  and  fitful  character. 
In  1572  an  apparently  new  star  appeared 
in  Cassiopeia,  and  was  first  seen  by  Tycho 
Brahe  on  November  It,  when  it  had 
attained  the  first  magnitude.  It  became 
rapidly  brighter,  rivaling  Venus  in  splen- 
dor, so  that  good  eyes  could  discern  it 
in  full  daylight.  In  December  it  began 
to  wane,  and  in  the  following  May  it 
had  disappeared  entirely.  Kepler's  star, 
first  seen  in  October,  1 604,  in  Ophiuchus, 
began  to  fade  in  the  following  winter, 
but  remained  visible  throughout    1605, 

disappearing  entirely  early  in  1606.  It  was  noted  for  its  bril- 
liant scintillation.  Astronomers  suppose  that  this  star  also  ap- 
peared in  393,  798  and  1203,  which  would  make  it  a  variable 
star  with  a  period  of  a  little  over  400  years.  In  May,  1 866,  a 
star  of  the  second  magnitude  suddenly  appeared  in  Corona 
Borealis,  and  this  is  the  most  striking  case  of  the  kind  in  recent 
times. 

Distance  of  the  Stars. 
Snch  is  the  distance  of  the  stars  that  only  in  a  comparatively 
few  instances  has  any  displacement  of  these  bodies  been  detected 
when  viewed  from  opposite  points  of  the  earth's  orbit — that  is, 
from  points  185,000,000  miles  apart — and  then  only  by  the 
most  careful  and  delicate  measurement.  Half  of  the  above  dis- 
placement, or  the  displacement  of  the  star  as  seen  from  the 
earth  instead  of  the  sun,  is  called  the  parallax  of  the  star.  In 
no  case  has  a  parallax  of  one  second  as  yet  been  discovered. 
The  distance  of  a  star  whose  parallax  is  one  second  would  be 


206,265  times  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  or  about 
19,000,000,000,000  miles.  It  is  quite  certain  that  no  star  is 
nearer  the  earth  than  this.  Light  has  a  velocity  which  would 
take  it  seven  and  a  half  times  around  the  earth  in  one  second ; 
but  it  would  require  more  than  three  years  to  reach  us  from  the 
distance  named.  If  the  Almighty,  in  his  inscrutable  wisdom, 
should  blot  all  the  stars  out  of  existence,  it  would  be  more  than 
three  years  before  we  should  miss  a  single  one.  The  star  a  in 
the  constellation  of  the  Centaur  is  supposed  to  be  the  nearest  of 
the  fixed  stars,  and  it  is  estimated  that  it  would  take  its  light 
about  three  years  and  a  half  to  reach  us.  It  has  also  been  esti- 
mated that  it  would  take  light  over  16  years  to  reach  us  from 
Sirius,  about  18  from  Vega,  about  25  from  Arcturus  and  over  40 
from  the  Pole-star.  The  stars  named,  however,  are  comparatively 
near  to  us,  and  there  are  many  so  far  removed  that  their  light 
requires  a  thousand  years  to  reach  the  earth. 

Proper  Motion  of  the  Stars. 
The  discovery  of  the  real  motion  of  the  stars,  called  their 
"proper  motion,"  is  due  to  Halley.     He  noticed  that  three  very 
bright  stars,  Sirius,  Aldeboran  and  Arcturus,  were  not  in  the 
places  assigned  to  them.     The  stars  have  come  to  be  universally 
denominated  as  fixed  because  they  seem 
to  retain  their  relative  positions  from  year 
to  year.      Although   moving  at  the  rate 
of  many  miles  a  second,  their  distance  is 
so  enormous  that,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
it  would  be  thousands   of  years  before 
this  rate  of  motion  would  produce  a  suf- 
ficient displacement  to  be  noticeable  to  the 
unaided  eye.     In  the  course  of  ages,  bow- 
ever,  a  marked  change  in  the  configura- 


Com»  Berenices  (Berenices  Hair). 


tion  of  the  stars  will 
be  produced. 

The  stars  in  all 
parts  of  the  heavens 
are  found  to  move 
in  all  directions,  and 
with  all  sorts  of  ve- 
lodttn.  When,  how- 
ever, their  motions  are 
averaged,  there  is 
found  to  be  an  appar- 
ent proper  motion 
common  to  all  the 
stars.      Those  in  the 


Fig.  38.    Arcturus  and  Bootes. 
neighborhood  of  Hercules  appear  to  be  approaching  us,  and 
those  in  the  opposite  part  of  the  heavens  appear  to  be  receding 
from   us.     In   other  words,  all  the   stars  appear  to  be  moving 


FT 


A 


ASTRONOMY. 


373 


B0OT£S  ~  s\ 


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lA         If      COR  CAROL^. 


n 


away  from  Hercules  and  towards  the  opposite  part  of  the 

heavens. 

Astronomers  hold  that  this  apparent  common  motion  of  the 

stars  is  due  to 
the  real  motion 
the  sun  and  the 
planets  of  his 
system  through 
space.  Wheth- 
er this  motion  of 
the  sun  is  in  a 
straight  line  or 
around  some  dis- 
tant center,  has 
not  been  deter- 
mined, but  it  is 
estimated  that 
our  great  lumin- 
ary moves  along 
Fig.  39.    Canes  Venatici  (The  Hunting  Dogs),    his    path   at  the 

rate  of  about  1 50,000,000  miles  a  year. 
In  some  cases,  groups  of  stars,  prob- 
ably forming  connected  systems,  have  a 
common  proper  motion,  entirely  different 
from  that  of  the  stars  around  and  among 
them.  The  most  remarkable  instance  of 
this  kind  occurs  in  the  constellation 
Taurus.  Proctor  has  shown  that  five  of 
the  seven  stars  forming  the  Great  Dipper 
have  a  common  proper  motion,  and  he 
proposes  for  this  phenomenon  the  name  of 
Star-drift. 

NEBULAE    AND    STAR- 
CLUSTERS 

Fig.  30.    Leo 

Are  numerous  in  the  heavens.     The  most 

important  are  those  in  Orion  and  in  Andromeda.  But  there 
are  other  very  beautiful  "patches"  of  luminous  matter,  or  cloud 
appearances,  composed  of  stars  invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 
There  must  be  thousands  of  these  star-clouds. 

The  nebulae  present  the  appearance  of  various  forms  —  circu- 
lar, elliptical,  annular  and  spiral.  Sometimes  one  or  more 
minute  stars  are  enveloped  in  a  nebulous  haze,  and  are  hence 
called  nebulous  stars.  The  great  nebula  of  Andromeda  is  one 
of  the  few  that  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  One  can  see  at  a 
glance  that  it  is  not  a  star,  but  a  mass  of  diffused  light,  and  it 
has  sometimes  very  naturally  been  mistaken  for  a  comet.  Its 
spectrum  suggests  that  it  is  really  an  immense  star-cluster,  so  dis- 
tant that  the  highest  telescopic  power  cannot  resolve  it,  yet  in 
the  largest  telescopes  it  looks  more  like  a  gas  than  in  those  of 
moderate  size. 

The  great  nebula  of  Orion,  surrounding  the  middle  star  of  the 
three  forming  the  sword,  has  above  all  others  excited  the  wonder 
of  observers.  In  its  center  are  four  stars,  easily  distinguished  by 
a  small  telescope,  together  with  two  smaller  ones  requiring  a 


r 


nine-inch  telescope  to  be  well  seen.  Besides  these,  the  whole 
nebula  is  dotted  with  stars.  A  good  eye  will  perceive  that  what 
appears  as  a  single  star,  instead  of  looking  like  a  bright  point, 
has  a  hazy  appearance,  due  to  the  surrounding  nebula.  Huyghens 
first  described  the  object  in  1659.  He  says :  "  There  is  one 
phenomenon  among  the  fixed  stars  worthy  of  mention,  which,  so 
far  as  I  know,  hag  hitherto  been  noticed  by  no  one,  and  indeed 
cannot  be  well  observed  except  with  large  telescopes.  In  the 
sword  of  Orion  are  three  stars  quire  close  together.  In  1656, 
as  I  chanced  to  be  viewing  the  middle  one  of  these  with  the 
telescope,  instead  of  a  single  star,  twelve  showed  themselves  (a 
not  uncommon  circumstance).  Three  of  these  almost  touched 
each  other,  and  with  four  others  shone  through  a  nebula,  so  that 
the  space  around  them  seemed  far  brighter  than  the  rest  of  the 
heavens,  which  was  entirely  clear,  and  appeared  quite  black ; 
the  effect  being  that  of  an  opening  in  the  sky,  through  which  a 
brighter  region  was  visible." 

The   Nebular  Hypothesis. 

What  is  termed  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  was  put  forward  by 
Laplace,  and  by  it  he  endeavored  to  account  for  the  regular 
development  of  the  stellar  system,  which 
is  supposed  to  have  originated  from  an 
immense  nebular  cloud.  This  immense 
mass  would  rotate  and  contract,  and  the 
outer  portions  would  separate  and  develop 
into  rings  like  Saturn's  rings.  Then  the 
rings  break  into  separate  portions,  and 
each  portion  condenses  into  a  planet,  or 
the  small  "bits"  travel  round  the  sun 
like  asteroids,  and  in  this  manner  various 
systems  were  formed.  This  theory  was 
considered  to  be  quite  exploded  when 
stars  were  discerned  in  nebulae  by  the 
more  recent  telescopes ;  but  then  the 
spectroscope  came  to  our  aid,  and  it  was 
(The  Lion).  discovered  that  there  were  some  nebulae 

which  aresimply 
masses  of  glow- 
ing gas  or  aggre- 
gations of  stones 
which  are  dash- 
ing against  each 
other  in  so  forci- 
ble a  manner  as 
to  produce  heat 
and  luminosity. 
Proctor  has  put 
iorwara  a  hy- 
pothesis that  the 
star  or  meteor 
showers  are  the 
original  cause  of 
the  sidereal  sys-  ««•»»■    Corvu.  (The  Crow), 

tern,  and  that  this  rain  of  meteors  has  fallen  for  all  time,  grad- 
ually consolidating  into  orbs. 


Tffe 


— »  >7 


J 


c  — 


K 


374 


ASTRONOMY. 


•* 


THE  MILKY  WAY 
Is  a  whitish,  vapory-looking  belt,  and  is  composed  of  multi- 
tudes of  millions  of  suns,  of  which  our  own  sun  itself  is  one,  so 
far  removed  from  us  that  their  light  mingles  and  makes  only  a 
fleecy  whiteness.  Philosophers  have  frequently  discoursed 
upon  this  phenomenon,  but  all  statements  must  remain  more  or 
less  speculative.     From  Kepler's  to  the  present  time  astrono- 


Fig.  32.     A  Spiral  Nebula. 

mers  have  been  considering  the  Milky  Way,  but  an  actual 
knowledge  is  still  beyond  us.  It  is  agreed,  however,  that  the 
galaxy  is  not  a  continuous  stream,  but  a  series  of  luminous 
patches,  most  extraordinary  aggregations  of  stars,  which  it  is 
not  only  impossible  to  count,  but  each  of  which  appears  to  be 


independent  of  the  others.  "  The  sidereal  system,"  says  Proctor, 
in  his  Universe  of  Stars,  "  is  altogether  more  complicated, 
altogether  more  varied  in  structure  than  has  hitherto  been  sup- 
posed. Within  one  and  the  same  region  co-exist  stars  of  many 
orders  of  real  magnitude,  the  greatest  being  thousands  of  time* 
larger  than  the  least.  All  the  nebuUe  hitherto  discovered, 
whether  gaseous  or  stellar,  irregular,  planetary,  ring-formed,  or 
elliptic,  exist  within  the  limits  of  the  sidereal  system.  They  all 
form  part  and  parcel  of  that  wonderful  system  whose  nearer 
and  brighter  parts  constitute  the  glories  of  our  nocturnal 
heavens." 

And  a  little  reflection  will  show  how  true  this  is.  Not  very 
long  ago  in  the  world's  life  the  solar  system  was  supposed  to 
consist  of  one  sun  with  a  few  planets  wandering  around  him. 
Then  some  more  were  found,  and  they  were  called  "  satellites." 
For  a  long  time  man  fancied  he  had  reached  the  "  ultima  thule  " 
of  astronomy  in  these  depths  ;  but  the  whole  idea  was  changed 
when  it  was  discovered  that  beyond  Mars  there  lie  the  asteroids 
and  the  host  of  bodies  in  this  solar  system  which  we  cannot  do 
more  than  allude  to.  Then  when  we  consider  this  "  sun  "  of 
ours,  which  we  think  so  enormous,  and  which  keeps  in  subjec- 
tion and  illuminates  so  many  heavenly  bodies,  and  when  we 
reflect  that  there  are  in  space,  and  visible,  stars  many  times 
larger  than  our  ruling  orb,  each  a  sun,  and  that  our  sun  would, 
if  placed  where  the  great  Sirius  glows,  be  but  a  speck  in  the 
firmament,  and  his  system  invisible  to  our  eyes,  we  may  well 
wonder  at  the  magnitude  of  the  subject  and  bow  down  before 
the  wisdom  and  power  of  Him  "  at  whose  sight  all  the  stars 
hide  their  diminished  heads." 


4«f H» ■ 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  ASTRONOMIGAL  DEFINITIONS. 


-i»ofo-2- 


Apbelion.  That  point  of  a  planet  or  comet's 
orbit  which  is  most  distant  from  the  sun;  the 
opposite  point  is  called  the  perihelion. 

Apogee.  The  point  of  a  planet's  orbit  farthest 
from  the  earth.  (Generally  used  only  when 
speaking  of  the  moon.) 

Apsides  (plural  of  Afsis.)  The  two  points  of  an 
orbit  which  are  respectively  the  greatest  and  least 
distance  from  the  central  body. 

Axis.  A  real  or  imaginary  straight  line  on  which 
a  body  revolves  or  is  supposed  to  revolve. 

Azimuth.  An  arc  of  the  horizon  intercepted 
between  the  meridian  of  the  place  and  a  vertical 
circle  passing  through  the  center  of  any  object. 
See  Nadir  and  Zenith. 

Celestial  Globe.  An  artificial  globe  represent- 
ing tin  nt  and  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac 
in  their  places  in  the  heavens. 

Celestial  Sphere.  The  blue  arch  of  the  sky 
at  it  appears  spread  above  us. 

Circumference.  The  line  that  goes  round  or 
encompasses  a  circular  figure. 


Colures.  Two  circles  dividing  the  ecliptic  'into 
four  equal  parts,  and  making  the  seasons.  The 
"equinoctial  colure"  passes  through  the  equi- 
noxes at  Aries  and  Libra.  The  other,  north  and 
south,  is  the  "  solstitial  colure." 

Conjunction.  Planets  are  in  conjunction  with 
each  other  when  in  the  same  sign  and  degree.  A 
planet  with  the  sun  between  it  and  the  earth  is  in 
conjunction  with  ihe  sun. 

Declination.  The  distance  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  from  the  equinoctial  measured  as  a  meri- 
dian. In  other  words,  latitude  upon  a  celestial 
globe.  The  Tropics  indicate  the  limits  of  the 
sun's  declination. 

Degree.  The  360th  part  of  the  circumference  of 
a  circle. 

Diameter.  A  right  line  passing  through  the 
center  of  a  circle  or  sphere. 

Disc     The  apparently  flat  surface  of  a  planet. 

Diurnal.  Constituting  the  measure  of  a  day. 
Diurnal  arc.  the  arc  described  by  the  sun  during 
the  daytime  or  while  above  the  horizon.     Diur- 


nal circle,  the  apparent  circle  described  by  a  celes- 
tial body  in  consequence  of  the  earth's  rotation. 

Ecliptic.  The  earth's  orbit  about  the  sun,  or  the 
sun  s  apparent  path  through  the  heavens.  The 
sun,  of  course,  does  not  actually  move,  and  there- 
fore the  track,  or  supposed  circle,  is  really  the 
earth's  motion  observable  from  the  sun  When 
the  moon  is  near  this  circle  eclipses  happen. 
The  ecliptic  cuts  the  equinoctial  at  an  angle  of 
83°  a8',  one-half  being  to  the  north  and  the  other 
to  the  south  of  the  equinoctial.  The  poles  of  the 
ecliptic  are  the  points  where  the  axis  of  the 
earth's  orbit  meets  the  celestial  sphere. 

Elliptical.     Oval  or  oblong,  with  roundedenda. 

Epicycle.  A  circle  in  the  center  of  a  greater 
circle. 

Equator.  An  imaginary  great  circle  on  the 
earth's  surface,  everywhere  equally  distant  from 
the  two  poles  and  dividing  the  earth  into  two 
hemispheres.  The  equator  cf  tke  heaven*  it  a 
great  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere,  coincident 
with  the  plane  of  the  earth's  equator,  and  1 
the  equinoctial. 


4^ 


rr 


4t 


ASTRONOMY. 


375 


r 


Equinoctial.  The  plane  of  the  equator  ex- 
tended to  the  heavens.  When  the  sun  appears 
in  that  line  the  days  and  nights  are  of  equal  dura- 
tion— 12  hours  each.  This  occurs  about  the  21st 
of  March  and  the  23d  of  September.  The  term 
equinoctial  is  from  the  two  Latin  words  eguaes, 
equal,  and  nox,  night. 

Equinoxes.  The  points  where  the  equinoctial 
and  the  ecliptic  (the  sun's  apparent  path  through 
the  heavens)  intersect.  The  vernal  equinox  is 
the  place  where  the  tun  crosses  the  equinoctial, 
commonly  called  "crossing  the  line,"  in  going 
north,  which  occur*  about  the  21st  of  March. 
The  autumnal  equinox  is  the  place  where  the 
sun  crosses  the  equinoctial  in  going  south,  which 
occurs  about  the  21st  of  September. 

Horizon.  The  rational  horizon  is  the  great 
circle  passing  through  the  center  of  the  earth, 
separating  the  visible  from  the  invisible  heavens. 
The  sensible  (apparent)  horizon  is  the  small  circle 
where  the  earth  and  sky  seem  to  meet.  It  is 
parallel  to  the  rational  horizon,  but  distant  from 
it  the  semi-diameter  of  the  earth.  No  two  places 
have  the  same  sensible  horizon. 

Latitude.  The  distance  from  the  ecliptic  at  a 
right  angle  north  or  south.  Parallels  of  latitude 
are  familiar  circles  parallel  to  the  equator.  Lati- 
tude and  longitude  upon  a  celestial  globe  are 
known  respectively  as  declination  "  and  "  right 
ascension." 

Longitude.  The  distance  in  degrees,  reckoned 
from  the  vernal  equinox,  on  the  ecliptic,  to  a  circle 
at  right  angles  to  >  Massing  through  the  heavenly 
body  whose  longitude  is  designated. 

Lunar.     Relating  to  the  moon. 

Lunation.  The  period  of  a  synodic  revolution 
of  the  moon,  or  the  period  from  one  new  moon  to 
the  next. 

Meridians.  Circles  passing  through  the  poles 
at  right  angles  to  the  equinoctial.  Every  place  is 
supposed  to  have  a  meridian,  but  astronomers 
apply  only  twenty-four  to  the  heavens,  and  they 
represent  the  sun's,  or  the  planets',  "move- 
ments "  every  hour— 150  being  one  hour,  3600 
being  24  hours. 

Nadir  and  Zenith.  The  poles  of  the  horizon. 
The  zenith  is  the  point  directly  overhead,  and  the 
nadir  the  one  directly  under  foot.  Azimuth 
circles  are  circles  drawn  through  these  points. 

Nocturnal.     Relating  to  night. 

Nodes.  The  opposite  points  of  a  planet  where 
its  orbit  cuts  the  ecliptic  or  the  earth's  orbit. 

Occident.  The  western  quarter  of  the  hemi- 
sphere. 

Occultation.  The  hiding  of  a  heavenly  body 
from  sight  by  the  intervention  of  some  other  of 
the  heavenly  bodies. 

Opposition.  A  planet  with  the  earth  between 
it  and  the  sun  is  in  opposition. 

Orbit.  The  path  described  by  a  planet  revolving 
round  the  sun.  The  plane  of  the  orbit  is  an 
imaginary  surface  cutting  through  the  center  of 
the  sun  and  the  planet  and  extending  to  the  stars. 
The  inclination  of  an  orbit  is  the  plane  of  the 
orbit  with  reference  to  the  plane  of  the  earth. 

Orient.  The  part  of  the  horizon  where  the  sun 
first  appears  in  the  morning. 


Orrery.  An  apparatus  illustrating,  by  means  of 
small  balls  mounted  on  rods  and  moved  by  wheel- 
work,  the  size,  motions,  positions,  orbits,  &c,  of 
the  bodies  of  the  solar  system. 

Oscillation.  Moving  backward  and  forward,  or 
swinging  like  a  pendulum  ;  vibration. 

Parallax.  The  difference  between  the  position 
of  a  body  as  seen  from  some  point  on  the  earth's 
surface  and  its  position  as  seen  from  some  other 
conventional  point,  as  the  earth's  center  or  the 
sun. 

ParalleL  A  line  which,  throughout  its  whole 
extent,  is  equidistant  from  another  line. 

Parhelion.  A  mock  sun  or  meteor,  appearing 
in  the  form  of  a  bright  light  near  the  sun,  and 
sometimes  tingedcwith  colors  like  the  rainbow, 
with  a  luminous  train. 

Penumbra.  The  shadow  cast,  in  an  eclipse, 
where  the  light  is  only  partly  cut  oft"  by  the  in- 
tervening body  ;  the  space  of  partial  illumination, 
between  the  umbra,  or  perfect  shadow,  and  the 
light. 

Perigree.    The  opposite  of  apogee. 
Perihelion.     That  point  in  the  orbit  of  a  planet 
or  comet  in  which  it  is  nearest  to  the  sun. 

Radius  Vector.  A  line  drawn  from  a  planet 
to  the  sun,  wherever  the  planet  may  be. 

Right  Ascension.  Corresponds  to  "longi- 
tude "  on  a  celestial  globe. 

Sidereal.  ' '  Measured  by  the  apparent  motion 
of  the  stars.     See  Time. 

Sign.  The  twelfth  part  of  the  ecliptic  or  zodiac. 
See  Zodiac. 

Solstices.  The  points  in  the  ecliptic  at  which 
the  sun  is  furthest  from  the  equator,  north  or 
south,  namely,  the  first  point  of  Cancer  and  the 
first  point  of  Capricorn,  the  former,  about  the 
21st  of  June,  being  called  the  summer  solstice, 
and  the  latter,  about  the  21st  of  December,  the 
winter  solstice. 

Spectroscope.  An  optical  instrument  used  in 
determining  the  physical  constitution  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies  by  analyzing  their  light. 

Sphere.  U  An  orb,  or  star.  2.  The  apparent 
surface  of  the  heavens,  which  seems  to  the  eye 
spherical,  and  in  which  the  heavenly  bodies  ap- 
pear to  have  their  places. 

Time.  "Apparent"  time  is  indicated  by  the 
sun  ;  "  sidereal  "  time  by  the  stars.  Mean  time 
is  that  marked  by  a  perfect  clock,  giving  every 
day  in  the  year  equal  length.  A  sidereal  day  is 
the  exact  interval  of  time  in  which  the  earth  re- 
volves on  its  axis.  It  is  found  by  marking  two 
successive  passages  of  a  star  across  the  meridian 
of  any  place.  This  so  absolutely  uniform  that 
the  length  of  the  sidereal  day  has  not  varied 
1-100  of  a  second  in  2,000  years.  The  sidereal 
day  is  divided  into  twenty-four  equal  portions, 
which  are  called  sidereal  hours,  and  each  of  these 
into  sixty  portions,  termed  sidereal  minutes,  etc. 
A  solar  day  is  the  interval  between  two  suc- 
cessive passages  of  the  sun  across  the  meridian 
of  any  place.  If  the  earth  were  stationary  in  its 
orbit,  the  solar  day  would  be  of  the  same  len<rth 
as  the  sidereal;  but  while  the  earth  is  turning 
around  on  its  axis,  it  is  going  forward  at  the  rar» 


of  3600  in  a  year,  or  about  i°  per  day.  When 
the  earth  has  made  a  complete  revolution,  it 
must,  therefore,  perform  a  part  of  another  revo- 
lution through  this  additional  degree,  in  order  to 
bring  the  same  meridian  vertically  under  the  sun. 
One  degree  of  diurnal  revolution  is  about  equal 
to  four  minutes  of  time;  hence,  the  solar  day  is 
about  four  minutes  longer  than  the  sidereal  day. 
The  civil  day  extends  from  midnight  to  midnight. 
The  present  method  of  dividing  the  day  into  two 
portions  of'twelve  hours  each,  was  adopted  by 
Hipparchus,  150  years  B.C.,  and  is  now  in  gen- 
eral use  over  the  civilized  world.  Until  recently, 
however,  very  many  nations  terminated  one  day 
and  commenced  the  next  at  sunset.  Under  this 
plan,  10  o'clock  on  one  day  would  not  mean  the 
same  as  10  o*  clock  on  another  day.  The  Puri- 
tans commenced  the  day  at  6  p.m.  The  Baby- 
lonians, Persians,  ar>d  modern  Greeks  begin  the 
day  at  sunrise. 

Transit.  1.  The  passage  of  a  smaller  heavenly 
body  across  the  disc  of  a  larger ;  as  of  Venus  or 
Mercury  across  the  sun's  disc.  2.  The  passage 
of  a  body  over  the  meridian  of  a  njitce,  or 
through  the  field  of  a  telescope. 

Vertical.  Planets  are  vertical  when  direct 
overhead. 

Zenith.     See  Nadir. 

Zodiac  A  girdle  entending  8°  on  each  side  of 
the  ecliptic,  in  which  space  of  160  the  planets 
move.  The  zodiac  is  divided  into  twelve  parts  of 
300  each,  called  the  "  Signs."  Their  names  are 
as  under  written : 

Northern  Signs. 

Spring. 

Aries,  the  Ram,  March. 
Taurus,  the  Bull,  April. 
Gemini)  the  Twins,  May. 

Summer, 

Cancer,  the  Crab,  June. 
Leo,  the  Lion,  July. 
Virgo,  the  Virgin,  August, 

Southern  Signs. 
Autumn. 
Libra,  the  Balance,  September. 
Scorpio,  the  Scorpion,  October. 
Sagittarius,  the  Archer,  November. 

Winter, 

Capricornvs,  the  Goat,  December, 
Aquarius,  the  Waterbearer,  January. 
Puces,  the  Fishes,  February. 
The  signs  are  reckoned  from  the  point  of  inter- 
section of  the  ecliptic  and  equator  at  the  vernal 
equinox.    The  names  were  originally  the  names 
of  the    constellations    occupying    severally   the 
divisions  of  the  zodiac,  by  which  they  are  now 
retained.    In  consequence  of  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes,  however,  the  signs  have,  in  pro- 
cess of  time,  became  separated  about  30  degrees 
from  these  constellations,  and  each  of  the  Litter 
now  lies  in  the  sign  next  in  advance,  or  to  the 
east  of  the  one  which  bears  fts  name.    The  con- 
stellation Aries  now  lies,  for  instance,  in  the  sign 


«7 


A. 


37° 


HOW   TO   READ   THE   SKY. 


"7f 


4 


How  *to  ♦  Read  *the  •  Sky.  [ 

Half-Hours  with  the  Stars:   A  Plain  and  Easy  Guide  to  the  Knowledge  of  the  Constellations. 

,       ■  <■  WITB  TWELVE  MAPS  OF  TBS  HEAVENS,  TRUE  FOB  EVERT  YEAR.-*— 
Br  RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR,  B.A..  F.R.A.B. 


IT  is  very  easy  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  stars,  if  the  learner 
sets  to  work  in  the  proper  manner.  But  he  commonly  meets 
with  a  difficulty  at  the  outset  of  his  task.  He  provides  him- 
self with  a  set  of  the  ordinary  star-maps,  and  then  finds  himself 
at  a  loss  how  to  make  use  of  them.  Such  maps  tell  him  nothing 
of  the  position  of  the  constellations  on  the  sky.  If  he  happen  to 
recognize  a  constellation,  then,  indeed,  his  maps,  if  properly  con- 
structed, will  tell  him  the  names  of  the  stars  forming  the  constel- 
lation, and  also  he  may  be  able  to  recognize  a  few  of  the  neigh- 
boring constellations.  But  when  he  has  done  this,  he  may  meet 
with  a  new  difficulty,  even  as  respects  this  very  constellation. 
For  if  he  look  for  it  again  some  months  later,  he  will  neither 
find  it  in  its  former  place,  nor  will  it  present  the  same  aspect, — 
if,  indeed,  it  happen  to  be  above  the  horizon  at  all. 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  what  the  learner  wants  is  a  set  of  maps 
specially  constructed  to  show  him  in  what  part  of  the  sky  the 
constellations  are  to  be  looked  for.  He  ought,  on  any  night  of 
the  year,  to  be  able  to  turn  at  once  to  the  proper  map,  and  in 
that  map  he  ought  to  see  at  once  what  to  look  for,  toward  what 
point  of  the  compass  each  visible  constellation  lies,  and  how  high 
it  is  »bove  the  horizon.  And,  if  possible  (as  the  present  work 
shows  is  the  case),  one  map  ought  to  suffice  to  exhibit  the  aspect 
of  the  whole  heavens,  in  order  that  the  beginner  may  not  be  con- 
fused by  turning  from  map  to  map,  and  trying  to  find  out  how 
each  fits  in  with  the  others. 

It  is  to  fulfill  these  requirements  that  the  present  maps  have 
been  constructed.  Each  exhibits  the  aspect  of  the  whole  sky  at  a 
given  day  and  hour.  The  circumference  of  the  map  represents 
the  natural  horizon,  the  middle  of  the  map  representing  the  part 
of  the  sky  which  lies  immediately  overhead.  If  the  learner  hold 
one  of  these  maps  over  his  head,  so  as  to  look  vertically  upward 
at  it,  the  different  parts  of  the  horizon  marked  in  round  the  cir- 
cumference being  turned  toward  the  proper  compass  points,  he 
will  see  the  same  view  of  the  heavens  as  he  would  if  he  were  to 
lie  on  his  back  and  look  upward  at  the  sky,  only  that  the  map  is 
a  planisphere,  and  the  sky  a  hemisphere. 

But,  although  this  illustration  serves  to  indicate  the  nature  of 
the  maps,  the  actual  mode  of  using  them  is  more  convenient. 

Let  it  first  be  noted  that,  properly  speaking,  the  maps  have 
neither  top,  bottom,  nor  sides.  Each  map  may  be  held  with  any 
part  of  the  circumference  downward;  then  the  center  of  the  map 
is  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  top  for  that  part  of  the  circumference. 
The  portion  of  the  map  lying  beneath  the  center  represents  the 
portion  of  the  sky  lying  between  the  point  overhead  and  a  cer- 


tain portion  of  the  horizon — the  part,  in  fact,  corresponding  to 
the  particular  part  of  the  circumference  which  is  turned  down- 
ward. Thus,  if  on  any  night  we  wish  to  learn  what  are  the  stars 
toward  the  north,  we  look  for  the  map  corresponding  to  that 
night.  At  the  hour  named  the  stars  toward  the  north  will  be 
those  shown  between  the  center  of  the  map  and  the  top ;  and,  of 
course,  we  hold  the  map  upside  down,  so  as  to  bring  the  center 
above  the  northern  part  of  the  circumference. 

Again,  it  must  be  noted  that,  although  the  maps  are  neces- 
sarily arranged  in  a  certain  order,  there  is  in  reality  no  first  or 
last  in  the  series.  The  map  numbered  I.  follows  the  map  num- 
bered XII.  in  exactly  the  same  manner  that  the  latter  follows  the 
map  numbered  XI.     The  maps  form  a  circular  series,  in  fact. 

The  only  reason  for  numbering  the  maps  as  at  present  is  that 
the  map  numbered  I.  happens  to  exhibit  the  aspect  of  the  sky  at  a 
convenient  hour  on  the  night  of  January  I .  It  will  be  found 
that  the  dates  follow  on  with  intervals  of  three  or  four  days  right 
round  the  year,  the  end  of  the  year  falling  in  the  left-hand  column 
of  Map  I.,  while  the  beginning  of  the  year  is  in  the  middle  column 
of  the  same  map.  It  may  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  that  the 
dates  have  not  been  thrown  in  so  as  to  fall  regularly  round  the 
year,  but  correspond  with  the  variations  due  to  the  earth's  varia- 
ble motion  round  the  sun. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  a  map  can  always  be  found  cor- 
responding to  a  convenient  hour  on  any  night  of  the  year,  except 
only  in  midsummer,  when,  on  a  few  of  the  dates,  night  has  not 
begun  at  the  hour  named.  It  was  impossible,  without  spoiling 
the  regularity  of  the  dating,  or  adopting  an  inconveniently  late 
hour  for  all  the  maps,  to  avoid  this  difficulty.  But,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  difficulty  disappears  at  once  when  the  student  is  told 
that  on  any  date  named  under  a  map,  the  aspect  of  the  sky  two 
hours  later  than  that  named,  is  that  represented  in  the  following 
map.  Thus,  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  of  June  II,  the 
aspect  of  the  stars  is  as  shown  in  Map  VI.,  but  the  stars  cannot 
be  seen,  because  it  is  still  daylight ;  at  ten  o'clock,  however,  on 
the  same  night,  the  aspect  of  the  sky  is  that  shown  in  Map  V 1 1 ., 
as,  indeed,  the  first  date  under  that  map  shows. 

Next  as  to  finding  the  north  point,  or  any  point  of  the  com- 
pass which  will  enable  the  observer  to  determine  the  rest.  If 
he  is  only  familiar  with  the  aspect  of  those  seven  bright  stars  of 
the  Great  Bear  which  have  been  called  Charles'  Wain,  the 
Butcher's  Cleaver,  the  Great  Dipper,  and  by  other  names,  he 
can  always  determine  the  north  point  by  means  of  the  two  Stan 
called  the  pointers,  since  these  seven  stars  never  set     In  the 


HOW    TO    READ    THE    SKY. 


377 


explanation  of  each  map  it  is  shown  where  the  Great  Bear  is 
to  be  looked  for  on  each  night,  the  observer  being  assumed  to 
hare  such  a  general  knowledge  of  the  direction  of  the  compass- 
points  as  will  suffice  for  the  purpose  of  finding  so  marked  a 
collection  of  stars.  Thus  the  pole-star  is  found,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  such  observations  as  are  here  considered,  this  star 
maybe  looked  upon  as  marking  the  exact  direction  of  the  north. 

It  is  worth  noticing  that  the  stars  called  the  Guardians  of  the 
Pole  form  no  bad  time-piece  when  used  with  the  aid  of  such 
maps  as  the  present.  They  revolve  round  the  pole  once  in 
twenty-four  hours  (less  about  four  minutes),  in  a  direction  con- 
trary to  that  of  a  clock's  hands.  But  stars  near  the  equator, 
whose  motions  are  much  more  rapid,  afford  a  yet  better  measure 
of  time,  if  the  direction  of  the  south  point  is  well  determined. 

It  will  be  well  for  the  student  to  remember  that  the  planets 
Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter  and  Saturn  will  at  times  appear  among 
the  constellations  here  shown.  Venus  and  Jupiter  can  always 
be  recognized  by  their  superior  light,  and  Mars  and  Saturn  by 
the  steadiness  with  which  they  shine.  As  they  never  appear, 
save  among  the  zodiacal  constellations,  it  becomes  very  easy  to 
recognize  them. 

The  following  list  exhibits  the  names  of  all  the  stars  of  the 
first  three  magnitudes  to  which  astronomers  have  given  names ; 
at  least,  all  those  whose  names  are  in  common  use : 

a  Andromeda  (Andromeda) Alphtratz. 

P  "  Mirach  Mizar. 

y  "  Almach. 

a  Aquarii  (Aquarius — The  Water- Bearer) Sadalmelik. 

P        "        Sadalsund. 

6  "        Skat. 

a  Aauila  (Aquila — The  Eagle) Altair. 

P       "        Alshain. 

V  "        Tarazed. 

a  Arietis  (Aries — The  Ram) Hernial. 

P       "        Sheratan. 

7  " Mesartim. 

a  Auriga  (Auriga — The  Waggoner,  or  Charioteer) ....  Capetta. 

P      "         Menkalinan. 

a  Bootis  (Bootes) Areturus. 

P      "        Nekkar. 

*      "       Izar,  Mizar,  Mirack. 

V  "       Muphrid. 

a  Canum  Ven.  (Canes  Venatici — The  Hunting  Dogs)  Cor  Caroli. 

a  Canis  Majoris  (Canis  Major — The  Great  Dog) Sirius. 

P      "  "         Mirzam. 

e      "  "         Adara. 

a  Canis  Minoris  (Canis  Minor — The  Little  Dog)  ....  Procyon. 

P      "  "         Gomeisa. 

aJ  Capricomi  (Capricomus — The  Goat) Secunda  Ciedi. 

<5  "  Deneb  Algiedi. 

a  Cassiopeia  (Cassiopeia) Schedar. 

P  "  Chaph. 

a  Cephei  (Cepheus) Alderamin. 

P       "        Alphirk. 

V  "        Errai. 

a  Ceti  (Cetus— The  Whale,  or  The  Sea  Monster) Menkar. 

P    "     Diphda. 

f    "     Baten  Kaitos. 

»     "     Mira. 

a  Columba  (Columboe — The  Dove) Phact. 


a  Corona Bor.  (Corona  Borealis — Northern  Crown).  .Alphecca. 

a  Corvi  (Corvus — The  Crow) Alchiba. 

6     "        Algores. 

a  Crateris Alkes. 

a  Cygni  (Cygnus — The  Swan) Arided,  Deneb,  Adige. 

P      '<       Albireo. 

a  Draconis  (Draco) Thuban. 

P        "  Alwaid. 

y        "  Etanin. 

P  Eridani  (Eridanus) Cursa. 

y         "  Zaurac. 

a  Geminorum  (Gemini — The  Twins) Castor. 

P  «  Pollux. 

y  "  Alhena. 

5  "  Wasat. 

£  "  Mebsuta. 

a  Herculis  (Hercules) Ras  Algethi. 

(i         "         Korneforos. 

a  Hydra  (Hydra— The  Water  Snake) . .  .Alphard,  Cor  Hydra. 

a  Leonis  (Leo — The  Lion) Regulus,  Cor  Leonis. 

P       "        Deneb  Aleet,  Denebola,  Deneb. 

y       "       Algeiba. 

6  "       Zosma. 

a  Leporis  (Lepus)    Armb. 

a  Libra  (Libra — The  Scales) Zuben  el  Genubi. 

P       "        Zuben  el  Chamali. 

y       "       Zuben  Hakrabi. 

a  Lyra  (The  Lyra — The  Lyre) Vega. 

p      "       Sheliak. 

y      "       Sulaphat. 

a  Ophiuchi  (Ophiuchus — The  Serpent-Bearer) . . .  Ras  Alhague. 
P         «  Cebalrai. 

a  Orionis  (Orion) Betelgeux. 

P        "       Rigel. 

y        "       Bellatrix. 

&        "       Mintaka. 

e        "       Alnilam. 

a  Pegasi  (Pegasus) Markab. 

P       "       Scheat. 

y       "        Algenib. 

, Enif. 

Homan. 


c       "        

C    "    

a  Persei  (Perseus) Mirfak. 

P       "        Algol. 

a  PiscisAust.  (PiscisAustralis — The  Southern  Fish)  Fomalhaut. 

e  Sagitlarii  (Sagittarius — The  Archer) A'aus  Australis. 

a  Scorpionis  (Scorpio — The  Scorpion) .  Antares,  Cor  Scorpionis. 

a  Serpentis  (Serpens — The  Serpent) Unukalhai. 

a  Tauri  (Taurus — The  Bull) Aldeboran. 

P       "       Nalh, 

r)       "       Alcyone  (Pleiad). 

a  Ursa  Majoris  (Ursa  Major — The  Great  Bear) Dubhe. 

p  »  "        Merak. 

y  "  "        Phecda. 

e  "  "        Alioth. 

f  "  "        Mizar. 

ri  "  "        Alkaid,  Benetnasch. 

t  >•  •'        Talilha. 

a  Ursa  Minoris  (Ursa  Minor— The  Little  Bear) Polaris. 

P      "  "         Kochab. 

a  Virginis  (Virgo — The  Virgin) Spica,  Azimech,  Spica. 

P         •<         Zavijava. 

e         "         Vindemiatrix. 


<T 


Map  I- HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  JANUARY. 


MOIiaOH     NM3H,U„.. 


Dec.  21,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening;    Dec.  24,  9:45;    Bee.  28,  9:30;  Jan.  1,  9:15;  Jan.  5,  9:00;  Jan.  8,  S.-46 

Jan.  12,  8:30  ;  Jan.  16,  8:15 ;  Jan.  20,  8:00. 


2^HE  Great  Bear  lies  toward  the  northeast.  The  Pointers  are 
Vj*)  uppermost,  and  the  pole  star  is  toward  the  left.  The  two  stars 
known  as  the  Guardians  of  the  Pole  (/3  and  y  of  the  Little  Bear) 
hang  below  the  pole-star,  slightly  toward  the  right.  The  Dragon 
forms  aloop  of  stars  below  the  Little  Bear.  The'Lyre  is  low  down  on 
the  left,  its  chief  star,  Vega,  scintillating  brilliantly.  Still  further  on 
the  left,  almost  due  northwest,  is  the  fine  cross  of  Cygnus.  Following 
the  direction  indicated  by  the  upright  of  the  cross,  raise  the  eyes  toward 
the  point  overhead,  and  recognize  the  constellation  Cassiopeia,  by  the 
five  bright  stars  forming  a  figure  resembling  the  letter  W  (now  raised 
on  end,  the  points  of  the  W  to  the  left).  Returning  to  the  horizon, 
and  looking  further  around  to  the  left,  we  see  due  west  the  constella- 
tion Pegasus,  or  the  Winged  Horse.  He  is  now  inverted,  his  head 
being  close  to  the  horizon  on  the  right.  The  square  of  Pegasus, 
formed  by  the  bright  stars  Rigel,  Betelgcux,  Bellatrix  and  Alpherat, 
will  attract  the  observer's  notice,  and  lead  him  to  the  constellation 
Andromeda,  Alpherat  being  in  Andromeda's  head.  The  length  of 
this  constellation  is  now  almost  vertical,  and  between  the  feet  of  An- 
dromeda and  the  point  overhead  lies  the  constellation  Perseus.  Notice 
Algol  (the  Demon  Star  of  the  Arabs),  lying  due  southwest,  close  up  to 
the  point  overhead.  Of  the  variations  of  this  remarkable  star  a  great 
deal  might  be  Mid.     Usually  the  observer  will  see  it  of  the  second 


magnitude,  however,  as  it  only  remains  a  fourth  magnitude  star  for 
about  twenty  minutes.  Immediately  below  Perseus  is  Aries,  recogniz- 
able by  the  three  stars  which  form  the  Ram's  head.  Below  that  again 
is  Cetus,  the  Whale.  Due  south  lies  Eridanus,  consisting  chiefly  at 
small  stars,  which  cover  a  wide  expanse  of  sky.  Above  is  Taurus, 
recognizable  at  once  by  the  Pleiades  and  Aldeboran.  Still  turning 
toward  the  left  we  see  Orion,  nearly  upright,  but  with  his  shoulders 
slightly  thrown  back.  Immediately  below  Betelgeux  (Ibt-al  Janza,  the 
Giant's  Shoulder)  is  Canis  Major,  on  his  hind  feet,  and  throwing  a 
forepaw  toward  the  Little  Hare  fa  constellation  of  small  stars  directly 
below  Orion).  Observe  the  leaning  star  of  the  Dove  (a  ColumUv) 
directly  below  a  Leporis.  Almost  due  west,  and  midway  between  the 
horizon  and  the  point  overhead,  are  the  twin  stars  Castor  and  Pollux, 
Castor  being  uppermost.  Still  higher  lies  Auriga,  the  star  Capella. 
always  a  very  conspicuous  object,  shining  very  brilliantly  at  this  eleva- 
tion. Canis  Minor  lies  below  the  feet  of  the  Twins.  Observe  the 
small  cluster  Prereepe,  or  the  Beehive  (only  visible  on  very  clear 
nights) ;  it  lies  now  almost  exactly  midway  between  Castor  and  the 
Further  to  the  left,  and  near  the  horizon,  is  the  Lion.  It  is 
well  to  notice  "  The  Sickle  "  (the  group  of  stars  formed  by  Rcgolua, 
q,  i,  n,  t,  and  two  small  stars),  as  this  is  a  well-marked  object. 


dip  II-HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  FEBRUARY. 


MOZtMOH    N*3HU,n*. 


^UTHERN    HORIZON. 


Jan.  20,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening;  Jan.  23,  9:45;  Jan.  27,  9:30;   Jan.  31,  9:15;  Feb.  4,  9:00;  Feb.  7,  8:45; 

Feb.  11,  8:30;    Feb,  15.  8:15;  Feb.  19,  8:00. 


HE  Great  Bear  is  now  midway  between  the  horizon  and  the 
)  point  overhead,  and  toward  the  northeast.     The  "  pointers  "  are 

uppermost,  and  the  pole-star  lies  toward  the  left  (as  shown  in  the 
i).  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  are  seen  below,  and  toward  the  right, 
oediately  below  the  pole  lies  the  Dragon's  Head,  the  body  and  tail 
nding  toward  the  right,  to  a  point  between  the  pointers  and  the 
idians  of  the  Pole.  Vega  is  seen  just  above  the  horizon,  slightly 
he  left  of  the  north  point.  Further  to  the  left  is  the  upper  part 
Cygnus,  above  which  is  the  inconspicuous  Cepheus.  Due  north- 
t,and  high  above  the  horizon,  is  Cassiopeia,  the  W  being  now  in 
position  ^.  Further  to  the  left,  and  close  to  the  horizon,  is  the 
ing  Horse.  The  square  of  Pegasus  stands  just  above  the  horizon, 
i  apper  corner  (Alpherat)  of  the  square  belongs  to  Andromeda,  still 
srted;  and  above  the  feet  of  Andromeda  we  see  Perseus.  Algol  is 
'  due  west.  Below  Algol,  but  slightly  to  the  left,  is  Aries ;  and 
lower,  and  further  to  the  left,  Cetus  appears,  the  figure  presented 
ts  principal  stars  reminding  one  of  the  Mantis  insect.  It  is  now 
mg.  The  star  Mira  may  not  be  visible,  as  this  is  a  variable,  invis- 
at  regular  intervals  for  months  together.  Notice  Eridanus  setting 
«td  the  southwest,  and  Taurus  above;  and  then  tum  to  Orion, 
Oit  due  south,  standing  erect  in  all  his  glory,  at  the  greatest  elevation 


he  ever  attains  in  our  latitude.  To  the  left,  low  down,  we  see  Qi+ 
Greater  Dog,  Sirius,  now  shining  with  his  full  splendor.  The  dog  is 
still  rampant;  indeed,  he  is  never  seen  otherwise  in  our  latitudes. 
Looking  upward,  and  somewhat  further  to  the  left,  almost  due  south- 
east, we  see  the  Twins,  their  feet  resting  on  the  borders  of  the  Milky 
Way.  Still  higher  is  Auriga,  now,  in  fact,  overhead.  Below  the  Twins 
see  the  Little  Dog.  Below  this  constellation  the  stern  of  the  ship  Argo 
is  rising  into  view.  But  as  the  part  of  this  constellation  which  rises 
above  our  horizon  contains  no  conspicuous  stars,  we  need  not  pay  much 
attention  to  it  at  this  stage  of  our  star-gazing. 

Somewhat  to  the  east  of  southeast  we  see  a  single  conspicuous  star 
— though  several  small  stars  are  seen  in  the  neighborhood.  This 
is  Cor  Hydrae,  the  Heart  of  the  Sea  Serpent.  The  Arabian  astronomers 
gave  to  this  star  the  name  of  Al  Fard,  or  The  Solitary  One.  Leo  lies 
toward  the  east,  and  between  the  Sickle  in  Leo  and  the  Lesser  Dog 
we  recognize  Pnesepe,  and  the  two  small  stars  on  either  side,  known  to 
the  ancients  as  the  Aselli. 

We  have  now  come  round  again  to  the  Great  Bear.  Observe  how 
much  larger  an  extent  of  sky  this  constellation  covers  than  is  commonly 
assigned  to  it  by  beginners.  Below  the  Bear's  tail  the  head  and 
shoulders  of  Bootes  are  rising  into  view. 


Map  III- HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  MARCH. 


•HOZmOH    Mh3Hj.j,n.( 


S03Hd30 

■»JBI$J,„J 


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8°OTHERN    HOR»l°H* 


An.  W,  af  tO  o'clock  in  the  evening ;   Feb.  22,  9:45;  Feb,  26,  9.30 ;   March  2,  9:15 ;  March  6,  9:00 , 

March  13,  8:30  ;   March  17.  8:15 ;  March  21,  8:00. 


March  9.  848: 


^T*  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  approaching  the  point  overhead,  but  is 
V»)  easily  recognized  toward  the  northeast.  The  Pointers,  as  shown, 
indicate  the  pole-star  toward  the  left,  and  considerably  below 
them.  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  now  lie  on  the  right  of,  and  some- 
what below  the  pole-star.  Vega  shines  just  above  the  horizon, 
.immediately  below  them.  Between  lies  the  Dragon's  Head;  and  we 
see  the  body  and  tail  of  the  Dragon  curving  round  between  the  head 
and  the  Guardians  of  the  Pole.  The  upper  part  of  Cygnus  is  now  all 
that  can  be  seen  of  this  constellation,  almost  due  north  on  the  horizon. 
Further  to  the  left,  and  well  raised  above  the  horizon,  we  see  Cassi- 
opeia. Andromeda  is  now  approaching  the  horizon,  her  head  almost 
touching  it  toward  the  northwest.  Next  on  the  left  is  Aries,  and 
above  Aries  is  Perseus.  Above  Perseus  is  Auriga,  Capella  being  almost 
due  west  Cetus  has  nearly  set,  only  its  head  being  visible  above  the 
horizon.  Above  Eridanus  (now  nearly  set)  is  Taurus,  very  favorably 
situated  for  observation.  The  Pleiades  lie  due  west,  and  Aldeboran  — 
a  brilliant  red  star  —  to  their  left.  Orion  is  toward  the  southwest, 
bending  forward  toward  the  west.  Above  him,  but  somewhat  to  the 
left,  are  the  Twins,  Castor  still  uppermost.     Below  the  Twins  are  the 


two  Dogs,  Canis  Major  toward  the  south-southwest,  and  low  down. 
Cor  llydr.v  lies  midway  between  the  south  and  the  southeast,  and  is 
well  raised  above  the  horizon.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  how  blank 
this  part  of  the  heavens  appears,  so  far,  at  least,  as  conspicuous  stars  are 
concerned.  Toward  the  southeast  is  Alkes,  the  chief  star  in  the  Cup; 
and  we  notice  the  Crow  just  rising  into  view  toward  the  left.  Above 
we  recognize  Leo,  the  Sickle  being  now  a  conspicuous  object.  Virgo 
u  partially  into  view  above  the  eastern  horizon.  The  cup- 
shaped  group  formed  by  the  rive  stars  shown  in  the  mapwas  called  by 
the  Arabian  observers,  for  reasons  not  yet  explained,  "The  Retreat  of 
the  I  fowling  Dog."  Bootes  has  now  risen  above  the  horizon,  though 
as  yet  in  a  nCMabtnt  position.  Arcturus  is  a  conspicuous  object  on 
the  right  of  this  constellation.  Below  the  head  and  shoulders  of  Bootes 
notice  the  Crown,  one  star  only  of  which  ( Alphecca)  is  shown  in  the 
map.  Doubtless  this  grasp  of  stars  originally  formed  the  right  arm  of 
Bootes.  The  constellation  recently  attracted  much  notice  as  the  region 
in  which  a  new  star  (or  rather,  an  irregular  variable)  made  its  appear- 
ance a  year  or  two  ago.  Hercules  is  gradually  rising  into  view  townni 
the  northeast 


Map  IY.-HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  APRIL 

.MQZiaOH    NM3HJ»i».. 


So"THERN    HOR»*oH' 


March  21,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening  ;  March  24,  9:45 ;  March  28,  9:30 ;  April  1,9:15;  April  5,  9:00;  April  8,  8:45; 

April  12,  8:30;  April  16,  8:15;  April  20,  8:00. 


v^f  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  easily  found,  being  nearly  overhead.     The 
VJy  pole  lies  below  the  Pointers. 

The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  are  now  somewhat  higher  than  the 
pole  toward  the  right.  Below  the  pole-star  is  Cephus,  and  due  west 
of  him  is  Cassiopeia,  the  W  gradually  approaching  its  natural  posi- 
tion. Andromeda's  feet  are  to  be  seen  above  the  southwestern  horizon, 
anil  toward  the  left  Aries  is  setting. 

Above  Aries  is  Perseus,  now  well  situated  for  observation.     The 
brilliancy  of  the  Milky  Way  in  this  neighborhood  is  worth  noticing. 

Due  west  is  the  Bull,  above  which  lies  Auriga. 

Orion  is  now  approaching  the  horizon,  and   is   prone   toward  his 
"western  grave;  "  above  him  hang  " the  starry  Gemini." 

Toward  the  left  are  the  two  Dogs.     The  Greater  Dog  is  now  set- 
ting. 


Cor  Hydrae  is  somewhat  to  the  west  of  south, 
itt  Leo,  due  south,  and  with  its  handle  vertical. 


Above  is  the  Sickle 


rhe  length  of  Hydra  is  now  nearly  raised  above  the  horizon. 

Virgo  has  risen,  and  the  brilliant  Spica  is  a  conspicuous  object 
toward  the  southeast.  Just  above  the  horizon  is  the  second  star  of  the 
Scales. 

Due  east  is  the  Serpent  just  above  the  horizon.  It  must  be  noticed, 
however,  that  a  part  of  this  constellation  lies  on  the  further  side  of  the 
as  yet  unrisen  Ophiuchus.  Serpens  is  the  only  constellation  thus 
divided. 

Above  Serpens  is  Bootes,  still  nearly  recumbent.  Coma  Berenices 
and  Cor  Caroli  occupy  the  positions  severally  accorded  to  them  in  the 
map. 

To  the  left  of  Serpens  is  Hercules,  or  Engonasin,  the  Kneeler,  sup- 
posed by  many  to  represent  Adam  kneeling  on  the  head  of  the  serpent, 
Draco. 

The  Lyra  has  now  nearly  risen,  in  the  northeast,  immediately  beneath 
the  Dragon's  head. 


Map  V- HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  MAY. 

■MOllHOH    NM3HX«Om 


SOUTHERN    HOR»I°H* 


April  20,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening ;    April  23,  9:45 ;    April  27.  9:30  ;    May  1,  9:15;    May  5,  9:00 ;   May  9. 8:45  ; 

May  13,  8:30;  May  17,  8:15 ;  May  21,  8:00. 


\T*  HE  Great  Bear,  still  overhead,  is  found  immediately,  and  the 
(6)  Pointers,  which  have  now  crossed  over  to  the  west  of  the  zenith, 
point  downward  to  the  pole-star.  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole 
are  now  higher  than  the  pole,  toward  the  right.  Below  the  pole 
Cephus  and  Cassiopeia  are  seen,  the  former  on  the  right.  Andromeda 
has  nearly  disappeared ;  and  Perseus  has  passed  the  northwest,  and  is 
approaching  the  horizon.  The  Pleiades  are  just  setting,  almost  due 
northwest;  and  above  is  Auriga.  In  the  west  we  see  Betelgeux,  the 
sole  star  belonging  to  Orion,  now  visible.  Above,  and  due  west,  are 
the  twin  stars  Castor  and  Pollux.  We  have,  in  fact,  the  configuration 
described  by  Tennyson,  speaking  of  the  season  we  are  considering: 

"  It  fell  on  a  time  of  year 
When  the  shining  daffodil  dies,  ntul  the  Charioteer 
And  starry  Gemini  hang  like  glorious  crowns 
Over  Orion's  grave,  low  down  in  the  west." 

Canis  Major  has  set,  but  the  Lesser  Dog  is  still  above  the  horizon,  to 
the  left  of  and  below  the  Twins.  Cor  Hydr.u  is  almost  exactly 
toward   the  southwest,  and    above    is   Leo.      Due  south,  tin 

Quadrangle  of  Corvus  is  seen,  above  which  is  "  The  Retreat  of  the 
lowling  Dog,"  Spica  shining  conspicuously  on  the  left,  toward  the 


south-southeast.  Libra  has  risen  into  view,  and  somewhat  to  the  east 
of  southeast  we  see  the  first  indications  of  the  interesting  southern  con- 
stellation Scorpio.  The  vertical  row  of  conspicuous  stars  formed  by  a 
part  of  Ophiuchus  and  the  body  of  Serpens  is  well  worth  noticing. 
Above  it  is  Bootes;  to  the  left  of  which,  and  lower  down,  we  see  Her- 
cules, inverted.  His  head  is  marked  by  the  upper  alpha,  the  lower 
representing  the  head  of  Ophiuchus,  the  Serpent-holder — typical,  some 
suppose,  of  the  Messiah.  The  feet  of  the  kneeling  Hercules  are  on 
the  head  of  Draco,  whose  body  and  tail  extend  upward,  between  the 
Guardians  of  the  Pole  and  the  Greater  Bear.  It  is  impossible  not  to 
e,  from  the  configuration«of  this  constellation  as  now  seen,  that 
the  ancients  looked  on  the  stars  which  form  the  Lesser  Bear  as  forming 
a  winj;  of  Draco.  Beneath  the  Dragon's  head  we  see  the  Lyre.  The 
Swan  has  now  risen  above  the  horizon,  and  the  cross  belonging  to  this 
constellation  is  seen  in  an  almost  horizontal  position.  The  brilliancy 
of  the  Milky  Way  at  this  part  of  its  extent  is  well  worth  noticii 
the  space  between  the  stars  a,  /}  and  y  Cygni,  there  is  a  distinctly- 
marked  black  gap  in  the  Milky  Way,  which  has  been  termed  the 
Northern  Coalsack.  The  extension  of  the  Milky  Way  toward  Cephas 
should  also  be  noticed. 


Map  VL-HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  JUNE. 


HOIIMOH  WM3HJV,.., 


SOUTHERN    HOBIl°H' 


May  21,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening;  May  25,  9:45;  May  28,  9:30;  June  1,  9:15;  June  5,  9:00;  June  9,  8:45; 

June  13,  8:30;  June  17,  8:15;  June  21,  8:00. 


jT*  HE  last  star  of  the  Great  Bear's  tail  is  now  just  passing  the  point 
\G\  overhead.  The  Pointers  are  lowermost,  and  the  pole-star  is 
^"^^  below,  toward  the  right.  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  are  above 
the  pole-star,  a  little  toward  the  right.  Below  them  is  Cassiopeia,  the 
W  being  now  almost  in  the  proper  position  of  the  letter.  To  the  left 
is  Perseus,  Algol  being  quite  close  to  the  horizon.  Further  round  to 
the  left  we  see  Capella  and  the  other  stars  of  Auriga  low  down  toward 
the  horizon.  Not  much  higher  are  the  twin-stars  Castor  and  Pollux, 
Castor  to  the  left,  the  feet  of  the  twins  resting  on  the  horizon.  It  is 
interesting  to  compare  the  splendor  of  the  sky  near  the  horizon,  from 
Gemini  in  the  west-northwest,  to  Cassiopeia  in  the  north,  with  the  com- 
parative blankness  of  the  part  of  the  sky  immediately  above  these 
constellations.  Prsesepe  is  almost  due  west,  about  as  high  as  Castor. 
Leo  has  come  around  so  far  toward  the  west  that  the  tip  of  the  Sickle 
just  reaches  that  point  of  the  compass.  Below  Regulus  is  Al  Fard, 
now  near  setting.  Virgo  is  now  at  her  highest,  Spica  shining  resplen- 
dently  a  little  toward  the  west  of  south.  Below  Virgo  notice  Corvus 
and  Crater,  two  of  the  neatest  small  constellations  in  the  heavens. 
Due  south,  just  above  the  horizon,  is  the  head  qf  the  southern  constella- 
tion the  Centaur.  Above  Virgo,  and  almost  due  south,  we  see  Bootes, 
now  nearly  upright,  and  presenting  a  fine  figure  as  with  uplifted  arm 
(the  stars  belonging  to  the  Crown)  he  chases  Ursa  Major  past  the 
zenith.  Returning  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  horizon,  observe  the 
brilliant  red  star  An'ares,  or  Cor  Scorpionis,  lately  risen  above  the 


southeastern  horizon.  Due  southeast  we  see  a  fine  line  of  brilliant 
stars  formed  by  C,  e  and  6  Ophiuchi,  and  t,  a  and  6  Serpentis.  These 
stars,  with  n  Ophiuchi,  and  the  stars  y  and  /3  Serpentis,  form  a  figure 
much  resembling  a  saber,  the  cross-handle  being  formed  by  two  stars 
not  shown  in  the  map.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  large  constellation 
Ophiuchus  (the  reader  will  remember  how  Milton  says  of  a  comet,  that 
it  "fired  the  length  of  Ophiuchus  large")  has  now  risen  above  the 
horizon.  It  requires  some  imagination  to  recognize  in  it  the  figure  of  a 
man  holding  a  serpent ;  but  this  is  not  the  only  instance  in  which  the 
stars  of  a  constellation  bear  little  resemblance  to  the  figure  from  which 
the  constellation  is  named.  Hercules  is  now  nearly  due  east  and  high 
above  the  horizon.  Toward  the  same  quarter,  but  quite  close  to  the 
horizon,  Aquila  is  coming  into  view,  the  brilliant  Altair  scintillating 
finely.  Lyra  is  above,  Vega  being  almost  exactly  midway  between  the 
horizon  and  the  point  overhead.  The  leading  star  of  Cygnus  is  toward 
the  northeast,  the  length  of  the  cross  being  still  nearly  horizontal. 
Between  Cygnus  and  the  point  overhead  is  the  head  of  the  Dragon, 
the  body  and  tail  winding  off  toward  the  left  and  upward,  above  the 
Guardians  of  the  Pole. 

On  some  of  the  dates  named  under  this  map  the  stars  cannot  be 
seen,  as  it  is  not  yet  dark.  Therefore  use  Map  VII.  two  hours  later. 
F6r  instance,  on  June  31,  use  Map  VII.  at  ten  o'clock,  and  similarly  for 
the  other  davs  at  the  end  of  June. 


Map  VII -HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  JULY. 


■  yQlHIOH    MHSHlun*. 


*OOTH«RN    HOHIXO*' 


June  21,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening ;  June  25,  9:45 ;  June  29,  9:30 ;  Jul/  3d,  9:  It: 

July  14,  8:30;  July  18,  8:15;  July  22d.  8:00. 


July  7,  9:00;  July  10,  8:45; 


y*  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  descending  toward  the  northwest.  The 
(6)  Pointers  lie  nearly  half-way  between  the  point  overhead  and  the 
^"^  horizon,  toward  the  northwest.  Thus  the  pole-star  lies  to  the 
right  of  the  Pointers.  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  have  passed  above 
the  pole  toward  the  left.  Below  the  pole,  and  close  to  the  horizon, 
we  see  Perseus  on  the  right,  and  Auriga  on  the  left.  Capella  is  scin- 
tillating brilliantly,  as  are  Castor  and  Pollux,  which  are  now  setting 
near  the  northwest,  Pollux  lowest  and  on  the  left.  Pnesepe  is  nearly 
set,  and  will  probably  not  be  visible  in  the  thick  air  so  low  down.  -  Leo 
is  approaching  the  horizon,  the  Sickle  being  inclined  forward.  Above 
fj  Leonis  notice  the  Hair  of  Berenice,  half-way  between  the  horizon 
and  the  point  overhead,  and  forming  an  interesting  object  at  this  eleva- 
tion. Bootes  stands  now  in  the  northwest,  high  up  above  the  horizon. 
Below  Arcturus  is  Spica,  and  lower  still,  toward  the  right,  the  Crow 
and  Cup  are  setting.  The  constellation  Scorpio  forms  a  magnificent 
object  in  the  south.  The  stars  which  are  assigned  to  this  constellation 
in  maps  form  but  a  portion  of  the  original  constellation,  and  it  is  not 
difficult  to  recognize  in  the  arrangement  of  the  stars  now  lying  toward 
the  south  a  resemblance  to  the  figure  of  a  scorpion  with  extended 
claws.     Above  Scorpio  we  see  the  group  of  stars  compared  to  a  saber, 


now  no  longer  vertical,  but  inclined  forward.  "  Ophiuchus  large  "  it 
fully  raised,  and  reaches  from  the  horizon  more  than  half  way  to  the 
point  overhead,  and  from  the  south  to  the  southeast.  Below  his  head 
(a.)  we  see  Sagittarius  just  rising  above  the  horizon;  and  above  Ophi- 
uchus, Hercules  extends  right  up  to  the  point  overhead.  The  three 
bright  stars  in  the  body  of  Aquila  are  now  midway  between  southeast 
and  east;  the  uppermost  is  y,  the  lowest  ft,  and  the  middle  star  is 
Altair.  Above,  toward  the  left,  is  Lyra,  Vega  being  now  raised  far 
toward  the  point  overhead.  Below  Vega  is  the  head  of  Cygnus,  and 
the  cross  of  Cygnus  is  now  in  a  position  exactly  horizontal,  and  also 
exactly  midway  between  the  point  overhead  and  the  horizon ;  in  other 
words,  each  of  the  stars  a,  y  and  /3  Cygni  now  has  an  elevation  of 
forty-five  degrees  above  the  horizon.  Below  Cygnus,  Pegasus  is  rising 
into  view,  three  stars  of  the  square  being  visible,  and  the  nose  of  the 
horse  (t )  due  east.  Andromeda  has  just  risen  above  the  northeastern 
horizon.     Above  her  feet  we  see  Cassiopeia,  the  \V  still  in  its  natural 

?■  ition.     Draco  forms  a  curve  round  and  above  the  Guardians  of  the 
ole,  his  head  being  to  the  east,  and  close  to  the  point  overhead. 
On  the  last  three  dates  mentioned  under  this  map  it  will  be  better 
to  use  Map  VIII.,  two  hours  later. 


Map  VIII- HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  AUGUST. 

.MOltaOH     NM3HJ,MO«i 


SO"THERN    HOR«*°H 


July  22,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening;    July  26,  9:45;    July  30,  9:30;  Aug.  3,  9:15;  Aug.  7,  9:00;  Aug.  11,8:45; 

Aug.  15,  8:30;   Aug.  19,  8:15  ;  Aug.  23,  8,00. 


5?"""  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  in  the  northwest,  and  midway  between 
(G)  the  point  overhead  and  the  horizon,  the  pole  to  the  right  of  the 
Pointers.  The  Guardians  of  the  Pole  nave  swung  round  above 
the  pole-star  toward  the  north-northwest.  Below  the  pole  is  the  head 
of  the  Charioteer,  Capella  still  low  down  toward  the  right  of  the  north 
point.  Above  the  Lesser  Bear  is  the  body  of  Draco,  his  head  almost 
exactly  overhead.  Below  the  Great  Bear,  Leo  is  setting,  only  a  part 
of  the  Sickle  being  visible.  Coma  Berenices  lies  immediately  above 
the  tip  of  the  Lion's  tail  (/?),  and  above  Coma  again  is  Cor  Caroli  and 
the  poor  constellation,  the  Hunting  Dogs,  of  which  Cor  Caroli  is  the 
leading  brilliant.  Virgo  is  setting.  To  the  left  Spica  is  scintillating 
brilliantly,  close  to  the  horizon  in  the  west-southwest.  Bo5tes  is  now 
midway  between  the  horizon  and  the  point  overhead,  and  inclining 
forward,  his  head  and  shoulders  due  west,  his  feet  above  Spica.  In 
the  southwest  is  Libra,  close  to  the  horizon.  Above  is  Serpens,  reach- 
ing to  a  point  midway  between  the  horizon  and  the  point  overhead. 
Between  the  head  of  the  serpent  (y,  /3)  and  the  zenith  we  see  Hercules, 
reaching  round  from  the  south  to  the  west,  and  still  inverted.  In  fact 
Hercules  is  never  seen  upright  in  our  latitudes.  This  kneeling  figure 
must  have  been  conceived  by  astronomers  living  in  other  latitudes,  and 
at  a  time  when  the  pole  was  very  differently  situated.  Ophiuchus  has 
now  passed  the  south  toward  south-southwest,  and  Antares  and  the 
other  stars  of  Scorpio  lie  toward  the  same  quarter  low  down  toward  the 

26 


horizon.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  portion  of  the  Milky  Way  now 
brought  into  view  toward  the  south.  We  see  here  the  commencement 
of  that  part  of  the  Milky  Way  which,  by  its  superior  brilliancy,  as  seen 
in  southern  latitudes,  indicates  the  greater  proximity  of  the  galaxy  in 
that  direction.  It  is  also  interesting  to  notice  how  singularly  the  two 
branches  of  the  Milky  Way  vary  in  splendor  along  the  southern  half  of 
the  semi-circle  now  above  the  horizon.  Lyra  is  high  up  toward  the 
point  overhead,  the  stars  /3  and  y  forming  a  pendant  to  the  brilliant 
Vega.  Below  them,  toward  the  southeast,  and  about  half  way  between 
the  horizon  and  the  point  overhead,  is  Altair,  y  and  /?  Aquila;  lying 
almost  in  a  vertical  line,  one  above,  the  other  below  Altair.  Low 
down  toward  the  horizon  are  the  zodiacal  constellations  Sagittarius 
(extending  from  south  to  south-southeast),  Capricornus  (extending  past 
the  southeastern  quarter)  and  Aquarius,  reaching  nearly  to  the  east.  It 
is,  indeed,  noteworthy  that  from  the  northwest  right  round  through 
south  to  the  northeast,  the  horizon  is  occupied  by  zodiacal  constella- 
tions, no  less  than  eight  of  which  are  thus  situated — though  Pisces,  hav- 
ing no  conspicuous  stars,  is  not  marked  in,  in  Map  VIII.  Cygnus  is 
high  up  toward  the  east,  and  below  Arided  is  the  square  of  Pegasus. 
The  left-hand  start  of  the  square  is  Alpherat,  and  Andromeda  lies  in  a 
nearly  horizontal  position,  her  feet  being  toward  the  northeast.  Above 
these  is  Cassiopeia,  the  right  hand  side  of  the  W  beginning  to  be  th« 
highest.     Below,  and  close  to  the  horizon,  is  Perseus. 


Map  IX.-HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  SEPTEMBER. 

.mOIHOH    N1I3HHO, 


SOUTHERN    HORIl°M- 


Aug.  23,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening;  Aug.  27.  9:45 ;  Aug.  31,  9:30:  Sept.  4.  9:t5 :  Sept.  8,  9:00;  Sept.  12,  8:45, 

Sept.  15.  8:30;  Sept.  19,  8:15;  Sept  23,  8:00. 


*7~m  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  passing  toward  the  north,  ami  getting  low 
C6)  down.  The  pointers  are  to  the  right  of  the  seven  stars,  and  the 
pole-star  lies  above  them,  and  toward  the  right.  The  Guardians 
of  the  Pole  are  to  the  left  of,  and  scarcely  higher  than  the  pole-star. 
The  Dragon  passes  between  the  two  Bears  toward  the  west,  his  head 
being  still  high  above  the  horizon.  Coma  Berenices  is  setting  between 
northwest  and  west-northwest.  Iiodtes  has  passed  the  west,  and  forms 
a  fine  figure  above  that  part  of  the  horizon.  The  Northern  Crown,  with 
the  brilliant  Alphecca,  is  due  west,  about  midway  between  the  horizon 
and  the  point  overhead. 

Above  the  Crown  are  the  feet  of  Hercules.  I  lis  head  and  shoulders 
are  to  the  left  of  the  Crown,  and  at  alxiut  the  same  height  above  the 
horizon.  The  Serpent  lies  between  the  shoulders  of  Hercules  and  the 
horizon.  On  the  hit  is  •'  Ophiuclius  Urge,"  toward  the  southwest,  and 
extending  from  the  horizon  halfway  to  the  point  overhead.  The  brill- 
iant Vega  lies  toward  the  same  quarter,  but  much  higher  up. 

Aquila  is  due  .south,  Altair  being  about  midway  between  the  horizon 
and  the  point  overhead.     Close  to  the  horizon,  and  extending  from 


south-southwest  to  south,  is  Sagittarius.  Next  to  him,  on  the  left,  is 
Capricornus,  and  next  to  that  again  is  Aquarius,  now  covering  a  wide 
range  of  sky  between  Capricornus  and  Pegasus.  In  the  lenith  is 
Cygnus,  the  upright  and  cross-rod  of  the  cross  being  now  about  equally 
inclined  to  the  horizon.  The  square  of  Pegasus  has  passed  the  M 
the  left-hand  star  being  still  Alphcrat,  and  Andromeda  still  in  a  horizon- J 
tal  position.  Cassiopeia  is  in  the  northeast,  and  raised  somewhat  more 
than  halfway  from  the  horizon  toward  the  point  overhead. 

Below  Andromeda,  Aries  has  fully  risen ;  and  toward  the  northeast,] 
low  down,  we  see  the  Pleiades  again.     Between  them  and  Cassiopeia' 
lies  Perseus.     It  is  well  to  notice  this  constellation  while  in  its  present 
(wsition,  and  also  the  richness  of  the  background  of  milky  light  in  this 
neighborhood.     The  whole  of  this  part  of  the  heavens  is  full  of  I 
and  contrasts  strangely  with  the  barren  region  close  by,  Iwtwcen  the 
north  point  of  the  horizon  and  Cassiopeia. 

Auriga  is  rising  above  the  north  northeast  horizon,  and  Capella  is 
iK'ginning  to  scintillate  le>s  brilliantly  as  it  rises  above  the  denser  strata 
of  the  atmosphere. 


Map  X- HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  OCTOBER. 


SOUTHERN    HOR«°H' 


Sept  23,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening;    Sept  26,  9:45;    Sept  30,  9:30;  Oct  4,  9:f5;  Oct  8,  9:00;  Oct  11,8:45; 

Oct  15,  8:30 ;  Oct.  19,  8:15 ;  Oct  23,  8,00. 


*7~*  HE  Great  Bear  is  low  down  toward  the  north- northwest;  the  pole- 
\G)  star  lying  above,  and  very  little  to  the  right  of  the  Pointers.  The 
Guardians  of  the  Pole  are  now  below  the  pole-star,  on  the  left, 
and  almost  exactly  midway  between  the  horizon  and  the  point  overhead. 
The  Dragon  passes  between  the  two  Bears,  and  round  to  the  left  of  the 
Guardians  of  the  Pole.  His  head  is  toward  the  west-northwest,  high  up 
above  the  horizon.  Cor  Caroli  is  approaching  the  horizon,  and  Bootes 
is  already  half  set.  So,  also,  is  Serpens  in  the  west.  But  Corona  is 
still  well  raised  above  the  north-northwest  horizon.  Hercules  is  in  the 
west,  but  extends  over  a  wide  range,  from  side  to  side.  Vega  is  due 
west,  and  high  above  the  horizon,  the  stars  /3  and  y  lying  to  the  left,  at 
about  the  same  height.  Also  at  about  the  same  height  is  the  star  /?  of 
the  Swan,  and  the  Cross  of  Cygnus  is  now  upright  again,  Arided  lying 
near  the  point  overhead.  Altair  is  in  the  southwest,  raised  somewhat 
less  than  halfway  from  the  horizon  toward  the  point  overhead.  Below 
Aquila  is  Sagittarius.  Next,  to  the  left  and  somewhat  higher,  is  Capri- 
cornus,  and,  next,  Aquarius,  in  the  south.  A  noted  star,  Fomalhaut, 
the  most  southerly  first-magnitude  star  ever  seen  in  this  country,  is  now 
visible  toward  the  east  of  south,  and  very  low  down.     It  is  the  chief 


star  of  the  Southern  Fish,  a  constellation  not  to  be  confounded  w*fh  the 
southermost  of  the  Fishes.  The  Square  of  Pegasus  is  toward  th»  south- 
east, raised  high  above  the  horizon.  Alpherat  is  still  the  most  easterly 
star  of  the  square,  and  Andromeda  is  still  horizontal,  though  now  well 
raised  above  the  eastern  horizon.  The  Sea  Monster,  Cetus,  covers  a  wide 
range  of  the  sky,  low  down,  toward  the  east-southeastern  horizon.  The 
limits  of  the  constellation,  indeed,  as  defined  by  astronomers,  extend 
from  the  east  to  the  south-southeast.  Aries  is  in  the  east,  about  half- 
way between  Andromeda  and  the  horizon.  Taurus  has  now  risen  in  the 
east-northeast,  Aldeboran,  the  brightest  red  star  in  the  htavens,  scintil- 
lating brilliantly  low  down  toward  the  horizon.  Above  the  head  and 
horns  of  Taurus  is  Perseus,  and  immediately  above  Perseus,  raised  three- 
quarters  of  the  way  from  the  horizon  toward  the  point  overhead,  is  Cas- 
siopeia, the  W  now  almost  on  end,  and  having  the  points  toward  the 
right.  Auriga  has  now  risen  in  the  northeast,  Capella  being  almost  ex- 
actly in  that  quarter,  and  raised  somewhat  more  than  one-fourth  of  the 
way  toward  the  point  overhead.  Castor  is  just  rising  between  the  north 
east  and  the  north-northeast 


Map  XI.-HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  NOVEMBER. 


•  hOZIMOH  NMBHlMQn, 


S°OTHERN  HORIION 


Oct.  23,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening;  Oct.  26,  9:45 ;  Oct.  30,  9:30;  Nov.  3,  9:15;  Mot.  7.  9:00; 

Hoy.  14,  8:30;  No*.  18,  8:15 ;  Hoy.  22,  8:00. 


/for.  10.8.-45; 


^~*  HE  Great  Bear  is  now  due  north,  and  at  its  lowest,  the  pole-star 
\G)  lying  above,  and  somewhat  to  the  left  of  the  Pointers.  The 
^"■"^  Guardians  of  the  Pole  are  below  and  to  the  left  of  the  pole  star, 
and  immediately  above  the  last  star  of  the  Great  Bear's  tail.  The  head 
of  Draco  has  now  come  to  the  northwest,  and  is  not  nearly  so  high 
above  the  horizon  as  it  was  a  month  ago.  Due  northwest,  and  almost 
on  the  horizon,  is  Alphecca,  the  other  stars  of  the  Crown  being  also 
very  close  to  the  horizon.  Between  Alphecca  and  the  Great  Bear  the 
head  and  shoulders  of  Bootes  are  still  to  tie  seen  al>ove  the  horizon. 
In  the  west-northwest,  close  to  the  horizon,  are  the  heads  of  the  two 
giant  constellation  figures  Hercules  and  Ophiuchus.  The  left  Ii.uhI 
and  brighter  a  marks  the  place  of  the  head  of  the  Serpent-bearer, 
who  is  now  passing  below  the  horizon.  The  whole  of  Hercules,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  still  above  the  horizon,  and,  as  usual,  inverted. 
Above  is  Lyra,  and  Cygnus  now  occupies  a  conspicuous  position  in 
the  west,  midway  between  the  horizon  and  the  point  overhead,  the 
cross  being  still  nearly  vertical.  Aquila,  the  Eagle,  is  approaching  the 
western  horizon,  Altair  being  in  the  west-southwest,  and  raised  almost 
exactly  one-fourth  of  the  way  toward  the  point  overhead.  Above 
Altair,  and  toward  the  left,  is  an  interesting  little  constellation  not 
marked   in    the    map — Dclphinus.       It    will    M    raCOgBlMd    at    once, 


though  consisting  only  of  small  stars,  by  the  resemblance  it  presents  to 
the  figure  of  a  dolphin  leaping  from  the  sea.  Capricornus  is  in  the 
southwest,  low  down,  and  next  to  it  is  Aquarius,  covering  a  wide 
range  of  the  sky,  and  reaching  almost  to  the  south.  Below  is  Fomal- 
haut,  nearing  the  south-southwest  horizon.  The  square  of  Pegasus  is 
now  at  its  highest.  Andromeda  is  still  horizontal ;  in  fact,  it  is  a 
peculiarity  of  this  constellation  that  throughout  its  rise,  from  near  the 
horizon  to  near  the  point  overhead,  the  star  Alpherat  is  always  very 
nearly  on  the  same  level  with  a  portion  of  the  line  joining  the  two  stars 
•/  and  51,  which  mark  the  feet  of  Andromeda.  This  is  true  from 
the  epoch  indicated  in  Map  VII.  to  that  indicated  in  Map  XI.,  or 
through  one-third  part  of  the  constellation's  Course  round  the  pole. 
Cctus  is  now  well  raised  above  the  south-southeast  horizon.  The  star 
a  ( Mcnkar)  lies  to  the  east  of  southeast.  Immediately  above  this  star 
is  the  head  of  Aries ;  below  it  is  Kridanus,  now  ri>ing  in  '.lie  southeast. 
Orion  also  is  rising,  the  three  stars  forming  his  belt  almost  upright 
toward  the  east.  Above  them  is  Aldeboran,  and  above  that  star  arc 
.the  Pleiades.  Near  the  point  overhead  is  Cassiopeia ;  below  Cassio- 
peia, and  somewhat  to  the  right,  is  Perseus;  below  Perseus, and  to  the 
\urij;a,  with  the  brilliant  Capella ;  and  below  Auriga  the  twin 
stars  Castor  and  Pollux  have  risen,  Castor  vertically  above  Pollux. 


Map  XII.-HALF-HOUR  WITH  THE  STARS  IN  DECEMBER 


.HqziaoHNa3iu^pw 


8°"THERN    HORIZON 


Nor.  22,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening;  Nov.  25,  9:45:  Nov.  29,  9:30 ;  Dec.  3,  9:15 ,  Dec.  7,  9:00:  Dec.  10,  8:45  ; 

Dec.  14,  8:30  ;  Dec.  17,  8:15  ;  Dec.  21,  8:00. 


^""*  HE  tip  of  the  Great  Bear's  tail  lies  almost  due  north,  and  low 
\G)  down.  The  Pointers  are  toward  the  north-northeast,  and  the 
pole-star  is  above,  and  towcrd  the  left.  The  Guardians  of  the 
Pole  hang  below  the  pole-star,  slightly  toward  the  left.  Draco  hangs 
below  the  Lesser  Bear,  extending  around  from  right  to  left,  where  his 
body  bends  downward  again.  The  head  of  Draco  lies  between  north- 
west and  north-northwest,  raised  almost  exactly  one-fourth  of  the  way 
from  the  horizon  toward  the  point  overhead.  Toward  the  left,  slightly 
lower,  is  Vega,  the  companion  stars  (i  and  y  lying  on  the  left.  Cygnus 
is  in  the  west-northwest,  the  cross  again  upright,  and  Arided  raised 
somewhat  less  than  half-way  from  the  horizon  toward  the  point  over- 
head. Above,  very  near  the  point  overhead,  is  Cassiopeia.  Low  down, 
and  somewhat  to  the  right  of  the  western  point  of  the  horizon,  is  Altair, 
with  his  companion  stars  /?  and  y,  the  former  on  his  left,  the  latter  on 
his  right.  The  square  of  Pegasus  is  still  high  above  the  horizon, 
toward  the  west-southwest.  The  highest  star  of  the  square  is 
Alpherat,  and  Andromeda  now  extends  from  this  point  lo  the  point 
overhead,  close  to  which  are  both  her  feet.     Aquarius  is  setting  in  the 


west-southwest.  Cetus  is  due  south,  well  raised  above  the  horizon. 
The  space  below  Cetus,  quite  bare  of  conspicuous  stars,  belongs  to  the 
southern  constellations  Sculptor  and  Fornax.  Above  Cetus  is  Aries, 
the  star  a  due  south,  and  raised  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  way  from  the 
horizon  toward  the  point  overhead.  Above  the  south-southeast  horizon 
is  Eridanus,  covering  a  Urge  space  of  the  sky.  Orion  has  now  well 
risen  above  the  southeastern  horizon  somewhat  easterly.  Above  him 
is  Taurus,  the  Pleiades  now  shining  very  conspicuously.  Near  the 
point  overhead  is  Perseus,  the  star  a  being  toward  the  east,  and 
Algol  toward  the  southeast.  Below  Perseus,  somewhat  to  the  left,  is 
Auriga ;  and  below  the  brilliant  Capella  are  to  be  seen  the  twin-stars 
Castor  and  Pollux,  the  constellation  Gemini  being  now  in  a  horizontal 
position,  the  feet  of  the  twins  (/t  and  y)  resting  on  the  Milky  Way. 
Procyon  has  just  risen  above  the  eastern  horizon.  Toward  the  north- 
east the  sky  is  almost  blank.  But  low  down  may  be  s<:en  two  stars 
belonging  to  the  Sickle  in  Leo,  now  rising  above  the  northeastern 
horizon. 


K 


39° 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


"71 


OUR  GLOBE,  AS  IT  WAS  AND  AS  IT  IS;    WEATHER  AND  CLIMATE; 
ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  LIFE. 


OUR  EARTH  is,  indeed,  a  world  of  wonders,  and  whether 
we  penetrate  its  crust  or  explore  its  surface,  we  will  ever 
find  opportunity  for  study,  and  food  for  reflection.  When 
wc  were  at  school,  and  learnt  the  various  countries  of  the  world, 
we  had  maps  showing  us  the  several  divisions  of  one  realm 
from  another.  The  mountains,  lakes  and  other  prominent 
features  of  each  continent  were  conned  and  repeated,  but  we 
seldom,  perhaps  never,  bestowed  a  thought  upon  the  formation 
of  the  mountains,  and  the  manner  in  which  rivers  ran  down 
into,  and  through,  lakes  to  the  ocean.  There  were  the  moun- 
tains, there  were  the  lakes,  and  rivers,  and  capes,  and  head- 
lands, and  there  they  are  still,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  the 
same  to  see,  to  climb  up,  to  sail  down,  as  the  case  may  be.  But 
the  maps  of  some  countries  have  undergone  visible  changes. 
Territory  has  changed  hands.  Some  powers  have  extended  their 
dominions,  while  other  countries  have  been  dismembered.  This 
study  is  called  Geography — Political  Geography — for  it  marks 
the  political  boundaries.  The  knowledge  of  the  formation  of 
hills,  headlands,  lakes,  rivers,  seas  —  their  causes,  constitution 
and  effects ;  how  they  rose,  how  they  exist  and  wax  or  wane 
during  the  course  of  centuries — is  Physical  Geography.  We 
must  learn  how  this  earth  of  ours  has  been  gradually  made  fit 
for  man's  habitation,  and  what  the  various  stages  of  its  growth 
have  been.  We  must  consider  plant  and  animal  life  upon  our 
planet,  and  how  the  atmosphere  affects  them.  All  this  is  em 
braced  In  Physical  Geography  and  its  satellite  sciences  of  Ge- 
ology, Meteorology,  Climatology,  Mineralogy,  Botany,  Zoology 
and  Ethnology. 

Our  globe  is  nearly  round  in  shape.  In  the  language  of 
science,  it  is  an  oblate  spheroid — that  is,  a  body  having  the 
polar  diameter  shorter  than  the  equatorial.  That  our  earth  is 
round  is  evident  from  the  following  facts  : 

I.  Men  have  circumnavigated  it — that  is,  they  have  sailed  in 
one  continuous  direction  as  nearly  as  the  configuration  of  the 
land  would  permit,  and  have  arrived  at  the  point  of  starting. 


2.  When  we  stand  on  the  shore,  and  observe  a  ship  coming 
in  from  the  sea,  we  notice  that  the  tops  of  the  masts  are  seen 
first,  and  lastly  the  h»ll,  or  body.  The  hull  is  hidden  by  the 
curved  surface  of  the  water.  In  traveling  across  extensive  plains, 
in  like  manner,  the  tops  of  mountains  are  seen  before  their 
lases. 

3.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon  is  caused  by  the  shadow  of  the 
earth  falling  on  the  moon.  This  shadow  is  always  circular.  A 
spherical  body  is  the  only  one  which  will  cast  a  circular  shadow 
in  any  position  in  which  it  may  be  placed. 

4.  The  north  star  rises  as  we  travel  north,  and  declines  as  we 
go  south,  till  we  reach  the  equator,  when  it  disappears. 

For  the  purpose  of  locating  the  different  portions  of  the  earth's 
surface,  imaginary  circles  are  employed.  Every  circle,  whether 
great  or  small,  is  divided  into  360  equal  parts,  called  degrees. 

A  great  circle  divides  the  earth's  surface  into  two  equal  parts, 
or  hemispheres ;  a  small  circle,  into  two  unequal  parts. 

The  equator  is  a  great  circle  equally  distant  from  the  poles. 

A  meridian  circle  is  any  great  circle  passing  through  the  poles. 

A  meridian  is  half  of  a  meridian  circle,  extending  from  pole  to 
pole. 

The  points  on  the  earth's  surface  at  the  ends  of  the  axis  are 
called  poles.  The  one  which  is  nearest  a  certain  fixed  star  called 
the  north  star,  is  the  north  pole ;  the  other  is  the  south  pole. 

The  circumference  of  the  earth  is  the  distance  around  it,  and 
measures  about  25,000  miles. 

The  diameter  of  the  earth  is  a  straight  line  passing  through 
its  center,  and  terminating  in  opposite  points  of  its  surface.  The 
equatorial  diameter  extends  from  any  point  on  the  equator  to  the 
opposite  point,  and  is  about  7,925^  miles  long.  The  polar 
diameter  extends  from  pole  to  pole,  and  thus  coincides  with  its 
axis.  Its  length  in  miles  is  7,899.  The  difference  of  length, 
about  26  Vi  miles,  is  owing  to  the  flattening  of  the  earth,  which 
brings  each  pole  13^  miles  nearer  the  center  than  are  the  points 
that  lie  on  the  equator. 


4^ 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


& 


~7\ 


391 


The  latitude  of  a  place  is  its  distance  from  the  equator, 
measured  on  its  own  meridian.  Latitude  is  either  north  or 
south,  and  is  reckoned  in  degrees  (from  o  to  90),  minutes  and 
seconds.     The  latitude  of  places  on  the  equator  is  o. 

The  longitude  of  a  place  is  its  distance  from  some  given  merid- 
ian, measured  on  its  own  parallel.  Longitude  is  either  east  or 
west,  and  is  reckoned  in  degrees  (from  o  to  180),  minutes  and 
seconds.  The  given  meridian  from  which  longitude  is  reckoned 
is  called  the  first  meridian. 

Every  degree  of  latitude  is  equal  to  about  69^  statute  miles. 
A  degree  of  longi- 
tude, at  the  equa- 
tor, is  also  about 
(x)l/i  statute  miles; 
but,  north  or  south 
of  the  equator,  it 
becomes  less  and 
less  as  the  merid- 
ians approach  each 
other,  and  at  the 
poles,  where  they 
meet,  it  is  nothing. 

The  polar  cir- 
cles are  the  two 
parallels  23^  de- 
grees from  each 
pole.  The  north- 
ern.polar  circle  is 
called  the  Arctic 
Circle;  the  south- 
ern, the  Antarctic 
Circle. 

The  tropics  are 
the  two  parallels 
23  X  degrees  north 
and  23^  degrees 
south  of  the  equa- 
tor. The  north- 
ern tropic  is  called 
the  Tropic  of  Can- 
cer; the  southern, 
the  Tropic  of  Cap- 
ricorn. 

Zones  are  belts  of 
the  earth.bounded 
by  the  polar  circles 

and  the  tropics.  The  North  Frigid  Zone,  which  lies  north  of 
the  Arctic  Circle,  is  23^  degrees  wide.  The  North  Temperate, 
which  lies  between  the  Arctic  Circle  and  the  Tropic  of  Cancer, 
is  43  degrees  wide.  The  Torrid,  which  lies  between  the  tropics, 
is  47  degrees  wide.  The  South  Temperate,  which  lies  between 
the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  and  the  Antarctic  Circle,  is  43  degrees 
wide.  The  South  Frigid,  which  lies  south  of  the  Antarctic  Cir- 
cle, is  23  J^  degrees  wide. 

The  circle  0/ illumination  is  the  great  circle  which  separates 
the  light  side  of  the  earth  from  the  dark. 


Day  and  Night. 

The  earth  has  two  constant  motions  :  (1)  its  daily  motion,  or 
rotation  on  its  axis  (its  shorter  diameter),  from  west  to  east;  (2) 
its  yearly  motion,  or  movement  in  a  nearly  circular  path  (called 
its  orbit)  around  the  sun.  The  length  of  time  the;  earth  is  turn- 
ing on  its  axis  is  called  a  day.  Every  part  of  the  earth's  surface 
being  successively  carried  into  light  and  shade,  the  daily  rota- 
tion causes  the  phenomena  of  day  and  night.  The  length  of 
time  the  earth  is  in  passing  around  the  sun  is  called  a  year. 

It  turns  on  its 
own  axis  in  the 
same  time  about 
365X  times.hence 
there  are  365^ 
days  in  a  year. 

As  the  earth  re- 
volves from  west 
to  east,  the  sun 
will  appear  to 
travel  from  east  to 
west. 

At  the  equator 
th  e  days  and  nights 
are  always  twelve 
hours  long ;  the 
farther  a  point  lies 
from  the  equator, 
the  longer  are  its 
longest  day  and  its 
longest  night. 

At  the  poles  the 
year  is  made  up 
of  but  one  day 
and  one  night, 
each  lasting  six 
months. 

All  places  in 
about  66^£  de- 
grees of  latitude, 
north  or  south, 
have  one  day  in 
the  year  twenty- 
four  hours  long, 
and  one  night  of 
an  equal  length. 


DAY  AND  NIGHT.— EASTERN  HEMISPHERE. 


The   Change   of  Seasons 

Is  produced  by  the  earth's  revolution  around  the  sun,  in  con- 
nection with  the  fact  that  its  axis  is  constantly  inclined  to  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic,  and  always  points  in  the  same  direction. 

The  earth's  axis  is  constantly  inclined  23^  degrees  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit.  If  this  were  not  the  case  there  would  be  no 
change  of  seasons;  the  circle  of  illumination  would  always  be 
identical  with  some  meridian  circle.  The  sun's  rays,  reaching 
from  pole  to  pole,  would  fall  on    each  point  of  the  earth's 


/ 


K 


392 


PHYSICAL  (iEOORAPHV. 


surface  at  the  same  angle  throughout  the  year,  and  days  and 
nights  would  everywhere  be  of  twelve  hours'  duration.  (See 
Astrontmy.) 

GEOLOGY 

Tells  us  about  the  external  surface  of  the  earth,  its  stones  and 
rocks,  and  how  they  were  formed,  and  generally  something  about 
the  conformation  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  and  its  history.  As 
has  been  well  said,  "  Geology  is  the  Physical  Geography  of  the 
past." 

"  Everything 
must  have  a  be- 
ginning," and  the 
earth  must  have 
had  a  beginning, 
although  the  act- 
ual manner  of  the 
physical  creation 
of  our  planet  is  a 
disputed  fact. 

We  are  not 
about  to  discuss 
the  religious  side 
of  the  question.al- 
though  we  should 
undoubtedly  find 
that  Biblical  teach- 
ing and  Geology 
run  side  by  side 
toward  the  same 
end,  and  the  tes- 
timony of  the 
earth  andskybears 
witness  to  the  di- 
vine hand  that 
created  the  uni- 
verse, which  we 
can  trace  back  to 
the  dim  and  dis- 
tant ages  when 
"  the  earth  was 
without  form, and 
void;  and  dark- 
ness was  upon  the 
face  of  the  deep." 


The 


DAY  AND  NIGHT.-WESTERN  HEMISPHERE. 


Six    Eras    of   Creation. 

It  seems  to  be  established  that  each  of  the  six  days  of  Creation 
was  an  era,  a  period,  not  of  twenty-four  hours,  but  of  centuries, 
during  which  great  changes  and  new  appearances  took  place. 
The  first  of  these  eras  was  marked  by  the  creation  of  light;  the 
second,  by  the  separation  of  vapors  from  the  waters ;  the  third, 
by  the  separation  of  land  from  water,  and  the  appearance  of 
grass,  herb,  fruit  and  tree.  On  the  fourth  day,  or  rather  in  the 
fourth  era,  "  Ciod  made  two  great  lights  in  the  firmament  of  the 
heaven ;  the  greater  light  to  rule  the  day,  and  the  lesser  light  to 


rule  the  night :  and  he  made  the  stars  also."  In  the  fifth  era 
were  created  fishes  and  birds  —  "  great  whales,  and  every  living 
creature  that  moveth,  which  the  waters  brought  forth  abund. 
antly,  after  their  kind,  and  every  winged  fowl  after  his  kind." 
In  the  sixth  era  appeared  the  beasts  of  the  earth,  and  finally  man, 
for  whom  the  earth  had  now  become  a  fit  abode. 

The  earth  appears  at  one  time  to  have  been  an  intensely 
heated  molten  ball,  surrounded  by  a  hot  atmosphere  filled  with 
vapors  and  gases.  By  degrees  the  outer  part  of  this  molten  mass 
gave  its  heat  into  space,  and  portions  of  its  matter  became  solid 

as  they  cooled. 
As  the  cooling 
proceeded,  these 
solid  masses  grew 
larger,  and  at  last 
blended  in  a  thin 
crust.  The  vapor 
in  the  atmosphere 
was  next  con- 
densed, and  thus 
was  formed  the 
great  primeval 
ocean,  covering 
the  whole  globe. 
From  time  to  time 
this  mighty  ocean 
would  break 
through  weak 
places  in  the  crust, 
and  pour  on  the 
seething  mass  be- 
low. Great  vol- 
umes of  steam 
would  then  be 
formed,  which 
would  rend  the 
solid  barriers 
above  it,  and  force 
through  the  open- 
ings thus  made 
floods  of  melted 
rock,  to  flow  over 
the  earth,  and, in 
course  of  time  cool 
down  into  a  new 
mineral  deposit. 
In  the  lapse  of  ages,  innumerable  changes  of  this  kind  occurred 
on  the  surface.  Continents  were  upheaved,  and  the  waters 
finally  subsided  into  the  hollow  places,  carrying  with  them  and 
depositing  a  sediment  of  rocky  matter.  The  crust  gradually  be- 
came thioker,  the  surface  assumed  a  form  comparatively  perma- 
nent, and  only  occasional  eruptions  showed  that  fiery  heat  and 
waves  of  molten  rock  still  raged  within. 

A  succession  of  plants,  marking  distinct  eras  of  vegetable  life, 
were  then  called  into  being,  ami  different  orders  of  animals  were 
created — living  and  preying  upon  each  other,  and  dying,  as  they 


t 


Al 


V 


"71 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


393 


do  now.  The  most  simple  forms  of  animal  life  appeared  first ; 
then  those  of  a  higher  organism ;  and  finally  man,  created  in  the 
image  of  God. 

If  any  one  will  take  the  pains  to  evaporate  any  saline  solution 
in  a  capsule  till  it  is  about  to  crystallize,  and  observe  attentively 
the  pellicle  of  salt  as  it  forms  on  the  surface,  an  idea  may  be 
formed  of  our  globe's  physical  history.  First,  a  partial  film  will 
show  itself  in  a  few  places,  floating  about  and  joining  with 
others ;  then,  when  nearly  the  whole  surface  is  coated,  it  will 
break  up  in  some  places  and  sink  into  the  liquid  beneath ;  an- 
other pellicle  will  form  and  join  with  the  remains  of  the  first, 
and  as  this  thickens  it  will  push  up  ridges  and  inequalities  of  the 
surface  from  openings  and  fissures  in  which  little  jets  of  steam 
and  fluid  will  escape.  These  little  ridges  are  chains  of  moun- 
tains; the  little  jets  of  steam,  those  volcanic  eruptions  which 
were  at  one  period  so  frequent;  the  surface  of  the  capsule  is  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  the  five  minutes  which  the  observer  has 
contemplated  it,  a  million  years. 

The  Drincipal  agents  in  producing  the  constant  changes 
going  on  within  and  upon  our  globe  are  the  winds,  the  ocean, 
the  rivers,  and  the  forces  at  work  within  the  earth.  Land  and 
water  are  to  this  day  fighting  for  the  mastery,  as  they  did  when 
the  condensation  of  the  vapors  surrounding  the  earth  formed  the 
seas  and  oceans,  leaving  only  the  higher  portions  of  the  earth's 
mass  exposed,  and  when  the  clearing  up  of  the  dense,  dark 
clouds  for  the  first  time  let  in  upon  the  earth's  surface  the  glori- 
ous and  vivifying  rays  of  the  sun,  corresponding  to  the  earliest 
record  in  the  Bible  of  the  acts  of  Creation :  "  And  God  said,  let 
there  be  light:  and  there  was  light." 

But,  perhaps,  some  reader  may  not  think  that  the  land  and 
water  of  our  earth  are  thus  engaged.  A  very  few  minutes'  re- 
flection, however,  will  suffice  to  confirm  the  assertion.  Look  at 
the  lofty  crags  in  the  Alps,  for  instance.  What  has  shattered 
those  peaks,  and  sent  the  masses  toppling  down  in  stone  ava- 
lanches to  the  lower  slopes,  and  then  into  the  valleys? — Water. 
Water  has  been  in  the  crevices,  and  was  frozen  there  ;  in  freez- 
ing it  expanded  and  loosened  the  crags,  which,  forced  asunder, 
gave  an  opening  to  more  snow  and  ice,  and  so  this  powerful 
leverage,  aided  by  the  wind  and  storm,  is  disintegrating  our 
mountains. 

It  is  the  same  by  the  seashore ;  the  cliffs  are  wearing  away, 
and  the  sea  approaches ;  at  other  places  the  sea  recedes  from 
the  land,  as  coral  formation  and  embryo  chalk  cliffs  are  rising 
under  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  Lakes  dry  up,  and  the  meadow 
or  farm  arises  on  the  site,  while  other  old  spots  are  sub- 
merged. 

The  rocky  wall  over  which  the  Niagara  River  precipitates 
itself,  is  constantly  wearing  away  under  the  impact  of  700,000 
tons  of  water  every  minute ;  so  that  the  falls  are  gradually  re- 
ceding toward  Lake  Erie,  at  a  rate  variously  estimated  at  from 
I  foot  to  1  )£  yards  every  year.  They  were  once,  and  that,  too, 
within  the  present  geological  period,  at  least  four  miles  nearer 
to  Lake  Ontario  than  they  now  are. 

It  is  computed  that  the  Mississippi  carries  annually  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  400,000,000  tons  of  earthy  matter — enough  to  cover 
an  area  of  ten  square  miles  to  the  depth  of  twenty-five  feet. 


The  winds  transport  loose  sand,  particularly  on  coasts  ex- 
posed to  their  fury,  and,  driving  it  inland,  heap  it  up  in  parallel 
ridges.  Such  sand-hills,  or  downs,  as  they  are  called,  are  very 
common  near  the  ocean ;  on  the  coast  of  England  they  have 
buried  houses  and  farms. 

Rivers  are  constantly  changing  the  earth's  surface  by  wearing 
passages  through  the  strata  over  which  they  flow,  and  by  bearing 
incalculable  quantities  of  earthy  matter  to  the  sea,  to  form  new 
deposits  at  their  mouths. 

No  rest,  no  change  of  idea,  but  ever  changing  in  physical  ap- 
pearance, Nature  goes  on  her  wondrous  way,  working  now  as 
steadily,  as  harmoniously  and  as  surely  as  she  did  before  time 
was,  and  as  she  will  continue  to  do  when  time  shall  be  no 
more.  And  all  the  works  of  Nature,  ever  changing,  yet  ever  the 
same,  are  recorded  by  the  same  Power  that  governs  them. 
"  All  things,"  says  Emerson,  "  are  engaged  in  writing  their  his- 
tory. The  planet,  the  pebble,  goes  attended  by  its  shadow. 
The  rolling  rock  leaves  its  scratches  on  the  mountain;  the  river, 
its  channel  in  the  soil;  the  animal,  its  bones  in  the  stratum ;  the 
fern  and  leaf,  their  modest  epitaph  in  the  coal.  The  falling 
drop  makes  its  sculpture  in  the  sand  or  the  stone.  Not  a  foot 
steps  into  the  snow  or  along  the  ground,  but  prints,  in  characters 
more  or  less  lasting,  a  map  of  its  march.  Every  act  of  the  man 
inscribes  itself  in  the  memories  of  his  fellows,  and  in  his  own 
manners  and  face.  The  air  is  full  of  sounds,  the  sky  of  tokens, 
the  ground  is  all  memoranda  and  signatures,  and  every  object 
covered  over  with  hints  which  speak  to  the  intelligent" 

Rocks. 

We  must  entirely  put  away  from  our  minds  the  idea  that  the 
earth  we  live  on  was  created  at  once,  or  as  it  appeared  to  the  first 
human  beings.  Our  planet  was  prepared  for  man  by  degrees 
during  millions  of  years.  Therefore,  supposing  (as  is  supposed) 
that  the  earth  came  from  the  sun,  we  have  all  the  material  of  the 
globe  in  a  fused  state.  As  the  earth  cooled,  rocks  were  formed 
by  pressure,  and  then  water  came,  and  now  we  can  read 
"  books  in  the  running  brooks,  and  sermons  in  stones,"  at  our 
leisure. 

A  rock,  in  geology,  is  any  natural  formation  of  earthy  or  stony 
material,  whether  in  the  form  of  sand,  gravel,  clay,  mold,  or  a 
compacted  mass.  In  regard  to  their  form  and  position,  the  rock 
masses  of  the  earth's  crust  may  be  divided  into  three  classes — 
stratified  rocks,  unstratified  rocks,  and  veins. 

Stratified  recks  are  those  that  lie  in  layers,  or  strata.  They 
compose  the  greater  part  of  the  land  surface  of  the  earth,  form- 
ing not  only  vast  plains,  but  whole  mountain  systems.  To  this 
class  belong  slate,  sandstone,  limestone,  marl,  chalk,  etc. 

Unstratified  rocks  are  irregular  masses,  formed,  not  by  the 
deposit  of  sediment  in  beds  or  layers,  but  by  the  gradual  cooling 
of  melted  matter.  They  embrace  igneous  and  metamorphic 
rocks. 

Igneous  rocks  owe  their  orign  to  the  action  of  heat,  as  the 
stratified  rocks  do  to  that  of  water.  Basalt  may  be  mentioned 
as  an  example  of  the  igneous  rocks.  In  some  regions  it  consti- 
tutes immense  beds,  and  in  others  forms  gigantic  columns,  as 
regular  as  if  wrought  by  art. 


7F 


^J 


v- 


«5 ^ 


K 


'7t 


394 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Metamorphic  rocks  are  such  as  were  originally  stratified,  but 
afterward  underwent  a  change  of  structure  through  the  agency 
of  heat  or  chemical  action. 

Veins  are  rock-matter  filling  the  cracks  of  fissures  of  other 
rocks.  They  vary  greatly  in  size  and  extent.  They  may  be 
regular  or  irregular  in  form,  isolated  or  united  in  a  complex  net- 
work. 

The  term  drift  is  employed  to  designate  the  immense  deposits 
of  sand,  gravel,  clay  and  boulders,  or  loose  rocks,  which  exist 
over  a  great  part  of  the  American  continent.  The  origin  of 
this  material  is  referred  to  "  Glacial  Period"  when,  from  some 
cause,  a  change  of  climate  caused  immense  masses  of  ice,  either 
in  the  form  of  icebergs  or  glaciers,  to  plow  their  way  over  the 
continent,  bringing  the  material  from  the  Archaean  beds  and 
depositing  it  over  the  existing  formations,  and  at  the  same  time 
scoring  and  grooving  the  underlying  rocks. 

The  Geologic  Ages. 

There  are  seven  great  geologic  ages,  or  divisions  of  time, 
known  as  the  Azoic,  the  Silurian,  the  Devonian,  the  Carbonifer- 
ous, the  Reptilian,  the  Ma.nmalian,  and  the  Age  of  Man.  Our 
knowledge  of  the  plants  and  animals  of  the  ages  preceding  the 
creation  of  man  is  derived  from  their  remains  dug  out  of  the 
earth,  and  called  fossils. 

The  Azoic  Age  is  the  era,  as  its  name  implies,  when  there  was 
no  life,  either  vegetable  or  animal,  cr.  the  globe.  The  crystal- 
line minerals  and  all  the  igneous  rocks  date  back  to  this  age, 
and  hence  they  are  destitute  of  fossils. 

During  the  Silurian  Age,  the  second  in  atiquity,  there  was 
no  terrestrial  life ;  but  mollusks — animals  with  soft,  fleshy  bodies, 
without  any  internal  skeleton,  like  the  oyster  and  the  snail  — 
abounded  in  the  waters.  The  oldest  sandstone  and  limestone 
belong  to  this  period.     Its  plant-fossils  are  sea-weeds. 

The  Devonian  Age  was  the  age  of  fishes,  remarkable  for  their 
thick,  bony  scales.  The  sea  also  teemed  with  shell-,  corals  and 
sea- weed;  while  the  land,  though  yet  limited  in  extent,  began 
to  be  covered  with  vegetation.  Insects,  the  earliest  of  terrestrial 
animals,  now  first  appeared. 

The  Carboniferous  Age,  or  age  of  coal,  is  fourth.  From 
colossal  tree  ferns,  leaves  and  branches,  deposited  in  successive 
centuries,  were  formed,  by  gradual  decomposition  under  water, 
those  vast  coal-beds  on  which  the  industrial  pursuits  of  the  pres- 
ent day  so  largely  depend.  The  animals  of  this  age  consisted 
mainly  of  insects  of  various  kinds;  and  inferior  tribes  of 
reptiles. 

The  Reptilian  Age  was  marked  by  the  great  number,  variety 
and  size  of  its  reptiles,  the  appearance  and  habits  of  which  are 
known  from  the  remains,  found  .buried  in  the  rocks  of  this 
period.  The  rocks  of  this  age  are  the  freestones,  extensively 
used  for  building,  sandstone  formations,  intersected  with  ridges 
of  trap  of  igneous  origin,  limestone  and  gypsum,  laminated  and 
plastic  clays,  and  chalk-beds,  containing  layers  of  flint. 

The  Mammalian  Age  was  the  sixth.  The  reptiles  now  dwin- 
dled in  size  and  diminished  in  number,  being  succeeded  by 
quadrupeds,  some  of  which  were  much  larger  than  any  modern 
species.     The  deinotherium,  mastodon,  megatherium  and  fossil 


elephant  were  among  the  gigantic  animals  of  this  era,  while  the 
plants  resembled  those  of  the  present  time,  palms,  oaks,  «"?pW. 
magnolias,  etc.,  being  found  in  the  forests. 

The  Age  of  Man  is  the  last  of  the  seven  geologic  ages. 
The  huge  monsters  that  gave  the  preceding  period  its  peculiar 
character  became  extinct,  and  were  replaced  by  smaller  animals 
—  those  we  see  around.  Man  was  created,  and  invested  with 
dominion  over  the  earth.  This  is  the  "era  of  the  finished 
world  —  the  era,  also,  of  man's  progress  and  preparation  for  an- 
other and  a  higher  life." 

THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE. 

The  earth's  surface  of  an  area  of  about  197,000,000  square 
miles,  of  which  only  about  one-fourth  is  land. 

Lowlands  are  tracts,  either  level  or  diversified  by  hill  and 
vale,  not  elevated  more  than  1,000  feet  above  sea-level.  Deserts 
are  extensive  tracts  destitute  of  water,  and,  consequently,  of 
vegetation  and  animal  life. 

Silvas  are  forest  plains.  Plains  that  produce  grass,  but  not 
trees,  are  known  in  North  America  as  prairies  ;  in  South  Amer- 
ica as  llanos  and  pampas  ;  in  Asia  and  Southeastern  Europe  as 
steppes. 

The  desert  of  Sahara,  as  far  as  known,  consists  partly  of 
table-lands  and  partly  of  low  plains.  It  is  interspersed  with 
oases,  or  fertile  spots,  which  are  generally  lower  than  the  sur- 
rounding country;  some  of  these  are  of  considerable  extent  and 
well  populated. 

A  mountain  is  an  elvation  of  land  exceeding  2,000  feet  in 
height.     A  A  ill  is  less  than  2,000  feet  in  height. 

A  mountain-chain  is  a  long,  elevated  ridge,  or  several  moun- 
tains extending  in  a  line. 

Mountains  are  of  great  use  to  man.  They  attract  the  clouds, 
condense  their  moisture,  and  store  up  in  reservoirs  the  water 
received  from  them,  sending  it  forth  again  in  streams,  from 
thousands  of  springs,  to  fertilize  .  the  soil.  They  increase  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  giving  variety  to  its  vegetable  pro- 
ductions. They  protect  the  adjacent  countries  from  cold  and 
piercing  winds,  and  thus  exert  a  favorable  influence  on  their 
climare. 

An  avalanche  is  a  large  mass  of  snow,  ice  and  earth,  sliding 
or  rolling  down  a  mountain.  A  water-shed  is  the  mountain 
chain  or  ridge  of  land  which  separates  one  basin  from  another, 
and  from  which  the  rivers  flow. 

A  mountain  pass  is  an  elevated  road  crossing  a  mountain - 
chain  through  a  natural  opening  or  depression. 

Glaciers  are  immense  masses  of  ice  formed  by  the  accumu- 
lated snows  upon  the  mountain  tops.  They  fill  in  vast  valleys, 
and  have  an  onward  motion  throughout  like  a  liquid  or  semi- 
liquid  body,  Their  course  down  the  slopes  is  very  slow,  lnit, 
like  rivers,  they  flow  faster  in  the  middle  than  at  the  bottom 
and  sides.  The  lower  extremities  are  constantly  melting,  form- 
ing torrents  and  mountain  streams,  while  the  upper  parts  are 
fed  by  the  snows.  Rocks  of  immense  size  are  torn  off  and  car- 
ried down  by  glaciers.  They  occur  in  the  greatest  numbers  in 
the  Alps.  When  a  glacier  reaches  the  ocecn  large  fragments 
are  broken  off  and  float  away  as  itebtrgt. 


**  « ■- 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


395 


VOLCANIC  PHENOMENA. 

That  the  interior  of  the  earth  has  a  high  temperature,  inde- 
pendent of  the  influence  of  the  sun's  rays,  seems  to  be  proven  by 
many  phenomena.  The  majority  of  scientists  maintain  that  the 
center  of  the  earth  is  a  mass  of  molten  material,  and  that  conse- 
quently the  temperature  increases  the  nearer  this  center  is  ap- 
proached. This  theory  seems  to  accord  with  the  facts  in  rela- 
tion to  hot  springs,  artesian  wells,  volcanoes,  etc.,  although  it  is 
maintained  by  some  that  these  phenomena  may  be  caused  en- 
tirely by  local  chemical  changes  going  on  within  the  earth's 
crust. 

Hot   Springs. 

Thermal  or  hot  springs  are  most  common  in  mountainous 
regions,  and  especially  where  the  earth's  crust  is  most  broken 
and  disturbed.  Springs  of  every  kind  are  formed  by  the  rain  or 
melted  snow  sinking  into  the  earth  and  issuing  from  it  again  at 
a  lower  level.  The  fact  that  the  water  is  sometimes  hot,  shows 
that  it  must  have  come  in  contact  with  heated  rock  material 
within  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

They  are  found  of  every  grade  of  temperature  from  that  of 
slightly  above  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  to  the  boiling  point. 
They  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  the  most  numerous, 
perhaps,  in  Europe. 

Geysers 

Are  intermittent,  spouting,  hot  springs,  and  have  a  temperature 
at  the  boiling  point.  They  are  found  in  Iceland,  New  Zealand, 
and  in  the  "  National  Park  "  at  the  head  waters  of  the  Yellow- 
stone River  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  most  celebrated  is  the  Great  Geyser  of  Iceland.  It  con- 
sists of  an  immense  well,  or  funnel,  10  feet  wide  at  its  mouth, 
and  about  70  feet  deep,  surmounted  at  the  surface  with  a  basin 
65  feet  in  diameter  and  7  feet  deep,  formed  by  the  deposit  of 
mineral  matter  from  the  water.  At  intervals  it  sends  up  a  col- 
umn of  water  and  steam  to  the  height  of  100  feet.  More  re- 
markable even  than  the  geysers  of  Iceland  are  some  that  are 
found  in  the  "  National  Park."  One,  the  Giantess,  throws 
water  to  the  height  of  200  feet.  Grasshoppers  and  other  insects, 
and  pieces  of  wood  which  fall  into  the  waters,  soon  become  in- 
crusted  with  quartz,  which  is  held  in  solution  by  the  water,  thus 
permanently  petrifying  them. 

Volcanoes. 

A  volcano  is  a  mountain,  or  opening  in  the  earth's  crust, 
through  which  issue  fire,  smoke,  ashes,  lava,  steam,  etc.  Vol- 
canoes may  be  distinguished  as  extinct  and  active.  Extinct 
volcanoes  are  such  as  are  now  at  rest,  but  were  subject  to  erup- 
tions in  former  ages,  as  is  shown  by  their  form  and  structure, 
and  the  presence  of  craters.  Active  volcanoes  are  such  as  are 
either  in  a  constant  state  of  eruption,  or  have  eruptions  from  time 
to  time,  with  intervals  of  rest. 

Volcanoes  throw  out  an  enormous  amount  of  material.  Whole 
islands  and  portions  of  continents  have  been  formed  by  volcanic 
action.     Iceland  is  an  example  of  a  volcanic  island. 

The  lava,  when  it  first  issues  from  a  volcano,  is  somewhat  like 
melted  iron  running  from  a  furnace,  but  soon  cools  on  the  surface 


and  forms  a  black,  porous  crust.  Sometimes  the  streams  are  so 
thick  that  the  interior  remains  hot  for  twenty  years. 

A  terrific  eruption  of  Mt.  Vesuvius,  A.D.  79,  destroyed  the 
flourishing  cities  of  Pompeii,  Herculaneum  and  Stabiae,  and 
covered  them  with  ashes  and  cinders  to  the  depth  of  fifteen 
feet. 

About  sixty  eruptions  of  Mt.  Etna  are  recorded.  In  1669,  a 
stream  of  lava  from  this  mountain  overflowed  the  ramparts  of 
Catania,  sixty  feet  in  height,  and  destroyed  a  portion  of  the  city. 
In  1832,  several  craters  opened  in  the  sides  of  the  mountain,  and 
a  stream  of  lava  eighteen  miles  long,  one  mile  broad,  and  thirty 
feet  deep,  poured  over  the  adjacent  fields. 

In  1835,  the  terrible  eruption  of  Conseguina  occurred.  It 
lasted  three  days,  during  which  the  light  of  the  sun  was  obscured 
over  half  of  Central  America,  and  more  than  40,000  square 
miles  are  said  to  have  been  covered  with  dust,  ashes  and  lava. 

Fields  of  Fire. 

In  some  localities  an  inflammable  gas  issues  from  openings  in 
the  ground.  This  gas  frequently  becomes  ignited  and  burns  for 
some  time.  There  is  a  region  of  this  kind  on  the  western  shore 
of  the  Caspian  Sea.  This  gas  is  supposed  to  be  from  the  decom- 
position of  vegetable  matter  by  internal  heat. 

Earthquakes. 

The  second  class  of  volcanic  phenomena  are  earthquakes. 
These  consist  of  vibrations  or  tremblings  of  the  earth's  crust, 
and  are  caused  by  movements  in  the  fluid  interior;  but  how 
these  movements  are  produced,  is  as  yet  unknown.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  since  the  Creation  earthquakes  have  destroyed 
thirteen  million  human  beings.  Scientists  assert  that  not  less 
than  twelve  shocks  of  earthquake  are  experienced  in  the  United 
States  daily,  although,  of  course,  they  are  but  slight,  and  individ- 
ually unworthy  of  mention. 

An  earthquake  is  generally  preceded  by  unmistakable  signs. 
The  electrical  condition  of  the  air  seems  to  be  changed  percep- 
tibly to  both  men  and  beasts — the  former  experiencing  oppression 
and  dizziness ;  the  latter  uttering  cries  of  distress,  running  wildly 
about,  or  otherwise  manifesting  uneasiness.  The  atmosphere  is 
unnaturally  still  and  hazy,  and  the  sun  seen  through  it  looks 
like  a  ball  of  fire. 

The  year  1868  was  remarkable  for  the  number  and  severity  of 
its  earthquakes.  One  of  these  occurred  in  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
destroying  whole  villages  and  many  lives.  One  of  the  most 
terrible  earthquakes  on  record  occurred  in  South  America,  in 
August  of  that  year.  Its  center  of  activity  seems  to  have  been 
at  Arica,  a  seaport  of  Peru,  which  was  completely  destroyed, 
with  two  hundred  of  its  inhabitants.  The  shocks  extended 
throughout  the  Andes,  from  the  United  States  of  Colombia  to 
Chili,  and  towns  and  cities  were  laid  in  ruins.  It  is  estimated 
that  more  than  fifty  thousand  persons  lost  their  lives  by  this 
catastrophe. 

The  great  earthquake  of  Lisbon  occurred  November  I,  1755. 
A  rumbling  sound  beneath  the  surface  was  immediately  followed 
by  three  shocks,  so  close  together  that  they  seemed  but  one, 
which  threw  down  the  principal  part  of  the  city;  the   sea 


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396 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


retired,  leaving  the  bar  dry,  and  instantly  returned  in  a  wave 
forty  feet  high,  engulfing  a  great  marble  quay,  to  which  multi- 
tudes had  fled  to  escape  the  falling  buildings.  In  the  space  of 
six  minutes,  thirty-five  thousand  persons  perished. 

The  most  remarkable  earthquake  that  has  occurred  in  the 
United  States  is  that  of  New  Madrid,  on  the  Mississippi,  in 
1811-12.  For  several  months  there  was  an  incessant  quaking 
of  the  ground,  which,  for  a  distance  of  three  hundred  miles, 
rose  and  sank  in  undulations.  The  most  of  the  town  was  sub- 
merged. 

Readers  will  remember  the  earthquake  which  visited  Java  in 
1882,  and  also  that  in  Spain  the  lattei  part  of  December,  1884, 
the  shocks  continuing  into  the  middle  of  January,  1885.  Accord- 
ing to  the  official  record,  the  number  of  persons  killed  in 
Granada  was  695,  while  1,480  were  injured. 

The  crust  of  the  earth  is  in  some  places  gradually  and  slowly 
rising ;  in  other  places  it  is  sinking.  The  coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica, from  Labrador  to  New  Jersey,  is  slowly  rising.  The 
southern  part  of  Greenland  is  sinking.  The  Scandinavian  pen- 
insula is  sinking  in  the  southern  part  and  rising  in  the  northern 
part.  These  changes  are  at  the  rate  gf  a  few  feet  only  in  a  hun- 
dred years.  The  cause  is  probably  the  slow  contraction  from 
cooling  of  the  earth's  crust. 

ISLANDS. 

About  one-seventeenth  of  the  land  surface  of  our  planet  is  in 
the  form  of  fragmentary  bodies,  called  islands.  They  may  be 
considered  as  of  two  classes :  Continental,  those  lying  in  the 
near  vicinity  of  the  continents,  and  really  forming  a  part  of  the 
continental  structure,  and  oceanic,  those  lying  at  a  distance  from 
the  continents,  in  the  midst  of  the  oceans,  and  differing  in  struc- 
ture from  the  continents. 

Oceanic  islands  are  all  small  and  usually  occur  in  groups. 
Their  rock  structure  is  essentially  different  from  that  of  the  conti- 
nents, and  the  vegetation  and  animal  life  generally  peculiar. 
They  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  —  volcanic,  or  high,  and 
the  coral,  or  low. 

The  volcanic  islands  are  the  summits  of  active  or  extinct  vol- 
canoes projecting  above  the  water.  They  are  usually  consider- 
ably elevated,  with  steep  shores,  and  more  or  less  circular  in 
outline.  Some  have  peaks  of  great  height,  as  one  of  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  with  the  peak  of  Hawaii,  fourteen  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea  level.  Many  of  them  have  appeared  within  the 
history  of  man. 

Coral  islands  are  among  the  most  interesting  phenomena  o' 
Physical  Geography.  They  owe  their  existence  to  the  work  oi 
colonies  of  small  radiate  animals  called  polyps.  The  structure 
of  the  polyp  consists  of  a  cylindrical  or  sack-like  membrane, 
attached  at  the  bottom  to  some  solid  body,  and  enclosing  a 
second  sack,  which  forms  the  stomach.  At  the  top  is  an  open- 
ing, or  mouth,  which  is  surrounded  by  thread-like  organs  called 
tentacles.  When  expanded,  the  polyp  resembles  a  flower  in 
form  and  often  in  the  beauty  of  its  color.  The  solid  coral, 
which  composes  the  reef,  is  secreted  in  the  cavity  between  the 
outer  and  inner  membranes,  as  the  bones  are  secreted  in   the 


bodies  of  higher  animals.  Coral  polyps  multiply  by  eggs,  to  a 
certain  extent,  but  chiefly  by  a  process  of  budding  similar  to  the 
branching  of  plants.  Thus  they  grow  into  vast  communities,  in 
which  generation  succeeds  generation,  each  individual  leaving 
behind,  as  it  dies,  its  contribution  to  the  reef  in  the  form  of  a 
small  cell  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The  polyps  cannot  live  out  of 
water,  and  hence  their  work  must  cease  at  low  water  mark. 
Fragments  of  the  coral  structure  are  broken  off  and  thrown  upon 
the  top  of  the  mass  by  the  waves,  and  thus  in  the  course  of  time 
a  reef,  as  it  is  called,  is  formed,  projecting  from  the  water. 
Upon  this  reef  a  vegetation  finally  springs  up  from  the  seeds 
which  the  winds  and  waves  bring,  and  a  soil  is  formed  from  the 
pulverized  coral,  drifted  material  and  decayed  vegetation.  The 
reef-building  polyps  exist  only  in  tropical  regions,  or  where  the 
water  never  gets  below  the  temperature  of  68°  F. 


WATER. 

This  all-important  and  ever-present  liquid  is  a  chemical  com- 
bination of  two  gases,  oxygen  and  hydrogen — eight  parts  of  the 
former  by  weight  being  combined  with  one  of  the  latter.  When 
pure,  it  is  destitute  of  color,  taste  and  smell ;  but,  as  it  readily 
absorbs  gases  and  dissolves  many  solids,  it  is  seldom  found  in 
this  state. 

The  large  body  of  water  covering  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  earth's  surface  is  called  the  ocean.  There  is  really  but  one 
ocean ;  but  the  continents  partially  divide  it  into  five  basins, 
which  we  distinguish  by  different  names,  as  the  Atlantic,  Pacific, 
Indian,  Arctic,  and  Antarctic  Oceans. 

The  bottom  of  the  ocean  is  supposed  to  be  diversified  with 
depressions  and  elevations — with  low  plains,  plateaus  and 
mountains  —  like  the  land;  hence  the  depth  differs  in  different 
parts.  Some  of  the  researches  lately  made  by  English  explorers 
in  regard  to  deep-sea  beds  have,  however,  led  to  the  belief  that 
there  are  no  rough  ridges,  abrupt  chasms  nor  bare  rocks,  and 
that  the  sea  bottom,  at  great  depths,  is  not  affected  by  currents 
or  streams  —  even  by  those  of  the  magnitude  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
— its  general  appearance  rather  resembling  that  of  the  American 
prairies,  and  it  is  everywhere  covered  by  a  kind  of  mud.  The 
greatest  depth  shown  by  soundings  is  eight  and  three-quarter 
miles.  The  mean  depth  of  the  whole  body  of  the  ocean  is  esti- 
mated at  four  miles. 

The  color  of  the  ocean  is  a  beautiful  sky-blue  where  the 
depth  is  great,  but  in  shallow  water,  yellowish  tints,  reflected 
from  the  bottom,  mingle  with  the  blue,  and  produce  a  grayish 
green. 

Phosphorescence,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  marine  phe- 
nomena, is  a  brilliant  light  occasionally  observed  in  the  sea 
during  dark  nights,  particularly  in  tropical  regions.  Sometimes 
the  crests  of  the  waves,  the  spray  thrown  up  by  the  ship's  bow, 
and  the  wake  she  leaves  behind,  look  as  if  they  were  on  fire. 
This  phenomenon  is  produced  by  myriads  of  animalcules, 
which  have  the  property  of  emitting  light  from  their  bodies, 
like  fire-flics.  A  hundred  of  them  have  been  found  in  a  single 
drop  of  sea-water. 


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PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


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L 


The   Oceanic   Movements. 

The  great  body  of  the  ocean  is  never  at  rest ;  not  only  is  the 
surface  agitated  by  the  winds,  but  even  at  great  depths  the 
wat.er  moves  from  one  region  to  another. 

There  are  four  oceanic  movements,  viz.:  waves,  tides,  cur- 
rents and  whirlpools. 

Waves  are  ridges  of  water,  produced  by  the  friction  of  winds 
on  the  surface.  Tides  are  alternate  risings  and  fallings  of  the 
waters  of  the  ocean. 

Tides  are  produced  by  the  attraction  of  the  moon  and  sun — 
principally  that  of  the  former — acting  with  different  degrees  of 
force  on  different  parts  of  the  earth.  Were  the  moon  the  sole 
cause  of  the  tides,  they  would  always  be  of  the  same  height ;  but 
the  sun  also  exerts  an  attraction,  which,  according  as  it  acts  with 
or  against  that  of  the  moon,  increases  or  diminishes  the  height 
of  the  tide. 

The  currents  are  vast  streams  which  traverse  the  ocean,  and 
keep  its  waters  in  perpetual  circulation.  The  principal  of  these 
are  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  Equatorial,  Japan,  Antarctic  and  Arctic 
currents. 

The   Gulf  Stream. 

The  most  important  of  the  oceanic  currents  is  the  Gulf 
Stream,  so  called  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  out  of  which  it  flows 
into  the  Atlantic,  through  the  Strait  of  Florida.  It  is  from 
twenty-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  width,  and  moves 
with  a  velocity  of  from  one  and  one-half  to  five  miles  an  hour, 
the  water  being  much  warmer  than  other  parts  of  the  ocean  near 
it.  Its  color  is  of  a  deep  indigo  blue,  strikingly  different  from 
the  green  of  the  surrounding  ocean.  A  branch  of  this  vast  body 
of  warm  water,  constantly  flowing  past  the  western  coast  of 
Europe,  exerts  a  most  genial  influence  on  the  climate.  Even 
many  miles  in  the  interior  the  air  is  tempered  by  west  winds, 
warmed  by  contact  with  this  great  stream.  The  Gulf  Stream 
carries  the  heat  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  across  the  Northern 
Atlantic  to  the  shores  of  Scotland  and  Norway.  This  tropical 
river,  flowing  steadily  through  the  cold  water  of  the  ocean, 
rescues  England  from  the  snows  of  Labrador.  Should  it,  by 
any  chance,  break  through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  Great 
Britain  would  be  condemned  to  eternal  glaciers. 

The   Equatorial   Currents. 

An  equatorial  current  crosses  the  Atlantic  from  the  coast  of 
Africa  to  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  St.  Roque.  It  there  divides 
into  two  branches,  a  northwesterly  and  a  southwesterly,  each  of 
which  follows  the  South  American  coast — the  former  making 
its  way  into  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

In  the  Pacific  two  equatorial  currents  are  found — one  north 
and  the  other  south  of  the  equator.  The  former,  turning  to  the 
northeast  near  the  Loo  Choo  Islands,  continues  under  the  name 
of  the  Japan  current.  The  south  equatorial  current  of  the 
Pacific  consists  of  two  branches,  one  of  which,  striking  the 
Australian  coast,  divides  into  a  northwesterly  and  a  south- 
westerly branch,  as  does  the  Atlantic  equatorial  current  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil ;  the  other,  farther  north,  turns  near  the  Caroline 
Islands,  and  reverses  its  course,  crossing  the  Pacific  again  in  a 


direction  nearly  due  east  to  South  America,  under  the  name  of 
the  Equatorial  counter-current. 

The  Japan   Current, 

In  the  Pacific,  bears  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  the  Gulf 
Stream  in  the  Atlantic.  Impelled  by  the  Pacific  equatorial  cur- 
rent, it  sweeps  from  the  China  Sea  along  the  Asiatic  island 
chains,  in  a  northeasterly  direction,  toward  the  Aleutian  Islands 
and  Alaska,  the  climate  of  which  it  improves,  as  the  Gulf  Stream 
does  that  of  Northwestern  Europe.  Between  the  Japan  current 
and  the  main  land,  a  cold  current  sets  in  the  opposite  direction, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 

The   Antarctic   Current, 

Which  enters  the  Atlantic,  runs  in  a  northwesterly  direction  to 
the  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  and  thence  along  its  western 
eoast  until  it  joins  the  Equatorial  near  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  That 
which  sets  into  the  Pacific  flows  along  the  South  American 
coast,  under  the  name  of  the  Peruvian  or  Humboldt  current,  and 
is  merged  in  the  Equatorial  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil.  The 
Antarctic  current,  belonging  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  runs  along  the 
western  coast  of  Australia,  and  unites  with  the  Equatorial  just 
north  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

From  the  Arctic  Ocean  two  cold  currents  set  to  the  south, 
one  on  each  side  of  Greenland.  Uniting  at  the  mouth  of  Davis 
Strait,  they  continue  their  southerly  course  as  far  as  Newfound- 
land, where  part  of  this  broad  Arctic  river,  as  an  under-current, 
flows  beneath  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  the  rest,  as  a  surface-current, 
keeps  inside  of  this  stream,  close  to  the  American  shore  as  far 
south  as  Florida. 

Whirlpools  are  circular  currents,  which  occur  in  certain 
localities. 

Inland  Waters. 

The  inland  waters  of  the  earth  are  springs,  rivers  and  lakes. 

The  rain  or  melted  snow  and  hail  which  sinks  into  the  earth, 
penetrates  the  crust  until  it  reaches  an  impervious  strata,  when  it 
runs  along  until  it  finds  an  outlet  at  the  surface  in  the  form  of  a 
spring,  or  gathers  into  underground  reservoirs,  some  of  which, 
by  their  peculiar  formation,  having  an  outlet  in  the  form  of  a 
siphon,  form  intermittent  springs. 

The  drainage  from  the  surface  and  the  water  from  springs 
form  small  streams  which  unite  to  form  rivers.  When  the  water 
from  streams  and  from  the  surface  collects  in  depressions  on  the 
earth's  surface,  it  forms  lakes. 

Lakes  may  be  divided  into  classes,  as  follows:  (i)  Those 
having  inlets,  but  no  visible  outlets.  (2)  Those  having  outlets, 
but  no  apparent  inlets.  (3)  Those  having  no  apparent  outlets 
or  inlets.     (4)  Those  having  both  inlets  and  outlets. 

The  Caspian  Sea,  Aral  Sea  and  Great  Salt  Lake  are  examples 
of  the  first  ciass.  Such  lakes  are  usually  salt.  The  water  is 
either  all  lost  by  evaporation  or  is  absorbed  by  the  earth.  Lakes 
of  the  second  class  are  usually  found  in  mountainous  regions, 
and  are  the  source  of  some  large  rivers.  The  water  evidently 
comes  from  springs  and  rises  until  it  runs  over  the  basin. .  Lake 
Albano,  near  Rome,  is  an  example  of  the  third  class.  Such 
lakes  are  usually  situated  in  elevated  regions,  are  supposed  to  be 


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398 


Tf? 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


the  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes,  and  are  fed  by  springs.     Lakes 
of  the  fourth  class  are  by  far  the  most  common. 

When  water  evaporates,  all  impurities  are  left  behind ;  hence 
rain  water  is  not  salt  like  the  ocean.  The  water  of  springs, 
rivers  and  lakes  is,  therefore,  pure  and  fresh,  unless  it  comes  in 
contact  with  foreign  matter  that  it  is  capable  of  dissolving. 

THE   AIR. 

The  earth  is  surrounded  by  an  elastic  fluid  called  air,  which 
enters  the  minutest  pores,  and  therefore  exists  in  every  substance. 

Air,  like  everything  else,  is  attracted  by  the  earth,  hence  it 
has  weight,  although  experiments  show  that  it  is  815  times 
lighter  than  water. 

Air  is  essential  to  the  transmission  of  sound,  to  combustion, 
and  to  life. 

CLIMATE. 

Climate  is  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  regard  to  tempera- 
ture, winds,  moisture  and  salubrity. 

The  climate  of  a  place  as  regards  temperature  depends  upon  : 

Latitude.  — The  general  law  is  that  the  amount  of  heat  is  greatest  at  the 
equator,  and  diminishes  toward  the  poles.  There  are  three  reasons  for 
this:  1.  The  sun's  rays  fall  perpendicularly  upon  the  earth  at  the  equator  ,- 
and  more  and  more  obliquely  as  we  go  toward  the  poles,  a.  The  area 
covered  by  a  given  amount  of  heating  power  from  the  sun  is  smaller  at  the 
equator.  3.  Where  the  sun's  rays  fall  perpendicularly  they  pass  through  a 
less  amount  of  atmosphere,  and  the  absorption  of  heat  is  less. 

Attitude. — The  decrease  in  temperature  is  about  three  deg.  F.  for 
every  1,000  feet  of  elevation.  As  the  air  receives  most  of  its  heat  by 
radiation  and  reflection  from  the  earth,  and  as  the  higher  we  go  the  less 
dense  the  air,  the  less  heat  is  absorbed  either  from  the  earth  or  from  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

Prevailing  Winds. — Winds  blowing  from  the  tropical  regions  carry  the 
heat  with  them,  and  conversely,  winds  from  the  polar  regions  lower  the  tem- 
perature. Whichever  wind  prevails  throughout  the  year  in  a  given  place 
will  consequently  modify  the  temperature  of  that  place. 

Length  0/  Day. —  During  the  day  the  earth  receives  from  the  sun  more 
heat  than  it  radiates  into  space ;  while  during  the  night  it  radiates  more  than 
It  receives.  Hence  a  succession  of  long  days  and  short  nights  results  in  an 
accumulation  of  heat,  raising  the  average  temperature  and  producing 
summer ;  while  long  nights  and  short  days  result  in  a  temperature  below  the 
average,  producing  winter.  The  heating  power  of  the  sun  is  greater  in 
summer,  because  at  that  season  it  is  shining  more  directly  upon  that  part  of 
the  earth,  and  conversely  in  winter.  In  the  tropical  regions  the  inequality  of 
day  and  night  is  very  little,  but  increases  toward  the  poles.  The  tempera- 
ture in  the  tropics  is  therefore  more  uniform.  The  length  of  day  makes 
up  for  the  lessened  intensity  of  the  sun's  rays  ;  hence  a  place  in  high  latitude 
may  have  at  times  higher  temperature  than  a  place  within  the  tropics. 

Ocean  Currents. —  The  warm  waters  of  the  tropical  regions  being  brought 
toward  the  polar  regions  bring  the  heat  with  them,  radiating  it  into  space, 
and  it  is  absorbed  by  the  atmosphere. 

Mountain  Ranges.— &  mountain  range  will  make  a  country  near  it 
warmer  or  colder,  according  as  it  shields  it  from  a  cold  or  warm  wind. 

The  Distribution  0/  Land  and  Water, —  Land  heats  or  cools  rapidly, 
absorbing  or  emitting  but  little  heat.  Water  heats  or  cools  slowly,  absorb- 
ing or  emitting  large  quantities  of  heat.  Hence  the  land  is  subject  to  great 
and  sudden  changes  of  temperature ;  the  water  to  small  and  gradual 
changes.  Places  situated  near  the  sea  have,  therefore,  a  more  equable 
i  lim.itr. 

Character  of  Soil.'"  Dry,  sandy  soil  heats  and  cools  more  rapidly  than 
wet  and  marshy  lands;  hence  the  latter  will  have  a  more  uniform  teni 
perature. 

Slope  0/  La nd.—  Land  which  slopes  so  that  the  sun's  rays  will  strike  it 
nearer  vertically  will  receive  more  heat.  The  south  side  of  a  hill  is  wanner 
In  winter  than  the  north  side. 


In  regard  to  winds  the  climate  of  a  place  depends  upon : 

Temperature. — As  winds  are  but  masses  of  air  set  in  motion  by  the 
unequal  heating,  the  winds  of  any  given  place  depend  primarily  upon  the 
temperature,  though  not  necessarily  upon  the  temperature  of  that  place.  As 
the  air  is  heated  in  the  tropical  parts  of  the  earth  by  the  sun,  it  rises,  and 
colder  air  flows  In  from  the  polar  regions  to  take  its  place ;  hence  the  primary 
currents,  which  are  modified  in  various  ways  by  other  causes. 

Rotation  0/  the  Earth. —  The  winds  are  turned  out  of  their  course  by 
the  rotation  of  the  earth  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ocean  currents. 

Land  and  Water. —  The  land  becomes  wanner  during  the  day  than  the 
sea,  and,  the  air  rising,  a  cooler  air  flows  in  from  the  sea.  At  night  the  land 
parts  with  its  heat  more  rapidly  than  the  water  and  becomes  cooler;  then 
the  wind  sets  the  other  way.     Hence  we  have  the  land  and  sea  breezes. 

Elevation  o/the  Land. —  Mountains,  as  has  already  been  stated,  shelter 
places  from  winds.  Some  of  the  great  plains  are  subject  to  almost  constant 
winds. 

In  regard  to  moisture,  the  climate  of  a  place  depends  upon : 

Prevailing  Wind. —  If  a  wind  blows  from  large  bodies  of  water  in  a  warm 
region  it  will  be  laden  with  moisture  which  will  be  likely  to  be  precipitated 
on  reaching  a  colder  country. 

Mountains.—  The  contact  of  a  moisture-laden  wind  with  the  cold  sides  of 
mountains  will  cause  a  precipitation  of  its  moisture,  and  the  regions  beyond 
the  mountains  will  not  leceive  it. 

Forests,  by  shading  the  earth,  keep  its  surface  cool,  and  this  tends  to  con- 
dense the  moisture. 

Cultivation  0/  the  Soil,  causing  it  to  absorb  'moisture  from  the  atmos- 
phere, and  by  capillary  attraction  in  dry  weather  bring  up  moisture  from 
below  to  the  surface. 

Temperature. —  Increased  heat  causes  greater  evaporation,  and  hence 
more  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  More  rain  falls  within  the  tropics  than  in 
the  temperate  or  polar  regions.  • 

Land  and  Water. —  More  rain  falls  on  the  coasts  of  a  country  than  in  the 
interior,  because  the  winds  are  more  moist.  More  rain  falls  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  than  in  the  southern  because  there  is  a  greater  diversity  of  land 
and  water,  the  evaporation  coming  mainly  from  the  ocean,  and  the  condensa- 
tion from  the  diversified  land  surface. 

Isothermal  lines  are  lines  connecting  places  that  have  the  same 
mean  temperature. 

There  is  a  line  or  limit  of  elevation,  above  which  the  surface 
is  covered  with  perpetual  snow ;  this  is  called  the  snow  line. 

WINDS   AND   WEATHER. 

Wind  is  air  in  motion.  Winds  have  a  purifying  effect  upon 
the  atmosphere;  they  dissipate  unhealthy  exhalations;  they 
transport  vapors  from  the  sea  to  moisten  and  fertilize  the  land  ; 
they  carry  the  seeds  of  plants  far  and  wide,  and  thus  extend  the 
empire  of  vegetation ;  finally,  they  waft  our  ships,  and  are,  in 
some  countries,  made  available  as  a  motive  power  for  machinery . 

The  cause  of  winds  is  the  difference  of  heat  received  from  the 
sun  in  different  places.  The  heated  air  expands,  becomes  rare- 
fied, and  rises.  The  cooler  air  immediately  rushes  in  from  the 
surrounding  parts,  to  restore  the  disturbed  equilibrium. 

The  trade-winds  are  so  named  because,  by  their  regularity, 
they  favor  commerce.  They  are  produced  as  follows:  The 
equatorial  regions  being  most  intensely  heated,  a  current  of  rare- 
fied air  is  there  constantly  ascending,  while  colder  currents  from 
the  north  and  south  set  in  toward  the  equator  to  fill  its  place. 
When  these  reach  the  ascending  current,  having  in  turn  become 
rarefied,  they  follow  it  in  its  upward  course,  and  thus  air  is  with- 
drawn from  the  higher  latitudes,  and  accumulated  in  the  equa- 
torial regions. 

IVhirhtrinds  are  bodies  of  air  that  have  a  rotatory  or  spiral 
motion,  and  are  usually  caused  by  the  meeting  of  contrary  winds. 


"7  <5 W 


_^1 


g.     - 


~A 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


399 


When  a  whirlwind  occurs  on  a  sandy  plain  or  desert,  great 
quantities  of  fine  sand  are  carried  up  to  a  great  height  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  move  with  the  revolving  body  of  air,  forming 
what  are  called  sand-pillars. 

The  Sirocco,  which  in  some  places  is  a  warm,  damp  wind,  in 
Madeira  is  a  hot  wind,  and  likewise  in  Sicily,  where  it  is 
equally  warm  and  damp  like  steam. 

The  Simoon  is  a  very  hot  wind,  raising  sand-storms  in  the 
deserts,  and  experience  has  shown  it  to  be  very  prejudicial  to 
life  in  consequence  of  the  fine  sand  and  the  tremendous  heat  it 
carries  with  it.  Then  we  have  the  Hurricane,  from  "  Ouracan," 
of  the  Caribs ;  the  Typhoon,  or  Tae-fun,  of  China,  so  called 
from  the  dreaded  god  Typhon  of  Egypt ;  and  the  Tornado  and 
Cyclone — all  violent  winds,  and  circling  round,  causing,  so 
to  speak,  whirlwinds,  by  which  trees  are  uprooted  and  houses 
destroyed. 

In  hurricanes,  tornadoes,  etc.,  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  air  is 
from  right  to  left  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  from  left  to 
right  in  the  southern. 

Water-spouts  are  whirled  up  by  the  winds  in  spiral  columns  of 
water,  and  when  permitted  to  come  near  a  ship  at  sea,  or  when 
they  break  upon  land,  which  is  seldom,  are  very  destructive. 

Dew  and  Hoar-Frost. 

When  air  charged  with  moisture  comes  in  contact  with  a 
solid  surface  colder  than  itself,  aqueous  vapor  is  precipitated  on 
this  surface  as  dew.  The  grass  at  night  becomes  cooled  by  rad- 
iation, and  thus  condenses  upon  its  surface  the  vapor  of  the  air. 
Dew  will  gather  most  freely  upon  those  objects  that  are  the  best 
radiators,  as  they  will  the  soonest  become  cool.  Thus  grass, 
leaves,  etc.,  which  need  the  most,  get  the  most. 

Dew  will  not  form  on  windy  nights,  because  the  air  is  con- 
stantly changing,  and  does  not  become  cool  enough  to  deposit 
its  moisture.  A  heavy  dew  is  a  sign  of  rain,  because  it  shows 
that  the  moisture  of  the  air  is  easily  condensed. 

If,  during  the  precipitation  of  dew,  the  temperature  falls  to  the 
freezing-point  (32°  F.),  hoar-frost  is  formed.  This  consists  of 
minute  ice-crystals,  and  is  nothing  more  than  frozen  dew.  Frost 
will  not  form  on  cloudy  nights,  because  the  clouds  act  like  a 
blanket,  to  prevent  radiation,  and  keep  the  earth  warm. 

Fogs. 

Fogs  are  formed  when  the  temperature  of  the  air  falls  below 
the  dew-point  («'.  e.,  the  temperature  at  which  dew  is  deposited). 
They  are  found  mainly  on  low  grounds,  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  rivers,  ponds,  etc.,  where  the  abundance  of  moisture  keeps 
the  air  constantly  saturated. 

Clouds. 

Clouds  are  collections  of  visible  vapor  suspended  in  the  at- 
mosphere, at  altitudes  ranging  from  one  to  five  miles.  Vapor 
consists  of  particles  of  water  so  fine  and  light  that  they  float  in 
the  air  like  dust. 

Mountains  are  "  cloud-capped,"  because  the  warm  air  rising 
from  the  valley  is  condensed  upon  their  cold  summits.  Clouds 
are  constantly  falling  by  their  weight;  but,  as  they  melt  away  in 
the  warm  air  below,  by  condensation  they  increase  above. 


The  nimbus  cloud  is  a  dark-colored  cloud,  from  which  rain 
falls. 

The  stratus  cloud  is  composed  of  broad,  widely  extended 
cloud-belts,  sometimes  spread  over  the  whole  sky.  It  is  the  lowest 
cloud,  and  often  rests  on  the  earth.     It  is  the  night  cloud. 

The  cumulus  cloud  is  made  up  of  large  cloud-masses,  looking 
like  snow-capped  rrfountains  piled  up  along  the  horizon.  It 
forms  the  summits  of  pillars  of  vapor,  which,  streaming  up  from 
the  earth,  are  condensed  in  the  upper  air.  It  is  the  day  cloud ; 
and,  when  of  small  size  and  seen  only  near  midday,  is  a  sign  of 
fair  weather. 

The  cirrus  cloud  consists  of  light,  fleecy  clouds  floating  high  in 
air.  It  is  believed  to  be  formed  of  spiculae  of  ice  or  flakes  of 
snow. 

The  cirro-cumulus  is  formed  by  small,  distinct,  rounded  por- 
tions of  the  cirrus  cloud,  which  separate  from  each  other,  leaving 
a  clear  sky  between.  It  accompanies  warm,  dry  weather.  The 
cirro-stratus  is  produced  when  the  cirrus  cloud  spreads  out  into 
long,  slender  strata.  It  forebodes  storms.  The  cumulo-stratus 
presents  the  peculiar  forms  called  "  thunder-heads."  It  is  caused 
by  a  blending  of  the  cumulus  with  the  stratus,  and  is  a  precursor 
of  thunder-storms. 

Rain — Snow — Hail. 

When  the  minute  vapor-particles  of  clouds  combine  and  grow 
too  heavy  to  float  in  the  air,  they  are  precipitated  as  rain — or, 
at  a  temperature  below  the  freezing-point,  as  snow  or  hail. 

Snow  is  frozen  vapor,  with  its  particles  aggregated  in  flakes. 
Hail  is  frozen  rain. 

Snow  is  an  important  agent  in  the  economy  of  nature.  Being 
a  non-conductor  of  heat,  it  protects  the  roots  of  the  grasses  and 
the  winter  grains  from  severe  frosts.  Collecting  in  great  masses 
on  lofty  mountains  and  gradually  thawing,  it  feeds  streams, 
which  carry  fertility  and  wealth  to  extensive  districts. 

Lightning  and  Thunder. 

Lightning  is  a  discharge  of  atmospheric  electricity,  accom- 
panied by  a  flash  of  light. 

Heat-lightning  is  either  the  reflection  of  distant  flashes  on  the 
clouds,  or  the  frequent  and  therefore  weak  and  silent  discharge 
of  electricity  from  the  clouds  through  a  moist  atmosphere. 

Lightning  cleaves  the  air  with  inconceivable  rapidity,  and 
leaves  a  vacuum  behind  it,  into  which  the  surrounding  air  rushes 
with  great  force,  and  with  a  loud,  crackling  sound,  which  we 
call  thunder. 

Lightning  and  thunder  take  place  at  the  same  instant,  but  we 
see  the  former  before  we  hear  the  latter.  This  is  because  light 
travels  with  much  greater  velocity  than  sound. 

Thunder-storms  are  most  frequent  within  the  tropics  during 
the  rainy  season. 

The  Aurora  Borealis. 

The  aurora  borealis  is  a  luminous  appearance,  which  at  times 
imparts  wonderful  beauty  to  the  polar  skies  at  night,  and  is  also 
of  occasional  occurrence  in  the  temperate  latitudes.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  be  produced  by  the  passage  of  electric  currents  through 
strata  of  highly  rarefied  air. 


YL 


±X 


~s  \ 


400 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


A 


Mirage. 

Mirage  (sometimes  called  Fata  Morgana)  is  the  appearance 
in  the  air  of  the  image  of  some  distant  object,  seen  eitherincon- 
nection  with  the  object  itself,  above  or  below  the  latter,  or  sus- 
pended in  the  air,  the  object  being  invisible.  It  is  a  very  curious 
but  sufficiently  common  phenomena,  and  in  the  Asiatic  and 
African  plains  it  is  frequently  observed.  When  the  weather  is 
calm  and  the  ground  hot,  the  Egyptian  landscape  appears  like  a 
lake,  and  the  houses  look  like  islands  in  the  midst  of  a  widely- 
spreading  expanse  of  water.  This  causes  the  mirage,  which  is 
the  result  of  evaporation,  while  the  different  temperatures  of  the 
air  strata  cause  an  unequal  reflection  and  refraction  of  light, 
which  give  rise  to  the  mirage.  Travelers  are  frequently  deceived, 
but  the  camels  will  not  quicken  their  usual  pace  until  they  scent 
water. 

The  Fata  Morgana  and  the  inverted  images  of  ships  seen  at 
sea  are  not  uncommon  on  European  coasts.  Between  Sicily  and 
Italy  this  effect  is  seen  in  the  Sea  of  Reggio  with  fine  effect. 
Palaces,  towers,  fertile  plains,  with  cattle  grazing  on  them,  are 
seen,  with  many  other  terrestrial  objects,  upon  the  sea — the 
palaces  of  the  Fairy  Morgana.  The  inverted  images  of  ships 
are  frequently  perceived,  and  many  most  extraordinary  but  per- 
fectly authentic  tales  have  been  related  concerning  the  reflection 
and  refraction  of  persons  and  objects  in  the  sky  and  on  land, 
when  no  human  beings  nor  any  of  the  actual  objects  were  within 
the  range  of  vision. 

THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 

Zoology  is  that  science  which  treats  of  animals,  their  structure, 
habits  and  classification. 

There  are  four  principal  divisions  of  animals,  based  on  dis- 
tinct types  of  structure,  and  including  all  the  denizens  of  the 
earth,  the  water  and  the  air.  Following  are  the  divisions  of 
the  animal  kingdom,  beginning  with  the  lowest : 


SUB-KINGDOMS  OR   DIVISIONS. 


I.  Protozoa— First-living  things, 
or  lowest  form  of  animal  life. 


II.  Radiata— Radiates,  that  is, 
such  as  are  shaped  like  a  star  or 
flower,  and  have  their  organs  ar- 
ranged uniformly  around  a  common 
center. 


III.  Mollusca— Mollusks.that Is, 
soft-bodied,  without  joints,  and  with- 
out vertebra;,  but  usually  protected 
by  a  shell. 


CLASSES  OF  SUBDIVISIONS. 

.  Amoeba,  sponges,  proteus,  etc. 
They  have  no  mouth,  and  no  dis- 
tinct members,  but  are  capable  of 
making  many  changes  in  their 
form. 


i.  Coral  animals,  sea-anemones,  etc. 
a.  Jelly-fishes,  sea-nettles, 
i.  Star-fishes,  sea-urchins. 

i.  Ilryozoa,  that  is,  moss  animals; 
as  sea-mats,  white  sea-weeds,  etc. 

a.  Brachlopods,  that  is,  with  arm- 
feet,  or  spiral  appendages  ;  as  the 
lingular,  spirifers,  etc. 

3.  Ascidians,  that  is,  pouch-like ;  as 
salpK,  etc. 

4.  Acephals,  that  is,  headless ;  as 
oysters,  etc. 

5.  Csphalates,  that  is,  with  heads  ; 
as  snails,  etc. 

6.  Cephalopods,  that  is,  with  heads 
and  feet,  or,  more  strictly,  tenta- 
cles. 


IV.  AimctrLATA  —  Articulates, 
that  is,  animals  having  the  body  and 
members  jointed,  but  without  an 
internal  skeleton. 


V.  Vertkbrata  —  Vertebrates, 
that  is,  animals  that  have  a  back- 
bone, and  an  articulated  or  jointed 
skeleton,  and  a  great  nervous  cord, 
the  spinal  marrow,  enclosed  in  a 
bony  shc-.th. 


1.  Worms,  as  earth-worms,  Ircch— . 
etc. 

2.  Crustaceans,   as  crabs,  lobsters, 

etc. 

3.  Centipedes,  etc. 

4.  Spiders,  etc. 

5.  Beetles,  butterflies,  etc. 

1.  Fishes. 

2.  Reptiles,  that  is,  creeping  things, 
as  turtles,  frogs,  snakes,  lizards, 
etc. 

3.  Birds,  that  Is,  "  Every  winged 
fowl." 

4.  Mammalia,  that  is,  animals  with 
teats. 

The  last  class,  Mammalia,  is  further  subdivided  into  fourteen 
orders,  of  which  the  most  distinctive,  still  ascending  from  the 
lower  to  the  higher,  are  four,  namely : 

1.  Cetacea,  that  is,  of  the  whale  tribe. 

2.  Quadrupeds,  that  is,  four-footed  animals  generally. 

3.  Quadrumana,  that  is,  four-handed ;  as  the  gorilla,  chimpanzee,  ape  and 

monkey. 

4.  Bimana,  that  is,  two-handed  ;  of  which  the  only  representative  Is  man. 

ETHNOLOGY. 

Ethnology  is  that  science  which  treats  of  the  division  of  man 
into  races,  with  their  origin,  relations  and  characteristics.  Natur- 
alists divide  mankind,  according  to  certain  physical  characteristics, 
into  varieties,  or  races.  Authorities  differ  greatly  in  this  classifi- 
cation. Cuvier  made  three  races;  Pritchard,  seven;  Agassiz, 
eight,  and  Pickering,  eleven;  but  the  classification  most  com- 
monly accepted  is  that  into  five  races,  as  made  by  Blumenbach, 
as  follows:  The  Caucasian,  European,  or  white  race;  the  Mon- 
golian, Asiatic,  or  yellow  race ;  the  Ethiopian,  African,  or  black 
race;  the  American  Indian,  or  red  race;  the  Malay,  or  brown 
race.  The  first  three  are  much  more  clearly  marked,  and  are 
considered  by  Guyot  as  primary  races ;  the  others,  being  modi- 
fications of  these  three,  he  designates  as  secondary  races. 
Because  of  the  blending  of  types,  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  classi- 
fication, hence  the  difference  among  authorities.  The  points  on 
which  the  classification  is  based  are  mainly  the  size  and  propor- 
tions of  the  body,  the  shape  of  head  and  the  features,  the  hair 
and  beard,  and  the  color  of  the  skin 

The  Caucasian  race  are  characterized  by  tall  stature,  oval 
head  and  face,  high  forehead,  regular  features,  abundance  and 
softness  of  hair  and  beard,  and  usually  fair  skin,  but  in  some  it  is 
tawny  or  swarthy,  as  in  the  Hindoos,  Arabs  and  others.  They 
stand  at  the  head  in  intelligence  and  civilization.  This  race  is 
represented  by  the  principal  inhabitants  of  Europe  and  their 
descendants  in  America,  and  by  the  inhabitants  of  India,  Arabia 
and  of  Western  Asia  and  Northern  Africa. 

The  Germanic  nations  are  descendants  of  the  numerous  tribes 
of  the  ancient  German  stock  that  destroyed  the  Roman  empire 
and  erected  different  states  upon  its  ruins. 

The  Romanic  nations  occupy  Southern  Europe,  and  are  so 
called  because  their  languages  are  mostly  derived  from  the 
Latin  s|»ken  by  the  ancient  Romans.  They  are  mixed  nations, 
descended  partly  from  the  ancient  Pelasgians  and  partly  from 
other  branches  of  Aryan  stock. 


VL 


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PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


40I 


The  Italians  derive  their  origin  from  the  Romans,  German 
Longobards  and  Normans,  with  a  slight  intermixture  of  the 
Arabic  stock. 

The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  have  sprung  from  a  mixture  of 
Celts,  Romans,  Germans  and  Arabs. 

The  Mongolian  race  are  distinguished  by  short  stature,  round 
head,  wide  face,  high  cheek  bones,  obliquely  set  eyes,  coarse 
straight  hair,  scarcely  any  beard,  and  yellowish  color  of  the  skin. 
They  are  distributed  over  the  whole  of  Eastern  Asia,  except  in 
India,  and  include  the  Esquimaux  of  the  northern  part  of  North 
America. 

The  Ethiopian  race  are  characterized  by  medium  stature,  gen- 
erally ungainly  form,  low  and  retreating  forehead,  head  full  back 
of  the  ears,  flat,  broad  nose,  projecting  jaws,  thick  lips,  short, 
curly  hair,  and  skin  generally  black  or  dark.  They  occupy  all 
of  Africa,  except  the  northern  part,  and  many  of  their  descend- 
ants are  found  in  America. 

The  American  race  resemble  the  Mongolian,  but  the  head  is 
not  so  round,  the  face  less  wide  and  flat,  the  eyes  horizontal,  the 
hair  black  and  straight,  and  beard  scanty,  and  the  skin  a  reddish 
or  copper  color.  They  occupy  North  and  South  America, 
except  on  the  Arctic  shores. 

The  Malay  race  resemble  also  the  Mongolian,  but  have 
thicker  lips,  horizontal  eyes,  hair  less  straight,  generally  full 
beards,  and  color  usually  brown.  They  occupy  the  Malay  pen- 
insula and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans. 

The  number  of  languages  spoken  on  the  earth  is  estimated  at 
eight  hundred  and  sixty,  embracing  about  five  thousand  dialects. 
The  language  spoken  by  the  greatest  number  is  the  Chinese ; 
the  one  most  widely  spread  is  the  English. 

In  regard  to  religion,  mankind  may  be  divided  into  two  gen- 
eral classes :  Monotheistic,  those  who  worship  one  god,  and 
polytheistic,  those  who  worship  more  than  one  god,  also  called 
pagans,  or  heathens.  Of  the  first  class  we  have :  (1)  the  Chris- 
tian, which  recognizes  the  Bible  as  the  revealed  word  of  God, 
and  Jesus  Christ  as  the  Son  of  God;  (2)  the  Jewish,  which  rec- 
ognizes the  Old  Testament  as  the  word  of  God,  but  does  not 
acknowledge  Christ;  (3)  the  Mohammedan,  or  the  religion  of 
Islam,  whose  two  articles  of  faith  are,  "There  is  no  god  but 
God,  and  Mohammed  is  the  Prophet  of  God." 

Of  the  second  class  there  are :  ( 1 )  Brahminism,  or  Hindooism, 
the  religion  of  the  people  of  India,  a  very  ancient  religion  which 
has  many  good  moral  doctrines,  but  strange  ideas  of  a  future 
state;  (2)  Buddhism,  an  offshoot  of  Brahminism,  now  practiced 
by  the  people  of  China  and  Japan,  founded  by  Sakya-Muni, 
who  adopted  the  title  of  Buddha  (the  enlightened),  a  religion 
which  has  been  more  enthusiastic  in  making  converts  than  any 
other,  except  Christianity,  and  has  many  good  moral  precepts, 
but  is  practically  atheistic;  (3)  Fetichism,  a  very  low  form  of 
superstition,  which  consists  in  the  worship  of  material  objects, 
either  living  or  dead,  as  animals,  or  idols  of  wood  or  stone. 

In  regard  to  general  culture  and  intelligence,  mankind  may 
be  divided  into :  ( 1 )  Savages,  those  who  are  scarcely  elevated 
above  the  brutes,  live  in  tribes  and  subsist  by  hunting  and  fish- 
ing; (2)  Barbarians,  those  who  have  possessions,  as  flocks  and 
herds,  and  practice  agriculture  to  some  extent,  yet  have  made 


no  progress  in  arts  and  sciences  ;  (3)  Half-civilized,  those  who 
have  made  some  progress  in  the  arts,  have  towns  and  cities,  but 
depend  chiefly  upon  agriculture ;  (4)  Civilized,  those  who  have 
made  considerable  progress  in  science  and  art,  engage  in  com- 
merce and  have  a  written  language;  (5)  Enlightened,  those  who 
stand  at  the  head  of  the  scale,  have  a  division  of  labor,  systems 
of  education,  and  have  made  the  greatest  progress  in  science, 
art,  and  in  morality. 

The  principal  forms  of  government  are :  ( I )  The  monarchical, 
that  form  where  one  person  exercises  chief  power,  to  which  he 
succeeds  by  inheritance,  and  holds  for  life.  (2)  Republican, 
where  the  power  is  vested  in  men  who  are  chosen  by  the  people 
for  a  limited  period.  An  absolute  monarchy  (despotism)  is  one 
where  the  ruler  has  unlimited  or  absolute  power,  his  will  being 
the  sole  law.  A  limited  or  constitutional  monarchy  is  one  where 
the  ruler's  power  is  limited  by  a  constitution,  or  laws  made  by 
the  representatives  of  the  people.  In  a  monarchical  government 
the  ruler  receives  various  titles  in  different  countries,  as  emperor, 
king  or  queen,  czar,  sultan,  shah  and  mikado.  In  a  republican 
government  the  chief  officer  is  called  a  president. 

ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  LIFE. 

The  animals  of  a  Country  taken  together  are  called  its  fauna, 
while  its  flowers  and  vegetation  are  denominated  flora. 

The  frigid  zones  produce  very  scanty  vegetation,  mosses  and 
lichens,  and  some  stunted  specimens  of  the  higher  forms,  as  the 
willow,  birch  and  pine.  The  animal  world  is  much  more 
varied  as  to  species.  Here  are  found  the  reindeer,  the  musk  ox 
and  the  white  bear,  and  many  smaller  fcr-bearing  animals  on  the 
land ;  while,  in  the  sea,  or  on  its  shores,  are  found  whales,  wal- 
ruses, seals  and  water-fowls  of  many  species. 

In  the  torrid  zone  is  found  the  most  dense  and  varied  vegeta- 
tion, flowers  of  the  most  brilliant  hue  and  of  the  largest  size,  the 
most  delicious  fruits,  the  most  powerful  aromatics,  the  most  val- 
uable woods ;  in  fact,  the  most  of  those  productions  which  add 
to  the  luxuries  of  life.  The  animal  world  is  represented  by  the 
greatest  number  of  species,  among  which  are  those  of  the  largest 
size,  the  most  powerful  and  active,  and  the  most  intelligent.  It 
is  the  home  of  the  elephant,  the  giraffe,  the  lion,  the  tiger,  the 
monkey,  the  ostrich,  the  condor,  parrots,  and  of  reptiles  of  the 
largest  size,  as  the  crocodile  and  boa  constrictor,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  most  poisonous  character. 

In  the  temperate  zones  are  found  the  vegetation  most  useful  to 
man,  as  the  oak,  the  pine,  the  maple  and  other  useful  timber 
trees ;  the  indispensable  grains,  as  wheat,  maize,  barley,  rye ;  the 
useful  fruits,  as  the  apple,  peach,  pear,  etc.,  and  the  fabric 
plants,  as  flax  and  cotton.  The  animal  kingdom  is  represented 
by  the  bear,  the  bison,  the  elk  and  deer,  the  wolf;  and  the  do- 
mestic animals  so  useful  to  man,  as  the  horse,  the  ox,  sheep 
and  goats ;  and  many  species  of  fowl,  as  pigeons,  ducks,  geese, 
turkeys,  etc. 

MINERALS    AND    METALS. 

The  prosperity  and  wealth  of  a  country  depend  largely  upon 
its  mineral  resources.  Nature  has  bestowed  her  wealth  in  lavish 
abundance,  asking  only  the  labor  of  man  to  make  it  useful.     As 


k= 


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402 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


u  rule  the  useful  and  valuable  minerals  are  found  in  rocky  or 
mountainous  countries.  These  countries  not  being  adapted  to 
agriculture,  the  people  find  employment  in  mining  and  manufac- 
turing the  raw  material  which  is  stowed  away  in  their  hills, 
depending  for  subsistence  upon  commerce  with  their  agricultural 
neighbors  of  the  plains.  On  the  other  hand,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  plains  must  depend  upon  their  neighbors  of  the  hills  for 
material  which  adds  to  their  comfort  and  convenience.  Wher- 
ever that  most  useful  of  metals,  iron,  is  found,  near  by  is  always 
found  coal,  which  is  necessary  in  reducing  the  iron  to  useful 
forms.  Timber  also  grows  abundantly  on  the  mountains.  This, 
too,  is  necessary  to  the  manufacturer.  The  streams  of  hilly 
countries  have  greater  fall,  and  are  thus  adapted  for  water 
power,  which  also  adds  to  the  advantages. 

Many  minerals  occur  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  in  alluvial 
soil  or  the  sandy  beds  of  rivers  ;  but  the  greater  part  lie  deep  in 
the  ground,  and  are  obtained  with  more  or  le*&  labor  by  mining. 

The  most  important  metals  are  gold,  silver,  platinum,  mercury, 
iron,  lead,  copper,  tin;  nickel,  zinc  and  antimony. 

The  richest  silver  mines  in  the  world  are  those  of  Mexico. 
Iron  is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Europe.  The  great  lead  mines  of  the  United 
States  lie  on  each  side  of  the  Mississippi  River,  in  Northwestern 
Illinois,  Southwestern  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa,  and  in  Missouri, 
south  of  the  Missouri  River.  The  richest  and  purest  copper 
mines  in  the  world  lie  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  in  North- 
ern Michigan,  where  blocks  of  native  copper  weighing  80  tons 
have  been  found.  Zinc  occurs  in  the  Appalachian  region,  par- 
ticularly New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania ;  also  in  Illinois,  Missouri, 
Wisconsin  and  Tennessee. 

Some    Strange   Metals. 

Some  of  the  metals,  familiar  enough  to  the  chemist,  though 
rarely  seen  oifside  his  laboratory,  have  so  little  in  common  with 
the  metals  of  everyday  life  as  to  scarcely  seem  to  belong  to  the 
same  class  of  substances.  We  commonly  think  of  a  metal  as  be- 
ing heavy,  yet  sodium  and  potassium  will  float  on  water,  and 
Jithium  is  the  lightest  of  all  known  solids.  The  fact  is,  that  the 
word  "metal"  is  one  of  the  hardest  in  the  language  to  define. 
The  metals  all  have  a  peculiar  luster,  to  be  sure,  which,  from  its 
association,  has  come  to  be  called  metallic;  but  many  minerals. 
as  galena  and  black-lead,  which  most  certainly  are  not  metals, 
liave  the  same  appearance,  and  so  on,  through  the  list  of  proper- 
ties. The  chemical  relations  of  the  metals  give  good  reasons  for 
placing  these  substances  by  themselves,  though  even  here  the 
lines  are  not  clearly  marked. 

One  of  the  most  distinctive  properties  of  the  metals  is  their 
power  to  form,  when  combined  with  acids,  a  class  of  bodios 
called  salts — on  account  of  their  resemblance  to  common  salt — 
which  contains  about  40  per  cent  of  the  metal  sodium.  This 
metal  is  a  bluish  white,  waxy  solid,  and  has  such  a  great  ten- 
dency to  rust,  or  unite  with  the  oxygen  in  the  air,  that  it  must  be 
kept  in  some  oil,  like  petroleum,  which  contains  no  oxygen. 


If  a  bit  of  sodium  be  thrown  upon  a  piece  of  ice,  the  metal 
takes  fire,  and  any  attempts  to  put  it  out  by  pouring  water  on  it 
would  only  be  adding  fuel  to  the  flame.  The  sodium-match  ii 
an  application  of  this  peculiar  property  of  the  metal.  It  is 
merely  a  bit  of  wood  tipped  with  sodium,  and  which  can,  of 
course,  be  lighted  on  the  stormiest  day  by  the  mere  contact  of  a 
raindrop.  The  matches  are,  however,  decidedly  dangerous, 
and  their  manufacture  is  generally  prohibited. 

Potassium,  which  is  obtained  from  potash,  is  another  metal 
very  similar  to  sodium,  and  will  take  fire  upon  ice  or  water  even 
more  readily  than  this  last-named  metal.  A  small  piece  of  potas- 
sium thrown  into  a  jug  of  water  apparently  takes  fire  at  once,  and 
swims  about  with  great  rapidity,  burning  all  the  time  with  a 
brilliant  violet  flame 

One  may  be  forgiven  if  his  ideas  on  combustion  are  somewhat 
upset  by  the  first  sight  of  this  phenomenon,  but  there  is  really 
nothing  very  strange  about  it.  Water  is  a  compound  of  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen,  and  these  metals,  sodium  and  potassium,  have 
so  strong  an  attraction  for  oxygen  that  they  will  take  it  wher- 
ever they  can  find  it,  even  from  water.  This,  of  course,  sets  the 
oxygen  free,  which  is  set  on  fire  by  the  heat  given  off  when  the 
potassium  and  oxygen  unite,  and  burns  with  a  violet  color  be- 
cause of  the  vapor  of  the  metal.  The  same  is  true  in  the  case  of 
sodium ;  the  flame  is  due  to  the  burning  hydrogen  rather  than  the 
metal. 

Sodium,  potassium,  and  lithium,  with  several  other  metals, 
form  a  group  known  as  the  alkali  metals.  There  is  another 
group,  to  which  iron  belongs,  which  contains  an  interesting 
member  called  aluminum — sometimes  aluminium — from  its 
occurrence  in  common  alum. 

Aluminum  is  a  beautiful  metal,  much  like  silver  in  appear- 
ance, and  possessing  many  valuable  properties.  It  is  very 
sonorous,  easily  worked,  does  not  tarnish  in  the  air,  and  is  only 
about  one-fourth  as  heavy  as  silver.  It  conducts  electricity 
eight  times  better  than  iron.  Added  to  this,  it  occurs  in  greater 
quantity  than  any  other  metal  in  the  world.  Every  clay-bank, 
every  granite-bed,  is  a  bed  of  aluminum,  but  as  yet  no  cheap  and 
ready  means  of  obtaining  the  metal  has  been  found  in  spite  of 
all  attempts.  Napoleon  offered  a  large  reward  to  any  one  dis- 
covering such  a  process.  As  late,  however,  as  1878,  the 
metal  was  still  a  curiosity;  and  up  to  1889  the  total  out- 
put of  the  world  from  all  sources,  French,  English,  Ger- 
man and  American,  had  been  less  than  110  totis.  The 
total  production  of  the  United  States  in  1889  v.t^  | 
pounds,  valued  at  ♦97,335.  The  stage  of  actual  produc- 
tion having  been  reached,  the  all-important  feature  of 
the  industry  now  is  the  effort  by  new  procetse*  to  reduce 
the  coal  of  making  the  metal ;  some  of  the  present  unfa- 
miliar and  elaborate  metallurgical  processes  being  repro- 
ductions on  I  lar^e  scale  of  experiments  which  are  not 
ordinarily  used  even  in  chemical  laboratories.  This  UV 
teretting  and  valuable  metal  lies  hidden  everywhere 
At,  and  a  princely  fortune  a«ait-  the  man  who  can 
bring  it  to  the  light. 


1 


COMMERCIAL    LAW    AND    FORMS. 


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Notes,  Bills,  Orders,  Checks,  Drafts  and  Receipts  Properly  Drawn  for  Every  State. 


J*f  VERY  business  man  has  felt  the  neces- 
1  sity  of  a  simple  and  thorough- explana- 
tion of  the  legal  principles  and  usages 
1  which  underlie  all  business  transactions. 
The  law  presumes  that  no  man  is  ignorant  of 
the  law,  and  consequently,  when  such  vital 
issues  are  at  stake,  no  one  can  afford  to  be 
ignorant.  Not  a  day  passes  by  in  a  large 
counting-house  that  some  question  does  not 
arise  which  involves  legal  knowledge  in  its  cor- 
rect solution.  To  those  who  have  felt  the 
need  of  a  safe  and  simple  adviser  in  those 
every-day  difficulties  of  trade,  we  will  offer  the 
chapters  which  follow.  All  the  matters  in- 
cluded in  the  routine  of  business  will  be  found 
fully  treated,  while  such  explanations  are 
appended  as  will  make  the  study  one  in  which 
a  mistake  will  be  found  impossible. 

All  men  should  know  so  much  of  the  ordi- 
nary law  as  protects  their  common  and  uni- 
versal rights,  and  it  must  be  admitted  by  every 
student  that  business  men  should  understand 
the  most  general  laws  of  business — the  law  of 
partnership ;  how.  to  make  agreements ;  how 
to  conduct  sales ;  how  to  draw  notes ;  how  to 
collect  them,  and  the  like.  Knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  business  law  will  prevent,  every 
day,  important  mistakes  leading  to  trouble  and 
loss.     The  laws  have  here  been  made  plain  by 


themselves,  so  that  a  thorough  and  satisfactory 
answer  is  at  hand  for  every  question. 

The  forms  given  will  be  found  exceptionally 
complete  and  accurate,  having  been  prepared 
with  care  and  examined  with  close  scrutiny. 

NEGOTIABLE  PAPER. 

Confidence  is  the  broad  foundation  on  which  the  whole 
superstructure  of  business,  as  it  exists  to-day,  has  been  built. 
The  steps  in  this  progress  have  been,  first,  barter  in  kind, 
the  exchange  of  a  bushel  of  wheat  for  a  handful  of  arrow- 
heads, as  business  is  still  conducted  among  the  savages ; 
next,  the  substitution  of  money  as  a  medium  of  exchange; 
and  finally,  the  substitution  of  negotiable  paper,  that  is,  docu- 
mentary evidence  of  debt,  for  money,  completing  the  pro- 
gression. Negotiable  paper  includes  promissory  notes,  due 
bills,  drafts,  checks,  certificates  of  deposit,  bills  of  exchange, 
bank  bills,  Treasury  notes  (greenbacks),  and  all  other  evi- 
dences of  debt,  the  ownership  of  which  may  be  transferred 
from  one  person  to  another. 

The  mere  acknowledgment  of  debt  is  not  -sufficient  to 
make  negotiable  paper;  the  promise  of  payment  or  an  order 
on  some  one  to  pay  is  indispensable.  This  promise  must  be 
for  money  only.  The  amount  must  be  exactly  specified. 
The  title  must  be  transferable.  This  feature  must  be  visible 
on  the  face  of  the  paper  by  the  use  of  such  words  as 
"bearer"  or  "order."  In  some  of  the  States  peculiar 
phrases  are  ordered  by  statute,  as  "  Payable  without  defalca- 
tion or  discount,"  or  "  Payable  at ,"  naming  the  bank 

or  office. 


Promissory  Notes. 


A  written  agreement,  signed  by  one  person,  to  pay  another, 
at  a  fixed  time,  a  stated  sum  of  money,  is  a  promissory  note. 
It  becomes  negotiable  by  being  made  payable  to  an  order  on 


k- 


404 


COMMERCIAL    LAW    AM)    FORMS. 


some  one  or  to  bearer.  As  it  is  a  contract,  a  consideration 
is  one  of  its  essential  elements.  Yet,  although  it  be  void  as 
between  the  two  first  parties,  being  negotiable  and  coming 
into  the  hands  of  another  person  who  gives  value  for  it,  not 
knowing  of  its  defect,  it  has  full  force  and  may  be  collected. 

The  date  is  of  great  consequence  on  all  such  paper.  In 
computing  time,  the  day  of  date  is  not  counted,  but  it  is  the 
fixed  point  beginning  the  time  at  the  end  of  which  payment 
must  be  made.  Omission  of  the  date  does  not  destroy  a  note, 
but  the  holder  must  prove  to  the  time  of  its  making.  The 
promise  to  pay  must  be  precise  as  to  time  which  the  note  is 
to  run.  It  must  be  at  a  fixed  period,  or  conditional  upon  the 
occurrence  of  something  certain  to  happen,  as  **at  sight," 
"five  days  after  sight,"  "on  demand,"  "three  months  after 
date,"  "ten  days  after  the  death  of  John  Doe."  The  time 
not  being  specified,  the  note  is  considered  "payable  on 
demand,"  and  suit  may  be  entered  immediately. 

The  maker,  the  person  who  promises  and  whose  signature 
the  note  bears,  must  be  competent.  Insane  people  and  idiots 
are  naturally,  and  aliens,  minors  and  married  women  may 
he  legally,  incompetent.  The  maker  is  responsible  and  binds 
himself  to  pay  the  amount  stated  on  the  note  at  its  maturity. 
He  need  not  pay  it  before  it  becomes  due,  but  should  he  do 
so  and  neglect  to  cancel  the  note,  he  would  be  again  respons- 
ible if  any  other  person,  without  knowledge  of  such  pay- 
ment, acquired  it  for  value  before  maturity.  Even  a  receipt 
for  payment  from  the  first  payee  would  not  stand  good 
against  the  subsequent  holder. 


The  payee  is  the  person  in  whose  favor  the  note  is  drawn ; 
the  legal  holder,  the  person  to  whom  the  money  must  be 
paid.  When  a  note  is  made  payable  simply  to  bearer,  with- 
out naming  the  payee,  any  one  holding  the  note  honestly 
may  collect. 

A  subsequent  party,  one  who  comes  into  possession  of  the 
note  after  the  original  holder,  has  a  better  claim  than  the 
first  one,  for  the  reason  that  between  the  maker  and  the 
first  payee  there  may  have  been,  in  the  contract,  some  under- 
standing or  condition  militating  against  the  payment  when  it 
would  become  due,  but  the  third  person,  knowing  nothing  of 
this,  gives  his  value  and  receives  the  note.  The  law  will 
always  sustain  the  subsequent  party. 

The  endorser  is  held  responsible  if  the  maker  fails  to  pay 
when  the  note  arrives  at  maturity.  A  note  payable  to  order 
must  be  endorsed  by  a  holder  upon  passing  it  to  another,  and, 
as  value  has  been  given  each  time,  the  last  holder  will  look 
to  his  next  preceding  one  and  to  all  the  others. 

A  note,  being  on  deposit  as  collateral  security,  becoming 
due,  the  temporary  holder  is  the  payee  and  mast  collect. 

Endorsements. 

The  following  form  will  illustrate  the  shape  in  which  a  note 
should  be  drawn  and  endorsed.  An  endorsement  is  a  writing 
across  the  back  of  a  note,  which,  as  will  be  seen  further  on, 
makes  the  writer  responsible  for  the  amount  of  the  note. 


COMMON  FORM  OF  NEGOTIABLE  NOTE,  WITH  ENDORSEMENTS. 


Q3t**A/yn,  (fa.  <&.,  Qtfay  u/,  1993. 
(2/&U4.  tn^yyt.lnA  et/te4  elate-   (3?  /i-l&nuSe-  /c-  A&-V-  <*■  <V«*  ete/et    •/ 
?.    Cfi.    'SbjenuJ-  (2/iv^n-lu-'-jUue-   '^rttiie/teet    J^&CltMAj  a4  IA*   (fffacAtttu**- 


In  Blank. 


In  Full. 


ENDORSEMENTS. 
General.  Qualified. 


Conditional. 


Restrictive. 

Pay 
CkttS.  F.vant     • 

only. 
I..  A.  Par 


V- 


COMMERCIAL    LAW    AND    FORMS. 


405 


The  Endorser's  Responsibility. 

It  has  been  generally  admitted  that  the  three  first  endorse- 
ments given  amount  to  the  same  thing;  that  is,  either  the 
blank  endorsement,  the  full  endorsement  or  the  general 
endorsement  entitles  the  holder  of  the  note  to  the  money, 
and  to  look  to  Davis  for  payment  if  Benson  defaults.  It  has 
even  been  held  that  in  a  general  endorsement  the  holder  had 
the  right  to  fill  in  the  words  "or  order"  after  Chas.  Evans' 
name,  if  he  saw  fit.  The  qualified  endorsement  releases  the 
endorser  from  any  liability  in  case  Benson  defaults,  the 
words  "without  recourse"  meaning  that  the  holder  is  with- 
out recourse  against  the  endorser.  The  conditional  and 
restrictive  endorsement  explain  themselves  by  their  wording, 
and,  it  is  needless  to  say,  are  only  used  in  special  cases. 
Each  endorser  is  severally  and  collectively  liable  for  the 
whole  amount  of  the  note  endorsed  if  it  is  dishonored,  pro- 
vided it  is  duly  protested  and  notice  given  to  each.  The 
endorser  looks  to  the  man  who  endorsed  it  before  him,  and 
so  back  to  the  original  maker  of  the  note.  As  soon  as  a  note 
is  protested,  it  is  vitally  necessary  that  notice  should  be  sent 
to  each  person  interested  at  once. 

Necessary  Legal  Points. 

Bearing  the  preceding  facts  in  mind,  any  form  of  note 
which  conforms  to  these  requirements  will  hold  in  law:  It 
must  promise  to  pay  a  specified  sum  of  money.  To  be  on 
the  safe  side,  however,  it  is  well  to  see  to  it  that  any  note 
offered  for  negotiation — 

Is  dated  correctly; 

Specifies  the  amount  of  money  to  be  paid; 

Names  the  person  to  whom  it  is  to  be  paid; 

Includes  the  words  "or  order"  after  the  name  of  the 
payee,  if  it  is  desired  to  make  the  note  negotiable; 

Appoints  a  place  where  the  payment  is  to  be  made ; 

States  that  the  note  is  made  "for  value  received;" 

And  is  signed  by  the  maker  or  his  duly  authorized  repre- 
sentative. 

In  some  States  phrases  are  required  in  the  body  of  the 
note,  such  as  "without  defalcation  or  discount;"  but,  as 
a  general  thing,  that  fact  is  understood  without  the  statement. 


FORMS  OF  NOTES. 

A  Note  Negotiable  without  Endorsement. 


A  Note  Negotiable  Only  by  Endorsement. 

$aoo.  Chicago,  Nov.  26,  1893. 

Three  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  John  H.  Woltering,  or 
order.  Two  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received. 

J.  T.  Norton. 

A  Note  Not  Negotiable. 

$200.  St.  Louis,  Nov.  17,  1S93. 

Ninety  days  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  Charles  C.  Collins  Two 
Hundred  Dollars,  value  received. 

Samuel  Atkinson. 


A  Note  Bearing  Interest. 

$100.  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  Nov.  26,   893. 

Six  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  R.  V.  Jennings,  or  order. 
One  Hundred  Dollars,  with  interest,  for  value  received. 

John  Q.  Watson. 

A  Note  Payable  on  Demand. 

$150.  Philadelphia,  Nov.  30,  1893. 

On  demand  I  promise  to  pay  Lamonte  Whittlesey,  or  bearer,  One 
Hundred  and  Fifty  Dollars,  value  received. 

John  Q.  Chaffington. 

A  Note  Payable  at  Bank. 

$100.  Cincinnati,  Dec  34.  1893. 

Thirty  days  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  Thomas  I.  Rankin,  or  order, 
at  the  Second  National  Bank,  One  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received. 

Prank  T.  Morrison. 

Principal  and  Surety. 

$793.  Newark,  N.  J.,  Dec,  28,  1393. 

Sixty  days  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  Daniel  O'C.  Patterson,  or 
order,  Seven  Hundred  and  Ninety-three  Dollars,  with  interest,  value 
received. 

John  G.  Wattbrson,  Principal. 

T.  R.  Graham,  Security. 


A  Married  Woman's  Note  in  New  York. 

$400.  New  York,  Dec.  13,  1S93. 

Three  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  Johnson,  Dunham  &  Co., 
or  order,  Four  Hundred  Dollars,  with  interest.  And  I  hereby  charge 
my  individual  property  and  estate  with  the  payment  of  this  note. 

Clara  C.  Dickerson. 


A  Joint  Note* 

?3,ooo.  Detroit,  Mich.,  Dec.  12,  1893. 

One  year  after  date  we  jointly  promise  to  pay  E.  C.  Langworthy, 
or  order,  Three  Thousand  Dollars,  value  received. 

John  C.  Jennings. 
Walter  D.  Curtis. 

A  Joint  and  Several  Note. 

$3,000.  Detroit,  Mich.,  Dec.  13, 1893. 

One  year  after  date  we  jointly  and  severally  promise  to  pay  E.  C. 
Langworthy,  or  order,  Three  Thousand  Dollars,  value  received. 

John  C  Jennings. 
Walter  D.  Curtis. 

A  Partnership  Note. 

No.  —  Boston,  Mass.,  November  26,  1S93. 

One  month  after  date,  without  grace,  we  promise  to  pay  to  the 
order  of  ourselves  Two  Hundred  and  Fifty  Dollars,  at  any  bank  in 
Boston. 

Johnson  &  Co., 

309  Temple  Place. 
$150.    Due  Dec.  26,  1S93. 


% 


Q ^ 


K= 


406 


=7? 


COMMERCIAL    LAW    AND    FORMS. 


A  Note  Payable  by  Instalments* 

$3,000.  Pittsbckg,  Nov.  18,  1893. 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  R,  P.  Donaldson  &  Co.,  or 
order,  Three  Thousand  Dollars,  ii*  the  manner  following,  to  wit: 
One  Thousand  Dollars  In  one  year,  One  Thousand  Dollars  in  two 
years,  and  one  Thousand  Dollars  in  three  years,  with  interest  on  ail 
said  sums,  payable  semi-annually,  without  defalcation  or  discount. 

Hugo  R.  Mueller. 


A  Judgment  Note,  with  Collateral  Note  Combined* 

[The  portions  enclosed  in  brackets  are  used  in  collateral  notes 
Only.] 

Chicago,  Dec.  20,  1803. 

One  year  after  date,  for  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  to  the 
order  of  Jeremiah  B.  Shclton  Three  Hundred  and  Sixty-Five  Dollars, 
with  Interest  at  the  rate  of  eight  per  cent  per  annum  [after  due,  hav- 
ing deposited  with  the  legal  holder  hereof,  as  collateral  security, 
•  *  *.  And  I  hereby  give  said  legal  holder,  his,  her  or  their  as- 
signs, authority  to  sell  the  same,  or  any  part  thereof,  at  the  maturity 
of  this  note,  or  at  any  time  thereafter,  or  before,  in  the  event  of  said 
security  depreciating  in  value,  at  public  or  private  sale,  without 
advertising  the  same,  or  demanding  payment,  or  giving  notice,  and 
to  apply  so  much  of  the  proceeds  thereof  to  the  payment  of  this  note 
as  maybe  necessary  to  pay  the  same,  with  all  interest  due  thereon, 
and  also  to  the  payment  of  all  expenses  attending  the  sale  of  the  said 
collaterals,  and  in  case  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  same  shall  not 
cover  the  principal,  Interest  and  expenses,  I  promise  to  pay  the  defi- 
ciency forthwith  after  such  sale,  with  interest  at  ten  per  cent  per 
annum.  And  it  Is*ncrehy  agreed  and  understood  that  if  recourse  Is 
had  to  such  collateral,  any  money  realized  on  sale  thereof  In  excess 
of  the  amount  due  on  this  note  shall  be  applicable  to  the  payment  of 
any  other  note  or  claim  which  the  said  legal  holder  may  have  against 
me,  and  in  case  of  any  exchange  of,  or  addition  to,  the  collateral 
above  named,  the  provisions  of  this  note  shall  extend  to  such  new  or 
additional  collateral.] 

And  to  further  secure  the  payment  of  said  amount,  I  hereby  author- 
ise, irrevocably,  any  attorney  of  any  court  of  record  to  appear  for 
me  In  such  court.  In  term  time  or  vacation,  at  any  time  hereafter, 
and  confess  a  judgment  without  process  in  favor  of  the  holder  of  this 
note,  for  such  amount  as  may  appear  to  be  unpaid  thereon,  together 
with  costs  and  twenty-five  dollars  attorney's  fee,  and  also  to  file  a 
cognovit  for  the  amount  thereof  with  the  agreement  therein,  that  no 
writ  ot  error  or  appeal  shall  be  presented  upon  the  judgment  en- 
tered by  virtue  hereof,  nor  any  bill  in  equity  filed  to  interfere  in  any 
manner  with  the  operation  of  said  judgment,  and  to  waive  and  re- 
lease all  errors  which  may  intervene  In  any  manner  with  the  opera- 
tion of  said  judgment;  and  to  waive  and  release  all  error  which  may 
intervene  in  any  such  proceedings,  and  consent  to  Immediate  execu- 
tion upon  such  judgment.  Hereby  ratifying  and  confirming  all  that 
said  attorney  may  do  by  virtue  hereof. 

John  T.Stratford.        [Seal.] 

A  judgment  note  in  Illinois  requires  the  power  of  attorney 
to  confess  it.  Many,  and,  in  fact,  most  people  deem  a  judg- 
ment note  a  sort  of  mortgage.  It  has  no  such  effect,  how- 
ever, and  creates  no  lien  or  claim  different  from  any  other 
note,  and  differs  from  any  other  note  in  this  only,  that  the 
holder  can  take  it  and  go  into  court,  enter  up  a  judgment 
and  have  execution  against  the  maker  at  once.  Thus,  by 
the  judgment  so  entered  up,  the  holder  gets  a  lien,  and  not 
by  any  lien  created  by  the  note  before  judgment* 


A  Short  Form  of  Judgment  Note* 

$460.  Brooklyn,  N.  V.,  Nov.  16,  1805. 

On  demand,  for  value  received,  1  promise  to  pay,  to  the  order  of 
Alexander  A.  McHatton,  Four  Hundred  and  Sixty  Dollars.    And  I 


hereby  confess  Judgment  for  said  sum  with  interest  and  costs,  are- 
lease  of  all  errors,  and  a  waiver  of  all  rights  of  appeal  and  to  the 
benefit  of  all  laws  exempting  property  from  levy  and  sale. 

Ezexiah  Partington. 


Sealed  >'ote. 

$5,000.  Cincinnati,  O.,  Nov.  16, 189^. 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  Edgar  &  Co.,  or  order,  Five 
Thousand  Dollars,  in  three  years  from  the  date  hereof,  with  interest 
payable  semi-annually,  without  defalcation  or  discount.  And  in 
case  of  default  of  my  payment  of  the  interest  or  principal  aforesaid 
with  punctuality,  I  hereby  empower  any  attorney-at-law,  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  said  Edgar  &  Co.,  or  their  assigns,  to  appear  in  any  court 
which  said  Edgar  &  Co.,  or  their  assigns,  may  select,  and  commence 
and  prosecute  a  suit  against  me  on  said  note,  to  confess  judgment  for 
all  and  every  part  of  the  interest  or  principal  on  said  note,  in  the  pay- 
ment of  which  I  may  be  delinquent. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  this  16th  day  of  November,  A.  D.  1S03. 

John  White.     [Sial.] 

Attest:  George  Oldham. 


Forms  of  Notes  in  Several  States. 

MISSOURI. 


$ 60.00.  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  July  24,  /Soj. 

Three  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  to  the 
order  of  Edgar  M.  Voll  Sixty  Dollars,  for  value  re- 
ceived, negotiable  and  payable  without  defalcation  or 

discount. 

Sigma  nd  A.  A  teles. 


INDIANA. 


■fS'J-  Indianapolis,  Int.,  July  aS,  /Soj. 

On  demand,  for  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay 
William  Westermann  .J-  Co.,  or  order,  Three  Hundred 
and  Fifteen  Dollars,  without  interest,  payable  -with- 
out any  relief  whatever  from  value  or  appraisement. 

Richard  Af.  Sylvester. 


PENNSYLVANIA  AND  NEW  JERSEY. 


1   fjoo. 


Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  ab,  /Soj. 


Ninety  days  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  to  the    \ 
I  1 

>    order  of  Lafayette  Armstrong   Three  Hundred  Dol- 
lars, at  Third  National  flank,  value  received,  with- 

i    out  defalcation. 

George  Miller. 


V 


COMMERCIAL    LAW    AND    FORMS. 


407 


A  Swindling  Note. 


Carlyle,  III.,  October  j,  i8gj. 

One  year  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  R.   Tucker  or  bearer  Ten  Dollars,  when  I  sell  by 

order   Four  Hundred  and  Seventy-five  Dollars  ($4.75)  worth    of  Patent    Fanning  Mills, 

for    value    received,     at    ten    per    cent    per    annum.  Said    Ten    Dollars   when   due   is 

payable   at    Carlyle,   Illinois. 

JOHN  WILSON, 
Witness :  John  Roc. 


Agent  for  R.  Tucker. 


Although  the  above  venerable  scheme  of  the  confidence 
man  has  been  exposed  time  after  time,  it  still  continues  to 
add  yearly  to  its  list  of  victims.  A  paper  is  drawn  up 
wherein'a  farmer  agrees  to  pay  ten  or  twenty  dollars  when  he 
has  sold  goods  to  a  given  amount.  By  tearing  off  the  right- 
hand  end  of  this  paper,  what  is  apparently  an  agreement  for 
a  small  amount  becomes  a  promissory  note  for  a  considera- 
ble sum.  This  note  is  sold  at  a  bank,  thereby  becoming  the 
property  of  a  third  and  innocent  party,  and  the  signer  of  the 
agreement  is  called  upon  to  pay  the  note. 

This  shows  how  important  it  is  that  a  man  should  read  and 
carefully  examine  every  paper  presented  to  him  for  his  signa- 
ture. 


DUE  BILLS. 

A  Due  Bill  differs  from  a  note  in  the  fact  that  it  is  a  simple 
acknowledgment  of  a  debt.  It  may  be  payable  in  money  or 
merchandise.     It  is  the  simplest  form  of  negotiable  paper. 

$10.00.  Philadelphia,  May  8,  1893. 

Due  John  Jackson,  or  order,  for  value  received,  Twenty  Dollars. 

Henry  Folsom. 


In  acknowledgment  of  debt,  a  form  of  due  bill  called  an 
I  O  U  is  sometimes  given. 


I  O  U  Three  Hundred  ar.d  Fifty  Dollars. 


Wm.  Johnson. 


Due  Bill  Payable  in  Merchandise. 

$50.00.  St.  Louis,  May  14,  ,893. 

Due  Enos  Baldwin,  Fifty  Dollars,  payable  in  goods  from  our  store 

Sontag  &  Weber. 


on  demand. 


One  Bill  Payable  in  Money  and  Merchandise. 

$50.00.  St.  Loiis,  May  14,  1S03. 

Due   Howard  Read,  Fifty  Dollars,  payable,  Twenty-five  Dollars 
cash.  Twenty-five  Dollars  in  goods  from  our  store,  on  demand. 

Sontag  &  Weber. 


ORDERS. 

An  Order  for  Money. 

Waco,  Texas,  April  i,  1893. 
Mr.  B.J.  Ring; 

Please  pay  \V.  H.  Cavanagh  Ten  Dollars  on  my  account. 

M.F.  Crenshaw. 


An  Order  for  Merchandise. 

Dallas,  Texas,  May  15,  1893. 
Mr.  N.  W.  Bechtel: 

Please  pay  L.  W.  Motsuff  Thirty  Dollars   in  Merchandise  and 
charge  the  same  to  my  account. 

L.  E.  Kittrell. 


RECEIPTS. 

For  Money  on  Account. 

$15.01.  Kirkwood,  Mo.,  Jan.  1,  1S93. 

Received  of  J.  M.  Hardy  Fifteen  Dollars  on  account. 

P.  D.  Rich. 


In  Full  of  All  Demands. 

$150.  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  Sept.  2,  1S93. 

Received  of  J.  C.  O'Neal  One    Hundred  and  Fifty  Dollars,  in 
full  of  all  demands  to  date. 

Alfred  \V,  Gregory. 


$So. 


For  Rent. 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Nov.  1,  1S93. 


Received  of  W.  F.  George  Eighty  Dollars,  in  full  for  one  month's 
rent  of  residence  at  2S07  Olive  St. 

John  G.  Stewart. 


For  Money  Advanced  on  a  Contract. 

$500.  Denver,  Col.,  May  15,  1893. 

Received  of  L.W.Logan  Five  Hundred  Dollars,  in  advance,  on 
a  contract  to  build  for  him  a  dwelling-house  at  No.  315  Cheyenne 
Ave.,  Denver. 

John  T.  Sherfey. 


V 


408 


COMMERCIAL   LAW   AND    FORMS. 


. 


AvL-A-^A^A-l- 


■^     A     .1*     A     -X-     J, 


POINTS  OF  BUSINESS  LAW. 


■  y     ^1-     y     -],     y     ^    y     ^  cjgftgff  -r-    y    .7.    y     ^    y   ■  .f.    y 


>§<€>- 


€k  HECKS  made  payable  to  "Cash"  or  order,  or  to  some 
character,  or  numb.er,  or  order,  are  held  to  be  payable 
^   to  bearer. 

A  past-due  note  entrusted  for  collection  to  an  agent 
was  converted  by  him  to  his  own  use,  and  was  afterwards  sold 
under  an  execution  against  him.  The  court  decided  that  the 
purchaser  had  not  acquired  any  interest  in  the  note  and  could 
not  maintain  an  action  against  the  maker. 

In  case  of  the  death  of  the  principal  maker  of  a  note  the 
holder  is  not  required  to  notify  a  surety  that  the  note  is  not 
paid,  before  the  settlement  of  the  maker's  estate. 

Notes  obtained  by  fraud,  or  made  by  an  intoxicated  per- 
son, are  not  collectible.     A  note  made  by  a  minor  is  void. 

If  no  time  of  payment  is  specified  in  a  note  it  is  payable  on 
demand. 

An  endorser  can  avoid  liability  by  writing  "  without  re- 
course" beneath  his  signature. 

A  check  endorsed  by  the  payee  is  evidence  of  payment  in 
the  drawer's  hands. 

A  signature  written  with  a  lead  pencil  is  valid. 

No  contract  is  good  unless  there  be  legal  consideration. 

An  outlawed  debt  is  revived  should  the  debtor  make  a 
partial  payment. 

In  case  of  a  note  made  payable  one  day  after  date,  with 
interest  from  date  at  the  rate  of  12  per  cent  per  annum,  in- 
terest to  be  paid  anViually,  it  was  held  that  the  note  woald 
draw  the  same  rate  of  interest  after  maturity  until  paid. 

The  revised  statutes  of  Indiana  provide  that  notes  payable 
"to  order"  or  "to  bearer,"  in  that  State,  are  negotiable  as 
inland  bills  of  exchange,  and  the  payees  and  endorsers 
thereof  may  recover  as  in  oase  of  such  bills. 

Payment  is  the  performance  of  an  agreement  or  the  fulfil- 
ment of  a  promise,  the  discharge  in  money  of  a  sum  due. 
Pleaded  as  a  defence,  payment  of  money  or  of  an  equivalent 
accepted  in  its  place,  to  the  plaintiff  or  his  authorized  repre- 
sentative, must  be  proved  by  defendant.  To  extinguish  the 
debt,  payment  must  be  made  by  a  person  having  the  right 
to  do  so,  to  a  person  entitled  to  receive  it,  at  the  appointed 
place  and  time,  and  in  something  proper  to  receive,  both  as  to 
kind  and  quality.  Proof  that  anything  has  been  done  or 
accepted  as  payment  is  proof  of  payment.  A  receipt  is 
prima  facie  evidence  of  payment ;  so  also  is  the  possession 
by  the  debtor  of  a  security  after  the  day  of  payment 

ACCOMMODATION  PAPER. 

Drafts  as  well  as  notes  are  employed  as  accommodation 
paper.  For  example,  Smith,  being  willing  to  lend  Jones 
money  which  the  later  needs,  and  having  none  immediately 
available,  draws  a  draft  on  Robinson,  who  is  his  debtor,  and 
makes  it  payable  to  Jones,  who  gives  no  value  for  it.     Such 


a  draft  in  Jones'  hand  is  accommodation  paper  and  cannot 
be  used  as  an  implied  contract  against  Smith;  if  discounted 
at  a  bank,  or  transferred  for  money  to  an  individual,  it  be- 
comes business  paper  as  far  as  the  holder  is  concerned,  and 
its  payment  may  be  enforced. 

Forged  Paper. 

The  endorsee  generally  obtains  a  perfect  title  when  paper 
is  transferred  before  maturity;  but  if  the  first  endorsement 
is  forged,  no  title  rests  in  the  holder.  If  the  signature  of  the 
maker  of  a  note  is  forged,  the  holder  has  no  recourse  against 
him.  Negotiable  paper  is  void  when  the  consideration  is 
either  contrary  to  the  general  principles  of  common  law  or  is 
prohibited  by  statute. 

Want  of  Consideration. 

Want  of  consideration — a  common  defence  interposed  to 
the  payment  of  negotiable  paper — is  a  good  defence  between 
the  original  parties  to  the  paper;  but  after  it  has  been  trans- 
ferred before  maturity  to  an  innocent  holder  for  value,  it  is 
not  a  defence. 

Stolen  or  Lost  Paper. 
Negotiable  paper,  payable  to  bearer  or  endorsed  in  blank, 
which  has  been  stolen  or  lost,  cannot  be  collected  by  the 
thief  or  finder,  but  a  holder  who  receives  it  in  good  faith  be- 
fore maturity,  for  value,  can  hold  it  against  the  owner's  claims 
at  the  time  it  was  lost. 

Payment  Before  Maturity. 

Sometimes  the  holder  of  paper  has  the  right  to  demand 
payment  before  maturity;  for  instance,  when  a  draft  has  been 
protested  for  non-acceptance  and  the  proper  notices  served, 
the  holder  may  at  once  proceed  against  the  drawer  and 
endorsers. 

State  Laws  as  to  Payment. 

If  a  note  or  draft  is  to  be  paid  in  the  State  where  it  is 
made,  the  contract  will  be  governed  by  the  laws  of  that  Sute. 
When  negotiable  paper  is  payable  in  a  State  other  than  that 
in  which  it  is  made,  the  laws  of  that  State  will  govern  it. 
Marriage  contracts,  if  valid  where  they  are  made,  are  valid 
everywhere.  Contracts  relating  to  personal  property  are 
governed  by  the  laws  of  the  place  where  made,  except  those 
relating  to  real  estate,  which  are  governed  by  the  laws  of  the 
place  where  the  land  is  situated. 

Collateral  Security. 
If  negotiable  paper,  pledged  to  a  bank  as  security  for  the 
payment  of  a  loan  or  debt,  falls  due,  and  the  bank  fails  to 
drmand  p.iyment  and  have  it  protested  when  dishonored,  the 
bank  is  liable  to  the  owner  for  the  full  amount  of  the  paper. 


V 


"71 


14- 


LAWS    RELATING    TO    INTEREST. 


409 


Tfje  Lawg  of  the  United  j&ateg  and  [Saijada  Relating  to  Interest. 

COMPILED    FROM    THE    LATEST    STATE   AND   TERRITORIAL    8TATUTES. 

Laws  of  Each  State  and  'Territory   Regarding    Kates   of   Interest  and    Penalties  for  Usury,  with  Iti* 
Law  or  Custom  as  to  Day  of  Grace  on  \m<  s  und  Drafts. 


STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 

LEGAL 

RATE  OF 

INTEREST. 

RATE 
ALLOWED   BY 
CONTRACT. 

Per  cent. 
8 

7 
6 

7 
8 
6 

7 
6 
6 

8 
7 

10 

S 
6 
6 

7 
6 

5 
6 
6 
6 
7 
7 
6 
6 
10 

7 
10 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
8 
6 
6 

7 
6 
8 
8 
6 
6 
10 
6 

7 

12 

6 

7 

Per  cent. 
8 

Any  rate. 
10 

Any  rate. 

Any  rate. 
6 

Dakota,  North  and  South 

12 

6 

District  of  Columbia 

10 

Florida 

Any  rate. 

8 

Idaho  (usurer  liable  to  arrest  for  mis- 
demeanor)   

18 

7 
8 

Indiana 

8 

Kansas 

Louisiana 

6 

8 

Maine 

Any  rate. 
'  6 

Any  rate. 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

Montana 

Any  rate. 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

Any  rate. 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

6 

New  Mexico 

New  York+ 

6 

North  Carolina 

8 

Ohio 

8 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

6 

Rhode  Island 

Any  rate. 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

6 

Utah 

Any  rate. 

Vermont 

Virginia 

6 

Washington 

Any  rate. 

West  Virginia  .... 

Any  rate. 

12 

PENALTIES    FOR    l/SCRY. 

GRACE     OR 

NO  GRACE. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

Grace. 

No  penalty. 

Cirace. 

Forfeiture  of  principal  and  interest. 

Grace. 

No  penalty. 

No  grace. 

No  penalty. 

*  No  grace. 

No  penalty. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  contract. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  contract. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

No  grace. 

No  penalty. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  3  times  excess  of  int'st. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest.            m 

No  grace 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  interest  and  costs,  and 

10  per  cent,  to  school  fund. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

Grace. 

No  penalty. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

Grace. 

No  penalty. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  contract. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

Grace. 

No  penalty. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  interest  and  cost. 

Grace. 

No  penalty. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  thrice  the  excess. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest  and  costs. 

Grace. 

No  penalty. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  principal  and  interest. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  twice  the  interest. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  excess. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  principal  and  interest. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

Grace. 

No  penalty. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  interest. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  all  interest. 

Grace. 

No  penalty. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  excess. 

No  grace. 

No  penalty. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  excess  of  interest. 

No  grace. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

Grace. 

No  penalty. 

Grace. 

Grace. 

Forfeiture  of  entire  interest. 

Grace. 

*  Except  on  promissory  notes  and  bills  of  exchange.  t  $5,000  call  loans  on  collateral,  any  rate. 

No  agreement  to  pay  a  higher  than  the  legal  rate  can  be  enforced  unless  it  is  expressly  authorized  by  statute,  the 
established  presumption  of  the  law,  in  the  absence  of  such  legislation,  being  that  such  a  rate  is  usurious. 


4io 


LAWS    RELATING    TO    LIMITATION    OK    ACTIONS. 


~7 


The  Laws  of  the  United  j&ateg  aqd  Caijada  Relating  to  Limitatioq  of  ^ctiong. 

Note.  —  A  statute  of  limitation  heginsto  run  from  the  time  at  which  a  creditor  is  authorized  first  to  commence  suit.  Upon  mutual,  concurrent 
and  open  accounts,  the  statute,  in  general,  begins  to  run  with  the  date  of  the  last  item.  A  debt,  otherwise  barred,  may  be  revived  by  a  new 
promise  made  within  the  period  of  limitation.  The  new  promise  may  be  either  express  or  implied  from  a  part  payment,  or  any  unqualified 
acknowledgment  from  which  a  promise  may  be  inferred. 


*  Alabama  . 
Arkansas  .. 
♦Arizona . . 
California.. 


Colorado., 


Connecticut. 


Dakota,  North  &i  South 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia.... 

Florida 

Georgia 

•Idaho 


•Illinois  .... 

•  Indiana .. . 
•Iowa 

•  Kansas... . 

•  Kentucky  . 


•  Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

•  Massachusetts. 
Michigan 

•  Minnesota 

Mississippi 


Missouri 

*  Montana 

*  Nebraska 

*  Nevada 

New  Hampshire. 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico.   .. . 

New  York 

North  Carolina  . . 
•Ohio 


•Oregon 

*  Pennsylvania, 


Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina. , 

•Tennessee 

•Texas 

•Utah 


•Vermont. 
Virginia  ... 


•Washington. . 
West  Virginia . 
•  Wisconsin.,.. 


•Wyoming 

CANADA. 

Province  of  Ontario., 
Province  of  Quebec, 


Tears, 


a 


i,  a 


I 


0   L> 


rears. 
3 

3 


t 
i 

6 
6 

6 

6 
6 

I 
3 

6 

SB 

JIM 


6 
6 
6 

10 
10 


6 
6 
6 
6 
3 
IS 

6 
6 

6 
6 
6 

4 
4 

6 

s 


I'rart. 
10 

S 

4 
4 


10 

5 

'5 


5 
4 

30 
16 
6 
30 


4l 
4 

a 

30 

6 
10 
30 


30 


£  <  * 


Tears. 
'5 


17 


■o§§ 

10 

5 

5 

30 

30 

»s 


30 
8 


30 


Judgments  of  Justice's  court,  5  years.    Judgment  liens  expire  In  3  years. 

An  action  upon  a  judgment  rendered  or  contract  made  out  of  the  State  is 

barred  in  3  years. 
Whin  the  cause  of  action  accrues  without  the  State,  the  periods  oflitnita- 

tion  are  3  years  for  notes  and  accounts ;  3  years  for  sealed  instruments 

and  judgment--. 
Promissory  notes  not  negotiable  arc  barred  in  7  years.     Demand  notes, 

when  indorsed,  must  be  protested  within  4  months  from  date,  without 

grace,  to  hold  the  indorser. 


Judgments  become  dormant  in  7  years  from  date  of  last  return  00  execution 
issued,  but  may  be  revived.     Foreign  judgments  barred  in  5  years. 


Judgments  become  dormant  in  5  years,  unless  revived. 

•'Store  account"  for  goods  sold  and  delivered,  3  years  from  1st  of  January 
next  succeeding  date  of  last  Hem.  Merchandise  accounts  between  mer- 
chants, 7  years. 

Witnessed  notes,  30  years. 

Witnessed  notes,  30  years. 


Years  from  date  of  last  execution. 
Accounts  stated,  3  years. 


Foreign  judgments  barred  in  3  years. 


Liabilities  incurred  out  of  State,  3  years. 


For  foreign  judgments.     Domestic  judgments  become  dormant  in  5  years, 
but  may  be  revived. 

Man  intile  accounts  are  not  alfectcd  bv  the  statute  as  long  as  they  remain 
opes. 


Action  "  for  specific  recovery  of  personal  property,"  or  "  for  relief  on  the 

ground  ot  fraud,"  3  years, 
W  itnessed  notes,  14  years. 
Judgments  of  ether  States,  period  of  limitation  under  the  law  of  that 

State,  not  exceeding  10  years.     "  Store  account,"  1  years. 

k 


Judgments  of  another  State,  same  as  in  Virginia.  "Store  account,"  1 
Judgments  of  other  States  and  sealed  instruments,  v.  here  the  liabili 

crucd  out  of  the  State,  10  Years. 
Judgments  become  dormant  in  5  years.     Foreign  debts  and  judgments,  t 


•  In  the  States  thus  marked,  it  is  provide 

the  statute  ol  limitations  of  that  St:it 

statute  period  before  he  can  take  adv 

I  Sander,  6  months. 

X  Seals  abolished. 


d  by  statute  that  a  cause  of  action  shall  be  barred  which  first  accrued  in  another  State  and  is  barred  by 
c.  "This  is  contrary  to  the  general  rule,  by  which  a  debtor  must  have  resided  in  the  State  during  the 
antagc  of  it. 

||  Ssnre  accounts,  3  vears. 


VL 


(Assault,  4  years. 
$$  In  certain  courts,  jo  years. 
1  Slander,  1  year. 


I  Store  accounts,  3  years. 


^ 


BANKS     AND     BANKING. 


411 


iBaBacac^r:^^1^^■^r^r.l^r,^^r^^i.^^:■^r^^r..^r^r:^^r^^^r..^P^r.^F;^rl^^!^r^r:.^r^^..■^r.^r^^^^^^^r^r-l^^ 
CaC[JLJLJL>ILJkJ^JlJtJLJtJLAJLJLJt^JLJLJLJL^LJL'JtJLJLJLJLjLJUJLJLJLJL 


BANKING. 


c&n 


ff-2- 


.;-^>-  -:> 


-*'9 


BANK  is,  in  the  simplest  sense  of  the 

Mft|r  term,  a  place  in  which  money  can  be 

)b   stowed  away  for  safe-keeping.    But  since 

the  days  when  goldsmiths  and  others 
took  care  of  the  funds  of  such  as  trusted  in 
their  honor  and  the  strength  of  the  strong- 
boxes which  were  part  of  their  stock  in  trade, 
the  idea  has  been  by  degrees  developed,  until 
now  a  banking  institution,  with  its  means  of 
supplying  exchange  and  discount,  its  powers 
of  circulation,  its  care  of  deposits  and  its  atten- 
tion to  correct  accounts,  is  the  embodiment 
of  one  of  the  most  interesting  as  well  as  the 
most  useful  of  modern  sciences.  One  of  the 
prime  needs  of  every  commercial  community 
is  an  ample  supply  of  banking  capital  and 
facilities  for  discount. 

The  profit  of  the  manufacturer,  of  the  mer- 
chant and  of  the  retail  trader  represents  in  the 
long  run  only  the  balance  left  after  paying  the 
current  rate  of  interest,  and  if,  in  consequence 
of  lack  of  banking  capital,  interest  is  higher  in 
one  city  than  in  competing  cities,  all  business 
will  suffer,  goods  will  not  be  bought,  grain  will 
not  be  handled,  cotton  will  be  out  of  reach, 
improvements  will  be  postponed,  and  the  city 
will  be  condemned  to  enforced  idleness  in  many 
departments  of  endeavor  where  the  busy  wheels 


Jk= 


of  industry  would  be  started  in  motion  if  money 
could  be  borrowed  on  easy  terms. 

How  the  Business  is  Carried  On. 

The  business  of  banking  is  divided  into  sev- 
eral departments  or  branches,  Deposits,  Circu- 
lation, Exchange,  Collection,  Discounts  and 
Loans  being  the  most  important.  On  account 
of  these  different  branches  banks  are  frequently 
called  Banks  of  Discount,  Banks  of  Deposit, 
Savings  Banks,  etc. 

Banks  of  Deposit. 

A  Bank  of  Deposit  is  one  which  receives 
money  from  depositors  for  safe-keeping,  paying 
it  back  on  their  checks  to  others  or  to  them- 
selves. The  most  important  function  of  a  bank 
is  the  receiving  of  deposits,  the  person  thus 
entrusting  his  money  to  the  care  of  the  bank 
being  called  a  depositor.  He  not  only  has  the 
advantage  of  the  safe-keeping  of  his  cash,  but 
the  further  convenience  of  making  his  payments 
from  it  whenever  he  chooses,  by  means  of  checks. 
As  he  will  receive  payments  from  others  in  a 
similar  manner,  and  deposit  them  as  money,  it 
will  at  once  be  seen  that  an  immense  volume  of 
business  can  be  transacted,  and  vast  sums  of 


v-  r      ~- 


I 


K~ 


412 


BANKS    AND    BANKING. 


t, 


money  paid  out,  without  the  handling  of  any 
cash. 

In  Europe  it  is  quite  different.  The  holder 
of  a  check  presents  it  to  the  bank  and  re- 
ceives the  money.  The  system  of  payment 
by  checks,  which  are  deposited  as  money,  is 
more  universally  practiced  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

The  safe-keeping  of  his  money,  and  the  con- 
venience of  his  check  account,  together  with 
other  favors  he  receives  in  the  way  of  discounts, 
loans,  exchange,  etc.,  are  generally  regarded  as 
sufficient  compensation  for  the  use  of  a  deposi- 
tor's funds. 

A  person  desiring  to  make  a  single  deposit, 
to  be  withdrawn  in  the  same  amount,  receives 
from  the  bank  a  Certificate  of  Deposit. 
This  is  issued  by  the  bank  itself,  is  payable  at 
any  stated  time,  or  on  demand,  and  may  bear 
interest. 

Banks  of  Circulation. 

The  issue  by  a  bank  of  its  promises  to  pay,  in 
the  form  of  bank  notes  or  bills,  is  called  its  cir- 
culation. These  notes  or  bills,  being  guaranteed 
by  the  Government,  answer  as  a  substitute  for 
money.  The  Government  holds,  as  security, 
bonds  belonging  to  the  bank,  to  a  still  larger 
amount,  and  also  retains  a  five  per  cent  fund  for 
immediate  redemption.  Only  the  National 
Banks  issue  a  circulation,  as  a  tax  of  ten  per 
cent  would  be  levied  upon  any  other  kind  of 
circulating  notes. 

Circulating  notes  called  "  Greenbacks  "  are 
issued  by  the  National  Treasury,  which  thus 
performs  the  office  of  a  Bank  of  Circulation. 
Various  opinions  exist  as  to  the  propriety  of 
the  Government  exercising  this  function.  Some 
hold  that  it  is  not  right  or  proper  for  the  Gov- 
ernment to  be  engaged  in  the  banking  business, 
while  others  contend  that  the  Government  alone 

should  have  the  power  to  issue  paper  currency. 

Others,  again,  believe  the  Government  should 

hold  a  dollar  of  coin  in  the  Treasury  for  every 

paper  dollar  in  circulation. 


Banks  of  Exchange. 

A  Bank  of  Exchange  is  one  which  receives 
money  on  deposit,  and,  instead  of  paying  it  back 
to  the  depositor,  makes  payments  by  drafts  on 
other  banks.  It  keeps  money  on  deposit  at  the 
principal  trade  centres,  thus  affording  the  advan- 
tage of  sending  money  to  different  points  at  a  tri- 
fling expense  and  without  risk  in  transportation. 

It  charges  the  person  who  desires  to  remit  a 
small  amount  for  its  services,  and  sells  him  its 
draft  on  the  place  to  which  the  remittance  is 
to  be  sent.  The  system  is  known  as  Inland 
and  Foreign  Exchange,  Inland  Exchange  con- 
sisting of  a  draft  drawn  and  payable  in  the 
State  or  country,  and  Foreign  Exchange  being 
a  draft  drawn  in  one  country  and  payable  in 
another.  Foreign  Exchange  involves  also  the 
reduction  of  the  money  of  one  country  into  that 
of  another. 

What  is  Bank  Discount? 

Bank  Discount  is  the  payment  of  a  note  or 
other  paper  before  it  is  due,  deducting  the 
interest  that  would  have  accrued  at  maturity. 
A  note  or  draft  is  discounted  when  the  interest 
for  the  given  time  and  at  the  given  rate  is  taken 
from  the  face,  and  the  balance  paid  to  the 
holder.  The  sum  deducted  is  the  discount ;  the 
remainder  is  the  proceeds. 

Bank  Officers  and  Employes. 

The  stockholders  of  an  incorporated  bank 
elect  a  Board  of  Directors,  who  manage  its 
affairs.  These  elect  a  President,  one  or  more 
Vice-Presidents,  and  a  Cashier.  The  Cashier  is 
the  executive  officer  of  the  bank  and  controls 
its  interior  management.  He  is  assisted  by  a 
number  of  employes.  The  principal  ones  are  the 
Paying  Teller  and  the  Receiving  Teller,  who  are 
at  the  head  of  the  debit  and  credit  departments  ; 
the  Note  Teller ;  the  Discount  Clerks ;  the 
Collection  Clerks ;  the  Book-keepers,  each  in 
charge  of  certain  ledgers  ;  Assistant  Tellers  ; 
Assistant  Book-keepers;  Check-Clerks  and 
Messengers,  or  "  Runners." 


:r 


HOW    TO    DO    BUSINESS    WITH    A    BANK. 


4'3 


SN  doing  business  with  a  bank,  the  first  step  is  to  secure  a 
proper  introduction  to  the  cashier.  If  one's  references 
are  all  right,  the  depositor's  signature  is  put  on  record 
i)  \  in  the  "signature-book,"  giving  the  name  as  he  intends 
•"^S"  to  sign  it  on  his  checks.  This  is  done  to  furnish  the 
paying  teller  with  an  accurate  means  of  judging  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  signatures  of  checks — a  very  necessary  precaution, 
as  the  bank  is  responsible  for  the  genuineness  of  the  signa- 
tures of  all  checks.  When  a  partnership  account  is  opened, 
each  member  of  the  firm  who  is  allowed  to  sign  checks 
writes  the  firm's  name  and  his  own  in  the  signature-book. 

Deposits. 

When  money  is  deposited  in  a  bank,  some  voucher  should 
be  taken.  This  is  done  usually  by  the  teller  writing  the 
amount  of  the  deposit  in  the  small  bank-book  of  the  depositor, 
and  sometimes  a  receipt,  called  a  teller's  check,  is  given.  When 
a  deposit  is  made,  the  bank  usually  issues  a  small  "hand- 
book," to  be  carried  in  the  pocket,  in  which  an  account  is 
kept  by  the  teller  of  the  bank  of  all  the  transactions  which 
follow.  After  the  opening  deposit,  when  it  is  intended  to 
pay  in  more  money,  the  depositor  fills  out  a  blank,  showing 
the  amount  paid  in  and  indicating  whether  it  is  in  checks  or 
current  funds.  This  ticket,  with  the  book  and  the  money, 
is  handed  to  the  teller,  who  enters  the  date  and  amount. 
When  a  note  is  left  for  collection,  it  is  usually  entered  by  the 
collection  clerk  in  the  back  part  of  the  book,  giving  date, 
maker's  name,  maturity,  and  amount.  When  collected,  the 
amount,  less  collection  charges,  is  placed  in  the  book  as  a 
regular  deposit.  Few  merchants  keep  a  separate  account 
with  a  bank  in  their  general  books,  the  "bank-book"  and 
the  stubs  of  the  check-book  being  sufficient,  and  in  themselves 
vouchers  of  the  transaction. 

How  to  Keep  the  Stub  of  Check-Book. 

In  drawing  a  check,  insert  all  the  particulars  in  the  stub 
before  doing  so  in  the  body  of  the  check ;  also  the  purpose  for 
which  the  check  is  drawn. 

The  left-hand  page  of  the  stub  is  intended  for  the  purpose 
of  entering  your  deposits ;  the  right-hand  page  for  the  de- 
scription of  the  checks.  When  both  sides  are  footed  up,  the 
excess  of  the  left-hand  total  over  the  right  shows  the  balance 
remaining  to  your  credit  in  bank. 


By  following  the  form  here  given,  it  will  be  found  much 
preferable  to  subtracting  each  check,  as  many  do,  wnich 
makes  the  tracing  of  an  error  very  difficult: 


Nov.  6 

Deposit. 

Coin 

$ 

IOO.OO 

Bills 

200.00 

Check. 

Willi 

6O.OO 

37-50 

666.66 

Nov.S, 
Bills. 

Deposit. 

Nov.  9,  Deposit. 
Check,  B.  Dixon. 

?3 

216.14 

983-30 

2,233.84 


$2,064 


1,000 


<s> 


$3."6    '4 


16 


00 


98 


No.  1. 
Nov.  7, 1S93. 

Amount 

Order  of 

T.  A.  Lament. 


No.  J. 
Nov.  8,  1893. 

Amount 

Order  of 
L.  H.  Peterson. 


No.  3. 
Nov.  11,  1893. 

Amount 

Order  of 


J.  M.  Whitney. 


$200 


"S 


658 


I9S3   3° 


30 


The   totals  are  carried  forward  to  the  next  pages  in  this 
manner  : 


Forward, 


Etc. 


$3,216    14  :,  Forward, 


Etc. 


$983 


30 


Balancing  a  Bank-Book. 

Checks  paid  are  not  entered  up  in  the  bank-book  as  they 
are  presented  for  payment,  but  are  filed  away,  and  at  the  end 
of  a  month,  or,  indeed,  whenever  the  depositor  desires  to  have 
his  account  balanced,  the  book  is  presented  and  the  balance 
figured  up  by  the  teller,  who  enters  it  usually  in  red  ink  under 
the  paid  checks  on  the  right-hand  side.  The  book  should 
then  be  ruled  up,  and  the  balance  in  bank  carried  over  to  the 
left-hand  side,  similar  to  the  first  entry.  When  the  depositor 
calls  for  his  book,  all  the  cancelled  checks  are  passed  out  to 
him  along  with  the  account. 

How  to  Draw  and  Endorse  a  Check. 

A  check  is  a  written  order  on  a  bank  directing  that  a  certain 
amount  of  money  be  paid  to  a  person  whose  name  is  given, 
or  to  the  order  of  that  person,  or  to  the  bearer.  A  check 
is  the  simplest  form  of  negotiable  paper,  although  there 
are  checks  which  are  not  negotiable.  There  is  no  set 
form  for  the  wording  of  a  check.     Any  dated  demand  upon 


4*4 


HOW    TO    DO    BUSINESS    WITH    A    BANK. 


*t 


a  bank  in  which  the  person  signing  has  money,  properly 
signed,  is  a  check,  and  will  draw  the  money.  Some- 
times the  words  "or  order"  are  used;  sometimes,  "or 
bearer."  Occasionally  checks  are  made  payable  to  "the 
bearer"  without  giving  any  name.  If  the  words  "or  order" 
and  "or  bearer"  are  both  omitted,  then  the  check  is  not  nego- 
tiable, and  can  be  paid  only  to  the  person  named.  In  theory 
a  check  is  a  sight  draft,  which  does  not  need  acceptance,  as  it 
is  paid  on  presentation.  All  banks  keep  printed  forms  of 
checks,  which  they  issue  to  depositors.  When  a  check  is 
made  payable  to  the  payee  "or  order,"  it  must  be  endorsed 
by  the  payee  before  payment.  Generally,  all  checks,  whether 
"to  order"  or  "to  bearer,"  should  be  endorsed,  which  is 
by  writing  the  name  of  the  payee  across  the  back. 

Certified  Checks. 

If  all  men  were  perfectly  honest,  certified  checks  would 
never  have  been  thought  of.  But  men  will  occasionally 
draw  against  deposits  which  exist  only  in  their  imaginations, 
and  to  meet  this  growing  evil,  certification  of  checks  has 
been  introduced.  No  uncertified  check  from  a  stringer 
should  be  received  by  any  business  man.  The  certifying 
means  that  the  person  drawing  the  paper  has  funds  to  his 
credit  to  the  amount  of  the  check,  and  the  bank  guarantees 
its  payment.  To  get  a  check  certified,  it  is  presented  either 
to  the  paying  teller  or  the  cashier  of  the  bank  om  which  it  is 
drawn.  The  bank  officer  writes  across  the  face,  "Certified," 
with  the  date,  and  signs.  Another  form  used  very  frequently 
are  the  words,  "Good  when  properly  endorsed,"  with  the 
signature.  This  makes  the  bank  liable  for  the  check,  even 
if  it  is  a  forgery  or  a  fraudulent  one.  The  certification  of  a 
check  is  the  same  as  the  acceptance  of  a  draft. 


Banking  Frauds. 


1L 


Forged  Checks. — Despite  the  precautions  taken  by  banks 
in  keeping  a  signature-book,  it  frequently  happens  that  astute 
rogues  deceive  them  with  forgeries.  This  is  the  most  danger- 
ous crime  in  the  business  world,  as  it  strikes  at  the  root  of 
confidence.  Some  forgers  are  so  expert  that  they  are  able  to 
imitate  a  signature  so  closely  that  even  the  one  whose  na.-ue 
is  forged  can  only  swear  that  he  did  not  make  out  the  check, 
and  will  not  be  able  to  pick  out  the  forged  signature  by  itself 
from  the  genuine.  All  of  the  responsibility  of  detecting 
forgeries  is  thrown  upon  the  receiving  teller  of  the  bank. 
Every  check  is  paid  by  the  bank  at  its  own  risk,  and  it  has  no 
recourse  against  the  person  whose  name  is  forged.  A  forgery 
cannot  be  rectified  by  the  person  whose  name  was  used,  as 
this  rectification  would  be  contrary  to  public  policy,  and  would 
tend  to  shield  a  crime  which,  unpunished,  would  break  the 
whole  commercial  fabric. 

RAISED  CHECKS. 

A  device  of  sharpers  which  is  frequently  attended  with 
great  success  is  so  to  alter  the  wording  and  the  figures  of  a 
check  that  it  will  call  for  more  money  than  the  drawer  in- 
tended to  pay.     This  is  called  "raising  a  check,"  and  is  a 


felony.  Check-raising  is  only  possible  when  the  check  is 
loosely  written,  with  a  number  of  blank  places  where  words 
may  be  inserted.  Care  should  be  taken  always  to  fill  in  the 
empty  spaces  with  lines  of  ink.  If  a  raised  check  is  paid  by 
a  bank  it  can  only  charge  the  depositor  with  the  amount  for 
which  he  drew.  A  very  common  device,  and  a  good  one, 
used  by  many  merchants,  is  to  stamp  the  amount  of  money 
written  on  the  check  with  an  instrument  having  a  number  of 
sharp  points,  which  so  roughens  the  paper  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  write  anything  more  on  it,  although  it  leaves  the 
original  writing  legible. 

ALTERED  CHECKS. 

Altered  checks  differ  from  raised  checks  from  the  fact  that 
in  an  altered  check  all  of  the  original  writing  except  the  signa- 
ture, date  and  number  is  taken  out  with  chemicals,  which 
leaves  the  check  blank.  It  is  then  rewritten  for  any  amount 
the  swindler  desires  to  put  in. 

CRAFTS  AND  BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE.^ 


A  draft  may  be  described  as  an  order  or  request,  written  by 
one  person  to  another,  asking  the  latter  to  pay  a  specified 
sum  of  money  to  a  third  party,  or  to  his  order,  or  to  the 
bearer.  Bills  of  exchange  are  drafts  under  another  name. 
An  inland  bill  is  a  draft  drawn  and  payable  in  the  same 
State  or  country,  and  a  foreign  bill  of  exchange  is  drawn 
in  one  country  and  payable  in  another.  Remittances  can  be 
made  much  more  safely  and  expeditiously  by  sending  bi'.ls  of 
exchange  than  by  sending  money.  If  lost,  the  draft  may  be 
duplicated.  To  provide  against  this  contingency,  in  sending 
drafts  over  sea,  it  is  customary  to  draw  two  or  three  for  the 
same  remittance,  and  when  one  of  these  is  paid,  the  others  are 
void;  but  the  great  and  increasing  accuracy  of  the  world's 
postal  systems  has  largely  removed  the  necessity  for  sending 
more  than  one  bill  of  exchange.  So  much  for  definitions. 
We  will  now  examine  drafts  and  their  forms. 

How  Drafts  are  Drawn. 

In  a  draft,  as  in  a  note,  any  form  which  includes  the  neces- 
sary requirements  will  be  held  good  in  law.  no  matter  how 
these  may  be  arranged.  Still,  custom  has,  in  a  measure, 
crystallized  on  certain  lines. 


run 

rn 

r-t 

Li  J 


$600.  Chicago,  April  ttt,  7S9J. 

At  Ten  Days  sight  pay  U  the  trder  0/  Edwin 
Russell  Six  Hundred  Do!:*rs.  value  received, 
with  current  rate  of  exchange. 

Dtnohue  £  Ct. 


To  Simon  Htkadar,      I 
St.  Ltttit,  Me.  ( 


HOW    TO    DO    BUSINESS    WITH    A    BANK. 


4'5 


The  theory  upon  which  a  draft  is  drawn  is  that  the  drawer 
has  or  will  have  funds  in  the  hands  of  drawee  at  the  maturity 
of  the  draft,  or  that  the  drawee  is  indebted  to  him.  Sometimes 
drafts  are  drawn  by  agreement  when  there  is  no  indebtedness. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  much  difference  in  the 
liability  between  a  note  and  a  draft.  The  maker  of  a  note 
must  pay  it;  the  drawer  of  a  draft  is  only  liable  after  the 
drawee  has  refused  to  pay.  The  drawee  only  becomes  liable 
when  he  has  accepted  the  draft.  When  the  draft  is  presented, 
if  it  is  a  sight  draft,  no  acceptance  is  necessary,  except  where 
the  State  law  allows  days  of  grace.  The  draft  is  simply  to  be 
paid  at  once.  But  when  it  is  to  be  paid  at  a  certain  time 
after  sight,  the  drawee  must  formally  accept  it,  which  is  done 
by  writing  across  the  face  of  the  paper  the  word  "  Accepted, " 
with  the  date  and  the  signature  of  the  person  accepting.  This 
acceptance  is  a  legal  promise  to  pay. 

When  the  draft  is  presented,  the  drawee  can  demand  a 
reasonable  time  to  make  up  his  mind  whether  to  accept  or 
not,  whereupon  it  may  be  left  with  him  one  day.  If  he  re- 
fuses to  return  it  at  the  end  of  that  time,  he  can  be  held  as 
accepting.  The  place  for  presentment  is  the  business  office 
or  residence  of  the  payee. 


Non-Acceptance. 


When  the  drawee  refuses  to  accept  the  draft,  it  is  said  to 
be  "  dishonored."  It  must  be  at  once  protested,  and  notice 
sent  to  all  parties  who  are  consequently  liable.  The  protest 
must  be  made  on  the  same  day  that  the  draft  is  dishonored, 
and  the  notice  sent  at  least  by  the  day  following.  The  pro- 
test should  be  made  by  a  notary  public  ;  but,  if  one  is  not 
accessible,  it  can  be  made  by  any  respectable  citizen. 

A  Protest. 

A  protest  is  a  declaration  made  by  a  notary  public  against 
the  loss  which  may  follow  the  non-acceptance  of  a  draft,  its 
non-payment,  or  the  non-payment  of  a  note.  To  illustrate 
the  machinery  of  the  protest  we  will  return  for  a  moment  to 
the  draft,  the  form  for  which  has  been  given  above.  Mr. 
Hockaday  refuses  to  accept  the  draft  drawn  on  him  by 
Donohue  &  Co.  It  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  notary 
public,  who  again  presents  the  draft  to  Hockaday  and  de- 
mands its  acceptance.  He  refuses,  whereupon  a  form  is 
filled  out  testifying  to  the  facts  in  the  case,  especially  Hocka- 
day's  refusal  to  accept,  all  of  which  is  attested  by  the  notary. 
No  person  can  be  held  responsible  for  payment  unless  notice 
of  protest  is  sent  to  him  as  early  as  the  day  following  the 
protest.  These  notices  should  be  sent  to  the  maker  and  to 
each  endorser  of  the  draft. 

NOTICE  OF  PROTEST. 

St.  Louis,  April  7th,  1893. 
Please  to  cake  Notice : 

That  a  Draft  drawn  by  yourself  on  Simon  Hockaday, 

of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  for  the  sum  of  One  Thousand  Dollars, 

dated  April  1st,   1893.  was   this   day    Protested  for   non- 


acceptance,  and  that  the  holder  looks  to  you  for  the  payment 

thereof,  acceptance  having  been  duly  demanded  by  me  and 

refused. 

Commissioned  June  1st,  1893.  ^  jS.  Oldfield 

Commission  expires  June  1st,  1S04.  \  '  J         ' 

Notary  Public. 
To  Donohue  &  Co.,  Chicago,  III. 

An  acceptance  "supra-protest"  is  the  name  given  to  the 
acceptance  of  the  draft  by  some  person  other  than  the  drawee, 
"  for  the  honor  of  the  drawee."  The  draft  is  then  held  till 
maturity,  and  presented  to  the  drawee  as  though  he  had 
accepted  it.  If  he  refuses  to  pay,  it  is  protested,  and  the 
person  making  the  "acceptance  supra-protest"  is  liable  for 
the  amount. 

Foreign  Bills  of  Exchange. 

The  principles  which  we  have  been  examining  above  apply 
with  equal  force  to  foreign  bills  of  exchange.  These  are 
now  commonly  drawn  in  sets  of  two,  so  that  each  may  be  sent 
by  a  different  ship,  and  they  are  always  to  be  payable  in  the 
money  current  in  the  country  where  the  payment  is  to  be  made. 


Exchange  for  £200. 

St.  Louis,  August  8th,  1893. 
At  sight  of  this  First  of  Exchange  (second  unpaid) 
pay  to  the  order  of  Philip   Francis    Two   Hundred 
Pounds  Sterling,  value  received,  and  charge  same  to 
account  of 

Wilmot  Baring. 
To  Cunningham,  Shaw  <V  Co., 
Liverpool,  England. 


Exchange  for  £200. 

St.  Louis,  August  8th,  1893, 
At  sight  of  this  Second  of  Exchange  (first  unpaid) 
pay  to   the    order  of  Philip  Francis   Two  Hundred 
Pounds  Sterling,  value  received,  and  charge  same  to 
account  of 


To  Cunningham,  Shaw  <V»  Co., 
Liverpool,  England. 


Wilmot  Baring. 


A  foreign  bill  is  protested  in  the  same  manner  as  an  inland 
bill.  The  law  does  not  explicitly  require  this  protest  in  every 
case,  but  it  has  been  found,  even  where  the  State  statute  has 
simply  required  "notice  of  non-acceptance"  to  be  furnished 
the  parties  liable,  to  be  the  safest  way  to  fix  liability 

Letters  of  Credit. 

The  letter  of  credit  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  banking 
instruments,  proving  of  great  convenience  to  travellers  in 
foreign  lands,  whom  it  enables  to  draw  money  from  banks 
and  bankers,  thus  relieving  them  from  the  risks  attendant 
upon  carrying  large  amounts  of  money  about  the  person,  and 
the  annoyance  of  making  frequent  exchanges.  The  following 
is  the  form  generally  employed : 


<s «_ 


416 


HOW    TO    DO    BUSINESS    WITH    A    BANK. 


-7\ 


•4. 


FOREIGN  LETTER  OF  CREDIT. 


Third  National  Bank. 

Foreign  Letter  of  Credit, 
No.  3308. 

Kansas  City,  March  23,  /Soj. 
Gentlemen  : 

We  request  that  you  will  have  the  goodness  to  fur- 
nish Mr.  Hannibal  Atkins,  of  this  city,  whose  signature 
is  at  foot,  with  any  funds  he  may  require,  to  the  extent 
of  Twenty  Thousand  Francs  in  Gold,  against  his 
Duplicate  Receipts  {one  of  which  you  will  forward  to 
us~),  for  any  payment  made  under  this  credit. 

Whatever  sum  Mr.  Atkins  may  take  up,  you  will 
please  endorse  on  the  back  of  this  letter,  which  is  to 
continue  in  force  until  January  1,  I&94,  and  charge 
to  the  account  of 

Your  obedient  servant, 

THE  THIRD  NATIONAL  BANK, 
Richard  Rankin, 
The  Signature  of  President. 

Hannibal  Atkins. 


Inland  letters  of  credit  are  also  used,  their  general  character- 
istics being  the  same  as  the  foreign,  though  they  differ  some- 
what in  their  wording.  Generally  a  letter  of  introduction  is 
delivered  to  the  party  to  whom  the  credit  is  issued,  introduc- 
ing him  to  the  correspondent  of  the  bank  of  issue,  and  stating 
the  nature  of  the  transaction,  the  amount  of  credit  granted  and 
the  time  it  has  to  run.  Letters  of  advice,  conveying  the  same 
intelligence,  together  with  the  signature  of  the  party  bearing 
the  letter  of  credit,  are  sent  to  the  bank's  correspondents. 

Bill  of  Lading  as  Security. 

Shippers  of  merchandise,  purchasing  cargoes  on  specula- 
tion to  be  forwarded  to  an  agent  for  sale,  to  obtain  the  money 
to  pay  for  it,  draw  a  draft  upon  the  consignee,  made  payable 
to  the  bank  from  which  the  money  is  obtained,  by  giving  as 
security  for  its  payment  a  bill  of  lading  made  out  by  the 
captain  of  the  craft  or  the  railroad  company  owning  the  road 
upon  which  the  goods  are  shipped,  either  in  the  name  of  the 
shipper,  and  assigned  by  him  to  the  bank,  or  drawn  originally 
in  the  name  of  the  bank,  both  forms  being  common.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  bill  of  lading  is  attached  to  the  draft  and  is 
held  by  the  bank,  to  which  the  title  at  once  passes. 

A  BILL  OF  LADING. 

No.  31s.  Chicago,  fufyjo,  iSqj. 

Shipped  by  Asa  Lasalle,  as  Agent,  in  apparent  good  order,  on 
board  the  Propeller  May  Prescott,  of  Ogdensburg,  New  York, 
whereof  James  Perkins,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  is  Master,  the  following 
described  property,  to  be  transported  to  the  place  of  destination  with- 
out unnecessary  delay,  and  to  be  delivered  as  addressed  on  the  margin 


in  like  good  order,  in  the  customary  manner,  free  of  lighterage,  upon 
prompt  payment  of  freight  and  charges  as  prescribed  in  this  bill. 

The  Freight,  Charges  and  Demurrage  payable  to  Enos  Hanscomb, 
Cashier  First  National  Bank  of  Erie,  Pa.,  or  order,  at  place  of  destin- 
ation, who  is  the  only  party  authorized  to  collect  the  same,  and 
whose  receipt  shall  be  in  full  of  all  demands  on  this  cargo  or  Bill  of 
Lading. 

In  Witn4st  Whereof,  the  said  Master  of  said  boat  hath  affirmed  to 
three  Bills  of  Lading,  one  marked  "  original  "  and  two  "duplicate," 
of  this  tenor  and  date,  one  of  which  being  accomplished  the  others  to 
stand  void. 

Order  of  Franklin  Bank.  10,000  Bushels  No.  1  Winter  Wheat 

Freight,  3  cents  per  bushel. 

Notify  Peter  Albright  it  Co.,  Ogdensburg. 

Amos  Bowen. 
J.  G.  Leitch. 

The  grain  thus  hypothecated  to  the  bank  is  subject  to  its 
control  and  direction,  and  its  proceeds,  when  sold,  must  be 
applied  to  the  draft's  payment. 

Asa  Lasalle's  transaction  in  purchasing  the  wheat  and 
shipping  it  on  the  propeller  May  Prescott,  of  which  James 
Perkins  is  captain,  is  partially  described  in  the  foregoing  bill 
of  lading.  The  grain  is  consigned  to  Peter  Albright  &  Co., 
Ogdensburg,  agents,  on  account  of  the  Franklin  Bank,  which 
also  requires  Asa  Lasalle  to  insure  the  consignment  for  its 
protection.  The  following  is  the  form  of  draft  employed  in 
a  transaction  of  this  kind  : 


THE  DRAFT. 


-*-Tr-»-«. 


$12,000. 

Chicago,  III.,  July  it,  1803. 
Pay  to  the  order  of  Franklin    Bank   Twelve 
Thousand  Dollars,  value  received,  and  charge 
the  same  to  account  of  {10,000  bus.  winter  wheat, 
Prop.  May  Prescott) 

Asa  Lasalle. 
To  refer  Albright  A»  Cc, 
Ordeniburr. 
N:  Sss- 


The  Clearing-House  System. 

A  Clearing-house  is  an  association  of  the  banks  and 
bankers  of  a  city  for  the  exchange  of  their  checks  and  the 
adjustment  of  accounts  between  themselves.  A  business 
man,  receiving  a  check  in  the  course  of  trade,  seldom  thinks 
of  sending  it.to  the  bank  on  which  it  is  drawn,  but  simply 
deposits  it  in  the  bank  with  which  he  keeps  his  account, 
only  taking  the  precaution  to  have  it  "certified  "  if  he  doubt* 
its  goodness.  Thus,  at  the  close  of  a  day,  each  bank  will 
hold  a  number  of  checks  drawn  on  other  banks.  These  are 
assorted,  and  placed  in  envelopes,  marked  with  the  names  of 
banks  on  which  they  are  drawn  and  with  the  total  amount, 
and  taken  by  a  clerk  and  messenger  to  the  Clearing-house. 
There  the  balances  against  or  in  favor  of  each  bank  are 
ascertained,  and  are  paid  in  by  a  certain  hour  each  day,  and 
the  accounts  settled.  By  the  Clearing-house  system  the 
exchange  of  millions  of  dollars  is  daily  effected  in  large 
cities  by  the  transfer  of  a  few  thousands. 


c  Y 


_^J 


i& 


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psT 


NATIONAL  BANKS— STOCKS  AND  BONDS. 


4'7 


OUR  NATIONAL  BANKING  SYSTEM.^ 


tHE  NATIONAL  BANKING  SYSTEM  was  created 

by  Congress  in  the  belief  that  it  was  the  best  per- 

^j     manent  method  of  securing  paper  money  absolutely 

safe  from  loss  to  the  holder  and  readily  convertible 

^p*1  into  coin.  Under  the  laws  of  the  United  States  any 
number  of  persons  not  less  than  five  may  form  an  association  and 
obtain  a  charter  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  the  business  of  a 
national  bank.  The  capital  stock  of  a  national  banking  associa- 
tion is  divided  into  shares  of  $100  each,  and  in  cities  of  50,000 
population,  or  over,  no  association  can  be  organized  with  a  less 
capital  than  $200,000;  in  cities  of  less  than  50,000,  $100,000 
capital  is  required,  but,  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  national  banks  may  be  organized  in  places  of  less 
than  6,000  inhabitants  with  a  capital  of  $50,000. 

National  banks  are  authorized  to  discount  and  negotiate  notes, 
drafts,  etc. ;  to  receive  deposits ;  to  buy  and  sell  exchange,  coin 
and  bullion  ;  to  loan  money  on  personal  security,  and  to  issue 
circulating  notes.  They  are  prohibited  from  making  loans  on 
real  estate,  or  on  security  of  their  own  shares  of  capital,  except 
to  secure  debts  previously  contracted,  and  real  estate  purchased 
or  mortgaged  to  secure  a  pre-existing  debt  cannot  be  held  for  a 
longer  period  than  five  years. 

They  are  also  prohibited  from  making  loans  to  one  person  or 
association,  excepting  on  business  paper  representing  actually 
existing  value  as  security,  in  excess  of  one'tenth  of  the  capital  of 
the  bank. 

The  stockholders  of  a  national  bank  are  individually  liable 
(equally  and  ratably,  and  not  one  for  another)  for  an  amount 
equal  to  the  par  value  of  the  capital  stock  held  by  them. 

The  national  banks  in  the  reserve  cities  are  required  by  law 
to  hold  a  lawful  money  reserve  of  25  per  cent,  of  their  deposits ; 
all  other  national  banks,  15  per  cent.  The  excess  above  legal 
requirements  is  called  "  surplus  reserve."  This  reserve  includes 
the  five  per  cent  redemption  fund  with  the  U.  S.  Treasurer. 

The  law  provides  that  a  surplus  fund  shall  be  accumulated,  by 
setting  aside,  before  the  usual  semi-annual  dividend  is  declared, 
one-tenth  part  of  the  net  profits  of  the  bank  for  I  he  preceding 
half-year,  until  the  surplus  fund  shall  amount  to  20  per  cent  of 
its  capital  stock. 


> 


The  national  banks  pay  to  the  United  States  a  tax  of  I  per 
cent  annually  upon  the  average  amount  of  their  notes  in  circula- 
tion, J4  per  cent  annually  upon  the  average  amount  of  their 
deposits,  and  yz  per  cent  annually  upon  the  average  amount  of 
capital  not  invested  in  U.  S.  bonds.  Banks  other  than  national 
pay  taxes  to  the  United  States  on  account  of  their  circulation, 
deposits  and  capital  at  the  same  rates  as  are  paid  by  the  national 
banks. 

National  Bank  Circulation. 

Every  national  bank,  before  it  is  authorized  to  commence 
business,  must  transfer  to  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States 
registered  bonds,  bearing  interest  to  an  amount  not  less  than 
one-fourth  of  the  capital  stock  paid  in,  as  security  for  its  circu- 
lating notes.  Banks  having  a  capital  of  more  than  $150,000 
shall  be  required  to  deposit  bonds  to  the  amount  of  one-third  of 
their  capital  stock. 

Upon  a  deposit  of  registered  bonds,  the  association  making 
the  same  will  receive  from  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  cir- 
culating notes  of  different  denominations,  in  blank,  equal  in 
amount  to  90  per  cent  of  the  current  market  value,  not  exceed- 
ing par,  of  the  bonds  so  deposited. 

The  circulating  notes  of  national  banks  are  redeemed  in  law- 
ful money  by  the  banks  which  issue  them,  and  by  the  Treasurer 
of  the  United  States  at  Washington.  Every  national  bank  must, 
at  all  times,  keep  and  have  on  deposit  in  the  Treasury  of  the 
United  States,  in  lawful  money,  a  sum  equal  to  5  per  cent  of  its 
circulation,  to  be  held  and  used  for  the  redemption  of  such  cir- 
culation. 

A  bank  going  into  voluntary  liquidation  must,  within  six 
months  thereafter,  deposit  in  the  Treasury  a  sum  equal  to  the 
amount  of  circulating  notes  outstanding.  The  law  also  requires 
that  full  provision  shall  be  made  for  the  redemption  of  the  circu- 
lating notes  of  any  insolvent  bank  before  a  dividend  is  made  to 
its  creditors.  No  association,  therefore,  can  close  up  its  business 
without  first  providing  for  the  payment  of  all  its  circulating  notes, 
and  the  amounts  deposited  for  their  redemption  must  remain  in 
the  Treasury  until  the  last  outstanding  note  shall  have  been  pre- 
sented. Thus  the  Government,  and  noi  the  bank,  receives  all 
the  benefit  arising  from  lost  or  unredeemed  circulating  notes. 


..o^o- 


<^£7"-X^s 


-E^fe 


sJZT-'S^s 


STOCKS < -AND  ♦  BONDS 


f  HE  CAPITAL  of  a  corporation  is  always  divided  into 
shares  ranging  from  $10  to  $1,000,  but  usually  of 
$100  each.  These  shares  are  known  as  stock,  and 
represent  an  interest  in  the  property  and  profits  of  the 
company  over  and  above  liabilities  and  expenses.  A 
dividend  is  the  distribution  of  the  profits,  proportionate  to  num- 
ber of  shares  held  among  the  stockholders. 


Stock  certificates  are  written  instruments,  signed  by  the  proper 
officers  of  the  company,  and  certifying  that  the  holder  is  the 
owner  of  a  certain  number  of  shares  of  the  capital  stock.  These 
certificates  are  transferable,  and  may  be  bought  and  sold  the 
same  as  other  species  of  property.  The  sum  for  which  each 
share  or  certificate  was  issued  is  the  par  value,  and  the  amount 
for  which  it  can  be  sold  the  market  value. 


-^ 


28 


-v 


/ 


STOCKS  AND  BONDS  — GOVKRNMF.XT  BONDS. 


Preferred    Stock. 

This  kind  of  stock  takes  preference  of  the  ordinary  stock  of  a 
corporation,  and  the  holders  are  entitled  to  a  stated  per  cent  an- 
nually out  of  the  net  earnings  before  a  dividend  can  be  declared 
on  the  common  stock.  Preferred  stocks  are  generally  the  result 
of  reorganization,  although  sometimes  issued  in  payment  of  float- 
ing or  unsecured  debts. 

How    Stock   is    "Watered." 

Sometimes  the  charter  of  a  corporation  forbids  the  declaring 
of  a  dividend  exceeding  a  certain  per  cent  of  the  par  value  of  its 
stock.  In  this  case  the  directors  may  find  it  desirable  to  "  water" 
the  stock — that  is,  issue  additional  shares.  This  increase  in  the 
number  of  shares  of  course  reduces  the  percentage  of  dividend, 
although  the  same  profit  in  the  aggregate  is  secured  to  the  stock- 
holders. 

BONDS. 

A  bond  is  in  the  nature  of  a  promissory  note — the  obligation 
of  a  corporation,  state,  county  or  city  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of 
money  at  a  certain  time,  with  interest  payable  at  fixed  periods  or 
upon  certain  conditions. 

The  bond  of  a  company  may  be  a  perfectly  safe  investment, 
when  the  stock  is  not ;  and  the  stock  of  a  prosperous  and  suc- 
cessful company,  paying  large  dividends  or  having  a  large  sur- 
plus, may  sell  at  a  higher  price  than  the  bonds  of  the  same  com- 


pany, the  income  from  which  is  limited  to  the  agreed  rate  of 
interest  which  they  bear.  A  much  closer  scrutiny  should  be 
made  of  a  company's  standing  when  one  thinks  of  investing 
in  its  share  capital,  than  when  it  is  the  intention  to  loan  the  com- 
pany money  on  its  mortgage  bonds. 

Generally  the  bonds  of  business  corporations  are  secured  by 
mortgage,  but  some  classes  of  bonds  are  dependent  on  the  solv- 
ency or  good  faith  of  the  company  issuing  them. 

The  coupons  attached  to  bonds  represent  the  different  install- 
ments of  interest,  and  are  to  be  cut  ofl"  and  collected  from  time 
to  time  as  the  interest  becomes  payable.  Bonds  are  sometimes 
issued  without  coupons,  and  are  then  called  registered  bonds. 
Such  bonds  are  payable  only  to  the  registered  owner,  and  the 
interest  on  these  is  paid  by  check.  Convertible  bonds  are  such 
as  contain  provisions  whereby  they  may  be  exchanged  for  stock, 
lands  or  other  property. 

Bonds  are  known  as  First  Mortgage,  Second  Mortgage,  etc., 
Debentures,  Consols,  Convertible  Land  Grant,  Sinking  Fund, 
Adjustment,  Income  or  otherwise,  according  to  their  priority  of 
lien,  the  class  of  property  upon  which  they  are  secured,  etc. 
Income  bonds  are  generally  bonds  on  which  the  interest  is  only 
payable  if  earned,  and  ordinarily  are  not  secured  by  mortgage. 
Bonds  are  also  named  from  the  rate  of  interest  they  bear,  or 
from  the  dates  at  which  they  are  payable  or  redeemable,  or  from 
both;  as,  U.  S.  4's  1907,  Virginia  6's,  Western  Union  7's,  cou- 
pon, 1900,  Lake  Shore  reg.  2d,  1903. 


GOVERNMENT   BONDS. 


jUR  GOVERNMENT  found  it  necessary  to  borrow  large 
sums  of  money  to  prosecute  the  war  of  the  Rebellion, 
and  in  return  issued  interest-bearing  bonds.  All  of 
these  bonds  now  outstanding  are  payable  in  coin,  except 
only  the  currency  6's,  and  all  are  exempt  from  taxation. 
The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  bonds  outstanding 
in  1892  : 

4)^'s  of  1891 — Continued  at  2  per  cent.  Author- 
ized by  acts  of  July  14,  1870,  and  Jan.  20,  1871,  and  issued 
for  the  purpose  of  funding  the  5-20  and  10-40  bonds.  The 
original  issue  was  $250,000,000.  In  1891,  in  view  of  the 
requirements  of  the  sinking  fund  for  1892,  it  was  deemed 
advisable  to  suspend  the  redemption  of  these  bonds  until 
aftar  that  year  should  begin,  and  to  reserve  the  residue 
of  the  loan  for  readjustment.  The  amount  outstanding 
subject  to  settlement  at  the  option  of  the  Government 
after  Sept.  1,  1891,  was  $50,869,200.  The  holders  of  the 
bonds  were  offered  their  choice  of  presenting  them  for 
redemption  with  interest  to  Sept.  2,  or  for  continuance  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  Government  with  interest  at  2  per 
cent.     Amount  outstanding  at  2  per  cent,  $25,364,500. 

4's  OF  1907.  Authorized  by  acts  of  July  14,  1870,  and  Jan- 
uary 20,  1 87 1,  and  issued  for  the  purpose  of  funding  the  5-20 
and  10-40  bonds.  Redeemable  at  option  of  Government  after 
30  years  from  their  date,  or  after  July  1,  1907. 

Currency  6's.  Issued  to  aid  in  construction  of  the  Pacific 
railroads,  and  authorized  by  acts  of  July  1,  1862,  and  July  a, 


1864.  Principal  and  interest  payable  in  lawful  money  of  the 
United  States.  Payable  30  years  after  date,  and  maturing  at 
different  dates  from  1895  to  1899. 

Refunding  Certificates.  Authorized  by  act  of  February 
26,  1879.  These  certificates  are  of  the  denomination  of  Jio, 
bear  interest  at  4  per  cent,  and  are  convertible  at  any  time,  with 
accrued  interest,  into  4  per  cent  bonds. 

All  Government  lionds  are  dealt  in  and  quoted  "  flat " — that  is 
to  say,  the  quoted  market  price  is  for  the  bond  as  it  stands  at  the 
time,  including  the  accrued  interest — except  that  after  the  closing 
of  the  transfer  books  the  registered  bonds  are  quoted  ex-interest — 
that  is  to  say,  the  interest  then  coming  due  belongs  to  the  holder 
of  the  bond  at  the  time  of  the  closing  of  the  books,  and  does 
not  go  with  the  bond  to  the  purchaser. 

Coupon  bonds,  being  payable  to  bearer,  pass  by  delivery  with- 
out assignment,  and  are  therefore  more  convenient  for  sale  and 
delivery  than  registered  bonds,  which  must  be  assigned  by  the 
party  in  whose  name  they  are  registered.  The  interest  coupons, 
being  also  payable  to  the  bearer,  will  be  cashed  by  any  bank  or 
banker. 

The  interest  on  registered  bonds  is  paid  by  checks,  made  to 
the  order  of  the  registered  owner  and  sent  to  him  by  mail. 
These  checks,  when  properly  endorsed,  can  be  collected  and 
cashed  through  any  bank  or  banker. 

Coupon  bonds  may  1*  converted  into  registered  bonds  of  the 
same  issue,  but  there  is  no  provision  of  law  for  converting  regis- 
tered bonds  into  coupon  bonds. 


Y- 


)«M  *§§••••<!"»  HIW* 


'f  im  »«iti«a«iiiaiiii«att<nmtt»i<Dii<igitf 


1B90 


^•ftftt'M'frat'fOHMj 


The  MCKINLEY  TARIFF  BILL. 


AN    ACT  to  reduce  the  revenue  and.  equalize  duties  on  imports, 

and  for  other  purposes. 

E  IT  ENACTED  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  on  and  after  the  sixth  day  of  October,  eighteen 
hundred  and  ninety,  unless  otherwise  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  there  shall  be 
levied,  collected,  and  paid  upon  all  articles  imported  from  foreign  countries,  and  men- 
tioned in  the  schedules  herein  contained,  the  rates  of  duty  which  are,  by  the  schedules 
and  paragraphs,  respectively  prescribed,  namely: 


(All  changes  from  the  old  law  are  indicated  by  foot-notes  or  by  italics. 


Schedule  A - 


-Chemicals.  Oils  and 
Faints. 


# 


1,  Acetic  or  pyroligneous  acid,  not  ex- 
ceeding the  specific  gravity  of  one  and  forty- 
seven  one-thousandths,  one  and  one-half 
cents  per  pound;  exceeding  the  specific 
gravity  of  one  and  forty-seven  one-thou- 
sandths, four  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law: 
Two  cents  and  four  cents.] 

2.  Boracic  acid,  five  cents  per  pound. 
[Old  law:  Pure,  five  cents  per  pound;  com- 
mercial, four  cents.] 

X.  Chromic  acid,  six  cents  per  pound. 
[Old  law:     Fifteen  per  centum.] 

4.  Citric  acid,  ten  cents  per  pound, 

5.  Sulphuric  acid  or  oil  of  vitriol,  not  oth- 
erwise specially  provided  for,  one-fourth  of 
one  cent  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Free  under 
general  provision  for  acids.] 

6.  Tannic  acid  or  tannin,  ceventy-five 
cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  One  dollar 
per  pound.] 

7.  Tartaric  acid,  ten  cents  per  pound. 

S.  Alcoholic  perfumery,  including  co- 
logne-water and  other  toilet  waters,  two 
dollars  per  gallon  and  fifty  per  centum  ad 
valorem^  alcoholic  compounds  not  specially 

f provided  for  in  this  act,  two  dollars  per  gal- 
on  and  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
9.  Alumina,  alum,  alum  cake,  patent 
alum,  sulphate  of  alumina,  and  aluminous 
cake,  and  alum  in  crystals  or  ground,  six- 
tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound. 


10.  Ammonia. — Carbonate  of,  one  and 
three-fourths  cents  per  pound;  muriate  of,  or 
sal-ammoniac,  three-fourths  of  one  cent  per 
pound;  sulphate  of,  one-half  of  one  cent  per 
pound.  [Old  law:  Carbonate  of,  twenty 
per  centum;  muriate  of,  ten  per  centum;  sul- 
phate of,  twenty  per  centum.] 

11.  Blacking  of  all  kinds,  twenty-five  per 
centum  ad  valorem. 

12.  Blue  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  copper,  two 
cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Three  cents 
per  pound.] 

13.  Bone-char,  suitable  for  use  in  decolor- 
izing sugars,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  val- 
orem. [Old  law:  All  bone-char  twenty- 
five  per  centum.] 

14.  Borax,  crude,  or  borate  of  soda,  or 
borate  of  lime,  three  cents  per  pound;  re- 
fined borax,  five  cents  per  pound. 

15.  Camphor,  refined,  four  cents  per 
pound.     [Old  law:     Five  cents  per  pound.] 

16.  Chalk,  prepared,  precipitated,  French, 
and  red,  one  cent  per  pound;  all  other  chalk 
preparations  not  specially  provided  for  in 
this  act,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

17.  Chloroform,  twenty -five  cents  per 
pound.     [Old  law:     Fifty  cents  per  pound.] 


COAL-TAR    PREPARATIONS. 

18.  All  coal-tar  colors  or  dyes,  bv  what- 
ever name  known,  and  not  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  thirty-five  per  centum 
ad  valorem. 

19.  All  preparations  of  coal-tar,  not  colors 


or  dyes,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this 
act,  twenty  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

20.  Cobalt,  oxide  of,  thirty  cents  per 
pound.     [Old  law:     Twenty  per  centum.] 

21.  Collodion  and  all  compounds  of  pyroxy- 
line,  by  whatever  name  known,  fifty  cents 
per  po.und;  rolled  or  in  sheets,  but  not  made 
up  into  articles  sixty  cents  per  pound;  if  in 
finished  or  partly-finished  articles,  sixty 
cents  per  pound  and  twenty-five  per  centum 
ad  valorem. 

22.  Coloring-  for  brandy,  wine,  beer,  or 
other  liquors,  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Text  of  old  law:  Coloring  for  brandy, 
fifty  per  centum.] 

23.  Copperas  or  sulphate  of  iron,  three* 
tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound. 

24.  Drugs,  such  as  barks,  beans,  berries, 
balsams,  buds,  bulbs,  and  bulbous  roots,  and 
excrescences,  such  as  nut-galls,  fruits,  flow- 
ers, dried  fibers,  grains,  gums,  and  gum  res- 
ins, herbs,  leaves,  lichens,  mosses,  nuts, 
roots  and  stems,  spices,  vegetables,  seeds 
(aromatic,  not  garden  seeds),  and  seeds  of 
morbid  growth,  weeds,  woods  used  express- 
ly for  dyeing,  and  dried  insects,  any  of  the 
foregoing  which  are  not  edible,  but  which 
have  been  advanced  in  value  or  condition  by 
refining  or  grinding,  or  by  other  process  of 
manufacture,  and  not  specially  provided  for 
in  this  act,  ten  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

25.  Ethers  sulphuric,  forty  cents  per 
pound;  spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  twenty-five 
cents  per  pound;  fruit  ethers,  oils  or  es- 
sences, two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per 
pound;  ethers  of  all  kinds  not  speciallv  oro- 


aJ 


420 


THE    TARIFF. 


vided  for  in  this  act,  one  dollar  per  pound.  [Old 
law:  Ethers  sulphuric,  fifty  cents  per  pound; 
nitrous  ether,  thirty  cents  per  pound;  ethem  all 
other,  one  dollar  per  pound;  oenanthic.or  oil  of 
cognac,  four  dollars  per  ounce;  fruit  ethers,  etc., 
two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  pound;  oil  or 
essence  of  rum,  fifty  cents  per  ounce.] 

a6.  Kxtracts  ami  decoctions  of  logwood  and 
other  dye-woods,  extract  of  sumac,  and  extracts 
of  barks,  such  as  are  commonly  used  for  dyeing  or 
tanning,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
seven-eighths  of  one  cent  per  pound;  extracts  of 
hemlock  bark,  one-half  of  one  cent  per  pound. 
[Old  law;  Logwood  and  other  dye-woods,  ex- 
tract, ten  per  centum:  sumac  extract,  twenty  per 
centum;  extract  of  hemlock  and  other  barks  for 
tanning,  twenty  per  centum.] 

27.  Gelatine,  glue,  and  isinglass  or  fish-glue, 
valued  at  not  above  seven  cents  per  pound,  one 
and  one-half  cents  per  pound;  valued  at  above 
seven  cents  per  pound  and  not  above  thirty  cents 
per  pound,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem; 
valued  at  above  thirty  cents  per  pound,  thirty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Glue,  twenty 
per  centum;  gelatine,  thirty  per  centum;  fish-glue 
or  isinglass,  twenty-five  per  centum.] 

a8.  Glycerine,  crude,  not  purified,  one  and 
three-fourths  cents  per  pound.  Refined,  four 
and  one-half  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Grade, 
two  cents  per  pound;   refined,  five  cents  pound.] 

29.  Indigo,  extracts,  or  pastes  of,  three-fourths 
of  one  cent  per  pound;  carmined,  ten  cents  per 
pound.     [Old  llaw:     All  ten  per  centum  " 


ith« 


,0.   Ink  and  ink  powders,  printers' 


um.J 
'  ink, 


,  and  all 
other  ink,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Ink 
of  all  kinds  and  ink-powders,  thirty  per  centum.] 

31.  Iodine,  resublimed,  thirty  cents  per  pound. 

32.  Idoform,  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per 
pound.     [Old  law:     Two  dollars  per  pound.] 

33.  Licorice,  extracts  of,  in  paste,  rolls,  or 
other  [forms  five  and  one-half  cents  per  pound. 
[Old  law:  Paste  or  roll,  seven  and  one-half  cents 
per  pound;  juice,  three  cents  pound.] 

34.  Magnesia,  carbonate  of,  medicinal,  four 
cents  per  pound;  calcined,  eight  cents  per  pound; 
sulphate  of,  or  Epsom  salts,  three-tenths  of  one 
cent  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Carbonate  of,  five 
cents  per  pound;  calcined,  ten  cents  per  pound; 
sulphate,  twelve  cents  per  pound.] 

35.  Morphia,  or  morphine,  and  all  salts  thereof, 
fifty  cents  per  ounce.  [Old  law:  One  dollar  per 
pound.] 


36.  Alizarine  assistant,  or  soluble  oil,  or  oleate 
of  soda,  or  Turkey  red  oil,  containing  fifty  per 
centum  or  more  of  castor  oil,  eighty  cents  per 
gallon;  containing  less  than  fifty  per  centum  of 
castor  oil,  forty  cents  per  gallon;  all  other,  thirty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  By  ruling 
of  Treasury  Department  as  castor  oil  at  eighty 
cents  per  gallon.] 

37.  Castor  oil,  eighty  cents  per  gallon. 

38.  Cod-liver  oil,  fifteen  cents  per  gallon.  [Old 
law:     Twenty-five  percentum.] 

39.  Cotton-seed  oil,  ten  cents  per  gallon  of 
seven  ami  one-half  pounds  weight.  [Old  law: 
Twenty-five  cents  per  gallon.] 

40  CfDton  oil,  thirty  cents  per  pound.  [Old 
law:     Fifty  cents  per  pound.] 

41.  Flaxseed  or  Unseed  and  poppy-seed  oil, 
raw,    boiled,   or  oxidized,    thirty-two    cents   per 

f;allon  of  seven  and  one-half  pounds  weight. 
Old  law:  Twenty-five  cents  per  gallon;  poppy 
oil,  free.  ] 

4'j.  Fusel  oil,  or  amylic  alcohol,  ten  per  centum 
ad  valorem. 

43,  Hemp  seed  oil  and  rape-seed  oil,  ten  cents 
per  gallon. 

44.  Olivr  oil,  fit  for  ulad  purposes,  thirty-five 
cents  per  gallon.  [Old  law:  Twenty-five  per 
centum.  | 

45-    Peppermint    oil,    eighty    rent*    per    pound. 
)K I  l.i  u  Twenty   1 1  v- - ■  per  .  eimim.) 

46.  Seal,  herring,  whale,  and  other  fish  oil  not 
specially  provided  far  in  this  act,  eight  cents  per 
gallon.     [Old  law:      Twenty-five  per  centum  j 

47.  Opium,  atpieous  extract  of,  for  medicinal 
uses,  and  tincture  of,  as  laudanum,  and  all  other 
liquid  preparations  ol  opium,  not  specially  pro- 
vided fur  in  this  act,  forty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem. 


[old 


48.  Opium  containing  less  than  nine  per  cen- 
tum of  morphia,  and  opium  prepared  for  smoking, 
twelve  dollars  per  pound;  but  opium  prepared  for 
smoking  and  other  preparations  of  opium  depos- 
ited in  bonded-  warehouse  shall  not  be  removed 
therefrom  without  payment  of  duties,  and  tuch 
duties  shall  not  be  refunded.  [Old  law:  Ten 
dollars  per  pound  on  opium  for  smoking,  contain- 
ing less  than  nine  per  centum  of  opium  prohibited: 
opium,  crude,  containing  nine  per  centum  or 
more,  one  dollar  per  pound] 

AIMS,    COLORS    AND    VAKMSIIES. 

49.  Haryta,  sulphate  of,  or  barytes,  including 
barytes  earth,  unmanufactured,  one  dollar  and 
twelve  cents  per  ton;  manufactured,  six  dollars 
and  seventy-two  cents  perton.  [Old  law:  I'n- 
manufactured,  ten  per  centum;  manufactured, 
one-quarter  cent  per  pound.] 

50.  Blues,  such  as  Berlin,  Prussian,  Chinese, 
and  all  others,  containing  ferrocyanidc  of  iron, 
dry  or  ground  in  or  mixed  with  oil,  six  cents  per 
pound;  in  pulp,  or  mixed  with  water,  six  cents 
per  pound  on  the  material  contained  therein  when 
dry.     [Old  law:     Twenty  per  centum.] 

51.  Blanc-fixe,  or  satin  white,  or  artificial  sul- 
phate of  barytes,  three-fourths  of  one  cent  per 
pound.     [Old  law:     Twenty-five  per  centum] 

52.  Black,  made  from  bone,  ivo*y,  or  vegeta- 
ble, under  whatever  name  known, including  bone- 
black  and  lamp-black,  dry  or  ground  in  oil  or 
water,  twenty-five  per  centum  atf  valorem.  [Old 
law:     Change  in  text,  but  same  rate.] 

53.  Chrome  yellow,  chrome  green,  and  all 
other  chromium  colors  in  which  lead  and  bichro- 
mate of  potash  or  soda  are  component  parts, 
dry,  or  ground  in  or  mixed  with  oil,  four  ind  one- 
half  cents  per  pound;  in  pulp  or  mixed  with  water, 
four  and  one-half  cents  per  pound  on  the  material 
contained  therein  when  dry.  [Old  law:  Twen- 
ty-five per  centum.] 

54.  Ocher  and  other  ochery  earths,  sienna  and 
sienna  earths,  umber  and  umber  earths  not  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  act,  dry,  one-fourth  of 
one  cent  per  pound;  ground  in  oil,  one  and  one- 
half  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law  1  try.  one-half 
cent  per  pound;  in  oil,  one  cent  per  pound] 

55.  Ultramarine  blue,  four  and  one-halfcents 
perpound.     [Old  law:     Five  cents  per  pound] 

56.  Varnishes,  including  so-called  gold  size  or 
Japan,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem;  and  on 
spirit  varnishes  for  the  alcohol  contained  therein, 
one  dollar  and  thirty -two  cents  per  gallon  addi- 
tional, [Old  law:  Forty  per  centum  ad  valorem 
on  varnish;  gold  size,  free;  Japan,  forty  per 
centum  by  Treasury  ruling.] 

57.  Vermilion  red,  and  colors  containing  quick- 
silver, dry  or  ground  in  oil  or  water,  twelve 
cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Twenty-five  per 
centum.] 

58.  Wash  blue,  containing  ultramarine,  three 
cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Twenty  percen- 
tum.] 

59.  Whiting  and  Paris  white,  dry,  one-half  of 
one  cent  perpound;  ground  in  oil,  or  putty,  one 
cent  per  pound.] 

60.  Zinc,  oxide  of,  and  tvkiti  /mint  contain- 
ing zinc,  but  not  containing  lead;  dry,  one  and 
one-fourth  cents  per  pound;  ground  in  oil,  one 
and  three-fourths  cents  per  pound. 

61.  All  other  paints  and  colors,  whether  dry  or 
mixed,  or  ground  in  water  or  oil,  unhiding  lakes, 
crayons,  smalts,  and  frostings,  not  specially  pro- 
tfded,  t»r  in  this  act,  and  artists'  colors  of  all 
kjqd ■  .  -in  tubtaOC  otherwise,  twenty  five  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem;  all  paints  and  colors  mixed  or 
ground  with  water  or  solutions  vher  than  oil,  and 
commercially  known  as  artists'  water  color 
paints,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Twenty  five   per   centum  on  all.     F.ntire   change 

of  text.] 

LEAD   PRODUCTS. 

62.  Acetate  of  lead,  white,  five  and  one-half 
cents  per  pound;  brown,  three  and  one-half  cents 
per  pound.] 

63.  litharge,  three  cents  per  pound. 

64.  Nitrate  of  lead,  three  centt  per  pound. 

65.  Orange  mineral,  three  and  one-halfcents 
pel   pound,  inlaw;       Three    rents  pel  pound.] 

66.  Red  lead,  three  cents  per  DOOM. 

67.  White   lead,  and  what  paint  containing 


lead  dry  or  in  pulp,  or  ground  or  mixed  wits  oil, 
three  cents  per  pound. 

68.  Phosphorus,  twenty  cents  per  pound.    [Old 
law:    Ten  cents  per  pound.] 


69.  Bichromate  and  |chromate  of,  three 
per  pound. 

E.  Caustic  or  hydrate  ot,  refined  in  sticks  or 
,  one  cent  per  pound.    [Old  law:     Twenty 
per  centum.] 

71.  Hydriodate,  iodide,  and  lodate  of,  fifty 
cents  per  pound. 

73.  Nitrate  of,  or  saltpeter,  refined,  one  cent  per 
pound.  [Old  law:  One  and  one-half  cents  per 
pound,] 

73.  Prussiate  of,  red,  ten  cents  per  pound, 
yellow,  five  cents  per  pound. 

• 

PKBPAJtATIOKS, 

74.  All  medicinal  preparations,  including  me- 
dicinal proprietary  preparations,  of  which  alcohol 
is  a  component  part,  or  in  the  preparation  of 
which  alcohol  is  used,  not  specially  provided  for 
in  this  act,  fifty  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law: 
Change  of  text.  Hoffman's  anodyne,  thirty 
cents  per  pound.] 

75.  All  medicinal  preparations,  including  me- 
dicinal proprietary  preparations,  of  which  alcohol 
is  not  a  component  part,  and  not  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad 
valorem;  calomel  and  other  mercurial  medicinal 
preparations,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law;  Twenty-five  per  centum, and  fifty  per 
centum.] 

;'  Products  or  preparations  known  as  alkalies, 
alkaloids,  distilled  oils,  essential  oils,  expressed 
oils,  rendered  oils,  and  all  combinations  of  the 
foregoing,  and  all  chemical  compounds  and  salts, 
not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  twenty-five 
per  centum  aa  valorem. 

77.  Preparations  used  at  applications  to  the 
hair,  mouth,  teeth  or  skin,  such  as  cosmetics, 
dentifrices,  pastes,  pomades,  powders  and  tonics, 
including  all  known  as  toilet  preparations,  not 
specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  fifty  per  centum 
ad  valorem      [Change  of  text  ] 

78.  Santonine  and  all  salts  thereof  containing 
eighty  per  centum  or  over  of  santonine,  two  dol- 
lars and  fifty  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Three 
dollars  per  pound.] 

79.  Soap:  Castile  soap,  one  and  one-fourth 
cents  per  pound;  fancy,  perfumed,  and  all  de- 
scriptions of  toilet-soap,  fifteen  cents  per  pound: 
all  other  soaps,  not  specially  provided  for  in 
this  act,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old 
law:    Castile  soap,  twenty  per  centum.] 


80.  Bicarbonate  of  soda  or  supercarbonate  of 
soda  or  saleratus,  one  cent  per  pound.  [Old  law; 
One  and  one-halfcents  per  pound.] 

81.  Hydrate  of,  or  caustic  soda,  one  cent  pet 
pound. 

82.  Bichromate  and  chromate  of.  three  cents 
per  pound.  [Old  law:  Not  enumerated,  but 
classified  under  bichromate  of  potash  at  three 
cents  per  pound.] 

83.  Sal-soda,  or  soda-crystals,  and  soda-ash, 
one-fourth  of  one  cent  peT  pound. 

84.  Silicate  of  soda,  or  other  alkaline  silicate, 
one-half  of  one  cent  per  pound. 

85.  Sulphate  of  soda,  or  salt-cake  or  niter-cake, 
one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  perton.  [Old 
law:    Twenty  per  centum .  ] 

86.  Sponges,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

87.  Strychnia,  or  strychnine,  and  all  salts 
thereof,  forty  centt  per  ounce.  [Old  law;  Fifty 
cents  per  ounce.] 

88.  Sulphur,  refined,  eight  dollars  per  too; 
sublimed,  or  flowers  of,  ten  dollars  per  ton. 
[Old  law:  Refined,  ten  dollars  per  ton;  flowers, 
twenlv  dollars  per  ton  J 

89.  Sumac,  ground,  four-tenths  01  one  .ent  per 
pound.     [Old  law:  Three-tenths  cent  per  pound] 

00.  Tartar,  cream  of,  and  patent  tartar.  «** 
cents  per  pound. 

91.  Tartars  and  lees  crystals,  partly  refined, 
fat*  ohms  per  pound. 

92.  Tartrate  of  soda  and  potaasa,  or  Rochcle 
talis,  three  cents  per  pound. 


v1 » — "~ 


d 


^L 


V 


THE     TARIFF. 


421 


Schedule     B. —  Earths,     Earthenware 

and  Glassware. 

BRICK    AND  Til. P.. 

93.  Fire-'^rick,  not  glazed,  enameled,  orna- 
mented, o."  decorated  in  any  manner,  one  dollar 
and  twenty-five  cents  per  ton;  glazed,  enameled, 
ornamented,  or  decorated,  forty-five  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  [Old  law;  Fire-brick,  twenty  per  cen- 
tum; brick,  iwenty-five  per  centum. J 

94.  Tiles  and  brick,  other  than  fire-  brick,  not 
glazed,  ornamented,  painted,  enameled,  vitrified 
or  decorated,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem; 
ornamented,  glazed,  painted,  enameled,  vitrified, 
or  decorated,  and  all  encaustic,  forty-five  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Encaustic  tiles, 
thirty-five  per  centum;  roofing  and  paving  tiles, 
twenty  per  centum,  and  some  classed  by  Treasury 
rulings  as  plaques,  etc.,  at  sixty  per  centum.] 

CEMENT,    LIME  AND   PLASTER. 

95.  Roman,  Portland,  and  other  hydraulic  ce- 
ment in  barrels,  sacks,  or  other  packages,  eight 
cents  per  one  hundred  pounds,  including  weight  of 
barrel  or  package;  in  bulk,  seven  cents  per  one 
hundred  pounds;  other  cement,  twenty  per  centum 
ad  valorem.     [Old  law:     Twenty  per  centum.] 

96.  Lime,  six  cents  per  one  hundred  pounds, 
including  weight  of  barrel  or  package.  [Old  law: 
Ten  per  centum.] 

97.  Plaster  of  Paris,  or  gypsum,  ground,  one 
dollar  per  ton;  calcined,  one  dollar  and  seventy- 
five  cents  per  ton.  [Old  law:  Twenty  per  cen- 
tum] 

CLAYS    OR    EARTHS. 

98.  Clays  or  earths,  unwrought  or  unmanufact- 
ured, not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  one 
dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  ton;  wrought  or  manu- 
factured, not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
three  dollars  per  ton;  china  clay,  or  kaolin,  three 
dollars  per  ton. 

EARTHENWARE   AND   CHINA. 

99.  Common  brown  earthenware,  common  stone- 
ware, and  crucibles,  not  ornamented  or  decorated 
in  any  manner,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  [Old  law:  Stoneware  above  the  capac- 
ity of  ten  gallons,  twenty  per  centum;  crucibles, 
twenty-five  per  centum.] 

100.  China,  porcelain,  parian,  bisque,  earthen, 
stone  and  crockery  ware,  including  placques, 
ornaments,  toys,  charms,  vases,  and  statuettes, 
painted,  tinted,  stained, enameled,  printed,  gilded, 
or  otherwise  decorated  or  ornamented  in  any 
manner,  sixty  per  centum  ad  valorem;  if  plain 
white,  and  not  ornamented  or  decorated  in  any 
manner,  fifty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Note. — The  text  is  made  more  comprehensive 
than  in  the  old  law.] 

101.  All  other  china,  porcelain,  parian,  bisque, 
earthen,  stone,  and  crockery  ware,  and  manu- 
factures of  the  same,  by  whatsoever  designation 
or  name  known  in  the  trade,  including  lava  tips 
for  burners,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
if  ornamented  or  decorated  in  any  manner,  sixty 
per  centum  ad  valorem;  if  not  ornamented  or 
decorated,  fifty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law:     Fifty-five  per  centum.] 

102.  Gas  retorts,  three  dollars  each.  [Old  law: 
Twenty-five  per  centum.] 

GLASS  AND   GLASSWARE. 

103.  Green,  and  colored,  molded  or  pressed, 
and  flint,  and  lime  glass  bottles,  holding  more 
than  one  pint,  and  demijohns,  and  carboys  (cov- 
ered or  uncovered),  and  other  molded  or  pressed 
green  and  colored  and  flint  or  lime  bottle  glass- 
ware, not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  one 
cent  per  pound.  Green  and  colored,  molded  or 
pressed,  and  flint,  and  lime  glass  bottles,  and 
vials  holding  not  more  than  one  pint  and  not  less 
than  one-quarter  of  a  pint,  one  and  one-half  cents 
per  pound;  if  holding  less  than  one-fourth  of  a 
pint,  fifty  cents  per  gross.  [Old  law:  Green 
and  colored,  one  cent  per  pound;  flint  and  lime, 
forty  per  centum.] 

104.  All  articles  enumerated   in   the   preceding  ' 
paragraph,  if  filled,  and  not  otherwise   provided 
for  in  this  act ,  and  the  contents  are  subject  to  an  ad  | 


valorem  rate  of  duty,  or  to  a  rate  of  duty  based  upon 
the  value,  the  value  of  such  bottles,  vials  or  other 
vessels  shall  be  added  to  the  value  of  the  contents 
for  the  ascertainment  of  the  dutiable  value  of  the 
latter,  but  if  filled,  and  not  otherwise  provided  for 
in  this  act,  and  the  contents  are  not  subject  to  an 
ad  valorem  rate  of  duty,  or  to  rate  of  duty  based 
on  the  value,  or  are  free  of  duty,  such  bottles, 
vials,  or  other  vessels  shall  pay,  in  addition  to  the 
•duty,  if  any,  on  their  contents,  the  rates  of  duty 
prescribed  in  the  preceding  paragraph:  Provided, 
That  no  article  manufactured  from  glass  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  paragraph  shall  pay  a 
less  rate  of  duty  than  forty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem. [Old  law:  Green  and  colored,  thirty  per 
centum;  flint  and  lime,  forty  per  centum,  in  addi- 
tion to  duty  on  contents.] 

105.  Flint  and  lime,  pressed  glassware,  not  cut, 
engraved,  painted,  etched,  decorated,  colored, 
printed,  stained,  silvered  or  gilded,  sixty  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem.     [Old  law:     Forty  per  centum.] 

106.  All  articles  of  glass,  cut,  engraved,  painted, 
colored,  printed,  stained,  decorated,  silvered  or 
gilded,  not  including  plate  glass  silvered,  or 
looking-glass  plates,  sixty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law:     Forty-five  per  centum.] 

107.  Chemical  glass  ware  for  use  in  laboratory, 
and  not  otherwise  specialty  provided  for  in  this 
act,  forty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

108.  Thin-blown  glass,  blown  with  or  without  a 
mold,  including  glass  chimneys  and  all  other 
manufactures  ofglass,  or  of  which  glass  shall  be 
the  component  material  (of  chief  value,  not  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  act,  sixty  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  [Old  law:  Mostly  forty  and  forty-five 
per  centum.] 

109.  Heavy-blown  glass,  blown  with  or  without 
a  mold,  not  cut  or  decorated,  finished  or  unfin- 
ished, sixty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law; 
Forty  per  centum.] 

no.  Porcelain  or  opal  glassware,  sixty  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem.     [Old  law:     Forty  per  centum.] 

in.  All  cut,  engraved,  painted  or  otherwise 
ornamented  or  decorated  glass  bottles,  decanters, 
or  other  vessels  of  glass  shall,  if  filled,  pay  duty 
in  addition  to  any  duty  chargeable  on  the  con- 
tents, as  if  not  filled,  unless  otherwise  specially 
provided  for  in  this  act. 

112.  Unpolished  cylinder,  crown,  and  common 
window-glass,  not  exceeding  ten  by  fifteen  inches 
square,  one  and  three-eighths  cents  per  pound; 
above  that,  and  not  exceeding  sixteen  by  twenty- 
four  inches  square,  one  and  seven-eighths  cents 
per  pound;  above  that  and  not  exceeding  twenty- 
four  by  thirty  inches  square,  two  and  three- 
eighths  cents  per  pound;  above  that,  and  not  ex- 
ceeding twenty-four  by  thirty-six  inches  square, 
two  and  seven-eighths  cents  per  pound;  all  above 
that,  three  and  one-eighth  cents  per  pound: 
Provided,  That  unpolished  cylinder,  crown  and 
common  window-glass,  imported  in  boxes,  shall 
contain  fifty  square  feet,  as  nearly  as  sizes  will 
permit,  and  the  duty  shall  be  computed  thereon 
according  to  the  actual  weight  of  glass.  [Old 
law:  To  ten  rby  fifteen,  one  and  three-eighths 
cents  square  foot;  above  that  to  sixteen  by  twen- 
ty-four, one  and  seven-eighths;  above  that  to 
twenty-four  by  thirty,  two  and  three-eighths;  all 
above,  two  and  seven-eighths,  with  an  allowance 
for  box  weight  on  single  thick  of  five  pounds, 
and  on  double  thick  of  ten  pounds.] 

113.  Cylinder  and  crown-glass,  polished,  not 
exceeding  sixteen  by  twenty-four  inches  square, 
four  cents  per  square  foot;  above  that,  and  not 
exceeding  twenty-four  by  thirty  inches  square. 
six  cents  per  square  foot;  above  that,  and  not  ex- 
ceding  twenty-four  by  sixty  inches  square,  twenty 
cents  per  square  foot;  above  that,  forty  cents  per 
square  foot.  [Old  law:  To  ten  by  fifteen,  two 
and  one-half  cents  square  foot;  above  that  to  six- 
teen by  twenty-four,  four  cents;  above  that  to 
twenty-four  by  thirty,  six  cents;  above  that  to 
twenty-four  by  sixty,  twenty  cents;  all  above  that, 
forty  cents.] 

114.  Fluted,  rolled,  or  rough  plate-glass,  not 
including  crown,  cylinder  or  common  window- 
glass,  not  exceeding  ten  by  fifteen  inches  square, 
three-fourths  of  one  cent  per  square  foot;  above 
that,  and  not  exceeding  sixteen  by  twenty-four 
inches  square,  one  cent  per  square  foot;  above 
that,  and  not  exceeding  twenty-four  by  thirty 
inches  square,  one  and  one-half  cents  per  square 
foot;  all  above  that,  two  cents  per  square  foot; 


andall  fluted,  rolled,  or  rough  plate-glass,  weigh- 
ing over  one  hundred  pounds  per  one  hundred 
square  feet,  shall  pay  an  additional  duty  on  the 
excess  at  the  same  rates  herein  imposed:  Pro- 
vided, That  all  0/ the  above  plate-glass -when 
ground,  smoothed,  or  otherwise  obscured  shall 
be  subject  to  the  same  rate  of  duty  as  cast  pol- 
ished plate-glass  unsilvered.  [Old  law:  Was 
the  same,  omitting  the  proviso.] 

115.  Cast  polished  plate-glass,  finished  or  un- 
finished and  unsilvered,  not  exceeding  sixteen  by 

twenty-four  inches  square,  five  cents  per  square 
foot;  above  that,  and  not  exceeding  twenty-four 
by  thirty  inches  square,  eight  cents  per  square 
foot;  above  that,  and  not  exceeding  twenty-four 
by  sixty  inches  square,  twenty-five  cents  per 
square  foot;  all  above  that,  fifty  cents  per  square 
foot.  [Old  law;  In  addition  to  above  had  a 
bracket  not  exceeding  ten  by  fifteen  at  three  cents 
per  square  foot,  but  did  not  contain  the  words 
"  finished  or  unfinished."] 

116.  Cast  polished  plate-glass,  silvered,  and 
looking-glass  plates,  not  exceeding  sixteen  by 
twenty-lour  inches  square,  six  cents  per  square 
foot;  above  that,  and  not  exceeding  twenty-four 
by  thirty  inches  square,  ten  cents  per  square  foot; 
above  that,  and  not  exceeding  twenty-four  by 
sixty  inches  square,  thirty-five  cents  per  square 
foot;  all  above  that,  sixty  cents  per  square  foot . 
[Old  law  has  a  bracket  up  to  ten  by  fifteen  at  four 
cents  per  square  foot.] 

117.  But  no  looking-glass  plates,  or  plate-glass 
silvered,  when  framed,  shall  pay  a  less  rate  of 
duty  than  that  imposed  upon  similar  glass  of  like 
description  not  framed,  but  shall  pay  in  addition 
thereto  upon  such  frimes  the  rate  of  duty  applica- 
ble thereto  when  imported  separate.  [Old  law: 
Additional  duty  of  thirty  per  centum  on  the 
frames.] 

118.  Cast  polished  plate-glass,  silvered  or  un- 
silvered, and  cylinder,  crown  or  common  window- 
glass,  when  ground,  obscured,  frosted,  sanded, 
enameled,  beveled,  etched,  embossed,  engraved, 
stained,  colored,  or  otherwise  ornamented  or 
decorated,  shall  be  subject  to  a  duty  of  ten  per 
centum  ad  valorem  in  addition  to  the  rates 
otherwise  chargeable  thereon.     [Not  in  old  law.] 

119.  Spectacles  and  eyeglasses,  or  spectacles 
and  eyeglass-frames,  sixty  per  centum  ad  valorem . 
[Old  law:  Forty-five  per  centum  or  twenty-five 
per  centum  or  according  to  component  of  chief 
value.] 

120.  On  lenses  costing  one  dollar  and  fifty 
cents  per  gross  pairs,  or  less,  sixty  per  centum  ad 
valorem.     [Old  law:     Forty-five  per  centum.] 

Z2i.  Spectacles  and  eyeglass  lenses  with  their 
edges  ground  or  beveled  to  fit  frames,  sixty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Forty-five  per 
centum  or  free.] 

122.  All  stained  or  painted  window-glass  and 
stained  or  painted  glass  windows,  and  hand, 
pocket,  or  table  mirrors  not  exceeding  in  size  one 
hundred  and  forty-four  square  inches,  with  or 
without  frames  or  cases,  of  whatever  ma- 
terial composed,  lenses  of  glass  or  pebble,  wholly 
or  partly  manufactured,  and  not  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  and  fusible  enamel,  forty-five 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Forty-five 
per  centum,  thirty  per  centum,  ten  per  centum.] 

MARBLE    AND    STONE,  AND    MANUFACTURES    OF. 

123.  Marble  of  all  kinds  in  block,  rough  or 
squared,  sixty-five  cents  per  cubic  foot. 

124.  Veined  marbte,  sawed,  dressed,  or  other- 
wise, including  marble  slabs  and  marble  paving 
tiles,  one  dollar  and  ten  cents  per  cubic  foot  (but 
in  measurement  no  slab  shall  be  computed  at  less 
than  one' inch  in  thickness^.  [Old  law  does  not 
contain  the  words  in  parenthesis.] 

125.  Manufactures  of  marble  not  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 


126.  Burr-stones  manufactured  or  bound  up 
into  mill-stones,  fifteen  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law:     Twenty  per  centum.] 

127.  Freestone,  granite,  sandstone,  limestone 
and  other  building  or  monumental  stone,  except 
marble,  unmanufactured  or  undressed,  not  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  act,  eleven  cents  per 
cubic  foot.     [Old  law:     One  dollar  per  ton.] 


/ 


^A 


T 


422 


THE     TARIFF. 


i»8,  Freestone,  granite,  sandstone,  limestone, 
and  other  building  or  monumental  stone,  except 
marble,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
hewn,  dressed  or  polished,  forty  per  centum  ad 
valorem,     [Old  law;     Twenty  per  centum.] 

129.  Grindstones,  finished  or  unfinished,  one 
dollar  and  seventy-five  cents  per  tun. 


130.  Slate,  slate  chimney-pieces,  mantels,  slabs 
for  tables  and  all  other  manufactures  of  slate,  not 
specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  thirty  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem. 

131.  Rooting  slates,  twenty-five  per  centum 
a4  valorem. 


Schedule    C. — Metals   and    Manufact- 
ures of. 

IKON    AND    STBKL. 

13s.  Chromate  of  iron,  or  chromic  ore,  fifteen 
per  centum  ad  valorem. 

133.  Iron  ore,  including  manganiferOus  iron 
ore,  also  the  dross  or  residuum  from  burnt  py- 
rites, seventy-five  cents  per  ton.  Sulphur  ore,  as 
pyrites,  or  sulphuret  of  iron  in  its  natural  state 
containing  not  more  than  three  and  one-half  per 
centum  topper,  seventy-five  cents  per  ton;  Pro- 
vided t  That  ore  containing  more  than  two  per 
centum  of  copper  shall  pay,  in  addition  thereto, 
one-half  of  one  cent  per  pound  for  the  copper 
contained  therein:  Provided,  also.  That  sul- 
phur ore  as  pyrites  or  sulphuret  of  iron  in  its 
natural  state,  containing  in  excess  of  twenty- 
five  per  centum  of  sulphur,  shall  be  fret  of 
duty,  except  on  the  copper  contained  therein,  as 
above  provided:  And  provided  further ,  'I  hat 
in  levying  and  collecting  the  duty  on  iron  ore 
n*  deduction  shall  be  made  from  the  weight  of 
the  ore  on  account  of  moisture  which  maybe 
chemically  or  physically  combined  therewith. 
[Old  law:  The  copper  was  dutiable  at  two  and 
one-half  cents  per  pound.  The  last  two  pro- 
visos are  new  matter.] 

134.  Iron  in  pigs,  iron  kentledge,  spiegeleiscn, 
ferro- manganese,  ferro-silicon,  wrought  and  cast 
scrap  iron,  and  scrap  steel,  three-tenths  of  one 
cent  per  pound;  but  nothing  shall  be  deemed 
scrap  iron  or  scrap  steel  except  waste  or  refUM 
iron  or  steel  tit  only  to  be  remanufactured.  [Old 
law:  Did  not  contain  ferro- manganese  or  fcrro- 
silicon.  The  scrap  iron  was  confined  to  that 
which  had  been  in  actual  use.] 

135.  liar-iron,  rolled  or  hammered,  comprising 
flats  not  less  than  one  inch  wide,  nor  less  than 
three-eighths  of  one  inch  thick,  eight-tenths  of 
one  cent  per  pound;  round  iron  not  less  than 
three-fourths  of  one  inch  in  diameter,  and  square 
iron  not  less  than  three-fourths  of  one  inch  square, 
nine-tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound;  flats  less  than 
one  inch  wide,  or  less  than  three-eighthsof  one  inch 
thick;  round  iron  less  than  three-fourths  of  one 
inch  and  not  less  than  seven-sixteenths  of  one 
inch  in  diameter,  and  square  iron  less  than  three- 
fourths  of  one  inch  square,  one  cent  per  pound. 
[Old  law:  The  respective  rates  were  eight  tenths 
cent  per  pound,  one  cent  per  pound,  one  and 
one-tenth  cents  per  pound.] 

136.  Round  iron,  in  coils  or  rods,  less  than 
seven-sixteenths  of  one  inch  in  diameter,  and 
bars  or  shapes  of  rolled  iron,  not  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  one  and  one-tenth  cents  per 
pound:  Provided,  That  all  iron  in  slabs,  blooms, 
loops,  or  other  forms  less  finished  than  iron  in 
bars,  nnd  more  advanced  than  pig-iron,  except 
castings,  shall  lie  rated  as  iron  in  bars,  and  be 
subject  to  a  duty  of  eight -tenths  of  one  cent  per 
pound;  and  none  of  the  iron  above  enumerated  in 
thin  paragraph  shall  pay  a  less  rate  of  duty  than 
thirty-five    per    centum    ad     valorem:      Provided 

further,  That  all  iron  bars,  blooms,  billets,  or 
sixes  or  shapes  of  any  kind,  in  the  manufacture  of 
which  charcoal  is  used  as  fuel,  shall  be  mbjnct  to 
a  duty  of  not  less  than  twenty-two  dollars  per 
ton  |<)lil  l.iw;  One  and  two-tenths  cents  per 
pound  1 

137.  Beams,  girders,  joists,  angles,  channels, 
car-truck  channels,  TT,  columns  and  posts,  or 
parts  of  sections  of  columns  and  posts,  deck  and 


bulb  beams,  and  building  forms,  together  with  all 
other  structural  shapes  of  iron  or  steel,  whether 
plain  or  punched,  or  fitted  for  use,  nine-tenths  of 
one  cent  per  pound.  fOld  law:  One  and  one- 
fourth  cents  per  pound] 

138.  Boftar,  or  other  phsa  Iron  <>r  steel,  except 
saw  plates  hereinafter  provided  for,  not  thinner 
than  number  ten  wire  gauge,  sheared  or  un- 
sheared,  and  skelp  iron  or  steel  sheared  or  rolled 
in  grooves,  valued  at  one  cent  per  pound  or  less, 
five-tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound;  valued  above 
one  cent  and  not  above  one  and  four-tenths  cents 
per  pound,  sixty-five  hundredths  of  one  cent  per 
pound;  valued  above  one  and  four-tenths  cents 
and  not  above  two  cents  per  pound,  eight-tenths 
of  one  cent  per  pownd;  valued  above  two  cents 
and  not  above  three  cents  per  pound,  one  and 
one-tenth  cents  per  pound;  valued  above  three 
cents  and  not  above  four  cents  per  pound,  one 
and  five-tenths  cents  per  pound;  valued  above 
four  cents  and  not  above  seven  cents  per  pound, 
two  cents  per  pound;  valued  above  seven  cents 
and  not  above  ten  cents  per  pound,  two  and 
eight-tenths  cents  per  pound;  valued  above  ten 
cents  and  not  above  thirteen  cents  per  pound, 
three  and  one-half  cents  per  pound;  valued  above 
thirteen  cents  per  pound,  forty-five  per  centum 
ad    valorem:     Provided,  That  all    plate    iron   or 


steel  thinner  than  number  ten  wire  gauge  shall 
pay  duty  as  iron  or  steel  sheets.  [Old  law: 
Boiler  or  other   plate  iron,  one    and  one-fourth 


cents  per  pound  if  iron;  forty-five  per  centum  if 
steel.) 

139.  Forgings  of  iron  or  steel,  or  forged  iron 
and  steel  combined,  of  whatever  shape,  or  in 
whatever  stage  of  manufacture,  not  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  two  and  three-tenths  cents 
per  pound:  J'rovided,  That  no  forgings  of  iron 
or  steel,  orforgingsof  iron  and  steel  combined,  by 
whatever  process  made,  shall  pay  a  less  rate  of 
duty  than  forty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law;  Forgings  of  iron  and  steel,  or  forged 
iron,  of  whatever  shape,  or  in  whatever  stage  of 
manufacture,  not  specially  enumerated  or  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  two  and  one-half  cents  per 
pound,  I 

140.  Hoop,  or  band,  or  scroll,  or  other  iron  or 
■tea),  valued  at  three  cents  per  pound  or  less, 
eight  bjtchea  or  leal  in  width,  and  MM  than  three- 
eighths  of  OM  Inch    thick  and"    not  thinner  than 

number  ten  wtra  gauge,  ona  cam  par  pound; 
thinner  than  noma  r  ten  wire  gang*  and  not 
thinner  than  number  twenty  wire  gang*,  one  and 
one-tenth  cents  per  pound;  thinner  than  number 
twenty  wire  n  nd  three-tenth 

per   pound:      Provided,   TntthoopQI  hand  iron, 

or  hoop  01  band  ■tad,  cnl  to  length,  or  wholly  or 
partially  manufactured  into  hoops  or  ties  for  bal- 
ing purpoaaa,  barrel  hoops  of  iron  or  steel,  and 
hoop  or  band  iron,  or  hoop  or  band  steel  flared, 
■played,  or  pun.  bed,  with  or  without  buckles  or 
fastenings,  shall  pay  two- tenths*  of  one   cent    per 

pound  mora  duty  than  dial  linnoaad  on  the  hoop 
or  band  Iron  or  ■tad  from  wbicn  they  are  made. 

[Old  law:  Hoop,  or  band,  Of  KTOll,  M  other  iron, 
eight  inches  or  less  in  width,  and  not  thinner  than 
number  ten  wire  Range,  one  cent  per  pound, 
thinner  than  numlier  ten  wire  gauga,  and  not 
thinner  than  number  twenty  wire  gauge,  one  and 
two-tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound;  thinner  than 
number  twanty  wire  gauge,  one  and  tour  tenths  of 
one  cent  per  pound:  /'raided.  That  all  articles 
not    specially    enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this 

act,  whether    wholly  01    pastry    manuntrrnred, 

made  from  sheet,  plafc  d  or  scroll  iron 

herein  provided  for  or  of  which  such  sheet,  plate, 
hoop,  band  Off  scroll  iron  shall  l>e  the  material  of 
chief  value,    sh  nrth  of  one  cent   per 

pound  mora  dntv  than    thai    imposed  on   the  iron 

from  win.  h  they  an-  made,  or  which  shall  be  such 

j  Ofcttnf   value.      If   steel,    forty  f' 
centum:   Iron  and  ataalootbM)  tie*,  or  hoops  for 
baling  purpOtaa,  not  thinner  than  number  twenty 
Vi    pel   iMiturn  ad  valorem. 
■  t    iron,    C0C9 
mon  or  black,  thinner  than  one  in.  h  and   ■ 
and  not  thinner  than  number  twenty   wire  gauge, 
one  and  one  truth  of  one  cent  per  pound:  thinner 
than  number   twenty  wire  gauge  and  not   thinner 
than   number   twine.  00a  and 

two-tontha  of  on*  cam  pej  ponndj  Uunnei  than 
number  twenty-live   wire  gauge   and  not  thinner 


than  number  twenty-nine  wire  gauge,  one  and 
five-tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound,  thinner  than 
number  twenty-nine  wire  gauge,  and  all  iron 
commercially  known  as  common  or  black  taggers 
iron,  whether  put  up  in  boxes  or  bundle*  or  not, 
thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem  1 

141.  Kailway-bars,  made  of  iron  or  steel,  and 
railway-bars  made  in  part  of  steel,  T -rails,  and 
punched  iron  or  steel  flat  rails,  six-tenths  of  one 
cent  per  pound .  [Old  law:  Iron  or  steel  tee  ratta 
weighing  not  over  twenty-five  pounds  t»  the  yard, 
nine-tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound;  iron  or  steel 
Aat  rails,  punched,  eight-tenths  of  one  cent  per 
pound.  Iron  railway  bars,  weighing  more  than 
twenty-five  pounds  to  the  yard,  seven-tenths  of 
one  cent  per  pound ,  Steel  railway  ban  and  rail- 
way bars  made  in  pan  of  steel,  weighing  more 
than  twenty-five  pounds  to  the  yard,  seventeen 
dollars  per  ton] 

142.  Sheets  of  iron  or  steel,  common  or  black, 
including  all  iron  or  steel  commercially  known 
as  common  or  black  tagger*  iron  or  steel,  and 
skelp  iron  or  steel,  valued  at  three  cents  per 
pound  or  less:  Thinner  than  number  ten  and  not 
thinner  than  number  twenty  wire  gauge,  one  cent 
per  pound;  thinner  than  number  twenty  wire 
gauge,  and  not  thinner  than  number  twenty-five 
wire  gauge,  one  and  one-tenths  cents  per  pound; 
thinner  than  number  twenty-five  wire  gauge,  one 
and  four-tenths  cents  per  pound;  corrugated  or 
crimped,  one  and  four-tenths  cents  per  pound: 
Provided,  1'hat  all  common  or  black  sheet  iron, 
or  sheet  steel  not  thinner  than  number  ten  wire 
gauge  shall  pay  duty  as  plate  iron  or  plate 
steel.  [Old  law:  Sheet  iron,  common  or  black, 
thinner  than  one  inch  and  one-half  and  not 
thinner  than  number  twenty  wire  gauge,  one  and 
one-tenth  of  one  cent  per  pound:  thinner  than 
number  twenty  wire  gauge  and  not  thinner  than 
number  twenty-five  wire  gauge,  one  and  two- 
tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound;  thinner  than 
number  twenty-five  wire  gauge  and  not  thinner 
than  number  twenty -nine  wire  gauge,  one  and 
five-tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound:  thinner  than 
number  twenty-nine  wire  gauge  and  all  iron  com- 
menally  known  as  common  or  black  taggers  iron, 
whether  put  up  in  boxes  or  bundles  or  not,  thirty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.] 

143.  All  iron  or  steel  sheets  or  plates,  and  ail 
hoop,  band  or  scroll  iron  or  steel,  excepting  what 
are  known  commercially  as  tin  plates,  terne 
plates,  and  taggers  tin,  and  hereinafter  provided 
for.  when  galvanized  or  .  oated  with  /inc  or 
spelter,  or  other  metals,  or  any  alloy  of  those 
metals,  shall  pay  three  'fourths  of  one  cent  per 
pound  more  duty  than  the  rates  imposed  by  the 
preceding  paragraph  upon  the  corresponding 
gauges  or  forms,  of  common  or  black  sheet  or 
taggers  iron  or  steel;  and  on  and  after  July  first. 

1  hundred  and  ninety-one,  all  iron  or  steel 
sheets  or  plates,  or  taggers  iron  coated  with 
tin  or  lead  or  with  a  mixture  of  which  these 
met.ds  or  either  of  them  is  a  component  pan,  by 
the  dipping  or  any  other  process,  and  commer- 
cially known  as  tin  plates,  terne  plates,  and  tag- 
gers tin,  shall  pay  two  and  two-tenths  cents  per 
pound:  Provided,  That,  on  and  after  July  first, 
eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-one,  manufacturer* 
of  whii  h  tin,  tin  plates,  terne  plates,  tagger-,  tin. 
or  either  Of  them,  are  component  materials  of 
chief  value,  and  all  articles,  vessels  or  wares 
manufactured,  stamped  or  drawn  from  sheet  Iroa) 
or  sheet  steel,  such  material  being  the  compooent 

I  .due,  and  coated  wholly  or  in  pan  « 
or  lead  or   a    mixture    of   which    these    metals   or 
cither  of  them  is  a  component  pan.  shall  pay  the 

ftfry  five    per    centum    ad  valorem 
vided.  That  on  and  after  ( October  first,  eighteen 
hundred   and   ninety  seven,  tin   plates   and   terne 
■hrer  pmrwtr 

ired  square  feet  shall  be  admitted  free  of 
duty  unless  it  shall  be  made  to  appear  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  the  Prestdem  (who  shall  thereupon  by 
proclamation  make  known  the  met)  that  the  ag- 
gregate quantity  of  MM  h  plates  lighter  than 
three  pounds  per  hundred  square  feet  produced  an 
the  United  States  dui  I  the  *ta  year* 

next  preceding  June  thirtieth,  eighteen  hundred 
and  ninety  seven,  ha*  equalled  one  third  the 
amount  of  such  plates  imported  and  entered  far 

I  non  during  any  ft**  al  year  after  the  pas- 
sage of  this  act ,  and  prior  to  said  October  first, 


/ 


THE     TARIFF. 


— jSpH 


/ 


423 


eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-seven:  Provided ', 
That,  the  amount  of  such  plates  manufactured 
into  articles  exported,  and  upon  which  a  draw- 
back shall  be  paid,  shall  not  be  included  in  as- 
certaining the  amount  of  such  importations:  And 
Provided  further ,  That  the  amount  or  weight  of 
sheet  iron  or  sheet  steel  manufactured  in  the 
United  States  and  applied  or  wrought  in  the 
manufacture  of  articles  or  wares  tinned  or  terne- 
plated  in  the  United  States,  with  weight  allow- 
ance u  sold  to  manufacturers  or  others,  shall  be 
considered  as  tin  and  terne  plates  produced  in  the 
United  States  within  ;he  meaning  of  this  act. 
[Old  law:  And  provided.  That  on  all  such  iron 
and  steel  sheets  or  plates  aforesaid,  excepting  on 
what  are  known  commercially  as  tin  plates,  terne 

f)lates,  and  taggers  tin,  and  hereafter  provided 
or,  when  galvanized  or  coated  with  zinc  or  spel- 
ter, or  other  metals,  or  any  alloy  of  those  metals, 
three-fourths  of  one  cent  per  pound  additional. 
Iron  or  steel  sheets,  or  plates,  or  taggers  iron, 
coated  with  tin  or  lead,  or  with  a  mixture  of 
which  these  metals  is  a  component  part,  by  the 
dipping  or  any  other  process,  and  commercially 
known  as  tin  plates,  terne  plates,  and  taggers 
tin,  one  cent  per  pound;  corrugated  or  crimped 
sheet-iron  or  steel,  one  and  four-tenths  of  one 
cent  per  pound.  Manufacturers  of  tin,  forty-five 
per  centum.] 

144.  Sheet-iron  or  sheet-steel  polished,  plan- 
ished or  glanced,  by  whatever  name  designated, 
two   and    one-half  cents  per  pound:    Provided, 

•  That  plate  or  sheet  or  taggers  iron  or  steel,  by 
whatever  name  designated,  other  than  the  pol- 
ished, planished  or  glanced,  herein  provided  for, 
which  has  been  pickled  or  cleaned  by  acid,  or 
by  any  other  material  or  process,  or  which  is 
cold-rolled,  smoothed  only,  not  polished,  shall 
pay  one-quarter  of  one  cent  per  pound  more  duty 
than  the  corresponding  gauges  of  common  or 
black  sheet  or  taggers  iron  or  steel.  [Old  law: 
The  words  in  italics  in  this  paragraph  are  new 
matter.] 

145.  Sheets  or  plates  of  iron  or  steel,  or  taggers 
iron  or  steel,  coated  with  tin  or  lead,  or  with  a 
mixture  of  which  these  metals,  or  either  of  them, 
is  a  component  part,  by  the  dipping  or  any  other 
process,  and  commercially  known  as  tin  plates, 
terne  plates,  and  taggers  tin,  one  cent  per  pound 
until  July  first,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety- 
one. 

146.  Steel  ingots,  cogged  ingots,  blooms,  and 
slabs,  by  whatever  process  made;  die  blocks  or 
blanks;  billets  and  bars  and  tapered  or  beveled 
bars;  steamer,  crank,  and  other  shafts;  shafting; 
wrist  or  crank  pins;  connecting-rods  and  pisto»- 
rods;  pressed,  sheared  or  stamped  shapes;  saw- 
plates,  wholly  or  partially  manufactured;  ham- 
mer-molds or  swaged  steel;  gun-barrel  molds  not 
in  bars;  alloys  used  as  substitutes  for  steel  tools; 
all  descriptions  and  shapes  of  dry  sand,  loam,  or 
iron-molded  steel  castings;  sheets  and  plates  not 
specially  provided  for  in  this  act;  and  steel  in  all 
formsai.d  shapes  not  specially  provided  forin  this 
act ;  all  of  the  above  valued  at  one  cent  per  pound 
or  less,  four-tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound;  valued 
above  one  cent  and  not  above  one  and  four-tenths 
cents  per  pound,  five-tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound; 
valued  above  one  and  four-tenths  cents  and  not 
aboveone  and  eight-tenths  cents  per  pound,  eight- 
n  nthsnfonecent  per  pound;  valued  above  one  and 
eight-tenths  cents  and  not  above  two  and  two- 
tenths  cents  per  pound,  nine-tenths  of  one  cent 
per  pound;  valued  above  two  and  two-tenths 
cents,  and  not  above  three  cents  per  pound,  one 
and  two-tenths  cents  per  pound;  valued  above 
three  cents  and  not  above  four  cents  per  pound, 
one  and  six-tenths  cents  per  pound;  valued  above 
four  cents  and  not  above  seven  cents  per  pound, 
two  cents  per  pound;  valued  above  seven  cents 
and  not  above  ten  cents  per  pound,  two  and 
eight -tenths  cents  per  pound;  valued  above  ten 
cents  and  not  above  thirteen  cents  per  pound, 
three  and  one-half  cents  per  pound;  valued  above 
thirteen  cents  and  not  above  sixteen  cents  per 
pound,  four  and  two-tenths  cents  per  pound; 
valued  above  sixteen  cents  per  pound,  seven 
cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Steel  ingots,  cogged 
bigots,  Mo.mis,  and  slabs,  by  whatever  process 
modi  :  (He  blocks  or  blanks;  billets  and  bars  and 
tapered  or  beveled  bars;  bands,  hoops,  strips,  and 
sheets  of  all  gauges  and  widths;  plates  of  all 
thicknesses  and  widths;  steamer,  crank,  and  other 


shafts;  wrist  or  crank  pins;  connecting-rods  and 
piston-rods;  pressed,  sheared,  or  stamped  shapes, 
or  blanks  of  sheet  or  plate  steel,  or  combination 
of  steel  and  iron,  punched  or  not  punched;  ham- 
mer-molds or  swaged  steel;  gun-molds,  not  in 
bars;  alloys  used  as  substitutes  for  steel  tools;  all 
descriptions  and  shapes  of  dry  sand,  loam,  or  iron- 
molded  steel  castings.all  of  the  above  classes  of  steel 
not  otherwise  specially  provided  for  in  this  act 
valued  at  four  cents  a  pound  or  less,  forty-five  per 
centum  ad  valorem;  above  four  cents  a  pound  and 
not  above  seven  cents  per  pound,  two  cents  per 
pound;  valued  above  seven  cents  and  not  above 
ten  cents  per  pound,  two  and  three-fourths  cents 
per  pound;  valued  at  above  ten  cents  per  pound, 
three  and  one-fourth  cents  per  pound.] 


147.  Wire  rods:  Rivet,  screw,  fence  anj  other 
iron  or  steal  wire  rods,  and  nail  rods  whether 
round,  oval,  flat,  square,  or  in  any  other  shape, 
in  coils  or  otherwise,  not  smaller  than  number  six 
wire  gauge,  valued  at  three  and  one-half  cents  or 
less  per  pound,  six-tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound; 
and  iron  or  steel,  flat,  with  longitudinal  ribs  for 
the  manufacture  of  fencing,  valued  at  three 
cents  or  less  per  pound,  six-tenths  of  one  cent 
per  pound:  Provided,  That  all  iron  or  steel 
rods,  whether  rolled  or  drawn  through  dies, 
smaller  than  number  six  wire  gauge,  shall  be 
classed  and  dutiable  as  wire.  [Old  Taw:  Iron  or 
steel  rivet,  screw,  nail,  and  fence,  wire  rods, 
round,  in  coils  and  loops,  not  lighter  than  num- 
ber five  wire  gauge,  valued  at  three  and  one-half 
cents  or  less  per  pound,  six-tenths  of  one  cent  per 
pound.  Iron  or  steel,  flat,  with  longitudinal  ribs 
for  the  manufacture  of  fencing,  six-tenths  of  a 
cent  per  pound.] 

148.  Wire:  Wire  made  ofiron  or  steel,  not 
smaller  than  number  ten  wire  gauge,  one  and 
one-fourth  cents  per  pound;  smaller  than  number 
ten,  and  not  smaller  than  number  sixteen  wire 
guage,  one  and  three-fourths  cents  per  pound; 
smaller  than  number  sixteen  and  not  smaller  than 
number  twenty-six  wire  gauge,  two  and  one- 
fourth  cents  per  pound;  smaller  than  number 
twenty-six  wire  gauge,  three  cents  per  pound: 
I'rovided,  That  iron  or  steel  wire  covered  with 
cotten,  silk  or  other  material,  and  wires  or  strip 
steel,  commonly  known  as  crinoline-wire,  corset- 
wire  and  hat-wire,  shall  pay  a  duty  of  five  cents 
per  pound:  And  provided  further,  That  flat 
steel  wire  or  sheet  steel  in  strips,  whether  drawn 
through  dies  or  rolls,  untempered  or  tempered,  of 
whatsoever  width,  twenty-five  one  thousandths 
of  an  inch  thick  or  thinner  (ready  for  use  or  other- 
wise), shall  pay  a  duty  of  fifty  per  centum  ad 
valorem:  And  Proznded further,  That  no  article 
made  from  iron  or  steel  wire,  or  of  which  iron  or 
steel  wire  is  a  component  part  of  chief  value,  shall 
pay  a  less  rate  of  duty  than  the  iron  or  steel  wire 
from  which  it  is  made  either  wholly  or  in  part:  And 
Provided  further,  That  iron  or  steel  wire-cloths, 
and  iron  or  steel  wire-nettings  made  in  neshes  of 
any  form,  shall  pay  a  duty  equal  'n  amount  to 
that  imposed  on  iron  or  steel  wire  .sed  in  the 
manufacture  of  iron  or  steel  wire  cloth,  or  iron 
or  steel  wire  nettings,  and  two  cents  ^er  pound 
in  addition  thereto.  [Old  law:  Smaller  than 
number  ten  gauge,  one  and  one-half  and  two 
cents  per  pound;  number  ten  to  number  sixteen 
gauge,  two  cents;  number  sixteen  to  number 
twenty-six  gauge,  two  and  one-half  cents;  smaller, 
three  cents.  Provided ,  That  iron  or  steel  wire 
covered  with  cotton,  silk,  or  other  material,  and 
wire  commonly  known  as  crinoline,  corset  and 
hat-wire,  shall  pay  four  cents  per  pound  in  ad- 
dition  to   the    foregoing   rates:      And  provided 

further,  That  no  article  made  from  iron  or  I 
steel  wire,  or  of  which  iron  or  steel  wire  is  a  com-  I 
ponent  part  of  chief  value,  shall  pay  a  less  rate  of  j 
duty  than  the  iron  or  steel  wire  from  which  it  is  1 
made,  either  wholly   or  in  part:     And  provided    j 

further.  That  iron  or  steel  wire-cloths,  and  iron 
or  steel  wire-nettings,  made  in  meshes  of 
any  form,  shall  pay  a  duty  equal  in  amount 
to  that  imposed  on  iron  or  steel  wire  of  the 
same  gauge,  and  two  cents  per  pound  in  ad- 
dition thereto.  There  shall  be  paid  on  gal  van  - ' 
ized  iron  or  steel  wire  (except  fence  wire)  one- 
half  of  one  cent  per  pound  in  addition  to  the  rate 
imposed  on  the  wire  of  which  it  is  made.     On 


iron  wire-rope  and  wire-strand,  one  cent  per 
pound  in  addition  to  the  rates  imposed  on  the  wire 
of  which  it  is  made.  On  steel  wire-rope  and  wire- 
strand,  two  cents  per  pound  in  addition  to  the  rates 
imposed  on  the  wire  of  which  it  is  made.] 

There  shall  be  paid  on  iron  or  steel  wire  coated 
with  zinc  or  tin,  or  any  other  metal  (except  fence- 
wire  and  iron  or  steel,  flat,  with  longitudinal  ribs, 
for  the  manufacture  of  fencing),  one-half  of  one 
cent  per  pound  in  addition  to  the  rate  imposed  on 
the  wire  of  which  it  is  made;  on  iron  wire-rope 
and  wire-strand,  one  cent  per  pound  in  addition 
to  the  rate  imposed  on  the  wire  of  which  it  is 
made;  on  steel  wire-rope  and  wire-strand,  two 
cent'  per  pound  in  addition  to  the  rate  imposed  on 
the  wire  of  which  they  or  either  of  them  are  made: 
Provided  further.  That  all  iron  or  steel  wire 
valued  at  more  than  four  cents  per  pound  shall 
pay  a  duty  of  not  less  than  forty-five  per  centum 
ad  valorem  except  that  card-wire  for  the  manu- 
facture of  card  clothing  shall  pay  a  duty  of  thirty- 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 


General  Provisions. 

140.  No  allowance  or  reduction  of  duties  for 
partial  loss  or  damage  in  consequence  of  rust  ©r  of 
discoloration  shall  be  made  upon  any  description 
of  iron  or  steel,  or  upon  any  article  wholly  or* 
partly  manufactured  of  iron  or  steel,  or  upon  any 
manufacture  ofiron  and  steel. 

150  AH  metal  produced  from  iron  or  its  ores, 
which  is  cast  and  malleable,  of  whatever  de- 
scription or  form,  without  regard  to  the  per- 
centage of  carbon  contained  therein  whether  pro- 
duced by  cementation,  or  converted,  cast  or 
made  from  iron  or  its  ores,  by  the  crucible,  Bes- 
semer, Clapp-Gri fliths,  pneumatic,  Thomas-Gil- 
christ, basic,  Siemens-Martin,  or  open-hearth 
process,  or  by  the  equivalent  of  either,  or  by  a 
combination  of  two  or  more  of  the  processes,  or 
their  equivalents,  or  by  any  fusion  or  other  pro- 
cess which  produces  from  iron  or  its  ores  a  metal 
either  granular  or  fibrous  in  structure,  which  is 
cast  and  malleable,  excepting  what  is  known  as 
malleable-iron  castings,  shall  be  classed  and  de- 
nominated as  steel. 

151.  No  article  not  specially  provided  for  in 
this  act,  wholly  or  partly  manufactured  from  tin 
plate,  terne  plate,  or  the  sheet,  plate,  hoop,  band 
or  scroll  iron  or  steel  herein  provided  for,  or  of 
which  such  tin  plate,  terne  plate,  sheet,  plate, 
hoop,  band  or  scroll  iron  or  steel  shall  be  the  ma- 
terial of  chief  value,  shall  pay  a  lower  rate  of 
duty  than  that-  imposed  on  the  tin  plate,  terne 
plate,  or  sheet,  plate,  hoop,  band,  or  scroll  iron 
or  steel  from  which  it  is  made,  or  of  which  it  shall 
be  the  component  thereof  of  chief  value.  [Not  in 
old  law.] 

152.  On  all  iron  or  steel  bars  or  rods  of -what- 
ever shape  or  section,  which  are  cold  rolled, 
cold  hammered,  or  polished  in  any  way  in  addi- 
tion to  the  ordinary  process  of  hot  rolling  or  ham- 
mering, there  shall  be  paid  one-fourth  of  one  cent 
per  pound  in  addition  to  the  rates  provided  in 
this  act;  and  on  all  strips,  plates  or  sheets  of 
iron  or  steel  of  whatever  shape,  other  than  the 
Polished,  planished  or  glanced  sheet-iron  or 
sheet-steel  hereinbefore  provided  for  ,which  are 
cold  rolled,  cold  hammered,  Slued,  brightened, 
tempered  or  polished  by  any  process  to  such 
Perfected  surface  finish,  or  polish  better  than 
the  grade  of  cold  rolled,  smooth  only,  herein- 
before proinded  for,  there  shall  be  paid  one  and 
one-fourth  cents  per  pound  in  addition  to  the 
rates  provided  in  this  act  upon  plates,  strips, 
or  sheets  of  iron  or  steel  of  common  or  black 

finish;  and  on  steel  circular  saw  piates  there 
shall  be  paid  one  cent  per  pound  in  addition  to 
the  rate  provided  in  this  act  for  steel  saw  plates. 

Manufactures  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

153.  Anchors  or  parts  thereof  of  iron  or  steel, 
mill-irons  and  mill-cranks  of  wrought-iron  and 
wrought-iron  for  ships,  and  forgings  ofiron  or  steel, 
or  of  combined  iron  and  steel,  for  vessels,  steam- 
engines  and  locomotives,  or  parts  thereof,  weighing 
each  twenty-five  pounds  or  more,  one  and  eight- 
tenths  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law;  Two  ceuta  ;.*er 
pound.] 


FT 


4»4 


THE     TARIFF. 


7 


154.  Axles,  of  pasts  thereof,  axle-bam,  axle- 
blanks,  or  tvrgfciga  for  axles,  whether  of  iron  or 

steel,  without  n  Ni.  in  .  to  (tic  stage  or  state  of 
I—  IHifiictllfHi,  two  'iiits  par  pound;  /'rorided. 
That  when  iron  or  steel  axles  are  imported 
fittnl  in  wheels ,  or  /</'  t%  0/  inheels,  0/  troti  or 
steel ,  they  ahull  hr  dutiable  at  the  same  rate  as 
the  wheels  in  UtkicM  they  are  fitted.  [Old  law: 
Two  and  a  hall  cents  per  pound,  ] 

155.  Anvils  of  in. 11  or  steel,  Of  of  iron  and  steel 
combined,  by  whatever  process  made,  or  in  what- 
ever sta^e  of  nianunu  tuie,  two  and  one-half  cents 
per  pound.  [Ne*  language,  No  change  in 
rate  J 

ISO.  Blacksmiths'  hammers  and  sledges,  track 
tools,  wedges  and  crowl>ars,  whether  of  iron  or 
steel,  two  ami  one-fourth  cents  per  pound.  [Old 
law:     Two  and  one-half  cents  per  pound.] 

157.  IJoiler  or  other  lul>es,  pipes,  flues,  or  stays 
of  wrought  iron  or  steel,  two  and  one-half  cents 
per  pound.  |OUl  law:  Two  and  one -fourth  and 
three  cents  per  pound,  j 

is8.  Holts,  with  or  without  threads  or  nuts,  or 
holt-blanks,  and  finished  hinges  or  hinge  blanks, 
whether  of  iron  or  steel,  two  and  one-fourth  cents 
pcrpoiind.  (Old  law:  Two  and  one-half  cents 
per  pound.] 

159.  Card-clothing,  manufactured  from  tem- 
pered steel  wire,  fifty  cents  per  square  foot;  all 
other,  twenty-five  cents  per  square  foot.  [Old 
law:  Forty-five  per  centum  and  twenty-five 
per  centum.] 

160.  Cast-iron  pipe  of  every  description,  nine- 
tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound.  [Old  law;  One 
cent  per  pound.] 

161.  Cast-iron  vessels,  plates,  stove-plates, 
andirons,  sad-irons,  tailors'  irons,  hatters'  irons, 
and  castings  of  iron,  not  specially  provided  for  in 
this  act,  one  and  two-tenths  cents  per  pound. 
[Old  law :  One  and  one-fourth  cents  per 
pound.] 

162.  Castings  of  malleable  iron  not  specially 
provided  for  in  this  art,  one  and  three-fourth 
cents  per  pound.  [Old  law;  Two  cents  per 
pound. ) 

163.  Cast  hollow-ware,  coated,  glazed,  or 
tinned,  three  cents  per  pound,  [Old  law:  AH 
hollow-ware,  coated,  glazed,  or  tinned,  three 
cents  per  pound] 

164.  Chain  or  chains  of  all  kinds,  made  of  iron 
or  steel,  not  less  than  three-fourths  of  one  inch  in 
diameter,  one  and  six-tenths  cents  per  pound; 
less  than  three  fourths  of  one  inch  and  not  less 
than  three-eighths  of  one  inch  in  diameter,  one 
and  eight-tenths  cents  per  pound;  less  than  three- 
eighths  of  one  inch  in  diameter,  two  and  one-half 
cents  per  pound,  but  no  chain  or  chains  of  any 
description  shall  pay  a  lower  rate  of  duty  than 
forty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
One  and  three-fourths  cents  per  pound;  two  cents 
per  pound;  two  and  one-half  cents  per  pound] 


165.  Pen-knives  or  pocket-knives  of  all  kinds, 
or  parts  thereof,  and  erasers,  or  parts  thereof, 
wholly  or  partly  manufactured,  valued  at  not 
more  than  fifty  cents  per  dozen,  twelve  cents  per 
dozen;  valuedf at  more  than  fifty  cents  pi  ■ 
and  not  exceeding  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per 
dozen,  fifty  cents  per  dozen;  valued  at  more  than 
one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  dozen  and  not  ex- 
ceeding threei  dollars  per  dozen,  one  dollar  per 
dozen;  valued  at  more  than  three  dollars  per 
dozen,  two)  dollars  per  dozen;  and  in  addition 
thereto  on  alt  the  altove,  fifty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem. Razor*  und  razor  hlades,  finished  or  mi 
finished,  valued  at  less  than  lour  ilollars  per 
dozen,  one  dollai  per  do/en;  valued  at  four  dol- 
lars or  mora  per  dozm,  one  dollar  and  seventy- 
five  cents  per  dOMO;  and  in  addition  thereto  on 
all  the  above  razors  and  razor-blades,  thirty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  J  Old  law;  Pen-knives, 
pocket-knives  of  all  kinds,  md  razors,  fifty  pcr 
centum;  cutlery  not  specially  provided  for, 
thirty-five  per  centum.] 

Bwordtj     sword-blades,    and     side-arms, 
thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

167.  Tan*  lento)    .  forks,  stasia,  and  all  butch- 
era*,  bunting,  kitchen,  lurid,  butter,  vegetable, 

llMit,     Oh  tain,     ptlllllii.  !•■'  .    (., Illltels'       |>al>  1  : 

artists'   knives  nl  all  sixes,  (iiusIh  (I01  unfinished, 
valued!  mi    not   mote  than  ».ne   di 


nm  cents  per  dozen:  valued  at  more  than 
one  dollar  and  not  more  than  tuo  dollar*,  thirty 
five  cents  per  dozen;  valued  at  uu-rr  than  two 
dollars  and  not  more  three  dollars,  forty  cents 
per  dozen;  valued  at  more  than  three  dollars  and 
not  more  than  right  dollars  CMM  dollar  (Krr  dozen, 
valued  al  more  than  . -ight  .1  -Mars  per 

dozen;  and  in  addition  upon  all  the  above  named 
articles,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  All  QBN 
fog  and  cooks  knives  and  forks  of  all  sizes,  fin- 
ished or  unfinished,  value. i  ,,t  not  more  than  four 
dollars  |>er  dozen  pieces,  one  dollar  per  dozen; 
valued  al  more  than  four  dollars  and  not  more 
than  sight  dollars,  two  dollars  per  dozen  pieces; 
valued  al  more  than  eight  dollars  and  not  more 
twelve  dollars,  three  dollars  per  dozen  pieces; 
valued  at  more  than  iw.lw  dollars,  five,  dollars 
per  do/en  pieces;  and  in  addition  upon  all  the 
above  named  articles,  thirty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem. [Old  law;  Cutlery  not  specially  pro- 
vided for,  thirty-five  per  centum.] 

168.  Files,  file-blanks,  rasps  and  floats  of  all 
cuts  and  kinds,  four  inches  in  length  and  under, 
thirty-five  cents  per  dozen;  over  four  inches  in 
length  and  under  nine  inches,  seventy-five  cents 
per  dozen;  nine  inches  in  length  and  under  four- 
teen inches,  one  dollar  and  thirty  cents  per  dozen; 
fourteen  inches  in  length  and  over,  two  dollars 
per  dozen.  [Old  law;  Nine  inches  and  under 
four  inches,  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  dozen; 
fourteen  inches  and  over,  two  dollars  aid  fifty 
cents  per  dozen] 

FIRE-ARMS. 

169.  Muskets  and  sporting  rifles,  twenty  five 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Muskets, 
rifles,  and  other  fire-arms,  not  specially  provided 
for,  twenty-five  per  centum.] 

170.  All  double-barreled,  sporting,  breech-load- 
ing shot-guns  valued  at  not  more  than  six  dollars 
each,  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  each;  valued  at 
more  than  six  dollars  and  not  more  than  twelve 
dollars  each,  four  dollars  each;  valued  at  more 
than  twelve  dollars  each,  six  dollars  each;  and  in 
addition  thereto  on  alt  the  above,  thirty-five  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  Single-barrel,  breech-load- 
ing shot-guns,  one  dollar  each  and  thirty-five  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  Revolving  pistols  valued  at 
not  more  than  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents,  each, 
forty  cents  each;  valued  at  more  than  one  dollar 
and  fifty  cents,  one  dollar  each;  and  in  addi- 
tion thereto  on  all  the  above  pistols,  thirty-five 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Thirty-five 
per  centum.] 

171.  Iron  or  steel  sheets,  plates,  wares,  or  arti- 
cles, enameled  or  glazed  with  vitreous  glasses, 
forty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Notk — Not 
in  old  law.     Rates  various.] 

172.  Iron  or  steel  sheets,  plates,  wares,  or  arti- 
cles, enameled  or  glazed  as  above  with  more  than 
one  color,  or  ornamented,  fifty  per  centum  ad 
valorem.     [Not  in  old  law.     Rates  various.] 

NAILS,  SPIKES,  TACKS   AND  NP.KDt.SS. 

173.  Cut  nails  and  cut  spikes  of  iron  or  steel, 
one  cent  per  pound.  [Old  law:  One  and  one- 
fourth  cents  per  pound.] 

174.  Horseshoe  nails,  hob  nails,  and  all  other 
wrought  iron  or  steel  nails  not  specially  provided 
for  in  this  act,  four  cents  per  pound. 

175.  Wire  nails  made  of  wrought  ir-m  or  steel, 
two  laches  long  and  longer,  not  lighter  than  num- 
ber twelve  wire  gauge,  two  onrta  per  pound;  from 
one  inch  to  two  inches  in  length,  and  lighter  than 
number  twelve  and  not  lighter  than  number  six 
teen  wire  gauge,  two  and  one-half  cents  per 
pound;  shorter  than  one  inch  and  lighter  than 
numl>er  sixteen  wire  gauge,  loin  cents  per  pound. 
[( )ld  law:      Knur  cents  pi  i    pound.) 

176.  Spikes,  nuts  and  washers,  and  horse, 
mule,  or  ox  shoes,  of  wrought  iron  a  steel,  one 
and  eight-tenths  cents  pel  pound.  [<  >ld  law: 
Twocents  ]*?r  pound  1 

177  Cut  tacks,  brads,  or  sprigs,  not  exceeding 
sixteen  ounces  to  toe  thousand,  two  and  one- 
fotUth  cents  per  thousand:  « v  feeding  sixteen 
ounces  to  the  thousand,  two  and  three-fourths 
cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Two  and  one-half 
CODtS  per  pound,  three  cents  per  pound  ] 

178.  Needles  for  knitting  or  sewing  machines, 
crochrt-neadles,  and  tape-needles  anclbodkinv  oj 
metal,  thirty  -fiw*  per  centum  a. I  valotrui.     [Old 


lesj        I  wenty-hve  per  c 
centum.] 

170.  Needle*,  knitting, 
» tally  provided  for  in  this 
turn  ad  valorem. 


centum  and  thirty-five  per 

and  all  others  not  ape- 
act,  twenty-five  per  cea- 


180.  Steel  plates  engraved,  stereotype  plates, 
etntrotype  plates,  and  plates  of  other  mate- 
rials, engraved  or  lithographed,  for  printing, 
twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

181  Railway  fish-plates  or  splice-ban  made 
of  iron  or  steel,  one  cent  per  pound.  [Old  law: 
One  and  one-fourth  cents  per  pound.] 

18a.  Rivets  of  iron  or  steel,  two  and  one-hail 
cents  per  pound. 

183.  Saws:  Cross-cut  saws,  eight  cents  per 
linear  foot;  mil),  pit,  and  drag-saws,  not  over 
nine  inches  wide,  ten  cent*  per  linear  foot; 
over  nine  inches  wide,  fifteen  cents  per  linear 
foot;  circular  saws,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem; 
hand,  hack  and  all  other  saws,  not  especially 
provided  for  in  that  act,  forty  per  fwttrm  ad 
valorem. 

184.  Screws,  commonly  called  wood-screws, 
more  than  two  inches  in  length,  five  cents  per 
pound;  over  one  inch  and  not  more  than  two 
inches  in  length,  seven  cents  per  pound;  over  one- 
half  inch  and  not  more  than  one  inch  in  length, 
ten  cents  per  pound;  one-half  inch  and  less  in 
length,  fourteen  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law: 
Six  cents  per  pound;  eight  cents  per  pound;  tea 
cents  per  pound;   fourteen  cents  per  pound,  re- 


rgrw.  ■ 


■„.  J  heels,  or  parts  thereof,  made  of  iron  or 
steel,  and  steel-tired  wheels  for  railway  purposes, 
whether  wholly  or  partly  finished,  and  iron  or 
steel  locomotive,  car,  or  other  railway  tires  or 
parts  thereof,  wholly  or  partly  manufactured, 
two  and  one-half  cents  per  pound;  and  ingots, 
cogged  ingots,  blooms,  or  blanks  for  the  same, 
without  regard  to  the  degree  of  manufacture,  one 
and  three-fourths  cents  per  pound:  Provided, 
That  when  wheels  or  parts  thereof,  of  iron  or 
steel,  are  imported  with  iron  or  steel  axles  fitted 
in  them,  the  wheels  and  axles  together  shall  be 
dutiable  at  the  same  rate  as  is  provided  for  the 
wheels  when  imported  separately.  [Old  law: 
Steel  wheels  and  steel-tired  wheels  fur  railway 
purposes,  whether  wholly  or  partly  finished,  and 
iron  or  steel  locomotive,  car,  and  other  railway 
tires,  or  parts  thereof,  wholly  or  partly  manu- 
factured, two  and  one-half  of  one  cent  per  pound; 
iron  or  steel  ingots,  cogged  ingots,  blooms,  or 
blanks  for  the  same,  without  regard  to  the  degree 
of  manufacture,  two  cents  per  pound.] 


Miscellaneous-  Metals   and  Manufact- 
ures of. 

186.  Aluminium  or  aluminum.  In  crude  form, 
and  alloys  of  any  kind  in  which  aluminum  is  the 
component  material  of  chief  value,  fifteen  cents 
per  pound.     [Old  law:     Free] 

187.  Antimony,  as  regulus  or  metal,  three- 
fourths  of  one  cent  per  pound. 

188.  Argentine,  albata,  or  German  silver,  un- 
manufactured, twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

189.  Brass,  in  bars  or  pigs,  old  brass,  din- 
pings  from  brass  or  Ihmh  metal. umrV/./*  sheath- 
ing, or  yellow  metal  fit  only  for  remanufacture, 
one  and  one-half  cents  per  m 

190.  Bronxe  powder,  twelve  cents  per  pound: 
bronze  or  I  >utch  metal,  or  aluminum,  in  leaf, 
right  cents  per  packagr  of  one  hundred  leaves 
[Old  law:  Rronxe  Hutch  metal  in  leaf,  ten  per 
centum;  bronze  powder,  fifteen  per  centum.] 


101 .  Copper  imported  in  the  form  of  ores,  one- 
half  of  one  cent  per  pound  on  each  pound  of  fine 
copper  contained  therein.  [Old  taw:  Two  and 
one-half  cents  per  pound.] 

19a.  Old  copper,  fit  only  for  remanufacture, 
clippings  from  new  copper,  and  all  composition 
metal  of  which  copper  m  a  component  material  of 
chief  value,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
»■•  crnt  per  pound  [Old  lav:  Tl 
pound.] 


Three  cents  per 


J^ 


it 

1 


^2 


THK     TAKiKK. 


425 


r 


193.  Rcwuhis  of  copper  ami  black  or  coarse 
copper,  uiul  copper  cement,  one  cent  per  pound  on 
each  pound "!  fine  1  opper  contained  therein.  [Old 
law:    Three  end  om-  iialiYcuts  per  pound.] 

194.  Copper  in  plates,  bars,  ingots,  Chili  or 
others  pfan.  and  in  other  forms  not  manufactured, 
not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  one  and 
one-fourth  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Four 
cents  per  pound.] 

195.  Copper  in  rolled  plates,  called  braziers' 
copper,  sheets,  rods,  pipes,  and  copper  bottoms, 
also  sheathing  or  yellow  metal  of  which  copper 
is  the  component  material  of  chief  value,  and  not 
composed  wholly  or  in  part  of  iron  ungalvanized, 
thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [In  old  law, 
and  omitted:  Sheathing,  or  yellow  metal,  not 
wholly  of  copper,  nor  wholly  nor  in  part  of  iron, 
ungalvani/ed,  in  sheets,  forty-eight  inches  long  and 
fourteen  inches  wide,  and  weighing  from  fourteen 
to  thirty-four  ounces  per  square  foot  thirty-five 
per  centum  ad  valorem;  copper,  when  imported 
for  the  United  States  Mint,  fret-.] 

GOLD    AND   SILVER. 

196.  Bullions  and  metal  thread  of  gold,  silver, 
or  other  metals  not  specially  provided  for  in  this 
act,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Twenty-five  per  centum.] 

197.  Gold-leaf,  two  dollars  per  package  of  five 
hundred  leaves.  [Old  law:  One  dollar  and  fifty 
cents  per  package.] 

198.  Silver  leaf,  seventy-five  cents  ]>er  package 
of  five  hundred  leaves.  [Old  law:  Seventy-five 
cents  per  package.] 


109.  Lead  ore  and  lead  dross,  one  and  one- 
half  cents  per  pound:  Provided,  That  silver  ore 
and  all  other  ores  containing  lead  shall  Pay  a 
duty  0/  one  and  one-half  cents  per  pound  on 
the  lead  contained  therein,  according  to  sample 
and  assay  at  the  port  0/ entry. 

200.  Lead  in  pigs  and  bars,  molten  and  old 
refuse  lead  run  into  blocks  and  bars,  and  old  scrap 
lead  fit  only  to  be  remanufactured,  two  cents  per 
pound. 

201.  Lead  in  sheets,  pipe,  shot,  glaziers'  lead 
and  lead  ivire,  two  and  one-half  cents  per 
pound.     [Old  law:     Three  cents  per  pound.] 

202.  Metallic  mineral  substances  in  a  crude 
state  and  metals  unwrought,  not  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valo- 
rem: mica,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Words  in  italics  new  matter;  old  law:  Mica  and 
mica  waste  free.] 


203.  Nickel,  nickel  oxide,  alloy  of  any  kind  of 
which  nickel  is  the  component  material  of  chief 
value,  ten  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  fifteen 
cents  per  pound.] 

204.  Pens,  metallic,  except  gold  pens,  twelve 
cents  per  gross. 

205.  Pen-holder  tips,  pen-holders,  or  parts 
thereof,  and  gold  pens,  thirty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem. 

206.  Pins,  metallic,  solid-head  or  other,  in- 
cluding hair-pins,  safety-pins,  and  hat,  bon- 
net,  shawl  and  belt  pins,  thirty  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  [Pins  now  are  classified  at  various 
rates.] 

207  Quicksilver,  ten  cents  per  pound.  The 
flasks,  bottles,  or  other  vessels  in  ivhich  quick- 
silver is  imported  shall  be  subject  to  the  same 
rate  of  duty  as  they  would  be  subject  to  if  im- 
ported empty.     [Old  law:     Ten  per  centum.] 

208.  Type-metal,  one  and  one-half  cents  per 
pound  for  the  lead  contained  therein:  new 
types,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old 
law:     lyp* metal,  twenty  per  centum.] 

209.  Tin:  On  and  after  July  first,  eighteen 
hundred  and  ninety-three,  there  shall  be  imposed 
and  paid  upon  cassiterite  or  black  oxide  of  tin, 
and  upon  bar,  block,  and  pig  tin,  a  duty  of  four 
cents  per  pound:  Provided,  That  unless  it  shall  be 
made  to  appear  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  (who  shall  make  known 
the  fact  by  proclamation)  that  the  product  of  the 
mines  of  the  United  States  shall  have  exceeded 
five  thousand  tons  of  cassiterite,  and  bar,  block, 


and  pig  tin  in  any  one  year  prior  to  July  first, 
eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-five,  then  all  imported 
cassiterite,  bar,  block,  and  pig  tin  shall  after  July 
first,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-five,  be  ad- 
mitted free  of  duty.     [Old  law;     Free.] 

WATCHES. 

210.  Chronometer,  box  or  ship's,  and  parts 
thereof,  ten  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

211.  Watches,  parts  of  watches,  watch-cases, 
watch  movements,  and  -watch-glasses,  -whether 
separately  packed  or  otherwise,  twenty-five 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Watch  mate- 
rials also  twenty-five  per  centum.] 

ZINC    Ok   SPELTER. 

212.  Zinc  in  blocks  or  pigs,  one  and  three- 
fourths  cents  per  pound,  [Old  law:  One  and 
one-half  cents  per  pound.] 

213.  Zinc  in  sheets,  two  and  one-half  cents 
per  pound.  [Old  law  contains  the  words  "spelter 
or  tutenegue.  '] 

214.  Zinc,  old  and  worn  out,  fit  only  to  be  re- 
manufactured,  one  and  one-fourth  cents  per 
pound.  [Old  law:  One  and  one-half  cents  per 
pound.] 

215.  Manufactures,  articles,  or  wares,  not 
specially  enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act, 
composed  wholly  or  in  part  of  iron,  steel,  lead, 
copper,  nickel,  pewter,  zinc,  gold,  silver,  plati- 
num, aluminum ,  or  any  other  metal,  and 
whether  partly  or  wholly  manufactured,  forty-five 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law;  Epaulets, 
galloons,  laces,  knots,  stars,  tassels,  and  wings 
of  gold,  silver  or  other  metal,  twenty-five  per  cen- 
tum. Umbrella  and  parasol  ribs,  and  stretcher- 
frames,  tips,  runners,  handles,  or  other  parts 
thereof,  when  made  in  whole  or  chief  parts  of 
iron,  steel,  or  any  other  metal,  forty  per  centum 
ad  valorem;  Brittania  ware,  and  plated  and  gilt 
articles  and  wares  of  all  kinds,  thirty-five  per 
centum. 


Schedule  D.-  -  Wood  and  Manufactures  of. 

216.  Timber,  hewn  and  sawed,  and  timber  used 
for  spars  and  in  building  wharves,  ten  per  centum 
ad  valorem.     [Old  law;     Twenty  per  centum.] 

217.  Timber,  squared  or  sided,  not  specially 
provided  for  in  this  act,  one-half  of  one  cent  per 
cubic  foot.     [Old  law:     One  cent  per  cubic  foot.] 

218.  Sawed  boards,  planks,  deals  and  other 
lumber  of  hemlock,  white  wood,  sycamore,  white 
pine  and  basswood,  one  dollar  per  thousand  feet 
board  measure;  sawed  lumber,  not  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  two  dollars  per  thousand 
feet  board  measure;  but  when  lumber  of  any  sort  is 
planed  or  finished,  in  addition  to  the  rates  herein 
provided,  there  shall  be  levied  and  paid  for  each 
side  so  planed  or  finished  fifty  cents  per  thousand 
feet  board  measure;  and  if  planed  on  one  side, 
and  tongued  and  grooved,  one  dollar  per  thousand 
feet  board  measure;  and  if  planed  on  two  sides, 
and  tongued  and  grooved,  one  dollar  and  fifty 
cents  per  thousand  feet  board  measure;  and  in 
estimating  board  measure  under  this  schedule 
no  deduction  shall  be  made  on  board  measure 
on  account  of  planing,  tongueing  and  grooving: 
Provided,  That  in  case  any  foreign  country 
shall  impose  an  export  duty  upon  pine,  spruce, 
elm  or  other  logs,  or  upon  stave-bolts,  shingle 
wood  or  heading  blocks  exported  to  the  United 
States  from  such  country ,  then  the  duty  upon 
sawed  lumber  herein  provided  for,  •when  im- 
ported from  stick  country,  shall  remain  the 
same  as  fixed  by  the  law  in  force  prior  to  the 
Passage  of  this  act.  [Old  law:  White  pine  two 
dollars  per  thousand  feet.] 

219.  Cedar;  That  on  and  after  March  first, 
eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-one,  paving  posts, 
railroad  ties,  and  telephone  and  telegraph  poles 
of  cedar,  shall  be  dutiable  at  twenty  per  centum 
ad  valorem.     [Old  law:     Free.] 

220.  Sawed  boards,  plank,  deals,  and  all 
forms  of  sawed  cedar,  lignum-vita?,  lancewood^ 
ebony,  box,  granadilla,  mahogany,  rosewood, 
sat  in  wood,  and  all  other  cabinet-woods  not 
further  manufactured  than  sawed,  fifteen  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem;  veneers  of  wood,  and  wood  un- 
manufactured, not  specially  provided  for  in  this 


act,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Two  dollars  per  thousand  feet;  veneers,  thirty-five 
per  centum;  canes  and  sticks  for  walking,  if  un- 
finished, twenty  per  centum.] 

221.  Pine  clapboards,  one  dollar  per  one  thou- 
sand.    [Old  law;     Two  dollars  per  one  thousand.  ] 

222.  Spruce  clapboards,  one  dollar  and  fifty 
cents  per  one  thousand.] 

223.  Hubs  for  wheels,  posts,  last-blocks,  wagon- 
blocks,  oar-blocks,  gun-blocks,  heading-blocks, 
and  all  like  blocks  or  sticks,  rough-hewn  or  sawed 
only,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

224.  Laths,  fifteen  cents  per  one  thousand 
pieces. 

225.  Pickets  and  palings,  ten  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  .^Old  law;     Twenty  per  centum.] 

226.  White  pine  shingles,  twenty  cents  per  one 
thousand;  all  other,  thirty  cents  per  one  thousand. 
[Old  law:     Thirty-five  cents  per  one  thousand] 

227.  Staves  of  wood  of  all  kinds,  ten  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem. 

228.  Casks  and  barrels  (empty),  sugar-box 
shooks,  and  packing-boxes,  and  packing-box 
shooks  of  wood,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this 
act,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

229.  Chair  cane,  or  reeds  wrought  or  manu- 
factured from  rattans  or  reeds,  and  whether 
round,  square,  or  in  any  other  shape,  ten  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Rattans  and  reeds, 
manufactured,  but  not  made  up  into  completed 
articles   ten  per  centum  ad  valorem.] 

230.  House  or  cabinet  furniture  of  wood,  wholly 
or  partly  finished,  manufactures  of  wood,  or  of 
which  wood  is  the  component  material  of  chief 
value,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  thirty- 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law;  House 
or  cabinet  furniture,  in  piecefs]  or  rough,  and  not 
finished,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  Cabi- 
net ware[s]  and  house  furniture,  finished,  thirty- 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  Manufactures  of 
cedar  wood,  granadilla,  ebony,  mahogany,  rose- 
wood, and  satinwood,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  Manufactures  of  wood,  or  of  which 
wood  is  the  chief  component  part,  not  specially 
enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act,  thirty-five 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  Canes  and  sticks  for 
walking,  finished,  thirty-five  per  centum. 


Schedule  E. — Sugar. 

231.  That  on  and  after  July  first,  eighteen  hun- 
dred and  ninety-one,  and  until  July  first,  nineteen 
hundred  and  five,  there  shall  be  paid,  from  any 
moneys  in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appropri- 
ated, under  the  provisions  of  section  three  thou- 
sand six  hundred  and  eighty-nine  of  the  Revised 
Statutes,  to  the  producer  of  sugar  testing  not  less 
than  ninety  degrees  by  the  polariscope,  from 
beets,  sorghum,  or  sugar-cane  grown  within  the 
United  States,  or  from  maple  sap  produced 
within  the  United  States,  a  bounty  of  two  cents 
per  pound;  and  upon  such  sugar  testing  less  than 
ninety  degrees  by  the  polariscope,  and  not  less 
than  eighty  degrees,  a  bounty  of  one  and  three- 
fourths  cents  per  pound,  under  such  rules  and 
regulations  as  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Rev- 
enue, with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  shall  prescribe. 

232.  The  producer  of  said  sugar  to  be  entitled 
to  said  bounty  shall  have  first  filed  prior  to  July 
first  of  each  year  with  the  Commissioner  of  In- 
ternal Revenue  a  notice  of  the  place  of  produc- 
tion, with  a  general  description  of  the  machinery 
and  methods  to  be  employed  by  him,  with  an 
estimate  of  the  amount  of  sugar  proposed  to  be 
produced  in  the  current  or  next  ensuing  year,  in- 
cluding the  number  of  maple  trees  to  he  tapped, 
and  an  application  for  a  license  to  so  produce, 
to  be  accompanied  by  a  bond  in  a  penalty,  and 
with  sureties  to  be  approved  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Internal  Revenue,  conditioned  that  he  will 
faithfully  observe  all  rules  and  regulations  that 
shall  be  prescribed  for  such  manufacture  and  pro- 
duction of  sugar. 

233.  The  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue, 
upon  receiving  the  application  and  bond  herein- 
before provided  for,  shall  issue  to  the  applicant  a 
license  to  produce  sugar  from  sorghum,  beets,  or 
sugar-cane  grown  within  the  United  States,  or 
from  maple  sap  produced  within  the  United  States 
at  the  place  and  with  the  machinery  and  by  the 


# 


^ 


426 


THE     TARIFF. 


7 


methods  described  in  the  application;  but  said 
license  shall  not  extend  beyond  one  year  irom  the 
date  thereof. 

334.  No  bounty  shall  be  paid  to  any  person  en- 
gaged in  refining  sugar*  which  have  been  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  or  produced  in  the 
United  Stales,  upon  which  the  bounty  herein  pro- 
vided for  has  already  been  paid  or  applied  for.  nor 
to  any  person  unless  he  shall  have  first  been 
licensed  as  herein  provided,  and  only  upon  sugar 
produced  by  such  person  from  sorghum,  beets,  or 
sugar-cane  grown  within  the  United  States,  or 
from  maple  sap  produced  within  the  United 
States.  The  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue, 
with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, shall  from  lime  to  time  make  all  needful  rules 
and  regulations  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from 
sorghum,  beets,  or  sugar-cane  grown  within  the 
United  States,  or  from  maple  sap  produced  within 
the  United  States,  and  shall,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  exercise  supervision 
and  inspection  of  the  manufacture  thereof. 

335  And  for  the  payment  of  these  bounties  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  authorized  to  draw 
warrants  on  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States 
for  such  sums  as  shall  be  necessary,  which  sum 
shall  be  certified  to  him  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Internal  Revenue,  by  whom  the  bounties  shall  be 
disbursed,  and  no  bounty  shall  be  allowed  or  paid 
to  any  person  licensed  as  aforesaid  in  any  one 
year  upon  any  quantity  of  sugar  less  than  five 
hundred  pounds. 

336.  That  any  person  who  shall  knowingly  re- 
fine or  aid  in  the  refining  of  sugar  imported  into 
the  United  States  or  upon  which  the  bounty 
herein  provided  for  has  already  been  paid  or  ap- 
plied for,  at  the  place  described  in  the  license 
issued  by  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue, 
and  any  person  not  entitled  to  the  bounty  herein 
provided  for,  who  shall  apply  for  or  receive  the 
same,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and, 
upon  conviction  thereof,  shall  pay  a  fine  not  ex- 
ceeding five  thousand  dollars,  or  be  imprisoned 
for  a  period  not  exceeding  five  years,  or  both,  in 
the  discretion  of  the  court.  [Note. — All  the 
foregoing  of  this  schedule  is  new  legislation.] 

337.  All  sugars  above  number  sixteen  Dutch 
standard  in  color  shall  pay  a  duty  of  five-tenths 
of  one  cent  per  pound:  Provided,  That  all  such 
sugars  above  sixteen  Dutch  standard  in  color 
shall  pay  one-tenth  of  one  cent  per  pound  in  addi- 
tion to  the  rate  herein  provided  for,  when  ex- 
ported from  or  the  product  of  any  country  when 
and  so  long  as  such  country  pays,  or  shall  here- 
after pay,  directly  or  indirectly,  a  bounty  on  the 
exportation  of  any  sugar  that  may  be  included  in 
this  grade  which  is  greater  than  is  paid  on  raw 
sugars  of  a  lower  saccharine  strength;  and  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  shall  prescribe  suitable 
rules  and  regulations  to  carry  this  provision  into 
effect:  And  provided  further,  That  all  ma- 
chinery purchased  abroad  and  erected  in  a  beet- 
sugar  factory  and  used  in  the  production  of  raw 
sugar  in  the  United  States  from  beets  produced 
therein  shall  be  admitted  duty  free  until  the  first 
day  of  July,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-two: 
Provided,  That  any  duty  collected  on  any  of  the 
above  described  machinery  purchased  abroad  and 
imported  into  the  United  States  for  the  uses 
above  indicated  since  January  first,  eighteen  hun- 
dred and  ninety,  shall  be  refunded.  [Old  law: 
sixteen  to  twenty  Dutch  standard,  three  cents 
per  pound;  above  twenty,  three  and  fifty-one  hun- 
dredths cents  per  pound.  Beet  sugar  machinery 
dutiable  at  forty-five  per  centum.] 

318.  Sugar  candy  and  all  confectionery ,  in- 
cluding chocolate  confectionery,  made  wholly  or 
in  part  of  sugar,  valued  at  twelve  cents  or  less 
per  pound,  and  on  sugars  after  being  refined, 
when  tinctured,  colored,  or  in  any  way  adulter- 
ated, five  cents  per  pound. 

339.  All  other  confectionery,  including  choco- 
late confectionery,  not  specially  provided  for  in 
this  act,  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law 
for  paragraphs  338  and  339:  Sugar  randy,  not 
colored,  five  cents  per  pound  All  other  con- 
fectionery, not  specially  enumerated  or  provided 
for  in  this  act,  made  wholly  or  in  part  of  sugar, 
and  of  sugars  after  being  refined,  when  nurtured, 
colored,  or  in  any  way  adulterated  valued  at 
thirty  cents  per  pound  or  less,  ten  cents  per 
pound.  Conm  tlooAry  valued  above  thirty  cents 
prr  jK'iiml,  or  when  sold  by  the  box,  package,  or 


otherwise  than  by  the  pound,  fifty  per  centum  ad 
valorem] 

340.  Glucose  or  grape  sugar,  three-fourths  of 
one  cent  per  pound.  [Old  law;  Glucose,  twenty- 
per  centum.] 

341.  That  the  provisions  of- this  act  providing 
terms  for  the  admission  of  imported  sugars  and 
molasses  and  for  the  payment  of  a  bounty  on 
sugars  of  domestic  production  shall  take  effect 
on  the  first  day  of  April,  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety-one:  Provided,  That  on  and  after  the 
first  d;iy  of  March,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety- 
one,  and  prior  to  the  first  day  of  April,  eighteen 
hundred  and  ninety-one,  sugars  not  exceeding 
number  sixteen  I  >utch  standard  in  color  may  be 
refined  in  bond  without  payment  of  duty,  and 
such  refined  sugars  may  be  transported  in  bond 
and  stored  in  bonded  warehouse  at  such  points  of 
destination  as  are  provided  in  existing  laws  re- 
lating to  the  immediate  transportation  of  dutiable 
goods  in  bond,  under  such  rules  and  regulations 
as  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.     [Note— All  new  matter] 


Schedule  F. — Tobacco   and  Manufact- 
ures   of. 

342.  Leaf  tobacco  suitable  for  cigar-wrappers, 
if  not  stemmed,  two  dollars  per  pound;  if 
stemmed,  two  dollars  and  seventy-five  cents  per 
pound:  Provided,  That  if  any  portion  of  any  to- 
bacco imported  in  any  bale,  box,  or  package,  or 
in  bulk  shall  be  suitable  for  cigar-wrappers,  the 
entire  quantity  of  tobacco  contained  in  such  bale, 
box  or  package,  or  bulk,  shall  be  dutiable,  if  not 
stemmed, at  two  dollars,per  pound;  if  stemmed,  at 
two  dollars  and  seventy-five  cents  per  pound. 
[Old  law:  Leaf  tobacco,  of  which  eighty-five  per 
centum  is  of  the  requisite  size  and  of  the  neces- 
sary fineness  of  texture  to  be  suitable  for  wrap- 
pers, and  of  which  more  than  one  hundred  leaves 
are  required  to  weigh  a  pound,  if  not  stemmed, 
seventy-five  cents  per  pound;  if  stemmed,  one 
dollar  per  pound.] 

243.  All  other  tobacco  in  leaf,  unmanufactured 
and  not  stemmed,  thirty-five  cents  per  pound:  if 
stemmed,  fifty  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law: 
Stemmed,  forty  cents  per  pound] 

244.  Tobacco,  manufactured,  of  all  descriptions, 
not  specially  enumerated  or  provided  fur  in  this 
act,  forty  cents  per  pound. 

345.  Snuff  and  snuff  flour,  manufactured  of  to- 
bacco, ground  dry,  or  damp,  and  pickled, 
scented,  or  otherwise,  of  all  descriptions,  fifty 
cent?  per  pound. 

346.  Cigars,  cigarettes,  and  cheroots  of  all 
kinds,  four  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  pound  and 
twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem;  and  paper 
cigars  and  cigarettes,  including  wrappers,  shall 
be  subject  to  the  same  duties  as  are  herein  im- 
posed upon  cigars.  [Old  law:  Two  dollars  and 
fifty  cents  per  pound  and  twenty-five  per  centum  ] 


Schedule     G. — Agricultural     Products 
and  Provisions. 

ANIMALS,    LIVE. 

347.  Horses  and  mules,  thirty  dollars  per  head: 
Provided,  That  horses  valued  at  one  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars  and  over  shall  pay  a  duty  of 
thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

248.  Cattle,  more  than  one  year  otd,  ten  dol'ars 
per  head;  one  year  old  or  less,  two  dollars  per 
head. 

349.  Hogs,  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  head. 

350.  Sheep,  one  ysar  old  or  more,  one  dollar 
and  tidy  rem*  per  head;  less  than  one  year  old, 
seventy-five  cents  per  head. 

351.  All  othrr  live  animals,  not  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valo- 
rem. [Old  law,  covering  paragraphs  23510239: 
Animals,  liw.  IwnutJ  per  centum  ] 

BKEADSTUPPS     AND     FARINACFni/S    StTKSTANCBS. 

252.  Barley,  thinv  <  rut-,  per  bushel  of  forty- 
eight  pounds     [Old  law:    laaottti  pit  bushel  ] 

253.  Barley  mutt,  forty  five  cent*  per  bushel  of 
thirty  lour  pound*.  [ow  law:  TwtM]  > -ems  per 
bushel.  I 


254.  Barley,  pearled,  patent  or  hulled,  two 
cents  per  pound.  [Old  law;  One-half  cent  per 
pound.  1 

355.  Buckwheat,   fifteen   cents    per   bushel    of 


forty-eight    pounds.     [Old  law:     Ln 
ten  per  centum.) 

256.  Corn  or  maize,  fifteen  cents  per  bushel  of 
fifty -six    pounds.      [Old    law:      Ten    cents    per 


bushel.  1 

257.  Corn-meal,  twenty  cents  oer  bushel  of 
forty-eight  pounds.  [Old  law:  Ten  cents  per 
bushel  T 

258.  Macaroni,  vermicelli,  and  all  similar  prep- 
arations, two  cents  per  pound.     [Otd  law:     Free.] 

359.  Oats,  fifteen  cents  per  bushel.  [Old  law: 
Ten  cents  per  bushel] 

360.  Oatmeal,  one  cent  per  pound.  [Old  law: 
One-half  cent  per  pound.] 

361.  Rice,  cleaned,  two  cents  per  pound;  un- 
cleancd  rice,  one  and  one-quarter  cents  per  pound; 
paddy,  three-quarters  of  one  cent  per  pound;  rice- 
flour,  rice-meal  and  rice  broken,  which  will  p— 
through  a  sieve  known  commercially  as  1 
twelve  wire  sieve,  one-fourth  of  one  cent  per 
pound.  [Old  law:  Cleaned,  two  and  one-quarter 
cents  per  pound:  uncleaned,  one  and  one-halt 
cents  per  pound;  paddy,  one  and  one-quarter 
cents  per  pound;  rice-flour,  rice-meal,  twenty  per 
cemum.j 

362.  Rye,  ten  cents  per  bushel. 

363.  Rye-flour,  one-naif  of  one  cent  per  pound. 

364.  Wheat,  twenty-fire  cents  per  bushel. 
[Old  law:     Twenty  cents  per  bushel  ] 

365.  Wheat-flour,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad 
valorem.     [Old  law:     Twenty  per  centum] 

dairy  nam 


266.   Butter,  and  substitutes  therefor,  aix  *-*.» 
per  pound.     [Old  law:     Four  cents  per  pound.] 

367.  Cheese,  six  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law: 
Four  cents  per  pound.] 

268.  Milk,  fresh,  five  cents  per  gallon.  [Old 
law:     Ten  per  centum  (unenumerated).  J 

260.  Milk,  preserved  or  condensed,  including 
weight  of  packages,  three  cents  per  pound:  sugar 
of  milk,  eight  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Milk, 
condensed,  twenty  per  centum;  milk,  sugar  of, 
free.] 

FARM    AND   FIELD    FRODt'CTS. 

270.  Beans,  forty  cents  per  bushel  of  sixty 
pounds .  [Old  law:  Uncnumerated ,  ten  per 
centumj 

271.  Beans,  peas,  and  mushrooms,  prepared  or 
preserved,  in  tins,  jars,  bottles  or  otherwise,  forty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Vegetables, 
prepared  or  preserved,  of  all  kinds  not  otherwise 
provided  for,  thirty  per  centum] 

273.  Broom-corn,  eight  dollars  per  ton.     [Old 


law:     Ten  per  centum  (unenumerated)  J 

273.  Cabbages,  three    cents  each.     [Ol 
Ten  per  centum  {unenumcrated V] 


^74.  Cider,  five  cents  per  gallon.  [Old  law; 
Twenty  per  centum  (unenumerated).] 

275.  Eggs,  five  cents  per  do/en.  [Old  law: 
Free.] 

276.  Eggs, yelk  of,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  [Old  law:  Unenumerated,  twenty  per 
centum] 

377.  Hay,  four  dollars  per  ton.  [Old  law: 
Two  dollars  per  ton.  ] 

278.  Honey, twenty  cents  per  gallon. 

279.  Hops,  fifteen  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law: 
BhnM  > -rnts  pm  1 

380.  Onions,  forty  cents  per  bushel.  [Old  law  : 
Ten  per  centum  (tim-numcrated).] 

381.  Peas,    green,  in   bulk  or  in  barrel v 

or  similar  packages,  forty  cents  per  bushel  of 
sixty  pounds;  peas,  dried,  twenty  cents  per 
bushel;  split  peas,  fifty  cents  per  bushel  of  sixty 
pounds:  peas  in  cartoons,  papers,  or  other  small 
packages,  one  cent  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Veg- 
11  natural  state,  ten  per  centum;  put  peas, 
twenty  twr  MM)  '  'Hum.  j 

282.   Plants,  trees,  shrubs-  i  kinds, 

rnmmnnly  known  .is  nursery  rack,  hoi  specially 
provided  for  in  this  a<  t ,  t«rnt>  \*-t  centum  ad 
valorem  [Old  law:  Plant-.,  ure*.  shrubs  and 
vines  of  all  kind*,  not  otherwise  pro  \  » led  lor,  and 
'  a]|  kinds,  exrept  ni<-th<  m.d  seeds  not 
■pacmlry  enumerated  Of  provided  t.  1  <n  this  act, 
her   I 


V— 


\ 


& 


A 


Kr 


THE     TARIFF. 


4*7 


U- 


[83.  Potatoes,  twenty-five  cents  per  bushel  ot 
ty    pounds.      [Old    law:      Fifteen    cents    per 


sixt, 
bushel 


284.  Castor  beans  or  seeds,  fifty  cents  per  bushel 
of  fifty  pounds. 

285.  Flaxseed  or  linseed,  Poppy  seed  and  other 
oil  seeds,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
thirty  cents  per  bushel  of  fifty -six  pounds;  but  no 
drawback  shall  be  allowed  on  oil-cake  made  from 
imported  seed.  [Old  law:  Twenty  cents  per 
bushel.] 

286.  Garden  seeds,  agricultural  seeds,  and 
other  seeds  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
twenty  per  centum  au  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Garden  seeds,  twenty  per  centum,  and  most  other 
seeds  free.] 

287.  Vegetables  of  all  kinds,  prepared  or  pre- 
served, including  pickles  and  sauces  of  all 
kinds,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
forty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Vegetables  of  all  kinds,  thirty  per  centum;  pickles 
and  sauces,  and  so  forth,  thirty-five  per  centum; 
vegetables  in  salt  or  brine,  ten  per  centum.] 

288.  Vegetables  in  their  natural  state,  not 
specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  twenty-five  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Vegetables  in 
their  natural  state  or  in  salt  or  brine,  ten  per 
centum.] 

289.  Straw,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law:  Unmanufactured  free.] 

290.  Teazles,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law:     Free.] 


291.  Anchovies  and  sardines,  packed  in  oil  or 
otherwise,  in  tin  boxes  measuring  not  more  than 
five  inches  long,  four  inches  wide,  and  three  and 
one-half  inches  deep,  ten  cents  per  whole  box;  in 
half-boxes,  measuring  not  more  than  five  inches 
long,  four  inches  wide,  and  one  and  five-eighths 
inches  deep,  five  cents  each;  in  quarter  boxes 
measuring  not  more  than  four  and  three-fourths 
inches  long,  three  and  one-half  inches  wide,  and 
one  and  one-fourth  inches  deep,  two  and  one-half 
cents  each;  when  imported  in  any  other  form, 
forty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

202.  Fish,  pickled,  in  barrels  or  half  barrels, 
and  mackerel  or  salmon,  pickled  or  salted,  one 
cent  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Mackerel,  one  cent 
per  pound;  salmon  pickled,  one  cent  per  pound; 
Other  fish  pickled  or  salted,  one  cent  per  pound.] 

293.  Fish, smoked,  dried,  salted  ,pickled,  frozen, 
packed  in  ice,  or  otherwise  prepared  for  preserva- 
tion, and  fresh  fish,  not  specially  provided  for  in 
this  act,  three-fourths  of  one  cent  per  pound.  [Old 
law:  Foreign -caught  fish  imported  otherwise 
than  in  barrels  or  half  barrels,  whether  fresh, 
smoked,  dried,  salted,  or  pickled,  not  specially 
enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act,  fifty  cents 
per  hundred  pounds.] 

294.  Herrings,  pickled  or  salted,  one-half  of  one 
cent  per  pound;  herrings,  fresh,  one-fourth  of  one 
cent  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Herrings,  fresh,  fifty 
cents  per  hundred  pounds.] 

295.  Fish  in  cans  or  packages  made  of  tin  or 
other  material,  except  anchovies  and  sardines  and 
fish  packed  in  any  other  manner,  not  specially 
enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act,  thirty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Fish  preserved 
in  oil,  except  anchovies  and  sardines,  thirty  per 
centum.  Old  law:  Salmon  and  all  other  fish 
prepared  or  preserved  not  otherwise  provided  for, 
twenty-five  per  centum.] 

296.  Cans  or  packages  made  of  tin  or  other 
metal,  containing  shell  fish  admitted  free  of  duty, 
not  exceeding  one  quart  in  contents,  shall  be  sub- 
ject to  a  duty  of  eight  cents  per  dozen  cans  or 
packages;  and  when  exceeding  one  quart,  shall  be 
subject  to  an  additional  duty  of  four  cents  per 
dozen  for  each  additional  half  quart  or  fractional 
part  thereof:  Provided,  That  until  June  thirtieth, 
eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-one,  such  cans  or 
packages  shall  be  admitted  as  now  provided  by 
law.  [Old  law:  Cans  or  packages  made  ot  tin 
or  other  material  containing  fish  of  any  kind  ad- 
mitted free  ol  duty  under  any  existing  law  or 
treaty,  not  exceeding  one  quart  in  contents,  shall 
be  subject  to  a  duty  of  one  cent  and  a  half  on 
each  can  or  package;  and  when  exceeding  one 
quart,  shall  be  subject  to  an  additional  duty  of 


one  cent  and  a  half  for  each  additional  quart  or 
fractional  part  thereof.] 

FRUITS  AND    NUTS. 

297.  Apples,  green  or  ripe,  twenty-five  cents 
per  bushel.     [Old  law:     Free.unenumerated.l 

298.  Apples,  dried,  dessiccated,  evaporated,  or 
prepared  in  any  manner,  and  not  otherwise  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  two  cents  per  pound.  [Old 
law:  Thirty-five  per  centum  or  free,  unenum- 
erated.]  , 

299.  Grapes,  sixty  cents  per  barrel  of  three 
cubic    feet   capacity    or  fractional    part   thereof; 

Fjlums,  and  prunes,  two  cents  per  pound.  [Old 
aw:  Preserved  prunes,  one  cent  per  pound; 
grapes,  twenty  per  centum.] 

300.  Figs,  two  and  one-half  cents  per  pound. 
[Old  law:     Two  cents  per  pound.] 

301.  Oranges,  lemons,  and  limes,  in  packages 
of  capacity  of  one  and  one-fourth  cubic  feet  or 
less,  thirteen  cents  per  package;  in  packages  of 
capacity  exceeding  one  and  one-fourth,  cubic  feet 
and  not  exceeding  two  and  one-half  cubic  feet, 
twenty-five  cents  per  package;  in  packages  of 
capacity  exceeding  two  and  one-half  cubic  feet 
and  not  exceeding  five  cubic  feet,  fifty  cents  per 
package,  in  packages  of  capacity  exceeding  five 
cubic  feet,  for  every  additional  cubic  foot  or  frac- 
tional part  thereof,  ten  cents;  in  bulk,  one  dollar 
and  fifty  cents  per  one  thousand;  and  in  addition 
thereto  a  duty  of  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem 
upon  the  boxes  or  barrels  containing  such  oranges, 
lemons,  or  limes.  [Old  law:  Oranges,  in  boxes 
of  capacity  not  exceeding  two  and  one-half  cubic 
feet,  twenty-five  cents  per  box;  in  one-half  boxes, 
capacity  not  exceeding  one  and  one-fourth  cubic 
feet,  thirteen  cents  per  [half  box;  in  bulk,  one  dol- 
lar and  sixty  cents  per  thousand;  in  barrels,  ca- 
pacity not  exceeding  that  of  the  one  hundred  and 
ninety-six  pounds  flour  barrel,  fifty-five  cents  per 
barrel.  Lemons,  in  boxes  of  capacity  not  ex- 
ceeding two  and  one-half  cubic  feet,  thirty  cents 
per  box;  in  one-half  boxes,  capacity  not  exceeding 
one  and  one-fourth  cubic  feet,  sixteen  cents  per 
half  box;  in  bulk,  two  dollars  per  thousand.  Lem- 
ons and  oranges,  in  packages,  not  specially 
enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act,  twenty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  Limes,  twenty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.] 

302.  Raisens,two  and  one-half  cents  per  pound. 
Id  law:     Two  cents  per  pound.] 

303.  Comfits,  sweetmeats,  and  fruits  preserved 
in  sugar,  sirup,  molasses,  or  spirits  not  specially 
provided  for  in  this  act,  and  jellies  of  all  kinds, 
thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

304.  Fruits  preserved  in  their  own  juices,  thirty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Twenty  per 
centum.] 

305.  Orange  peel  and  lemon  peel,  preserved  or 
candied,  two  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Thirty- 
five  per  centum,  j 

306.  Almonds,  not  shelled,  five  cents  per  pound; 
clear  almonds,  shelled,  seven  and  one-half  cents 
per  pound. 

307.  Filberts  and  walnuts  of  all  kinds,  not 
shelled,  three  cents  per  pound;  shelled,  six  cents 
per  pound.  [Old  law:  Shelled,  three  cents  per 
pound.] 

308.  Peanuts  or  ground  beans  unshelled,  one 
cent  per  pound;  shelled,  one  and  one-half  cents 
per  pound.  [Old  law:  Shelled,  one  cent  per 
pound. 

309.  Nuts  of  all  kinds,  sbelled  or  unshelled,  not 
specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  one  and  one- 
half  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Two  cents  per 
pound.] 

MEAT   PRODUCTS. 

310.  Bacon  and  hams,  five  cents  per  pound. 
[Old  law:     Two  cents  per  pound.] 

311.  Beef,  mutton,  and  pork,  two  cents  per 
pound.  [Old  law:  One  cent  per  pound;  mutton 
(unenumerated),  ten  per  centum.] 

312.  Meats  of  all  kinds,  prepared  or  preserved, 
not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  twenty-five 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Prepared 
meats  of  all  kinds,  not  specially  provided  for, 
twenty-five  per  centum. 

313.  Extract  of  meat,  all  not  specially  provided 
for  in  this  act,  thirty-five  cents  per  pound;  fluid 
extract  of  meat,  fifteen  cents  per  pound;  and  no 
separate  or  additional  duty  shall  be  collected  on 


[did 


such  coverings  unless  as  such  they  are  suitable  and 
apparently  designed  for  use  other  than  in  the  im- 
portation of  meat  extracts.  [Old  law,  text:  Ex- 
tract of  meat,  twenty  per  centum.] 

314.  Lard,  two  cents  per  pound. 

315.  Poultry,  live,  three  cents  per  pound; 
dressed,  five  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Poul- 
try, dressed  (unenumerated),  ten  per  centum.] 

316.  Tallow,  one  cent  per  pound;  wool grease , 
including  that  knoiuft  commercially  as  degras 
or  brown  wool  grease ,  one-half  of  one  cent  per 
pound.  [Old  law:  Degras  (unenumeratedj,  ten 
per  centum.] 

MISCELLANEOUS    PRODUCTS. 

317.  Chicory-root,  burnt  or  roasted,  ground  or 
granulated,  or  in  rolls,  or  otherwise  prepared,  and 
not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  two  cents 
per  pound.  [Old  law:  Chicory-root,  ground  or 
unground,  "burnt  or  prepared,  two  cents  per 
pound.     Change  of  text.] 

318.  Chocolate  {other  than  chocolate  confec- 
tionery and  chocolate  commercially  known  as 
sweetened  chocolate),  two  cents  per  pound. 

319.  Cocoa  prepared  or  manufactured,  not  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  act,  two  cents  per 
pound. 

320.  Cocoa-butter,  or  cocoa-butterine,  three 
and  one-half  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Not 
enumerated,  twenty-five  per  centum.] 

321.  Dandelion  root  and  acorns  prepared,  and 
other  articles  used  as  coffee,  or  as  substitutes  for 
coffee,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  one 
and  one-half  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Acorns, 
and  dandelion  root,  raw  or  prepared,  and  all 
other  articles  used  or  intended  to  be  used  as 
coffee,  or  as  substitutes  therefor,  not  specially 
enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act,  two  cents 
per  pound.] 


322.  Salt  in  bags,  sacks,  barrels,  or  other  pack- 
ages, twelve  cents  per  one  hundred  pounds;  in 
bulk,  eight  cents  per  one  hundred  pounds:  Pro- 
vided, That  imported  salt  in  bond  may  be  used 
in  curing  fish  taken  by  vessels  licensed  to  en- 
gage in  the  fisheries,  and  in  curing  fish  on  the 
shores  of  the  navigable  waters  01  the  United 
States,  under  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  shall  prescribe;  and  upon  proof 
that  the  salt  has  been  used  for  either  of  the  pur- 
poses stated  in  this  proviso,  the  duties  on  the 
same  shall  be  remitted:  Provided  further ,  That 
exporters  of  meats,  whether  packed  or  smoked, 
which  have  been  cured  in  the  United  States  with 
imported  salt, shall,  upon  satisfactory  proof,  under 
such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
shall  prescribe,  that  such  meats  have  been  cured 
with  imported  salt, have  refunded  to  them  from 
the  Treasury  the  duties  paid  on  the  salt  so  used 
in  curing  such  exported  meats,  in  amounts  not 
less  than  one  hundred  dollars. 

323.  Starch,  including  all  preparations,  from 
whatever  substance  produced,  fit  for  use  as  starch, 
two  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Potato  or  corn 
starch,  two  cents  per  pound;  rice  starch,  two  and 
a  half  cents  per  pound;  other  starch,  two  and  a 
half  cents  per  pound.     Root  flour  free.] 

324.  Dextrine,  burnt  starch,  gum  substitute,  or 
British  gum,  one  and  one-half  cents  per  pound. 
[Old  law:     One  cent  per  pound.] 

325.  Mustard,  ground  or  preserved,  in  bottles 
or  otherwise,  ten  cents  per  pound. 

326.  Spices,  ground  or  powdered,  not  specially 
provided  for  in  this  act,  four  cents  per  pound, 
cayenne  pepper,  two  and  one-half  cents  per 
pound,  unground;  sage,  three  cents  per  pound. 
[Old  law:  Spices,  five  cents  per  pound.  Old 
law:  Sage  not  enumerated  but  free  by  Treasury 
ruling  when  unground.] 

327.  Vinegar, seven  and  one-half  cents  per  gallon. 
The  standard  for  vinegar  shall  be  taken  to  be  that 
strength  which  requires  thirty-five  grains  of  bi- 
carbonate of  potash  to  neutralize  one  ounce  troy 
of  vinegar.  [Omitted  from  new  law,  "and  all 
import  duties  that  may  by  law  be  imposed  on 
vinegar  imported  from  foreign  countries  shall  be 
collected  according  to  this  standard."] 

328.  There  shall  be  allowed  on  the  imported 
tin-plate  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cans,  boxes, 
packages,  and  all  articles  of  tinware  exported, 
either  empty  or  filled  with  domestic  products,  a 


,*£.£— 


4iv- 


"V 


4*8 


THK     TARIFF. 


V 


;£, 


drawback  equal  to  the  duty  paid  on  such  tin- 
plate,  Irs*  one  per  centum  of  such  duty,  which 
shall  be  retained  for  the  use  of  the  United  States. 


Schedule  H. — Spirits,  Wines,  and  Other 
Beyer ages 


320.  Brandy  and  other  spirits  manufactured  or 
distilled  from  grain  or  other  materials  and  not 
specially  provided  for  in  this  act.  two  dollars  and 
fifty  cents  per  proof  gallon.  [Old  law:  Two 
dollars  ixr  gallon.] 

330.  Kach  and  every  gauge  or  wine  gallon  of 
measurement  shall  be  counted  as  at  least  one 
proof  gallon;  and  the  standard  for  determining  the 
proof  of  brandy  and  other  spirits  or  liquors  ofany 
Rind  imported  sliall  be  the  same  as  that  which  is 
defined  in  the  laws  relating  to  internal  revenue;  but 
any  brandy  or  other  spirituous  liquors,  imported 
in  casks  of  less  capacity  than  fourteen  gallons, 
shall  be  forfeited  to  the  United  States:  Pro- 
vided,  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  in  his  discretion,  to  authorize 
the  ascertainment  of  the  proof  of  wines,  cor~ 
dials,  or  other  liquors  by  distillation  or  other- 
wise,  in  case  where  it  is  impracticable  to  ascer- 
tain such  proof  by  the  means  prescribed  by  ex- 
isting law  or  regulations, 

331.  On  all  compounds  or  preparations  of  which 
distilled  spirits  are  a  component  part  of  chief 
value  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  there 
shall  be  levied  a  duty  not  less  than  that  imposed 
Hpon  distilled  spirits. 

332.  Cordials,  liquors,  arrack,  absinthe,  kirsch- 
wasser,  ratafia,  and  other  spirituous  beverages  or 
bitters  of  all  kinds  containing  spirits,  and  not 
specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  two  dollars  and 
fifty  cents  per  proof  gallon.  [Old  law:  Two 
dollars  per  gallon.] 

333.  No  lower  rate  or  amount  of  duty  shall  be 
levied,  collected,  and  paid  on  brandy,  spirits,  and 
other  spirituous  beverages  than  that  fixed  by  law 
for  the  description  of  first  proof;  but  it  shall  be  in- 
creased in  proportion  for  any  greater  strength 
than  the  strength  of  first  proof1,  and  all  imitations 
of  brandy  or  spirits  or  wines  imported  by  any 
names  whatever  shall  be  subject  to  the  highest 
rate  of  duty  provided  for  the  genuine  articles  re- 
spectively intended  to  be  represented,  and  in  no 
case  less  than  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  gal- 
lon. [Old  law:  One  dollar  per  gallon.  Old  law: 
Distilled  spirits,  containing  fifty  per  centum  of 
anhydrous  alcohol,  one  dollar  per  gallon.  Alco- 
hol, containing  ninety-four  per  cent,  anhydrous 
alcohol,  two  dollars  per  gallon.] 

334.  Bay  rum  or  bay  water,  whether  distilled 
or  compounded,  of  first  proof,  and  in  proportion 
for  any  greater  strength  than  first  proof,  one  dol- 
lar and  fifty  cents  per  gallon.  [Old  law:  One 
dollar  per  gallon.] 


335.  Champagne  and  all  other  sparkling  wines, 
in   bottles   containing  each   not    more  than   one 

auart  and  more  than  one  pint,  eight  dollars  per 
oxen;  containing  not  more  than  one  pint  each  and 
more  than  one-half  pint,  four  dollars  per  dozen;  con- 
taining one-half  pint  each  or  less,  two  dollars  per 
dozen;  in  bottles  or  other  vessels  containing  more 
than  one  quart  each,  in  addition  to  ei^ht  dollars 
per  dozen  bottles,  on  the  quantity  in  excess  of  one 
quart,  at  the  rate  of  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per 
jallon.  [Old  law:  Seven  dollars,  three  dollars  and 
ifty  cents,  and  one  dollar  and  seventy-five  cents  in 
bottles,  and  two  dollars  and  twenty-five  cents  per 
gallon.] 

336.  Still  wines,  including  ginger  win*  or 
ginger  1  mdia i  and  \cnuuth,  m  casks,  fifty  cents 
per  gallon;  in  bottles  or  jugs,  per  case  of  one 
dozen  bottles  or  jugs,  containing  each  not  more 
than  one  quart  and  mote  than  one  pint,  or  twen- 
ty tour  Ixjttles  or  jugs  containing  each  not  more 
than  one  pint,  one  dollar  and  sixty  OMUl  per  case; 
and  any  excess  beyond  these  quantities  found  in 
such  bottles  or  jugs  shall  lie  subject  to  ft  duty  of 
five  cents  per  pint  or  1  factional  part  thereof,  but 
no  separate  or  additional  duty  shall  be  assessed 
on  the  bottles  or  jugs:    Proxnded,  That    any 


I 


wines,  ginger  cordial  or  vermuth  imported  con- 
taining more  than  twenty-four  per  centum  of  alco- 
hol shall  be  forfeited  to  the  United  States:  And 
provided  further,  That  there  shall  be  no  con- 
structive or  other  allowance  for  breakage,  leak- 
age, or  damage  on  wines,  liquors,  cordials  or  dis- 
tilled spirits.  Wines,  cordials,  brandy,  and 
other  spirituous  liquors  imported  in  bottles  or 
jugs  shall  be  packed  in  packages  containing  not 
less  than  one  dozen  bottles  or  jugs  in  each  pack- 
age; and  all  such  bottles  or  jugs  shall  pay  an  ad- 
ditional duty  of  three  cents  for  each  bottle  or  jug 
unless  specially  pro^rided for  in  this  act. 

337.  Ale,  porter,  and  beer,  in  bottles  or  jugs, 
forty  cents  per  gallon,  but  no  separate  or  addi- 
tional duty  shall  be  assessed  on  the  bottles  or 
jugs;  otherwise  than  in  bottles  or  jugs,  twenty 
cents  per  gallon.  [Old  law:  Thirty-five  cents  per 
gallon;  twenty  cents  per  gallon.  Note. — The 
words  of  limitation,  "glass  stone  or  earthenware," 
omitted  from  the  new  law. ] 

338.  Malt  extract,  fluid,  in  casks,  twenty  cents 
per  gallon;  in  bottles  or  jugs,  forty  cents  per  gal- 
lon; solid  or  condensed,  forty  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  [Old  law:  Same  as  ale,  beer,  and 
porter,  unless  proprietary,  which  was  fifty  per 
centum.] 

339.  Cherry  juice  and  prune  juice,  or  prune 
wine,  and  other  fruit  juice,  not  specially  provided 
for  in  this  act,  containing  not  more  than  eighteen 
per  centum  of  alcohol,  sixty  cents  per  gallon;  if 
containing  more  than  eighteen  per  centum  of 
alcohol,  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  proof 
gallon.  [Old  law:  Cherry  juice,  twenty  per 
centum;  prune  juice,  unenumcrated,  twenty  per 
centum.] 

340.  Ginger  ale,  ginger  beer,  lemonade,  soda- 
water,  and  other  similar  waters  in  plain  green  or 
colored,  molded  or  pressed  glass  bottles,  contain- 
ing each  not  more  than  three-fourths  of  a  pint, 
thirteen  cents  per  dozen;  containing  more  than 
three-fourths  of  a  pint  each  and  not  more  than  one 
and  one-half  pints,  twenty-six  cents  per  dozen;  but 
no  separate  or  additional  duty  shall  be  assessed  on 
the  bottles;  if  imported  otherwise  than  in  plain  green 
or  colored,  molded  or  pressed  glass  bottles,  or 
in  such  bottles  containing  more  than  one  and  one- 
half  pints  each,  fifty  cents  per  gallon,  and  in  addi- 
tion thereto,  duty  shall  be  collected  on  the  liottles, 
or  other  coverings,  at  the  rates  which  would  be 
chargeable  thereon  if  imported  empty.  [Old  law: 
Ginger  ale  or  ginger  beer,  twenty  per  centum  ad 
valorem,  but  no  separate  or  additional  duty  shall 
l»e  collected  on  bottles  or  jugs  containing  the 
same.] 

341.  All  mineral  waters,  and  all  Imitation  of 
natural  mineral  waters,  and  all  artificial  mineral 
waters  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  in 
plain  or  colored  glass  bottles,  containing  not 
more  than  one  pint,  sixteen  cents  per  dozen  bot- 
tles. If  containing  more  than  one  pint  and  not 
more  than  one  quart,  twenty-five  cents  per  dozen 
bottles.  But  no  separate  duty  shall  I >e  assessed 
upon  the  bottles.  If  imported  o'Serwise  than  in 
plain  green  or  colored  glass  bottle.*,  or  If  imported 
in  such  bottles  containing  more  than  one  quart, 
twenty  cents  per  gallon,  and  in  addition  thereto 
duty  shall  be  collected  upon  the  bottles  or  other 
covering  at  the  same  rates  that  would  be  charged 
if  imported  empty  or  separately.  [Old  law:  All 
imitations  of  natural  mineral  waters  and  all  arti- 
ficial mineral  waters,  thirty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem.] 


Schedule  I. — Cotton  Manufacture!. 

34a.  Cotton  thread,  yarn,  warps,  or  warp-yarn, 
whether  single  or  advanced  beyond  the  COWUon 
of  single,  by  grouping  or  twisting  two  or  more 
single  yarns  together,  whether  on  bssUM  or  in 
bundles,  skeins,  or  cops,  or  in  any  other  form, 
except  spool-thread  of  cotton  hereinafter  pro- 
vided for,  valued  at  not  exceeding  twenty-five 
cents  per  pound,  ten  cents  per  pound;  valued  at 
over  twenty-five  cents  per  pound  and  not  exceed- 
ing forty  cents  per  pvur'\  eighteen  cents  per 
pound;  valued  at  over  *">rty  cents  per  pound  and 
not  exceeding  fifty  cenct  per  i-nind,  t w-enty -three 
cents  pet  pound;  valued  «t  over  fifty  CM 
pound  and  not  exceeding  sixty  cents  per  pound, 
twenty-eight  cents  per  pound;  valued  at  over 
sixty  cents  per  pound  and  not  exceeding  seventy 


.£ 


cents  per  pound,  thirty-three  cents  per  pound; 
valued  at  over  seventy  cents  per  pound  and  nut 
exceeding  eighty  cents  per  pound,  thirty-eight 
cents  per  pound;  valued  at  over  eighty  cents  per 
pound  and  not  exceeding  one  dollar  per  pound, 
forty-eight  cents  per  pound;  valued  at  over  one 
dollar  per  pound,  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law:  Valued  at  twenty-five  to  tony  cents, 
eighteen  cents  per  pound;  valued  at  forty  to  fifty 
cents,  twenty  cents  per  pound:  valued  at  fifty  to 
sixty  cents,  twenty-five  cents  per  pound.] 

341.  Spool-thread  of  cotton,  containing  on  each 
•pool  not  exceeding  one  hundred  yards  of* thread, 
seven  tents  per  dozen;  exceeding  one  hundred 
yards  on  each  spool,  for  every  additional  one  hun- 
dred yards  of  thread  or  fractional  part  thereof  in 
excess  of  one  hundred  yards,  seven  cent*  per 
dozen  spools. 

344.  Cotton  cloth,  not  bleached,  dyed,  colored, 
stained,  painted,  or  printed,  and  not  exceeding 
fifty  threads  to  the  square  inch,  counting  the 
warp  and  filling,  two  cents  per  square  yard:  if 
bleached,  two  and  one-half  cents  per  square  yard; 
if  dyed,  colored,  stained,  painted,  or  printed, 
four  cents  per  square  yard.  [Old  law:  ']»-, 
and  one-half  cents  per  square  yard;  three  and 
one-half  cents  per  square  yard,  four  and  one-half 
cents  per  square  yard.] 

345.  Cotton  cloth,  not  bleached,  dyed,  colored, 
stained,  painted,  or  printed,  exceeding  fifty  and 
not  exceeding  one  hundred  threads  to  the  square 
inch,  counting  the  warp  and  filling,  two  and  one- 
fourth  cents  per  square  yard:  if  bleached,  three 
cents  per  square  yard;  if  dyed,  colored,  stained, 
painted,  or  printed,  four  cents  per  square  yard: 
Provided,  'J hat  on  all  cotton  cloth  not  exceed- 
ing one  hundred  thread*  to  the  square  inch, 
counting  the  warp  and  filing,  not  bleached, 
dyed,  colored,  stained,  painted,  or  printed, 
valued  at  over  nine  cents  per  square  yard;  and 
dyed,  colored,  stained,  painted,  or  printed,  val- 
ued at  over  tiveh'e  cents  per  square  yard,  thtrt 
sltull  be  levied,  collected  and  paid  a  auty  of 
thirty-five  per  centum  ad  vaJorem.  [Old  law; 
Two  and  one-half  cents  per  square  yard;  three 
and  one-half  cents  per  square  yard;  four  and  one- 

t*  per  square  yard] 

346.  Cotton  cloth,  not  bleached,  dyed,  colored, 
stained,  painted,  or  printed,  exceeding  one  hun- 
dred and  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  fifty 
threads  to  the  square  inch,  counting  the  warp 
and  filling,  three  cents  per  square  yard;  if  bleached, 
four  cents  per  square  yard;  if  dyed,  colored, 
stained,  painted,  or  printed,  five  cents  per  square 
yard:  I'ro-.ided,  That  on  all  cotton  cloth  ex 
cecding  one  hundred  and  not  exceeding  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  threads  to  the  square  inch,  count- 
ing the  warp  and  filling,  not  bleached,  dyed,  col- 
ored, stained,  painted,  or  printed,  valued  at  over 
seven  and  one-half  cents  per  square  yard;  bleach- 
ed, valued  at  over  ten  cents  per  square  yard; 
dyed,  colored,  stained,  painted,  or  printed,  val- 
ued at  over  twelve  and  one-half  cents  per  square 
yard,  there  shall  be  levied,  collected,  and  paid,  a 
duty  of  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Three    cents   per  square  yard,    four    cents   per 

Snare  yard,  five  cents  per  square  yard;  if  valued 
ove  eight  cents  ten  cent-.,  and  thirteen  cents 
per  square  yard,  respectively,  to  pay  forty  per 
centum  1 

347.  Cotton  cloth,  not  bleached,  dyed,  colored, 
stained,  painted,  or  printed. exceeding  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  and  not  exceeding  two  hundred 
threads  to  the  square  inch,  counting  the  wasp  and 
tilling,  three  and  a  half  Lents  per  square  yard;  if 
bleached,  four  and  one-half  cents  per  square 
yard;  if  dyed, colored, stained, painted,  or  printed, 
five  and  one-half  cents  per  square  yard:  /V#- 
vided.  That  on  all  cotton  cloth  exceeding  one 
hundred  and  fifty  and  not  exceeding  two  hundred 
threads  to  the  squat?  inch,  counting  the  warp  and 
filling,    not     bleached,    dyrd,     colored, 


painted,  or  printed,  valued  at  over  eight  cents  per 
square  yard;  bleached,  v.ilurd  at  overt 
per  square  yard;  dyed,  colored,  stained, 
or  primed,  valued  at  over  twelve  cents  per 
yard,  there  shall  be"  levied,  collected  and  paid  • 
duty  of  forty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  (»Wd 
law:  Three  cents  per  square  yard,  four  cents  par 
square  yard,  five  cents  per  square  yard;  if  valued 
<n  irnts  and  thirteen  cents 
per  square  yard,  respectively,  to  pay  forty  par 
centum.] 


^ 


K 


THE    TARIFF. 


429 


-   i— t 


/ 


348.  Cotton  cloth,  not  bleached,  dyed,  colored, 
stained,  painted,  or  printed,  exceeding  two  hun- 
dred threads  to  the  square  inch,  counting  the 
warp  and  filling,  four  and  one-half  cents  per 
square  yard;  if  bleached,  five  and  one-half  cents 
per  square  yard;  if  dyed,  colored,  stained, 
painted,  or  printed,  six  and  three-fourths  cents  per 
square  yard:  Provided,  That  on  all  such  cotton 
cloths  not  bleached,  dyed,  colored,  stained, 
painted,  or  printed,  valued  at  over  ten  cents  per 
square  yard;  bleached,  valued  at  over  twelve 
cents  per  square  yard;  and  dyed,  colored,  stained, 
painted,  or  printed,  valued  at  over  fifteen  cents 
per  square  yard,  there  shall  be  levied,  collected 
and  paid  a  duty  of  forty-five  per  centum  ad 
valorem:  Provided  further.  That  on  cotton 
cloth,  bleached,  dyed,  colored,  stained ',  painted ', 
or  printed, containing  an  admixture  of  silk, and 
not  otherwise  provided  for,  there  shall  be 
levied,  collected  and  paid  a  duty  0/  ten  cents 
Per  square  yard,  and  in  addition  thereto  thir- 
ty-five Per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Four 
cents  per  square  yard,  five  cents  per  square  yard, 
six  cents  per  square  yard;  if  valued  above  ten 
cents,  twelve  cents  and  fifteen  cents,  per  square 
yard,  respectively,  to  pay  forty  per  centum.] 

349.  Clothing  ready  made,  and  articles  of  wear- 
ing apparei  of  every  description,  handkerchiefs, 
and  neckties  or  neck  wear  composed  of  cotton  or 
other  vegetable  fiber,  or  of  which  cotton  or  other 
vegetable  fiber  is  the  component  material  of  chief 
value,  made  up  or  manufactured  wholly  or  in  part 
by  the  tailor,  seamstress,  or  manufacturer,  all  of 
the  foregoing  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem:  Provided,  That  all 
such  clothing  ready  made  and  articles  of  wearing 
apparel  having  India  rubber  as  a  component  ma- 
terial (not  including  gloves  or  elastic  articles  that 
are  specially  provided  for  in  this  act),  shall  be 
subject  to  a  duty  of  fifty  cents  per  pound,  and  in 
addition  thereto  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law:  Corsets,  thirty-five  per  centum,  of 
whatever  material  composed;  handkerchiefs,  forty 
per  centum;  other  items,  thirty-five  per  centum; 
hat  bodies  of  cotton,  thirty-five  per  centum.] 

350.  Plushes,  velvets,  velveteens,  corduroys, 
and  all  pile  fabrics  composed  of  cotton  or  other 
vegetable  fiber,  not  bleached,  dyed,  colored, 
stained,  painted,  or  printed,  ten  cents  per  square 
yard  and  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem;  on  all 
such  goods  if  bleached,  twelve  cents  per  square 
yard  and  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem;  if  dyed, 
colored,  stained,  painted,  or  printed,  fourteen 
cents  per  square  yard  and  twenty  per  centum  ad 
valorem;  but  none  of  the  foregoing  articles  in  this 
paragraph  shall  pay  a  less  rate  of  duty  than  forty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Cotton  vel- 
vet, forty  per  centum;  corduroys,  thirty-five  per 
centum;  plush,  thirty-five  per  centum.] 

351.  Chenille  curtains,  table  covers,  and  all 
goods  manufactured  of  cotton  chenille,  or  of 
which  cotton  chenille  forms  the  component  ma- 
terial of  chief  value,  sixty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[New  provision:  Treasury  ruling  forty  per 
centum.] 

352.  Stockings,  hose,  and  half-hose,  made  on 
knitting  machines  or  frames,  composed  of  cotton 
or  other  vegetable  fiber  and  not  otherwise  spe- 
cially provided  lor  in  this  act,  and  shirts  and 
drawers  composed  of  cotton,  valued  at  not  more 
than  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  dozen,  thirty- 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  On  stock- 
ings, hose,  half-hose,  shirts,  and  drawers,  and  all 
goods  made  on  knitting  machines  or  frames  com- 
posed wholly  of  cotton,  and  not  herein  otherwise 
provided  for,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.] 

353.  Stockings,  hose,  and  half-hose,  selvedged, 
fashioned,  narrowed,  or  shaped,  wholly  or  in  part 
by  knitting-machines  or  frames,  or  knit  by  hand, 
including  such  as  are  commercially  known  as 
Kttmksfl  stockings,  hose,  or^ialf-hose,  all  of  the 
above  composed  of  cotton  or  other  vegetable  fiber, 
finished  or  unfinished,  valued  at  not  more  than 
sixty  cents  per  dozen  pairs,  twenty  cents  per 
dozen  pairs,  and  in  addition  thereto  twenty  per 
centum  ad  valorem;  valued  at  more  than  sixty 
cents  per  dozen  pairs,  and  not  more  than  two 
dollars  per  dozen  pairs  fifty  cents  per  dozen  pairs 
and  in  addition  thereto,  thirty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem; valued  at  more  than  two  dollars  per  dozen 
pairs  and  not  more  than  four  dollars  per  dozen 
pairs,  seventy-five  cents  per  dozen  pairs,  and  in 
addition  thereto,  forty   per  centum  ad  valorem; 


valued  at  more  than  four  dollars  per  dozen  pairs, 
one  dollar  per  dozen  pairs,  and  in  addition 
thereto,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem;  and  all 
shirts  and  drawers  composed  of  cotton  or  other 
vegetable  fiber,  valued  at  more  than  one  dollar 
and  fifty  cents  per  dozen  and  not  more  than  three 
dollars  per  dozen,  one  dollar  per  dozen,  and  in 
addition  thereto,thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem: 
valued  at  more  than  three  dollars  per  dozen,  and 
not  more  than  five  dollars  per  dozen,  one  dollar 
and  twenty-five  cents  per  dozen,  and  in  addition 
thereto,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem;  valued  at 
more  than  five  dollars  per  dozen,  and  nor  more 
than  seven  dollars  per  dozen,  one  dollar  and  fifty 
cents  per  dozen,  and  in  addition  thereto,  forty  per 
centum  ad  valorem;  valued  at  more  than  seven 
dollars  per  dozen,  two  dollars  per  dozen,  and  in 
addition  thereto.forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old 
law:  On  stockings,  hose,  half-hose,  shirts,  and 
drawers,  fashioned,  narrowed,  or  shaped  wholly 
or  in  part  by  knitting-machines  or  frames,  or  knit 
by  hand,  and  composed  wholly  of  cotton,  forty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.] 

354.  Cotton  cords,  braids,  boot,  shoe,  and  cor- 
set-lacings, thirty-five  cents  per  pound;  cotton 
gimps,  galloons,  webbing,  goring,  suspenders, 
and  braces,  any  of  the  foregoing  which  are  elastic 
or  non-elastic,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem:  Pro- 
vided, That  none  of  the  articles  included  in  this 
paragraph  shall  pay  a  less  rate  of  duty  than  forty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Cotton 
cords,  braids,  gimps,  galloons,  webbing,  goring, 
suspenders,  braces,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem; webbing  not  otherwise  provided  for,  thirty- 
five  per  centum.] 

355.  Cotton  damask,  in  the  piece  or  otherwise, 
and  all  manufactures  of  cotton  not  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law:  Cotton  damask,  forty  per  centum;  all 
manufactures  not  specially  provided  for,  thirty- 
five  per  centum.  Old  law:  Sail,  duck  or  canvas 
for  sails,  thirty  per  centum.] 


Schedule   J. — Flax,   Hemp,   and   Jute, 
and  Manufactures  of. 

356.  Flax-straw,  five  dollars  per  ton. 

357.  Flax,  not  hackled  or  dressed,  one  cent  per 
pound.     [Old  law:     Twenty  dollarsper  ton] 

358.  Flax,  hackled,  known  as  "dressed  line," 
three  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Forty  dollars 
per  tonj 

359.  Tow,  of  flax  or  hemp,  one-half  of  one  cent 
per  pound.     [Old  law:     Ten  dollars  per  ton.] 

360.  Hemp,  twenty-five  dollars  per  ton;  hemp, 
hackled,  known  as  line  of  hemp,  fifty  dollars  per 
ton.  [Old  law:  Hemp,  manila  and  other  like 
substitutes  for  hemp  not  specially  enumerated  or 
provided  for  in  this  act,  twenty-five  dollars  per 
ton  J 

361.  Yarn  made  of  jute,  thirty-five  per  centum 
ad  valorem. 

362.  Cables,  cordage,  and  twine  (except  bind- 
ing twine,  composed  in  whole  or  in  part  of  istle  or 
Tampico  fiber,  manila,  sisal  grass  or  sunn),  one 
and  one-half  cents  per  pound;  all  binding  twine 
manufactured  in  whole  or  in  part  from  istle  or 
Tampico  fiber,  manila,  sisal  grass,  or  sunn,  seven- 
tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound;  cables  and  cordage, 
made  of  hemp,  two  and  one-half  cents  per  pound; 
tarred  cables  and  cordage,  three  cents  per  pound. 
[Old  law:  Tarred  cables  or  cordage,  three  cents 
per  pound;  untarred  manila  cordage,  two  and 
one-half  cents  per  pound.  All  other  untarred 
cordage,  three  and  one-half  cents  per  pound.] 

363.  Hemp  and  jute  carpets  andcarpetings,  six 
cents  per  square  yard. 

364.  Burlaps,  not  exceeding  sixty  inches  in 
width,  of  flax,  jute,  or  hemp,  or  of  which  flax, 
jute,  or  hemp,  or  either  of  them,  shall  be  the  com- 
ponent material  of  chief  value  (except  such  as 
may  be  suitable  for  bagging  for  cotton) ,  one  and 
five-eighths  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Bur- 
laps not  over  sixty  inches,  thirty  per  centum. 
Oil-cloth  foundations,  or  floor-cloth  canvas,  or 
burlaps  exceeding  sixty  inches  in  width,  made  of 
flax,  jute,  or  hemp,  or  of  which  flax,  jute,  or 
hemp,  or  either  of  them ,  shall  be  the  component  ma- 
terial of  chief  value,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
Bags  and  bagging,  and  like  manufactures,  not 


specially  enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act 
(except  bagging  for  cotton),  composed  wholly  or 
in  part  of  flax,  hemp,  jute,  gunny  cloth,  gunny 
bags,  or  other  material,  forty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem. J 

365.  Bags  for  grain,  made  ot  burlaps,  two  cents 
per  pound.     [Old  law:     Forty  per  centum.] 

366.  Bagging  for  cotton,  gunny  cloth,  and  all 
similar  material  suitable  for  covering  cotton,  com- 
posed in  whole  or  in  part  ot  hemp,  flax,  jute,  or 
jute  butts,  valued  at  six  cents  or  less  per  square 
yard,  one  and  six-tenths  cents  per  square  yard; 
valued  at  more  than  six  cents  per  square  yard, 
one  and  eight-tenths  cents  per  square  yard.  [Old 
law:  Gunny  cloth,  not  bagging,  valued  at  ten 
cents  or  less  per  square  yard,  three  cents  per 
pound;  valued  at  over  ten  cents  per  square  yard, 
fourcents  perpound.  Bagging  for  cotton  or  other 
manufactures  not  specially  enumerated  or  provided 
for  in  this  act ,  suitable  to  the  uses  for  which  cotton 
bagging  is  applied,  composed  in  whole  or  in  partot 
hemp,  jute,  jute  butts,  flax,  gunny  bags,  gunny 
cloth,  or  other  material,  and  valued  at  seven  cents 
or  less  per  square  yard,  one  and  one-half  cents  per 
pound;  valued  at  over  seven  (  cents  per  square 
yard,  two  cents  per  pound.] 

367.  Flax  gill-netting,  nets,  webs,  and  seines, 
when  the  thread  or  twine  of  which  they  are 
composed  is  made  of  yarn  ot  a  number  not  higher 
than  twenty,  fifteen  cents  per  pound,  and  thirty- 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem;  when  made  of 
threads  or  twines,  the  yarn  of  which  is  finer  than 
number  twenty,  twenty  cents  per  pound  and  in 
addition  thereto  forty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Text  of  old  law:  Seines,  and  seine  and  gilling 
twine,  twenty-five  per  centum.] 

368.  Linen  hydraulic  hose,  made  in  whole  or  in 
part  of  flax,  hemp,  or  jute,  twenty  cents  per 
pound.     [New  provision.] 

369.  Oil-cloths  for  floors,  stamped,  painted,  or 
printed,  including  linoleum,  corticene,  cork- 
carpets,  figured  or  plain,  and  all  other  oil-cloth 
(except  silk  oil-cloth),  and  water -proof  cloth,  not 
specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  valued  at 
twenty-five  cents  or  less  per  square  yard,  forty 
per  centum  ad  valorem;  valued  above  twenty- 
five  cents  per  square  yard,  fifteen  cents  per  square 
yard  and  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old 
law:     Forty  per  centum.] 

370.  Yarns  or  threads  composed  of  flax  or 
hemp,  or  of  a  mixture  of  either  of  these  sub- 
stances, valued  at  thirteen  cents  or  less  per  pound; 
six  cents  per  pound;  valued  at  more  than  thirteen 
cents  per  pound,  forty-five  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem. [Old  law:  Yarns,  thirty-five  per  centum, 
flax  or  linen  thread,  twine  or  pack-thread,  forty 
per  centum.] 

371.  All  manufactures  of  flax  or  hemp,  or  of 
which  these  substances,  or  either  of  them,  is  the 
component  materia!  of  chief  value,   not  specially 

fjrovided  for  in  this  act,  fifty  per  centum  ad  va- 
orem:  Provided,  That  until  January  first,  eight- 
een hundred  and  ninety-four,  such  manufactures 
of  flax  containing  more  than  one.  hundred  threads 
to  the  square  inch,  counting  both  warp  and 
filling,  shall  be  subject  to  a  duty  of  thirty-rive  per 
centum  ad  valorem  in  lieu  of  the  duty  herein  pro- 
vided. [Old  law:  Brown  and  bleached  linens, 
ducks,  canvas,  paddings,  cot-bottoms,  diapers, 
crash,  huckabacks,  handkerchiefs,  lawns,  or 
other  manufactures  of  flax,  jute,  or  hemp,  or  of 
which  flax,  jute,  or  hemp  shall  be  the  component 
materia!  of  chief  value,  not  specially  enumerated 
or  provided  for  in  this  act,  thirty-five  per  centum 
ad  valorem;  manufactures  of  flax  or  of  which  flax 
shall  be  the  component  material  of  chief  value, 
not  specially  provided  for,  forty  per  centum.  Rus- 
sia and  other  sheetings  of  flax  or  hemp,  brown  or 
white,  thirty-five  per  centum.  Webbings  com- 
posed of  cotton,  flax,  or  any  other  material,  not 
otherwise  provided  for,  thirty-five  per  centum.] 

372.  Collars  and  cuffs,  composed  entirely  of 
cotton,  fifteen  cents  per  dozen  pieces  and  thirty- 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem:  composed  in  whole 
or  in  part  of  linen,  thirty  cents  per  dozen  pieces 
and  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem;  shirts,  and  all 
articles  of  wearing  apparel  of  every  description, 
not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  composed 
wholly  or  in  part  of  linen,  fifty-five  per  centum 
ad  valorem.  [New  provision.  Old  law;  Rul- 
ings of  Treasury  Department,  thirty-five  per 
centum  on  cotton  goods,  thirty  and  forty  per 
centum  on  linen.] 


iy 


$w 


430 


THE     TARIFF. 


373.  Laces,  edgings,  embroideries,  insertings, 
neck  rutflings,  ruchings,  trimmings,  meltings, 
lace  window-curtains,  and  other  similar  tam- 
boured articles,  and  articles  embroidered  by  hand 
or  machinery,  embroidered  and  hemstitched  hand- 
kerchiefs and  articles  made  wholly  or  in  part  of  lace, 
runnings,  tuckings,  or  ruchings,  all  of  the  above- 
namecT articles,  composed  of  flax,  jute,  cotton  or 
other  vegetable  fiber,  or  of  which  these  substances 
or  either  of  them,  or  a  mixture  of  any  o  them,  is 
the  component  material  of  chief  value,  not  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  act,  sixty  per  centum 
ad  valorem:  Provided,  That  articles  ofVearing 
apparel,  and  textile  fabrics,  when  embroidered 
by  hand  or  machinery,  and  whether  specially  or 
otherwise  provided  for  in  this  act,  shall  not  pay  a 
less  rate  of  duty  than  that  fixed  by  the  respective 
paragraphs  and  schedules  of  this  act  upon  em- 
broideries of  the  materials  of  which  they  are  re- 
spectively composed.  [Old  law:  Cotton  laces, 
embroideries,  insertings,  trimmings,  lace  window- 
curtains,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  Flax  or 
linen  laces  and  insertings,  embroideries,  or  manu- 
factures of  linen,  if  embroidered  or  tamboured  in 
the  loom  or  otherwise,  by  machinery  or  with  the 
needle  or  other  process,  and  not  specially 
enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act,  thirty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.] 

374.  All  manufactures  of  jute,  or  other  vege- 
table fiber,  except  flax,  hemp,  or  cotton,  or  of 
which  jute,  or  other  vegetable  fiber,  except  flax, 
hemp,  or  cotton,  is  the  component  material  of  chiet 
value,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  valued 
at  five  cents  per  pound  or  less,  two  cents  per 
pound;  valued  above  five  cents  per  pound,  forty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  All  other 
manufactures  of  hemp,  or  nianila,  or  of  which 
hemp  or  manila  shall  be  a  component  material  of 
chief  value  not  especially  enumerated  or  provided 
for  in  this  act,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
Grass-cloth  and  other  manufactures  of  jute,  ramie, 
China,  and  sisal  grass,  not  specially  enumerated 
or  provided  for  in  this  act,  thirty-five  per  centum 
ad  valorem.] 


Schedule  K - 


-Wool  and  Manufactures  of 
Wool. 


375.  All  wools,  hair  of  the  camel,  goat,  alpaca, 
and  other  like  animals  shall  be  divided  for  the 
purpose  of  fixing  the  duties,  to  be  charged 
thereon  into  the  three  following  classes: 

376.  Class  one,  that  is  to  say,  Merino,  mestiza, 
metz  or  metis  wools,  or  other  wools,  of  Merino 
blood,  immediate  or  remote,  Down  clothing  wools, 
and  wools  of  like  character,  with  any  of  the  pre- 
ceding, including  such  as  have  been  heretofore 
usually  imported  into  the  United  States  from 
Buenos  Ayres,  New  Zealand,  Australia,  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  Russia,  Great  Britain,  Canada,  and 
elsewhere,  and  also  including  all  wools  not  here- 
inafter described  or  designated  in  classes  two  and 
three. 

377.  Class  two,  that  is  to  say,  I^eicester,  Cots- 
wold,  Lincolnshire,  Down  Combing  wools, 
Canada  long  wools,  or  other  like  combing  wools 
of  English  blood,  and  usually  known  by  the  terms 
herein  used,  and  also  hair  of  camel,  goat,  alpaca, 
and  other  like  animals. 

_  378.  Class  three,  that  is  to  say,  Donskoi,  na- 
tive South  American,  Cordova,  Valpar.' 
tive  Smyrna,  Russian  camel's  hair,  and  including 
all  inch  wools  of  like  character  as  have  been 
heretofore  usually  imported  into  the  United 
States  from  Turkey,  Grate*,  Egypt,  Syria,  and 
elsewhere,  excepting  improved  wools  hereinafter 
provided  for,  |<  ►id  law:  Class  three,  carpet 
Mil  other  similar  wools. — Such  as  Donskoi, 
DJttivt  South  American,  Cordova,  Valparaiso,  na- 
tive Smyrna,  and  including  nil  such  wools  of  like 
Character  as  have  been  heretofore  usually  im- 
ported inl'i  the  I 'Tilled  Si.it.-;  from  Ti'irkry, 
Greece,  Egypt,  Syria,  and  elsewhere.] 

379.  The  standard  samples  of  all  wools  which 
are   now   or   may   be  baml  I   In    the 

principal   custom  houses   of  the    United 
under  the  authority  "t  the  Secretary  of  th- 
ury,  shall  l>e   the  standards  forthe  ilas-.ith.iiMu 
of  wools  under  this  net,  and  th*  Secretary   of  the 
Treasury  shall  have  the   authority  to  rem 
■tandtrdt  and  to  make  such  additions  to  them 


from  time  to  time  as  may  be  required,  and  he 
shall  cause  to  be  deposited  like  standards  in  other 
custom  houses  of  the  United  States  when  they 
may  be  needed.     [New  pro-. 

380.  Whenever  wools  of  class  three  shall  have 
been  improved  by  the  admixture  of  Merino  or 
English  blood  from  their  present  character  as 
represented  by  the  standard  samples  now  or  here- 
after to  be  deposited  in  the  principal  custom- 
houses of  the  United  States,  such  improved  wools 
shall  be  classified  for  duty  either  as  class  one 
or  as  class  two,  as  the  case  may  be.  [New  pro- 
vision.] 

381.  The  duty  on  wools  of  the  first  class  which 
shall  be  imported  washed  shall  be  twice  the 
amount  of  the  duty  to  which  they  would  be  sub- 
jected if  imported  unwashed;  and  the  duty  on 
wools  of  the  first  and  second  classes  which  shall 
be  imported  scoured  shall  be  three  times  the 
duty  to  which  they  would  be  subjected  if 
imported  unwashed.  [Old  law:  The  duty  on 
wools  of  the  first  class  which  shall  be  imported 
washed  shall  be  twice  the  amount  of  the  duty 
to  which  they  would  be  subjected  if  imported 
unwashed;  and  the  duty  on  wools  of  all  classes 
which  shall  be  imported  scoured  shall  be  three 
times  the  duty  to  which  they  would  be  subjected 
if  imported  unwashed.] 

382.  Unwashed  wools  shall  be  considered  such 
as  shall  have  been  shorn  from  the  sheep  without 
any  cleansing;  that  is,  in  their  natural  condition. 
Washed  wools  shall  be  considered  such  as  have 
been  washed  with  water  on  the  sheep's  back. 
Wool  washed  in  any  other  manner  than  on  the 
sheep's  back  shall  be  considered  as  scoured  wool. 
[New  provision.] 

383.  The  duty  upon  wool  of  the  sheep  or  hair 
of  the  camel,  goat,  alpaca,  and  other  like  animals, 
which  shall  be  imported  in  any  other  than  ordi- 
nary condition,  or  which  shall  be  changed  in  its 
character  or  condition  for  the  purpose  of 
evading  the  duty,  or  which  shall  be  reduced  in 
value  by  the  admixture  of  dirt,  or  any  other  for- 
eign substance,  or  which  has  been  sorted  or  in- 
creased in  value  by  the  rejection  of  any  part  ot 
the  original  fleece,  shall  be  twice  the  duty  to  which 
it  would  be  otherwise  subject:  Provided,  That 
skirted  wools  as  now  imported  are  hereby  ex- 
cepted. Wools  on  which  a  duty  is  assessed 
amounting  to  three  times  or  more  than  that  which 
would  be  assessed  if  said  wool  was  imported  un- 
washed, such  duty  shall  not  be  doubled  on  ac- 
count of  its  being  sorted.  If  any  bale  or  package 
of  wool  or  hair  specified  in  this  act  imported  as  of 
any  specified  class,  or  claimed  by  the  importer  to 
be  dutiable  as  of  any  specified  class  shall  contain 
any  wool  or  hair  subject  to  a  higher  rate  of  duty 
than  the  class  so  specified,  the  whole  bale  or 
package  shall  be  subject  to  the  highest  rate  of 
duty  chargeable  on  wool  of  the  class  subject  to 
such  higher  rate  of  duty,  and  if  any  bale  or 
package  be  claimed  by  the  importer  to  be  shoddy, 
mungo,  flocks,  wool,  hair,  or  other  material  of 
any  class  specified  in  this  act,  and  such  bale  con- 
tain any  admixture  of  any  one  or  more  of  said 
materials,  or  of  any  other  material,  the  whole  bale 
or  package  shall  be  subject  to  duty  at  the  highest 
rate  imposed  upon  any  article  in  said  bale  or 
package.  [Old  law:  The  duty  upon  wool  of  the 
sheep,  or  hair  of  the  alpaca,  goat,  and  other  like 
animals,  which  shall  be  imported  in  anyotherthan 
ordinary  condition,  as  now  and  heretofore  prac- 
ticed, or  which  shall  be  changed  in  its  character  or 
condition  for  the  purpose  of  evading  the  duty,  or 
which  shall  be  reduced  in  value  by  the  admixture 
of  dirt  or  any  other  foreign  substance,  shall  be 
twice  the  duty  to  which  it  would  be  otherwise 
subject.] 

384.  The  duty  upon  alt  wools  and  hair  of  the 
first  class  shall  be  eleven  cents  per  pound,  and 
upon  a!  wools  or  hair  of  the  second  class  twelve 
cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Wools  of  the  first 
class,  the  value  whereof  at  the  last  port  or  place 
whence  exported  to  the  United  States,  rv 
charges  in  such  port,  shall  be  thirn 

per  pound,  ten  cents  per  pound:  wools  of  the 
same  class  the  value  whereof  at  the  last  1 
place  whence  exported  to  the  United  States,  ex- 
cluding charges  in  such  port,  shall  exceed  thirty 
cents  per  pound,  twelve  cents  per  pound.  WOOM 
of  the  second  class,  and  all  hair  of  the  alpaca, 
goat,  and  other  like  animals,  the  value  whereof, 
at  the  last  port  or  place  whence  exported  to  the 


United  States,  excluding  charges  in  such  port, 
shall  be  thirty  cents  or  less  per  pound,  tea  cents 
per  pound;  wools  of  the  same  class,  the  value 
whereof  at  the  last  port  or  place  whence  exported 
to  the  United  States,  excluding  charges  in  such 
port,  shall  exceed  thirty  cents  per  pound,  twelve 
cents  per  pound.] 

385.  On  wools  of  the  third  class  and  on  camel's 
hair  of  the  third  class  the  value  whereof  shall  be 
thirteen  cents  or  less  per  pound, 
charges,  the  duty  shall  be  thirty-two  per  1 
ad  valorem. 

386.  On  wools  oft  he  third  class,  and  on  camel's 
hair  of  the  third  ciass,  the  value  whereof  shall  ex- 


ceed thirteen  cents  per  pound  including  charges, 
the  duty  shall  be  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law:     Wools  of  the  third  class,  the  value 


whereof,  at  the  last  port  or  place 
ported  to  the  United  States,  excluding  charge* in 
such  port,  shall  be  twelve  cents  or  less  per  pound, 
two  and  a  half  cents  per  pound;  wools  of  the  same 
class,  the  value  whereof,  at  the  last  port  or  place 
whence  exported  to  the  United  States,  excluding 
charges  in  such  port,  shall  exceed  twcive  cents 
per  pound,  five  cents  per  pound.  ] 

387.  Wools  on  the  skin  shall  pay  the  same  rate 
as  other  wools,  the  quantity  and  value  to  be  as- 
certained under  such  rules  as  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  may  prescribe. 

388.  On  noils,  shoddy,  top  waste,  stubbing 
waste,  roving  waste,  ring  waste,  yarn  waste,  gar- 
netted  waste,  and  all  other  wastes  composed 
wholly  or  in  part  of  wool,  the  duty  shall  be  thirty 
cents  per  pound.  [Old  law:  Shoddy  and  waste, 
ten  cents  per  pound. 

389.  On  woolen  rags,  mungo,  and  flocks,  the 
duty  shall  be  ten  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law: 
Shoddy  and  waste  have  been  transferred  to  pre* 
ceding  paragragh.] 

390.  wools  and  hair  ofnhe  camel,  goat, alpaca, 
or  other  like  animals  in  the  form  of  roping,  roving, 
or  tops,  and  all  wool  and  hair  which  have  been 
advanced  in  any  manner  or  by  any  process  of 
manufacture  beyond  the  washed  or  scoured  con- 
dition, not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  shall 
be  subject  to  the  same  duties  as  are  imposed  upon 
manufactures  of  wool  not  specially  provided  for 
in  this  act.    [New  provision.] 

301 .  On  woolen  and  worsted  yarns  made  wholly 
or  in  part  of  wool,  worsted,  the  hair  of  the  camel, 
goat,  alpaca,  or  other  animals,  valued  at  not 
more  than  thirty  cents  per  pound,  the  duty  per 
pound  shall  be  two  and  one-half  times  the  duty 
imposed  by  this  act  on  a  pound  of  unwashed  wool 
of  the  first  class,  and  in  addition  thereto,  thirty- 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem;  valued  at  more  than 
thirty  cents  and  not  more  than  forty  cents  per 
pound,  the  duty  per  pound  shall  be  three  times 
the  duty  imposed  by  this  act  on  a  pound  of  un- 


washed wool  of  the  first  class,  and  in  1 
thereto  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem;  valued 
at  more  than  forty  cents  per  pound,  the  duty  per 
pound  shall  be  three  and  one-half  times  the  duty 
imposed  by  this  act  on  a  pound  of  unwashed 
wool  of  the  first  class  and  in  addition  thereto  forty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  For  rates 
see  paragraph  305.] 

392.  On  woolen  or  worsted  cloths,  shawls,  knit 
fabrics,  and  all  fabrics  made  on  knitting  machines 
or  frames,  and  all  manufactures  of  every  descrip- 

sted,  the 


tion  made  wholly  or  in  part  of  wool, 
hair  of  the  camel,  goat,  alpaca,  or  other  a*««— , 
not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  valued  at 
not  more  than  thirty  cents  per  pound,  the  duty 
per  pound  shall  be  three  times  the  duty  imposed 
by  this  act  on  a  pound  of  unwashed  wool  of  the 
first  class,  and  In  addition  thereto  forty  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem;  valued  at  more  than  thirty  and 
not  more  than  forty  cents  per  pound,  the  duty 
per  pound  shall  be  three  and  one-half  times  the 
duty  imposed  by  this  set  on  a  pound  of  unwashed 
wool  of  the  first  class,  and  in  addition  thereto 
1  centum  ad  valorem;  valued  at  ab«^ 

1  \ ,  the  duty  per  pound  shall  be  four 
times  the  duty  imposed  by  this  act  on  a  pound  of 
unwashed  wool  of  the  first  class,  and  In  addition 
thereto  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Woolen  cloths,  woolen  shawls,  and  all  manufact- 
ures of  wool  of  every  description ,  made  wholly  or 
in  part  of  wool,  not  specially  enumerated  or  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  valued  at  not  exceeding 
eighty  cents  per  pound,  thirty-five  cents  per 
pound  and   -hirty-five    per  centum  ad  valorem; 


V- 


TIIK     TAKIKF. 


43t 


*f" 


valued  ;tt  above  eighty  cents  per  pound,  thirty- 
five  cents  per  pound,  and  in  addition  thereto 
forty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

303.  On  blankets,  hats  of  wool,  and  flannels  for 
underwear  composed  wholly  or  in  part  of  wool, 
the  hair  of  the  camel,  goat,  alpaca,  or  other  ani- 
mals, valued  at  not  more  than  thirty  cents  per 
pound ,  the  duty  per  pound  shall  be  the  same  as  the 
duty  imposed  by  this  act  on  one  pound  and  one- 
half  of  unwashed  wool  of  the  first  class,  and  in  ad- 
dition thereto  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem; 
valued  at  more  than  thirty  and  not  more  than 
forty  cents  per  pound,  the  duty  per  pound 
shall  be  twice  the  duty  imposed  by  this  act 
on  a  pound  of  unwashed  wool  of  the  first 
class;  valued  at  more  than  forty  cents  and 
not  more  tnan  fifty  cents  per  pound,  the  duty  per 
pound  shall  be  three  times  the  duty  imposed  by 
this  act  on  a  pound  of  unwashed  wool  of  the  first 
class,  and  in  addition  thereto  upon  alt  the  above- 
named  articles  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem, 
( >n  blankets  and  hats  of  wool  composed  wholly  or 
in  part  of  wool,  the  hair  of  the  camel,  goat,  alpaca, 
or  other  animal ,  valued  at  more  than  fifty  cents  per 
pound,  the  duty  per  pound  shall  be  three  and  a 
half  times  the  duty  imposed  by  this  act  on  a  pound 
of  unwashed  wool  of  the  first  class,  and  in  addi- 
tion thereto  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  Flan- 
nels composed  wholly  or  in  part  of  wool,  the  hair 
of  the  camel,  goat,  alpaca,  or  other  animals, 
valued  at  above  fifty  cents  per  pound,  shall  be 
classified  and  pay  the  same  duty  as  women's  and 
children's  dress  goods,  coat  lining,  Italian  cloths, 
and  goods  of  similar  character  and  description 
provided  by  this  act.  [Flannels,  blankets,  hats  of 
wool,  knit  goods  and  all  goods  made  on  knitting 
frames,  balmorafs,  woolen  and  worsted  yarns, 
and  all  manufactures  of  every  description,  com- 
posed wholly  or  in  part  of  worsted,  the  hair  of  the 
alpaca, goat, orotheranimals  (except  suchasare 
composed  in  part  of  wool),  not  specially  enum- 
erated or  provided  for  in  this  act,  valued  at  not 
exceeding  thirty  cents  per  pound,  ten  cents  per 
pound;  valued  at  above  thirty  cents  per  pound, 
and  not  exceeding  forty  cents  per  pound,  twelve 
cents  per  pound;  valued  at  above  forty  cents  per 
pound  and  not  exceeding  sixty  cents  per  pound, 
eighteen  cents  per  pound;  valued  at  above 
sixty  cents  per  pound,  and  not  exceeding 
eighty  cents  per  pound,  twenty-four  cents  per 
pound;  and  in  addition  thereto,  upon  all  the 
above-named  articles,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad 
valorem;  valued  at  above  eighty  cents  per  pound, 
thirty-five  cents  per  pound  and  in  addition  thereto 
forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.] 

394.  On  women's  and  children's  dress  goods, 
coat  linings,  Italian  cloths,  and  goods  of  similar 
character  or  description  of  which  the  warp  con- 
sists wholly  of  cotton  or  other  vegetable  material, 
with  the  remainder  of  the  fabric  composed  wholly 
or  in  part  of  wool,  worsted,  the  hair  of  the  camel, 
goat,  alpaca,  or  other  animals,  valued  at  not  ex- 
ceeding fifteen  cents  per  square  yard,  seven  cents 
per  square  yard,  and  in  addition  thereto  forty 
per  centum  ad  valorem;  valued  at  above  fifteen 
cents  per  square  yard,  eight  cents  per  square  yard, 
and  in  addition  thereto  titty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem: Provided,  That  on  all  such  goods  weigh- 
ing over  four  ounces  per  square  yard  the  duty  per 
pound  shall  be  four  times  the  duty  imposed  by  this 
act  on  a  pound  of  unwashed  wool  of  the  first  class, 
and  in  addition  thereto  fifty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem. [Old  law:  Women's  and  children's  dress 
goods,  coat  linings,  Italian  cloths,  and  goods  of 
like  description,  composed  in  part  of  wool, 
worsted,  the  hair  of  the  alpaca,  goat,  or  other 
animals,  valued  at  not  exceeding  twenty  cents 
per  square  yard,  five  cents  per  square  yard,  and 
in  addition  thereto  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem; valued  at  above  twenty  cents  per  square 
yard,  seven  cents  per  square  yard,  and  forty  per 
centum  ad  valorem;  if  composed  wholly  of  wool, 
worsted,  the  hair  of  the  alpaca,  goat,  or  other  ani- 
mals, or  of  a  mixture  of  them,  nine  cents  per  square 
yard,  and  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem,  but  all 
such  goods  with  selvedges  .made  wholly  or  in  part  of 
other  materials,  or  with  threads  of  other  materials 
introduced  for  the  purpose  of  changing  the  classi- 
fication, shall  be  dutiable  at  nine  cents  per  square 
yard,  and  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem:  Provided, 
That  all  such  goods  weighing  over  four  ounces  per 
square  yard  shall  pay  a  duty  of  thirty-five  cents 
per  pound  and  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.] 


395.  On  women's  and  children's  dress  goods, 
coat  linings,  Italian  cloth,  bunting,  and  goods  of 
similar  description  or  character  composed  wholly  or 
in  part  of  wool,  worsted,  the  hairof  the  camel,  »oat, 
alpaca,  or  other  animals,  and  not  specially  provid- 
ed for  in  this  act,  the  duty  shall  be  twelve  cents  per 
square  yard,  and  in  addition  thereto  fifty  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem:  Provided,  That  on  all  suchgoods 
weighing  over  four  ounces  per  square  yard  the 
duty  per  pound  shall  be  four  times  the  duty  im- 
posed by  this  act  on  a  pound  of  unwashed  wool 
of  the  first  class  and  in  addition  thereto,  fifty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  See  preceding  par- 
agraph. Bunting,  ten  cents  per  square  yard,  and 
in  addition  thereto  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem.] 

396.  On  clothing,  ready  made,  and  articles  of 
wearing  :apparel  of  every  description,  made  up 
or  manufactured  wholly  or  in  part,  not  specially 
provided  for  in  this  act,  felts  not  woven,  and  not 
specially  providedfor  in  thisact.plushesand  other 
pile  fabrics,  all  of  the  foregoing  composed  wholly 
or  in  part  of  wool,  worsted,  the  hair  of  the  camel, 
goat,  alpaca,  or  other  animals,  the  duty  per  pound 
shall  be  four  and  one-half  times  the  duty  imposed 
by  this  act,  on  a  pound  of  unwashed  wool  of  the 
first  class,  and  in  addition  thereto  sixty  per  centum 
ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Clothing  ready  made, 
and  wearing  apparel  of  every  description,  not 
specially  enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act, 
and  balmoral  skirts,  and  skirting,  and  goods  of 
similar  description,  orused  for  like  purposes,  com- 
posed wholly  or  in  part  of  wool,  worsted,  the  hair 
of  the  alpaca,  goat,  or  other  animals,  made  up  or 
manufactured  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  tailor, 
seamstress  or  manufacturer,  except  knit  goods, 
forty  cents  per  pound,  and  in  addition  thereto, 
thirty -five  per  centum  ad  valorem;  endless  belts 
or  felts  for  paper  or  printing  machines,  twenty 
cents  per  pound  and  thirty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem.] 

397.  On  cloaks,  dolmans,  jackets,  talmas, 
ulsters,  or  other  outside  garments  for  ladies'  and 
children's  apparel  and  goods  of  similar  description 
or  used  for  like  purposes  composed  wholly  or  in 
part  of  wool,  worsted,  the  hair  of  the  camel,  goat, 
alpaca,  or  other  animals,  made  up  or  manufac- 
tured wholly  or  in  part,  the  duty  per  pound  shall 
be  four  and  one-half  times  the  duty  imposed  by 
this  acton  a  pound  of  unwashed  wool  of  the  first 
class  and  in  addition  thereto  sixty  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  [Old  law:  Cloaks,  dolmans,  jackets, 
talmas,  ulsters,  or  other  outside  garments  for 
ladies'  and  children's  apparel  and  goods  of  similar 
description,  orused  for  like  purposes,  composed 
wholly  or  in  part  of  wool,  worsted,  the  hairof  the 
alpaca,  goat,  or  other  animals,  made  up  or  man- 
ufactured wholly  or  in  part  by  the  tailor,  seam- 
stress, or  manufacturer  (except  knit  goods),  forty- 
five  cents  per  pound,  and  in  addition  thereto,  forty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.] 

398.  On  webbings,  gorings,  suspenders,  braces, 
beltings,  bindings,  braids.lgalloons,  fringes,  gimps, 
cords,  cords  and  tassels,  dress  trimmings,  laces, 
and  embroideries,  head  nets,  buttons,  or  barrel 
buttons,  or  buttons  of  other  forms,  for  tassels  or 
ornaments,  wrought  bytiand  or  braided  by  ma- 
chinery, any  of  the  foregoing  which  arc  elastic  or 
non-elastic,  made  of  wool,  worsted,  the  hair  of 
the  camel,  goat,  alpaca,  or  other  animals,  or  of 
which  wool,  worsted,  the  hair  of  the  camel,  goat, 
alpaca,  or  other  animals  is  a  component  material, 
the  duty  shall  be  sixty  cents  per  pound,  and  in 
addition  thereto,  sixty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Webbings,  gorings,  suspenders,  braces,  beltings, 
bindings,  braids,  galloons,  fringes,  gimps,  cords 
and  tassels,  dress  trimmings,  head-nets,  buttons, 
or  barrel  buttons,  or  buttons  of  other  forms  for 
tassels  or  ornaments  wrought  by  hand,  or  braided 
by  machinery,  made  of  wool,  worsted,  the  hair  of 
the  alpaca,  goat,  or  other  animals,  or  of  which 
wool,  worsted,  the  hair  of  the  alpaca,  goat,  or 
other  animals  is  a  component  material,  thirty 
cents  per  pound  and  in  addition  thereto,  fifty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.] 

399.  Aubusson,  Axminster,  Moquette,  and 
Chenille  carpets,  figured  or  plain,  carpets  woven 
whole  for  rooms,  and  all  carpets  or  carpeting  of 
like  character  or  description,  and  oriental,  Berlin, 
and  other  similar  rugs,  sixty  cents  per  square 
yard,  and  in  addition  thereto,  forty  per  centum 
ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Forty-five  cents  per 
square  yard  and  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem.] 


400.  Saxony,  Wilton,  and  Tournay  velvet  car- 
pets, figured  or  plain,  and  all  carpets  or  carpeting 
of  like  character  or  description,  sixty  cents  per 
square  yard  and  in  addition  thereto  forty  pet 
centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Forty-five  cents 
square  yard  and  thirty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem.] 

401.  Brussels  carpets,  figured  or  plain,  and  all 
carpet  s  or  carpeting  of  like  character  or  description , 
forty-four  cents  per  square  yard,  and  in  addition 
thereto  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law; 
Thirty  cents  square  yard  and  thirty  per  centum 
ad  valorem.] 

402.  Velvet  and  tapestry  velvet  carpets,  figured 
or  *ain,  printed  on  the  warp  or  otherwise,  and  all 
carpets  or  carpeting  of  like  character  or  descrip- 
tion, forty  cents  per  square  yard,  and  in  addition 
thereto,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Twenty-five  cents  square  yard  and  thirty  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem.] 

403.  Tapestry  Brussels  carpets  figured  or  plain, 
and  all  carpets  or  carpeting  of  like  character  or 
description,  printed  on  the  warp  or  otherwise, 
twenty-eight  cents  per  square  yard,  and  in  ad- 
dition thereto,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem, 
[Old  law:  Twenty  cents  square  yard  and  thirty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.] 

404.  Treble  Ingrain,  three-ply  and  all  chain 
Venetian  carpets,  nineteen  cents  per  square  yard, 
and  in  addition  thereto,  forty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem. [Old  law:  Twelve  cents  per  square  yard 
and  thirty  per  centum.] 

405.  Wool  Dutch  and  two-ply  ingrain  carpets, 
fourteen  cents  per  square  yard,  and  in  addition 
thereto,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Eight  cents  per  square  yard  and  thirty  per 
centum  J 

406.  Druggets  and  bockings,  printed,  colored, 
or  otherwise,  twenty-two  cents  per  square  yard, 
and  in  addition  thereto  forty  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem. Felt  carpeting,  figured  or  plain,  eleven 
cents  per  square  yard,  and  in  addition  thereto, 
forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Drug- 
gets and  bockings,  fifteen  cents  per  square  yard 
and  thirty  per  centum;  felt  carpeting,  fifteen  cents 
per  square  yard  and  thirty  per  centum,  by  ruling 
of  Treasury  Department.] 

407.  Carpets  and  carpeting  of  wool,  flax  or  cot- 
ton, or  composed  in  part  of  either,  not  specially 

(irovided  for  in  this  act,  fifty  per  centum  ad  va- 
orem.  [Old  law:  Carpets  and  carpetings  of 
wool,  flax  or  cotton,  or  parts  of  either  or  other 
material  not  otherwise  herein  specified,  forty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.] 

408.  Mats,  rugs,  screens,  covers,  hassocks, 
bedsides,  art  squares,  and  other  portions  of  car- 
pets or  carpeting  made  wholly  or  in  part  of  wool, 
and  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  shall  be 
subjected  to  the  rate  of  duty  herein  imposed  on 
carpets  or  carpetings  of  like  character  or  descrip- 
tion. [Old  law:  Mats,  rugs,  screens,  covers, 
hassocks,  bedsides,  and  other  portions  of  carpets 
or  carpetings,  shall  be  subjected  to  the  rate  of 
duty  herein  imposed  on  carpets  or  carpeting  of 
like  character  or  description;  and  the  duty  on  all 
other  mats  not  exclusively  of  vegetable  material, 
screens,  hassocks,  arid  rugs,  shall  be  forty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.] 

Schedule  L. — Silk  and  Silk  Goods. 

409.  Silk  partially  manufactured  from  cocoons 
or  from  waste-silk,  and  not  further  advanced  or 
manufactured  than  carded  or  combed  siltt,  fifty 
cents  per  pound. 

410.  Thrown  silk,  not  more  advanced  than 
singles,  tram,  organzine,  sewing  silk,  twist,  floss, 
and  silk  threads  or  yarns  of  every  description,  ex- 
cept spun  silk,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem;  spun 
silk  in  skeins  or  cops  or  on  beams,  thirty-five  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  All  this  para- 
graph thirty-five  per  centum.] 

411.  Velvets,  plushes,  or  other  pile  fabrics  con- 
taining, exclusive  of  selvedges,  less  than  seventy- 
five  per  centum  in  weight  of  silk,  one  dollar  and 
fifty  cents  per  pound  and  fifteen  per  centum  ad 
valorem;  containing,  exclusive  of  selvedges, 
seventy-five  per  centum  or  more  in  weight  of  silk, 
three  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  pound,  and  fif- 
teen per  centum  ad  valorem;  but  in  no  case 
shall  any  of  the  foregoing  articles  pay  a  less  rate 
of  duty  than  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem.    [New 


\ 


43* 


THE     TAniFP. 


t 


provision.     [Old  law:     Classified  as  manufactures 
at  fifty  per  centum.] 

412.  Webbings,  gorings,  suspenders,  braces, 
belting*,  bindings,  braids,  galloons,  fringes,  cords 
and  tassels,  any  of  the  foregoing  which  are  elastic 
or  non-elastic,  buttons,  and  ornaments,  made  of 
silk,  or  of  which  silk  is  the  component  material  of 
chief  value,  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [New 
provision.  [Old  law:  Classified  as  manufactures 
at  fifty  per  centum.] 

413.  Laces  and  embroideries,  handkerchiefs, 
neck  rufflings  and  ruchings,  clothing  ready-made 
and  articles  of  wearing  apparel  of  every  descrip- 
tion, including  knit  goods,  made  up  or  manufac- 
tured wholly  or  in  part  by  the  tailor,  seamstress,  or 
manufacturer,  composed  of  silk,  or  of  which  silk  is 
the  component  material  of  chief  value;  not  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  act,  sixty  per  centum  ad 
valorem:  Provided,  That  all  such  clothing  ready 
made  and  articles  of  wearing  apparel  when  com- 
posed in  part  of  India  rubber  (not  including  gloves 
or  elastic  articles  that  are  specially  provided  for 
in  this  act)  shall  be  subject  to  a  duty  of  eight  cents 
per  ounce,  and  in  addition  thereto  sixty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  [New  provision.  Old  law: 
Classified  as  manufactures  at  fifty  per  centum] 

414.  All  manufactures  of  silk,  or  of  which  silk  is 
the  component  material  of  chief  value,  not  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  act,  fifty  per  centum  ad 
valorem:  Provided,  That  all  such  manufactures 
of  which  wool,  or  the  hair  of  the  camel,  goat,  or 
other  like  animals  is  a  component  material,  shall 
1"-  classified  as  manufactures  of  wool.  [Old  law: 
All  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise,  not  ■pecialry 
enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act,  made  of 
silk,  or  of  which  silk  is  the  component  material  of 
chief  value,  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem.] 


Schedule  M. — Pulp,  Papers  and  Books. 

FTJLP   AND   PAPER. 

415.  Mechanically  ground  wood  pulp,  two  dol- 
lars and  fifty  cents  per  ton  dry  weight;  chemical 
wood  pulp  unbleached,  six  dollars  per  ton  dry 
weight;  bleached,  seven  dollars  per  ton  dry 
weight.  [Old  law:  Pulp  dried  for  papermakers' 
use,  ten  per  centum.*] 

416.  Sheathing  paper,  ten  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem. 


417.  Printing  paper  unsized,  suitable  only  for 
hooks  and  newspapers,  fifteen  per  centum  ad  va- 
lurern.     [Slight  change  in  text.] 


418.  Printingpapcr  sized  or  glued,  suitable  only 
for  books  and  newspapers,  twenty  per  centum  ad 
valorem.     [Old  law:     Limited  to  printing  papers.] 

419.  Papers  known    commercially  as   copying 
altering  paper,  silver  paper,  and  all  tissue 

white  or  colored,  whether  made  up  in 
copying  books,  reams,  or  in  any  other  form,  eight 
cents  per  pound,  and  in  addition  thereto,  fifteen 
per  centum  ad  valorem;  allmmenized  or  sensitized 
paper,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old 
law:  Blank-books  for  press  copying  twenty  per 
centum;  on  all  other  of  above  paragraph  twenty- 
five  per  centum  as  manufactures  of  paper.] 

430,  Papers  known  commercially  as  surface- 
coated  papers,  and  manufactures  thereof,  card- 
boards, lithographic  prints  from  either  stone  or 
zinc,  bound  or  unbound  (except  illustrations  when 
forming  apart  of  a  periodical,  newspaper,  or  in 
prbMM  l>ooks  accompanying  the  same),  and  all 
artit  let  produced  either  in  whole  or  in  part  by 
lithographic  process,  and  photograph,  autograph, 
and  scrap  albums,  wholly  or  partially  manu- 
factured, thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old 
law:  Paper  boxes  and  all  other  fancy  boxes,  if  of 
surface  coated  papers,  principally  twenty-five  per 
centum.  Paper-hangings  and  paper  for  screens 
or  fire  boards,  paper  antiquarian,  demy,  drawing, 
tlaphaat,  foolscap,  imperial,  letter,  note  and  all 
Otter  paper  not  specially  enumerated  or  provided 
fur  in  this  [act,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem.] 

MANItHAl  TURKS  Of   PAPER. 

431.  Paper  envelopes,  twenty-five  cents  per 
thousand.      (Old    law:     Tunny  tive  yrx   centum   ] 

43a.  Paper  hnngmga  and  paper  for  screens  or 
fW-boards,  writing -paper,  drawing-paper,  and  nil 


other  paper  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Change  of 
text.] 

423.  Books,  including  blank  books  of  all  kinds, 
pamphlets  and  engravings,  bound  or  unbound, 
photographs,  etchings,  maps,  charts,  and  all 
printed  matter  not  specially  provided  tor  in  this 
act,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Illustrated  books,  twenty-five  per  centum;  blank 
books,  bound    or  unbound,  twenty  per  centum.  1 

424.  Playing  cards,  fifty  rents  per  pack.  [Old 
law:  One  hundred  pet  centum.] 

425.  Manufactures  of  paper,  or  of  which  paper 
is  the  component  material  of  chief  value,  not  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  act,  twenty-five  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Fifteen  per  centum, 
also  twenty-five  per  centum,  paper  boxes  and  all 
other  fancy  boxes,  thirty-five  per  centum.] 


Schedule  N. — Sundries. 

426.  Bristles,  ten  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law: 
Fifteen  cents  per  pound.] 

427.  Brushes,  and  brooms  of  all  kinds,  includ- 
ing feather  dusters  and  hair  pencils  in  quills,  forty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Brushes  thirty 
per  centum;  brooms,  twenty-five  per  centum; 
hair   pencils,  thirty  per  centum.] 

BtTTTONSAND    BUTTON  FORMS. 

428.  Button  forms:  listings,  mohair,  cloth,  silk, 
or  other  manufactures  of  cloth,  woven  or  made  in 
patterns  of  such  siz-,  shape  or  form,  01  i*Jt  in  such 
manner  as  to  be  fit  for  buttons  exclusively,  ten 
per  centum  ad  valorem. 

429.  Buttons  commercially  known  as  agate 
buttons,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
Pearl  and  shell  buttons,  two  and  one-half  cents 
per  line  button  measure  of  one-fortieth  of  one*  inch 
per  gross,  and  in  addition  thereto  twenty -five  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Buttons  and  but- 
ton-molds, not  specially  enumerated  or  provided 
for  in  this  act,  not  including  brass,  gilt,  or  silk 
buttons,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
Pearl  and  shell  buttons  as  manufactures  of  shell, 
twenty-five  per  centum. J 

430.  Ivory,  vegetable  ivory,  bone  or  horn  but- 
tons, fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  See 
preceding  paragraph.] 

431.  Shoe-buttons,  made  of  paper  board,  papier 
111.11.  he ,  pulp  or  other  similar  material  not  specially 
provided  tor  in  this  act,  valued  at  not  exceeding 
three  cents  per  gross,  one  cent  per  grov>.  [Old 
law:   Not  enumerated,  at  twenty  five  per  centum.] 

433.  Coal,  bituminous,  and  shale,  seventy-five 
cents  per  ton  of  twenty-eight  bushels,  eighty 
pounds  to  the  bushel;  coal  slack  or  culm,  HM  \\  .is 
will  pass  through  a  half  inch  screen,  thiii1 
per  ion  of  twenty-eight  bushels,  eighty  pounds  to 
the  bushel. 

433.  Coke,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

434.  Cork  bark,  cut  into  squares  or  cubes,  ten 
cents  per  pound;  manufactured  corks,  fifteen  cents 
per  pound.     [Old  law-:   Twenty-five  per  centum  ] 

415.  Dice,  draughts,  chess-men,  <  hess-balls, 
and  billiard,  pool,  and  bagatelle  balls,  of  ivory, 
bone,  or  other  materials,  fifty  per  . .nitum  ad  va- 
lorem. 

436.  Dolls,  doll-heads,  toy  marbles  of  whatever 
material  composed,  and  all  other  toys  not  com- 
posed of  rubber,  china,  porcelain,  panan.  Ust|DS*. 
earthen  or  stoneware,  and  Ml  sp*'t  i.illy  provided 
fof  in  this  .1,  t  thirty  five  per  ■  rnium  ad  valorem 
[Old  law;  Dolls  and  toys,  thirty  five  per  cen- 
tum.1 

437.  F.merv  grains,  and  emery  manufactured, 
ground,  pulverized,  or  refined,  one  cent  per 
pound. 

rXrLOSIVUMUMAKCBS. 

438.  Fire-crackers  of  all  kinds,  eight   cents  per 
I    pound,  hut  mo  allowance  shall  he  made 

->•-    dama&t    thereon.     [Old  law:     <  me  hundred 

Bttra.1 

430.    Fulminates,  fulminating  powders,    and  like 

provided  for  in  this  act, thirty 

per  cat  DM 

440.  Gunpowder,  and  ail  explosive  substances 

>    mining,  blasting,    artillery,  or   sporting 


purposes,  when  valued  at  twenty  cents  or  less  per 
pound,  five  cents  per  pound;  valued  above  twenty 
cents  per  pound,  eight  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law: 
Six  and  eight  dbOM  ] 

441.  Matches,  friction  or  luciser,  of  all  descrip- 
tions, per  gross  of  one  hundred  and  forty -four 
bona*,  containing  not  more  than  one  hundred 
matches  per  box,  ten  cents  per  gross;  when  im- 
ported otherwise  than  in  boxes  containing  not 
more  than  •  tie  hundred  matches  each,  one  cost 
per  one  thousand  matches.  [Old  law:  Friction 
or  lucifr-r  matches  of  all  descriptions,  thirty-five 
per  centum  ] 

442.  Percussion  caps.  Forty  per  centum  ad 
valorem . 

443.  Feathers  and  downs  of  all  kinds,  crude  or 
not  dressed,  colored,  or  manufactured,  not  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  act,  ten  per  centum  ad 
valorem;  when  dressed,  colored,  or  manufactured, 
including  quilt*,  of  down  and  other  manufactures 
of  down,  and  also  including  dressed  and  finished 
birds  suitable  for  millinery  ornaments,  and  artifi- 
cial and  ornamental  feathers  and  flowers,  or  parts 
thereof,  of  whatever  material  composed,  not  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  act,  fifty  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  [Old  law:  Feathers  of  all  kinds  crude 
or  not  dressed,  colored  or  manufactured,  twenty- 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem;  when  dressed,  colored, 
or  manufactured,  including  dressed  and  finished 
birds,  for  milliner)'  ornaments,  and  artificial  and 
ornamental  leathers  and  flowers,  or  parts  thereof, 
of  whatever  material  composed,  for  millinery  use, 
not  specialty  enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this 
act,  fiftv  per  centum  ad  valorem.! 

444.  Furs  dressed  on  the  skin  out  mot  made  */ 
into  articles,  and  fun.  not  on  the  skin,  prepared 
for  hatters*  use,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

445.  Giant  beads,  loose,  unthreaded  or  un- 
strung, ten  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Beads,  and  bead  ornaments  of  all  kinds,  except 
amber,  fifty  per  centum  ] 

446.  i  .1111  wads  of  all  descriptions,  thirty-five 
per  centum  ad  valorem 

447.  Hair,  human,  if  clean  or  drawn  but  not 
manufactured,  twerm  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
[Old  law:   Thirty  per  centum.] 

448.  Hair  cloth,  known  as  "crinoline-cloth," 
eight  cents  per  square  yard.  [Old  law:  Thirty 
per  centum.] 

449.  Hair  cloth,  known  as  "hair -seating," 
thirty  cents  per  square  yard. 

450.  Hair,  curled  suitable  for  beds  or  mattresses, 
fifteen  per  centum  ad  valorem.  (Old law:  Curled 
hair,  except  of  hogs,  used  for  beds  or  mattresses, 
twenty-five  per  centum] 

451.  Hats,  for  men's,  women's,  and  children's 
wear,  composed  ol  the  fur  of  the  rabbit ,  beaver, 
or  other  animals  or  of  which  such  fur  is  the  com- 
ponent material  of  chiet  value,  wholly  or  partially 
manufactured,  including  fur  hat  bodies,  ntt>  tne 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  (Old  law:  Twenty  per 
centum  by  Treasury  ruling:  bonnets,  hats,  and 
hoods  of  hair  not  specially  provided  for,  thirty  per 
centum. 

JEWELRY    AND   RBCtOtSJ 

45a.  Jewelry:   All   articles,    not  elsewhere  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  act  *  ompewedof  precious 
i  unit  at  ions  thereof,  whether  sei  with  coral, 
jet  or  pearls,  or    with    diamond*,   rubies,  cameos, 
or  other  precious  ston<  ***   thereof,  or 

otherwise,  mm)  whiih  shall  he  known  commcr- 
,.iallv  as  "jewelry."  and  cameos  in  frames,  fifty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Jewelry  of 
all  kinds,  twenty-five  |wr  centum  ] 

boa  BjSji   centum   ad  valorem       |Old 
rj  .it  t«  n    pet    centum  and   ritt\    per 
centum  ,u\  valorem  ] 

4s4  Pre.  ions  stones  of  all  kmdv  cut  hut  not 
set,  ten  per  centum  I  and  not 

specially  provided  tor    in  this  act,  lv 

centum  ad  valorem.     ' 

compos 

in  dimensions  not  set,  ten  per  centum  ad  » 
[Old  law:  rVecious  stones  of  all  kinds. 
centum;  compositions  of  glass  or  paste  *  bus  not 

set    ten  per  centum.] 

LKATIIKR    AMI   KAMI  V  It  RM   ^r. 

4«.  Bend  or  belting  leather  and  sole  leather, 
and  leather  not  specially  provKlrd  for  in  this  act, 
ten  per  centum  ad  valorem.    [Old  law:     Leather 


£ 


THE     TARIFF. 


433 


bend  or  belting  leather,  and  Spanish  or  other  sole 
leather,  and  leather  not  specially  enumerated  or 
provided  for  in  this  act,  fifteen  per  centum  ad 
valorem.] 

456.  Calf-skins,  tanned,  or  tanned  and  dressed, 
dressed  upper  leather,  including  patent,  enameled 
.md  japanned  leather,  dressed  or  undressed,  and 
finished;  chamois  or  other  skins  not  specially 
enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act,  twenty 
per  centum  ad  valorem;  book-binders'  calf-skins, 
kangaroo,  sheep  and  goat  skins,  including  lamb 
and  kid  skins,  dressed  and  finished,  twenty  per 
centum  ad  valorem;  skins  for  morocco,  tanned 
but  unfinished,  ten  per  centum  ad  valorem;  piano- 
forte leather  and  piano-forte  action  leather,  thirty- 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem;  japanned  calf-skins, 
thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem;  boots  and  shoes 
made  of  leather,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  va- 
lorem.] 

457.  But  leather  cut  into  shoe  uppers  or  vamps, 
or  other  forms,  suitable  for  conversion  into  manu- 
factured art  i«les,  shall  be  classified  as  manufact- 
ures of  leather,  and paydutyaccordingly.  [Calf- 
skins, tanned,  or  tanned  and  dressed,  and  dressed 
upper  leather  of  all  other  kinds,  and  skins  dressed 
and  finished,  of  all  kinds  not  specially  enumerated 
or  provided  for  in  this  act,  and  skins  of  morocco, 
finished,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  Skins 
for  morroco,  tanned,  but  unfinished,  ten  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  All  manufactures  and  ar- 
ticles of  leather,  or  of  which  leather  shall  be  a 
cemponent   part,   not    specially    enumerated    or 

fwovided  for  in  this  act,  thirty  per  centum  ad  va- 
orem,] 

458.  Gloves  of  all  descriptions,  composed  wholly 
or  in  part  of  kid  or  other  leather,  and  whether 
wholly  or  partly  manufactured,  shall  pay  duty  at 
the  rates  fixed  in  connection  with  the  following 
specified  kinds  thereof,  fourteen  inches  in  extreme 
length  when  stretched  to  the  full  extent,  being  in 
each  case  hereby  fixed  as  the  standard,  and  one 
dozen  pairs  as  the  basis,  namely;  Ladies'  and  chil- 
dren's schmaatli«n  of  said  length  or  under  ,one  dol- 
lar and  seventy-five  cents  per  dozen;  ladies'  and 
children's  Iamb  of  said  length  or  under,  two  dol- 
lars and  twenty-five  cents  per  dozen:  ladies'  and 
children's  kid  of  said  length  or  under,  three  dol- 
lars and  twenty-five  cents  per  dozen;  ladies'  and 
children's  suedes  of  said  length  or  under,  fifty  per 
centum  ad  valorem;  all  other  ladies'  and  children's 
leather  gloves,  and  all  men's  leather  gloves  of  said 
length  or  under,  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem;  all 
leather  gloves  over  fourteen  inches  in  length,  fifty 
per  centum  ad  valorem;  and  in  addition  to  the 
above  rates  there  shall  be  paid  on  all  men's  gloves 
one  dollar*  per  dozen;  on  all  lined  gloves,  one 
dollar  per  dozen;  on  all  pique  or  prick  seam 
gloves,  fifty  cents  per  dozen;  on  all  embroidered 
gloves  with  more  than  three  singlestrands  or  cords, 
fifty  cents  per  dozen  pairs.  Provided,  That  all 
gloves  represented  to  be  of  a  kind  or  grade  below 
their  actual  Kind  or  grade  shall  pay  an  additional 
duty  of  five  dollars  per  dozen   pairs:     Provided 

further,  That  none  of  the  articles  named  in  this 
paragraph  shall  pay  a  less  rate  of  duty  than'fifty 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Gloves,  kid 
or  leather,  of  all  descriptions,  wholly  or  partially 
manufactured,  fifty  per  centum  ad  valorem.] 

MISCELLANEOUS  MANUPACTT'RES. 

459.  Manufactures  of  alabaster,  amber,  asbes- 
tos, bladders,  coral,  cat -gut  or  whip-ijiit  or 
worm-gut,  jet,  paste,  spar,  wax,  or  of  which  these 
substances  or  either  of  them  is  a  component  ma- 
terial of  chief  value,  not  specially  provided  for  in 
this  ;i<  t .  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem;  osier 
or  willow  prepared  for  basketmakers'  use,  thirty 
per  centum  ad  valorem;  manufactures  of  osier  or 
willow,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Baskets  and  all  other  articles  composed  of  osier 
or  willow  not  specially  enumerated  or  provided 
for  in  this  act,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
Alabaster  and  spar  statuary  and  ornaments,  ten 
per  centum; manufactures  of  bladders,  twenty-five 
per  centum;  bonnets,  hats  and  hoods  for  men, 
women  and  children,  composed  of  willow, 
thirty  per  centum;  wax  candles  and  tapers, 
twenty  per  centum;  willow  sheets  or  squares, 
twenty  per  centum;  osier  or  willow  prepared  for 
basketmakers'  use,  twenty-five  per  centum;  gut 
and  worm-gut,  manufactures,  free;  asbestos 
manufactures,  twenty-five  per  centum;  jet  m.mu- 


29 


factures  and  imitations  of,  twenty-five  per  cen- 
tum.] 

460.  Manufactures  of  bone,  chip,  grass,  horn, 
India-rubber,  palm-leaf,  straw,  weeds,  or  whale- 
bone, or  of  which  these  substances  or  either  of 
them  is  the  component  material  of  chief  value;  not 
specially  provided  tor  in  this  act,  thirty  per  cen- 
tum ad  valorem.  [Old  law;  Manufactures  of 
bone  and  horn,  compositions  of,  thirty  per  centum; 
paste,  ten  per  centum;  coral,  cut,  manufactured, 
twenty-five  per  centum;  baskets  and  all  other 
articles  composed  of  grass,  palm-leaf,  whale- 
bone, or  straw,  thirty  per  centum.  India-rubber 
fabric!  composed  wholly  or  in  part  uf  indi;;  rub 
ber,  not  specially  enumerated  or  provided  for  in 
this  act,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  Arti- 
cles composed  of  ludia-rubber,  not  specially 
enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act,  twenty- 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  India-rubber 
boots  and  shoes,  twenty-five  per  centum 
ad  valorem.  Bonnets,  hats  and  hoods  for  men, 
women  and  children  composed  of  chip,  grass, 
palm-leaf,  or  straw  or  any  other  vegetable 
substance,  whale-bone,  or  other  material,  not 
specially  enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act, 
thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem.] 

461.  Manufactures  of  leather,  fur,  gutta-percha, 
vulcanized  India-rubber,  known  as  hard  rubber, 
human  hair,  papier-mache,  and  indurated  fiber 
wares  and  other  manufactures  composed  of  wood 
or  other  pulp,  or  of  which  these  substances 
or  either  of  them  is  the  component  material  of 
chief  value,  all  of  the  above  not  specially  provided 
for  in  this  act,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

tOld  law:  Fur,  articles  of,  thirty  per  centum; 
iiiman  hair,  when  manufactured,  thirty-five  per 
centum;  gutta-percha,  manufactured,  and  all  ar- 
ticles of,  thirty-five  per  centum;  papier-mache 
manufactures,  articles  and  wares,  thirty  per 
centum.  Hair,  human,  bracelets,  braids,  chains, 
rings,  curls,  and  ringlets,  composed  of  hair,  or  of 
which  hair  is  the  component  material  of  chief 
value,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.] 

462.  Manufactures  of  ivory,  vegetable  ivory, 
mother-of-pearl,  and  shell,  or  of  which  these  sub- 
stances or  either  of  them  is  the  component  ma- 
terial of  chief  value,  not  specially  provided  for  in 
this  act,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law: 
Manufactures  of  ivory  and  vegetable  ivory,  thirty 
per  centum;  shells,  whole  or  parts  of,  manufact- 
ured, of  every  description  not  specially  provided 
for,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 1 

463.  Masks,  composed  of  paper  or  pulp,  thirty- 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem.     [New  provision.  ] 

464.  Matting  made  of  cocoa-fiber  or  rattan, 
twelve  cents  per  square  yard:  mats  made  of  cocoa- 
fiber  or  rattan,  eight  cents  per  square  foot.  [Old 
law:  Floor  matting  and  floor  mats,  exclusively  of 
vegetable  substances,  twenty  per  centum.] 

465.  Paintings,  in  oil  or  water  colors,  and 
statuary,  not  otherwise  provided  for  in  this  act, 
fifteen  per  centum  ad  valorem;  but  the  term  "stat- 
uary" as  herein  used  shall  be  understood  to  in- 
clude only  such  statuary  as  is  cut,  carved,  or  other- 
wise wrought  by  hand  from  a  solid  block  or  mass 
of  marble,  stone  or  alabaster,  or  from  metal,  and 
as  is  the  professional  production  of  a  statuary  or 
sculptor  only.     [Old   law:     Thirty  per  centum.] 

466.  Pencils  of  wood  filled  with  lead  or  other 
material,  and  pencils  of  lead,  fifty  cents  per  gross 
and  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem;  slate  pencils, 
four  cents  per  gross.  [Old  law:  Slate  pencils, 
thirty  per  centum.] 

467.  Pencil-leads,  not  in  wood,  ten  per  centum 
ad  valorem 

PIPES  AND  SMOKERS*    ARTICLES. 

468.  Pipes,  pipe-l>owls,  of  all  materials,  and  all 
smokers'  articles  whatsoever,  not  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act,  including  cigarette-books, 
cigarette  book-covers,  pouches  for  smoking  or 
chewing  tobacco,  and  cigarette  paper  in  all  forms, 
seventy  per  centum  ad  valorem;  all  common  to- 
bacco pipes  of  clay,  fifteen  cents  per  gross.  Pipes, 
pipe  bowls,  and  all  smokers' articles  whatsoever, 
not  specially  enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this 
act,  seventy  per  centum  ad  valorem;  all  common 
pipes  of  clay,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad   valorem. 

469.  Plush,  black,  known  commercially  as 
hatters'  plush,  composed  of  *ilk,  or  of  silk  and  cot- 
ton, and  used  exclusively  for  waking- men's  hats, 
ten  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law;  Twenty- 
five  per  centum.] 


470.  Umbrellas,  parasols,   and  MBshjU 

ered  with  silk  or  alpaca,  fifty-five  per  centum  ad 
valorem;  if  covered  with  other  material,  forty-fiv<- 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Fifty  per 
centum  and  forty  per  centum.] 

471.  Umbrellas,  parasols,  and  sunshades,  sticks 
for,  if  f>lain,  finished  or  unfinished,  thirty-five 
per  centum  ad  valorem;  if  carved,  fifty  /a 
centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Thirty  per 
centum.] 

472.  Waste,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this 
act,  ten  per  centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Items 
specially  provided  for  under  the  old  law,  which 
will  be  classified  under  the  new  law  according  to 
the  component  material  of  chief  value:  Card-cas«6, 
pocfeet-DOoks,  shell-boxes,  and  all  similar  arti- 
cles, of  whatever  material  composed,  and  by  what- 
ever name  known,  not  specially  enumerated  or 
provided  for  in  this  act,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  Carriages,  and  parts  of,  not  specially 
enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act,  thirty-five 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  Coach  and  harness  fur- 
niture of  all  kinds,  saddlery,  coach,  and  harness 
hardware,  silver-plated,  brass,  bntss-plated,  or 
covered,  common,  tinned,  burnished,  or  japanned, 
not  specially  enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this 
act,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  Combs,  of 
all  kinds,  thirty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  Cray- 
ons, of  all  kinds,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 
Fans  of  all  kinds  except  common  palm-leaf  fans, 
of  whatever  material  composed,  thirty-five  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  Finishing  powder,  twenty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  Japanned  ware  of  all  kinds, 
not  specially  enumerated  or  provided  fwr  in  tins 
act,  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem.  Musical  in- 
struments of  all  kinds,  twenty-five  per  centum  ad 
valorem.  Philosophical  apparatus  and  instru- 
ments, thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem.  Polish- 
ing powders  of  every  description,  by  whatever 
name  known,  including  Frankfort-black,  and  Ber- 
lin, Chinese,  fig,  and  wash  blue,  twenty  per  centum 
ad  valorem.  Scagliola,  and  composition  tops  for 
tables  or  for  other  articles  of  furniture,  thirty -five 
per  centum  ad  valorem.  Teeth,  manufactured, 
twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem. 


The  Free  List. 

(Figures  in  brackets  show  the  rate  of  duty  under 
the  old  law.) 

Sec.  a.  On  and  after  the  sixth  day  ef  October, 
eighteen  hundred  and  ninety,  unless  otherwise 
specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  the  following 
articles  when  imported  shall  be  exempt  from  duty: 

Acid  used  for  medicinal,  chemical,  or  manufac- 
turing purposes  not  specially  provided  for  in  this 
act. 

Aconite. 

Acorns,  raw,  dried  or  undried,  but  ungreund. 

Agates,  unmanufactured. 

Albumen . 

Alizarine,  natural  or  artificial,  and  dyes  com- 
mercially known  as  Alizarine  yellow,  Aliza- 
rine orange,  Alizarine  green,  Alizarine  bluer 
Alizarine  brown , .  Mizarine  black. 

Amber,  unmanufactured,  or  crude,  gum.  [Old 
law:      Amber  beads  and  gum.] 

Ambergris. 

Aniline  salts.  [Old  law:  Aniline  salts,  or 
black  salts  or  black  tares.] 

Any  animal  imported  specially  (or  breeding 
purposes  shall  be  admitted  free:  Prmided,  That 
no3uch  animal  shall  be  admitted  free  unless  pure 
bred  of  a  recognized  breed  and  duly  registered  in 
a  book  of  record  established  for  that  breed:  And 
Provided  further \  That  certificate  of  such  record 
and  of  the  pedigree  of  such  animal  shall  be  pro- 
duced and  submitted  to  the  customs  officer,  duly 
authenticated  by  the  proper  custodian  of  such 
book  of  record,  together  with  the  affidavit  of  the 
owner,  agent  or  importer  that  such  animal  is  the 
identical  animal  described  in  said  certificate  of 
record  and  pedigree.  The  Secretary  of  the  Tn  m 
ury  may  prescribe  such  additional  regulations  as 
maybe  required  for  the  strict  enforcement  of  this 
provision.  [Old  law:  Animals  specially  Im- 
ported for  breeding  purposes  shall  be  admitted 
free  upon  proof  thereof  satisfactory  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury,  and  under  such  regulations 
as  he  may  prescribe,  and  teams  of  animals,  includ- 


4± 


& 


434 


A 


THE    TARIFF. 


i   tackle     nd   the   vehicles  or 
wagons   actually   owned     >y    persons    ami 

I'lgij    countries    tO  the  I  tatted  St.ilrs    with 
their  Utilities,  and  in  actual  use  lor  tin*  pur] 
mk.1i --migration,   shall     I  so  l«r  admitted  free  of 
duty,  under  such   regulations  as    the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  may  prescribe.] 

Animals  brought  to  the  United  fitates  tem- 
poral ily  for  a  period  not  exceeding  six  months, 
purpose  "i  <  xhibition  or  competition  for 
prizes  o tiered  by  at,  agricultural  or  racing  associ- 
ation; but  a  bond  shall  3a  ;iven  in  accordance 
with  regulations  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
l'r<-  tsury;  also  teams  ol  :.nimals,  including  their 
harness  and  tackle,  and  the  erayOOJ  rf  :.>ther  ve- 
il tually  owned  by  persons  emigrating  from 
foreign  countries  to  the  United  States  with  their 
families,  iiul  in  actual  use  tor  'he  purpose  of  such 
emigration  under  ;uch  'emulations  us  he  Secre- 
tary of  .be  Treasury  may  prescribe;  and  wUd 
animals  intended  /or  exhibition  in  yological 
collections  f,->r  scientific  .md  educational  Pur- 
poses, and  not  fir  sate  or  profit. 

Annatto  oucou,  rocoa,  or  Orleans,  and  al'  ex- 
tracts 01. 

Antimony,  ore,  crude  sulphide  of. 

Apatite. 

Argal,or  argol,  or  crude  tartar. 

/irrowroot,  raw  or  u n  manufactured. 

Arsenic  and  sulphide  of  ororDiment. 

Arseniate  of  aniline. 

Ar*  educational  stops  :omposed  of  ^las*  and 
metal  and  valued  at  not  more  than  six  cents  oer 
gross.     [New  provision.] 

Articles  in  a  crude  state  used  in  dyeing  or  tan- 
Ming  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act. 

Articles  the  growth,  produce,  and  manufacture 
in  the  United  States,  when  returned  after  having 
been  exported,  without  having  l>een  advanced  in 
value  or  improved  in  condition  by  any  process  of 
manufacture  or  other  means;  casks,  barrels,  car- 
boys, bags,  and  other  vessels  of  American  manu- 
facture exported  filled  with  American  products,  or 
exported  empty  and  returned  filled  with  foreign 
products,including  shooks  when  returned  as  barrels 
or  boxes;  also  quicksilviT  flasks  or  bottles,  of 
either  domestic  or  foreign  manufacture,  which 
shall  have  been  actually  exported  from  the  United 
States;  but  proof  of  the  identity  of  such  articles 
shall  be  made,  under  general  regulations  t«  be 
preserved  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury;  and  if 
any  such  articles  are  subject  to  internal  tax  at  the 
time  of  exportation  such  tax  shall  be  proved  to 
have  been  paid  before  exportation  and  not  re- 
funded: /'roT'ided,  That  this  paragraph  shall 
not  apply  to  any  article  upon  which  an  allowance 
of  drawback  has  been  made,  the  re-importation  of 
which  is  hereby  prohibited  except  upon  payment 
of  duties  equal  to  the  drawbacks  allowed;  or  to 
any  article  manufactured  in  bonded  warehouse 
and  exported  under  any  provision  of  law;  And 
Provided  further ,  That  when  manufactured  to- 
hacco  which  has  been  exported  without  payment 
of  internal-revenue  tax  shall  be  re-imported  it 
shall  be  retained  in  the  custody  of  the  collector  ot 
customs  until  internal-revenue  stamps  in  payment 
cf  the  legal  duties  shall  l>e  placed  theqeon.  [Old 
law:  liarrels  of  American  manufacture,  exported 
filled  with  domestic  petroleum,  and  returned 
empty  under  such  regulations  as  the  Sen 
the '1  reasury  may  prescribe,  and  without  room- 
ing the  filing  of  a  declaration  at  time  of  export 
ofintcnt  to  return  the  same  empty.  Artii 
growth,  produce,  and  manufacture  of  the  United 
States,  when  returned  in  the  same  condition  as 
exported.  Casks,  barrels,  carboys,  bags  and 
ssels  of  Amerii  an  manufacture,  exported 
filled  with  American  products,  or  exported 
empty  and  returned  filled  with  foreign  products, 
including  shooks   when   returned  as  barrels   or 

but  proof  of  the  identity  of  such 
shall  be  made  under  the  regulations  to  be  pre- 
acrtbodbythe  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  andii 
Dm  t  to  interna]  tax  at  the 
time  of  exportation,  such  tax  shall  l>e  proved  to 
bare  been  paid  before  exportation  :nd  not  re- 
funded.    i'i      Attdprp rid- d  further,  Th 

other  th  in  ol   Amerfc  an  manufacture,  in  which 
d  nail  have  been  actually  exported  from  the 

trued   empty    to  the 
United  States,  free  ofdaty,  under  ragwarJooa  to 
.  ribed  by  the  I  the  Treasury. 

Sec.  7,  act  of  Feb.  8,  i«7s.) 


Asbestos,  unmanufactured.  Joldlaw:  Articles 
imported  for  the  use  of  the  United  States,  pro- 
vided that  the  *jrice  of  the  same  did  riot  include 
the  duty.] 

Ashes,  wood  and  lye  of,  and  licet  root  ashes. 

Asphaltum  .nd  bitumen   crude. 

Asa!  | 

Balm  of  (iilead. 

Harks,  i  in.  bona  or  other  troin  whi.  li  quinine 
may  be  extracted.  (Old  law:  DaiSi,  rim  tanas 
or  other  barks  used  in  the  manufacture  of  quin- 
ine.] 

Baryta,  carbonate  of,  or  withcrite. 

Bauxite, or  'x::.uxite. 

Heeswax.      Old  law:     Twenty  per  centum  1 

Bells  broken,  and  bell  metal,  broken  ana  fit 
only  'o  be  ^manufactured. 

Birds,  stuffed,  not  suitable  for  millinery  orna- 
ments, and  birds'  shins, prepared  or  preserva- 
tion ,but  not  further  adratu  ed        tcauufacture. 

Buda  and  .and  and  water  loerla. 

Bismuth. 

Bladders,  including  fish  bladders  si  fish  sounds, 
crude,  and  all  integuments  n  nuiial*  nut  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  this  ict. 

Blood,  dried. 

Bologna  laniaajna. 

Bolting  cloths,  especially  for  milling  pur- 
Poses,  but  not  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of 
ivearing  apparel. 

Bones  crude,  or  not  burned,  calcined,  ground, 
steamed  or  otherwise  manufactured,  and  bone- 
dust  or  animal  carbon  and  bone  ash,  fit  only  tor 
fertilizing  ptirpe  es.  [Old  law;  Bones,  crude,  not 
manufactured,  burned,  calcined,  -p-ound  or 
steamed.  Bone-dust  and  bone-ash  or  manufact- 
ure of  phosphate  and  fertilizers.] 

Books,  engravings,  photographs,  bound  or  un- 
boiiud  etchings,  maps  and  charts,  which  shall 
have  been  printed  and  bound  or  manufactured 
more  than  twenty  yearsat  the  date  of  importation. 

Books  and  pamphlets  printed  exclusively  in 
languages  other  than  English;  also  books  and  mu- 
sk   m  i  used  prim,  used  exclusively  by  the  blind. 

Books,  engravings,  photographs,  etchings, 
bound  or  umhound,  maps  and  charts  imported  uy 
authority  or  for  the  use  of  the  United  Si 
for  the  use  of  the  Library  of  Congress.  [Note — 
The  Allowing  words  are  omitted  from  new  law: 
"But  the  duty  shall  not  have  been  included  in  the 

ontract  of  price  paid."] 
Books,  maps,  lithographic  prints  and  charts 
specially  imported,  not  more  two  copies  in  any 
one  invoice,  in  good  faith,  for  the  use  of  any  so- 
ciety incorporated  orcstablished  ."or  educational, 
philosophical,  literary,  jr  religious  purposes,  or  for 
the  encouragement  of  the  fine  arts,  or  tor  the 
use  or  by  ordet  of  any  college,  academy, 
school,  or  seminary  of  learning  in  the  United 
States,  subject  to  such  regulations  as  the  See  re* 
tary  of  the  Treasury  shall  prescribe. 

Books  or  libraries,  or  parts  of  libraries,  and 

other  household  effects  of  persons  or  families    rom 

foreign  countries,  if  actually  used  abroad  by  them 

•  ;han  one  year,  and   not  intended  for  any 

other  person  or  persons,  nor  for  sate. 

Braids',  plaits,  laces,  and  similar  manufactures 
l  s,  palm  leaf,  willow, 
osier,  or  rattan,  suitable  KMT  making  or  01  n 
ing  hats.bonmt  'Oldlaw;     Twenty 

per  centum,'' 

bVaaillan      pebble,      un  wrought      or      uninunu- 
factured.     [<  Id  law:     Uia/ilian  oebbles  for  spec- 
tacles and  pebbles  for  spectacle*  rough   | 
r  slabs. 

I'.romine. 

Hulli. 

Burgundy  pit.  h 

Cabinets  or  old  coins  nnd  medal*  and  other  col- 
of  antiquities,  but  the  term  "antiquities" 
asused  in  this  hide  only  such  articles 

as  are  suit 

end  wliii  h  shall  i  d  at  any  period 

priof  to  the  year  aereuteer  bundn  d 

-  td  all  other  collections 

uttes.J 

*  ladmmm, 

(.Calamine. 
Camphor,  crude. 

tor,  or  castoreum. 
Catgut,  whipgut  or  wonngut,  unmanufactured, 

or  not  tint  her    ■jauuUcint'-d  than  in  siring-  ■ 


H  >!d  law;  Catgut  strings  or  gut  cord  or  musical 
instruments..  strings.  All  strings  of  catgut  or  any 
other  like  material,  other  than  string*  for  musical 
instruments,  twenty-rive  per  centum  ad  valorem.] 

Cerium. 

Chalk ,  unmanufact ured  [Old  law  contains 
I  ItlTan— it  ] 

Charcoal. 

Chicoryroot,  raw,  dried  or  undricd,  but  un- 
ground. 

Civet,  crude. 

Clay — common  blue  clay  in  casks  suitable  for 
the  manufacture  of  crucible*      [New  pro  vision.] 

Coal,  anthracite. 

Coal  stores  of  American  vessels,  but  none 
shall  be  unloaded.  ■ 

Coal  tar,  crude. 

Cobalt  and  cobalt  ore.  [Old  taw:  Cobah,orc 
of;  cobalt  as  metallic  arsenic] 

Cocculus  mdicus. 

Cochineal . 

Cocoa,  or  cacoa,  crude  and  fiber,  leave*  and 
shells  of. 

Coffee. 

Coins,  gold,  silver  and  copper. 

Coir  and  coir  yarn. 

Copper,  old,  taken  from  the  bottom  of  Ameri- 
can vessels  compelled  by  marine  disaster  to  repair 
in  foreign  ports. 

Coral,  marine,  uncut  and  unmanufactured. 

Cork  wood  or  cork  bark,  unmanufactured. 

Cotton  and  c>tton-u\n:e  or  flocks. 

Cryolite  or  kryotith. 

Cudbear. 

Curling-stones,  or  quoits,  and  curling-atone 
handles. 

Curry  and  curry  powdisr. 

Cutch. 

Cuttlefish  bone. 

Dandelion  roots,  raw,  dried  or  uodried,  but  un- 
ground. 

Diamonds  and  other  precious  stents,  rough  or 
uncut,  including  glaziers'  and  engravrrs'  dia- 
monds not  set,  and  diamond  dust  or  bort,  and 
■   Sensed  in  the  manufacture  of  notches . 

1  »ivi  di\i. 

Dragon's  blood. 

Drugs,  such  as  barks,  beans,  berries,  balsams, 
buds,  bulbs,  and  bulbous  roots,  excrescences, 
such  as  nut-galls,  fruits,  flowers,  dried  fibers,  and 
dried  insects,  grains,  jum*  and  gum-resin,  herbs, 
leaves,  lichens,  mosses,  nut-,  roots,  and  stems, 
spices,  vegetables,  seeds,  aromatic  and  seeds  of 
morbid  growth,  weeds  and  woods  used  expressly 
for  dyeing;  any  of  the  foregoing  which  are  not  edi- 
ble and  arc  in  a  crude  state,  and  not  advanced  in 
value  or  condition  by  refining  or  grinding,  or  by 
other  process  of  manufacture  ana  not  specially 
provided  tor  in  this  act. 

Eggs  of  birds, fish  and  insects 

Emery  ore.' 

Ergot. 

Eans,  common  palm-leaf  and  palm-leaf  un- 
manufactured. 

Farina. 

Fashion  plates,  engraved  on  steel,  or  copper,  or 
on  wood,  colored  or  plain 

Feathers  and  downs  for  beds.  [iV.a  law:  Bed 
feathers  and  down- 
Feldspar. 

Felt,  adhesive,  for  sheathing  vessels. 

Fibrin  in  all  forms. 

fi-h,  the  product  of  American  fisheries  and 
fre>h  or  froicn  fish  (except  salmon)  caught  in 
fresh  waters  by  American  vessels,  or  with  nets  or 
other  devices  owned  by  citizen*  of  the  United 
States.  [Old  law.  Fish,  fresh,  for  iaiawhste 
.  ..n-timption  1 

Flail  lor  bait 

Fish  skins.    [Also  shark  skins  under  old  law] 

Mint,  flints  and  ground  flint  stones. 

Floor  matting  manufactured  tiom  round  or 
split  straw,  including  what  »  commonly  known 
as  Chinese  matting  [Old  law:  Floor  asartmsj 
and  floor  matscxctusively  of  vegetable  substances, 
twenty  per  centum  ] 

Fossils. 

Fruit  plants,  tropical  and  semi  tropical,  for  the 
purpose  of  propagation  or  a 

FKV1T*   ANI> 

Currants.  Zante  or  other  {Old  law:  One 
cent  ;»cr  pound  ] 


r. 


1!\ 


=** 


THE     TARIFF. 


=7? 


435 


Dates.     [Old  law:     One  cent  per  poand  \ 

Fruits,  green,  ripe  or  dried,  nut  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  this  act. 

Tamarinds. 

Cocoanuts. 

Brazil  nuts. 

Cream  nut-. 

Palm  nuts. 

Palm  nut  kernels. 

Furs,  undressed. 

Fur  skins  of  all  kinds  not  dressed  in  any  man- 
ner. 

Gambier. 

<  Haas,  broken,  and  old  glass,  which  cannot  be 
cut  for  use,  and    fit    only    to  be  remanutactured. 

Glass  plates  or  disks,  rough  cut  or  unwrought, 
for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  optical  instru- 
ments, spectacles  and  eyeglasses,  and  suitable 
only  or  such  use:  Provided  however.  That  such 
disks  exceeding  eight  inches  in  diameter  may  be 
polished  sufficiently  to  enable  the  character  of  the 
glass  to  be  determined.  [Old  law;  Glass  plates 
or  disks,  unwrought,  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
optical  instruments.] 

GRASSES    AND    FIBERS. 

Istle,  or  Tampico  fiber. 

Jute.     [Old  law:     Twenty  per  centum. j 
ute  butts.     [Old  law:    Five  dollars  per  ton.] 
laniia. 

Sisal  grass.  [Old  law:  Fifteen  dollars  per 
ton.] 

Sunn.    [Old  law:     Fifteen  dollars  per  ton.] 

And  all  other  textile  grasses  or  fibrous  vegetable 
substances,  unmanufactured  or  undressed,  not 
specially  provided  for  in  this  act.  [Old  law:  Fif- 
teen dollars  per  ton.  Esparto  or  Spanish  grass 
and  other  grasses,  and  pulp  of,  for  the  manufact- 
ure of  paper.] 

Gold-beaters'  molds  and  gold-beaters'  skins. 

Grease  and  oilj  such  as  are  commonly  used  in 
soap-making  or  in  wire-drawing,  or  for  stuffing  or 
dressing  leather,  and  which  are  fit  only  for  such 
uses,  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act.  [Old 
law:  Grease  for  use  as  soap  stock  only,  not 
specially  provided  for;  soap  stocks  free;  grease  all 
not  specially  enumerated  or  provided  for,  ten  per 
centum.] 

Guano,  manures  and  all  substances  expressly 
used  for  manure. 

t  iunny  bags  and  gunny  cloths,  old  or  refuse,  fit 
only  for  remanufacture. 

Guts,  salted. 

Gutta-percha,  crude. 

Hair  of  horse,  cattle,  and  other  animals, 
cleaned  or  uncleaned,  drawn  or  undrawn,  but  un- 
manufactured, not  specially  provided  for  in  this 
act;  and  human  hair,  raw,  uncleaned  and  not 
drawn.  [Old  law:  Hair,  horse  or  cattle,  and 
hair  of  all  kinds,  cleaned  or  uncleaned,  drawn  or 
undrawn,  but  unmanufactured,  not  specially 
enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this  act;  of  hogs, 
curled  for  beds  and  mattresses,  and  not  fit  for 
bristles.] 

Hides, raw  or  uncured,  whether  dry,  salted  or 
pickled.  Angora  goatskins,  raw  without  the 
wool,  unmanufactured,  asses'  skins,  raw  or  un- 
manufactured, and  skins,  except  sheepskins,  with 
the  wool  on.     [Old  law:  Also  goat-skins  raw.] 

Hide-cuttings,  raw,  with  or  without  hair,  and 
all  other  glue  stock. 

Hide  rope. 

Hones  and  whetstones. 

Hoofs,  unmanufactured. 

Hop  roots  for  cultivation. 

Horns  and  parts  of,  unmanufactured,  including 
horn  strips  and  tips. 

Ice. 

India-rubber,  crude  and  milk  of,  and  old  scrap 
or  refuse  India-rubber  which  has  been  worn  out  by- 
use  and  is  fit  only  for  remanufacture. 

Indigo.  [Old  law;  Indigo  and  artificial  in- 
digo.] 

Iodine,  crude. 

Ipecac. 

Iridium. 

Ivory  and  vegetable  ivory,  not  salved,  cut,  or 
otherwise  manufactured.  [Old  law  contained 
word  unmanufactured. ,] 

Jalap. 

Jet ,  un  man  ufactured . 

Joss-stick,  or  Joss-light. 


Junk,  old. 

Kelp. 

Kieserite. 

Kyanite,  or  cyanite,  andkainice. 

Lac  dye,  crude,  seed,  button,  ttick  and  shell. 

Lac  spirits. 

Lactarine. 

Lava,  unmanufactured. 

Leeches. 

Lemon  juice,  lime  juice,  and  sour  orange 
iuice. 

Licorice  root,  unground. 

Lifeboat  and  life-saving  apparatus  specially  im- 
ported by  societies  incorporated  or  established  to 
encourage  the  saving  of  human  life. 

Lime,  citrate  of. 

Lime,  chloride  of,  or  bleaching  powder. 

Lithographic  stones  not  engraved. 

Litmus,  prepared  or  not  prepared. 

Lodestones. 

Madder  and  munjeet,  or  Indian  madder,  ground 
or  prepared,  and  all  extracts  of. 

Magnesite,  or  native  mineral  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia. 

Magnesium. 

Magnets. 

Manganese,  oxide  and  ore  of. 

Manna. 

Manuscripts. 

Marrow,  crude. 

Marshmallows. 

Medals  of  gold,  silver  or  copper,  such  as  tro- 
phies or  Prizes. 

Meerschaum,  crude  or  unmanufactured.  [Old 
law  says  raw  instead  of  unmanufactured.] 

Mineral  waters,  all  not  artificial. 

Minerals,  crude  or  not  advanced  in  value  or 
condition  by  refining  or  grinding,  or  by  other  pro- 
cess of  manufacture,  not  specially  provided  for 
in  this  act. 

Models  of  inventions  and  ofotherimprovements 
in  the  arts,  including  patterns  for  machinery,  but 
no  article  shall  be  deemed  a  model  or  pattern 
which  can  be  fitted  for  use  otherwise.  [Old  law : 
Changed  from  improvement  to  pattern.] 

Moss,  sea  weeds,  and  vegetable  substances, 
crude  or  unmanufactured,  not  otherwise  specially 
provided  for  in  this  act.  [Old  law:  Moss,  sea- 
weeds, and  all  other  vegetable  substances  used  for 
beds  and  matresses.] 

Musk,  crude,  in  natural  pods. 

Myrobolan. 

Needles,  hand-sewing  and  darning. 

Newspapers  and  periodicals  but  the  term 
" periodicals"  as  herein  used  shall  be  under- 
stood to  embrace  only  unbound  or  paper-coz'- 
ered  publications,  containing  current  litera- 
ture of  the  day  and  issued  regularly  at  stated 
Periods  as  iveekly,  monthly,  or  quarterly, 

Nux  vomica. 

Oakum. 

Oilcake. 

Oils—Almond,  amber,  crude  and  rectified  am- 
bergris, anise  or  anise  seed,  aniline,  aspic  or  spike 
lavender,  bergamot,  cajeput,  caraway,  cassia,  cin- 
amon,  cedrat,  chamomile,  citronella  or  lemon 
grass,  civet,  fennel,  jasmine  or  jasimine, 
juglandium,  juniper,  lavender,  lemon, limes,  mace, 
neroli,  or  orange  flower,  nut  oil  or  oil  of  nuts  not 
otherwise  specially  provided  for  in  this  act,  orange 
oil,  olive  oil  for  manufacturing  or  mechanical  pur- 
poses, unfit  for  eating  and  not  otherwise  provided 
for  in  this  act,  attar  of  roses,  palm  and  cocoanut, 
rosemary  or  anthoss,  sesame  or  sesamum  seed  or 
bene,  thyme,  origanum,  red  or  white  ;  valerian, 
and  also  spermaceti,  whale  and  other  fish  oils  of 
American  fisheries,  and  all  other  articles  the  pro- 
duce of  such  fisheries. 

Olives,  green  or  prepared. 

Opium,  crude  or  unmanufactured,  and  not  adul- 
terated, containing  nine  per  centum  and  over  of 
morphia. 

Orange  and  lemon  peel,  not  preserved,  candied, 
or  otherwise  prepared. 

Orchil  or  orchil  liquid. 

Orchids,  lily  of  the  valley,  azaleas,  palms,  and 
other  plants  used  for  forcing  under  glass  for  cut 
flowers  or  decorative  purposes. 

Ores  of  gold,  silver  and  nickel  and  nickel 
matte:  Provided,  That  ores  of  nickel  and 
nickel  matte,  containing  more  than  two  Per 
centum  of  copper,  shall  pay  a  duty  of  one-half 
of  one  cent  per  pound  on  the  copper  contained 


th.-vein,     [Old  law:     Ail   tonus    of  nickel,  fifteen 
per  pound] 

'  Minium. 
Palladium. 

Taper  stock,  crude,  of  ever)'  description,  in- 
cluding all  grasses,  fibers,  rags  (other  than  wool), 
havings,  clippings,  old  paper,  rope  ends, 
waste  rope,  waste  bagging,  old  or  refuse  gunny 
bags  or  gunny  cloth,  and  poplar  or  other  woods, 
fit  only  to  be  converted  into  paper.  [Old  law  : 
leather,  old  scraps,  enumerated.  Sea-weed  not 
specially  provided  for.  Paper-stock,  crude,  of 
every  description,  including  all  grasses,  fibers, 
rags  of  all  kinds,  other  than  wool,  waste,  shavings, 
clippings,  old  paper,  rope  ends,  waste  rope,  waste 
bagging,  gunny  bags,  gunny  cloth,  old  or  refuse, 
to  be  used  in  making,  and  fit  only  to  be  converted 
into  paper,  and  unfit  for  any  other  manufacture, 
and  cotton  waste,  whether  for  paper  stock  or 
other  purposes.  Rags  of  whatever  material  com- 
posed, and  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act, 
ten  per  centum.     [See  fibers  and  grasses.] 

Paraffine. 

Parchment  and  vellum. 

Pearl,  mother  of,  not  sa-zued,  cut,  polished,  or 
other:,'/ se  manufactured. 

Peltries  and  other  usual  goods  and  effects  of 
Indians  passing  or  repassing  the  boundary  line  of 
the  United  States,  under  such  regulations  as  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  prescribe  :  Pro- 
7'ided,    That  this  exemption    shall  not    apply  to 

foods  in  bales  or  other  packages  unusual  among 
ndians. 

Personal  and  household  effects  not  merchandise 
of  citizens  of  the  United  States  dying  in  foreign 
countries. 

Pewter  and  britannia  metal  old,  and  fit  only  to 
be  remanufactured. 

Philosophical  and  scientific  apparatus,  instru- 
ments and  preparations;  statuary,  casts  of  marble, 
bronze,  alabaster  or  plaster  of  Paris;  paintings, 
drawings  andetchings,  specially  imported  in  good 
faith  for  the  use  of  any  society  or  institutiop  incor- 
porated or  established  for  religious,  philosophical, 
educational,  scientific  on  literary  purposes,  or  foe 
encouragement  of  the  fine  arts  and  not  intended 
for  sale. 

Phosphates,  crude  or  native.  [Old  law  con- 
tains words;     "For  fertilizing  purposes."] 

Plants,  trees,  shrubs,  roots,  seed  cane  and 
seeds,  all  of  the  foregoing  imported  by  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  or  the  United  States  Bo- 
tnnic  Garden. 

Plaster  of  Paris  andisulphate  of  lime,  unground. 

Platina,  in  ingots,  bars,  sheets,  and  wire.  [Old 
law:     Platina,   unmanufactured.] 

Platinum,  unmanufactured,  and  vases,  retorts 
and  other  apparatus,  vessels  and  parts  thereof 
composed  of  platinum  for  chemical  uses. 

Plumbago. 

Polishing  stones. 

Potash,  crude,  carbonate  of,  or  "black  salts." 
Caustic  potash  or  hydrate  of,  not  including  re- 
fined, in  sticks  or  rolls.  Nitrate  of  potash  or 
saltpeter,  crude.  Sulphate  of  potash,  crude  or  re- 
fined. Chlorate  of  potash.  Muriate  of  potash. 
[Old  law:  Caustic,  and  so  forth,  twenty  per 
centum;  chlorate,  three  cents  per  pound;  sulphate 
twenty  per  centum;  nitrate  of,  or  saltpeter  crude, 
one  cent  per  pound.] 

Professional  books,  implements,  instruments, 
and  tools  of  trade,  occupation,  or  employment  in 
the  actual  possession  at  the  time  of  persons  ar- 
riving in  the  United  States;  but  this  exemption 
shall  not  be  construed  to  include  machinery  or 
other  articles  imported  for  use  in  any  manufactur- 
ing establishment,  or  for  any  other  person  or  per- 
sons, or  for  sale.  [Old  law;  Professional  books 
only.] 

Pulu. 

Pumice. 

Quills,  prepared  or  unprepared,  but  not  made 
up  into  complete  articles. 

Quinia,  sulphate  of,  and  all  alkaloids  or  salts  of 
cinchona  bark.  [Old  law:  Quinia,  sulphate  of, 
salts  of  andcinchonidia.] 

Rags  not  otherwise  specially  provided  for  in 
this  act.  [Old  law:  Rags  of  all  kinds  other 
than  wool.] 

Regalia  and  gems,  statues,  statuary,  and  spec- 
imens of  sculpture  where  specially  imported  in 
good  faith  for  the  use  of  any  society  incorporated 
or  established  solely  for  educational,  philosoph- 


7T 


_^ 


-M 


436 


THE    TARIFF. 


~7\ 


ical,  literary  or  religious  purposes,  or  for  the  en- 
couragement of  fine  arts,  or  for  the  use  or  by  order 
of  any  college,  academy,  schoot,  seminary  of 
learning,  or  public  library  in  the  United  States; 
but  the  term  "regalia."  at  herein  used  shall  be 
held  to  embrace  only  such  insignia  of  rank  or 
office  or  emblems  t  as  maybe  7uorn  upon  the  per- 
son or  borne  in  the  hand  during  public  exer- 
cises 0/  the  society  or  institution  f  and  shall  not . 
include  articles  0/ furniture  or  fixtures t  or  oj 
regular  wearing  apparel ',  not  personal  property 
of  individuals . 

Rennets,  raw  or  prepared. 

Saffron  and  safflower  and  extract  of,  and  saf- 
fron cake. 

Sago,  crude,  and  sago  flour. 

Salactne. 

Sauerkraut 

Sausage  skins. 

Seeds,  anise,  canary,  caraway,  cardamon,  cori- 
ander, cotton,  cummin,  fennel,  fenugreek,  hemp, 
hoarhound,  mustard,  rape,  St.  John's  bread  or 
bene,  sugar  beet,  mangel  wurzel,  sorghum  or 
sugar  cane  for  seed,  and  all  flower  and  grass 
seeds;  bulbs  and  bulbous  roots,  not  edible;  all  the 
foregoing  not  specially  provided  for  in  this  act. 
[Old  law;  Bulbs  and  bulbous  roots,  not  medici- 
nal, not  otherwise  provided  for,  twenty  per 
Centum.] 

Selep  or  saloup. 

Shells  of  all  kinds,  not  cut,  ground  or  otherwise 
manufactured.  [Old  law:  Shells  of  every  de- 
scription, not  manufactured;  tortoise  and  other 
shells,  unmanufactured,  free.] 

Shotgun -barrels,  forged,  rough  bored.  [Old 
law:     Ten  per  centum.] 

Shrimps  and  other  shell  fish. 

Silk,  raw  or  as  reeled  from  the  cocoon,  but 
liot  doubted,  twisted,  or  advanced  in  manufacture 
in  any  way. 

Silk  cocoons  and  silk-waste. 

Silkworms'  eggs. 

Skeletons  and  other  preparations  of  anatomy. 

Snails. 

Soda,   nitrate  or  cubic  nitrate  and  chlorate  of. 

Sodium. 

Sparterre,  suitable  for  making  or  ornamenting 
hats. 

Specimens  of  natural  history,  botany,  and  min- 
eralogy, when  imported  for  cabinets  or  as  objects 
of  science,  and  not  for  sale.  [Old  law  extended  to 
objects  of  taste.] 


Cassia,  cassia  vera  and  cassia  buds,  unground. 

Cinnamon  and  chips  of,  unground. 

Cloves  and  clove-stems,  unground. 

Ginger  root,  unground  a/id  not  preserved  or 
Candied. 

Mace. 

Nutmegs. 

Pepper,  black  or  white,  unground. 

Pimento,  unground. 

Spunk. 

Spurs  and  stilts  used  in  the  manufacture  ol 
earthen,  porcelain,  and  stoneware.  [Old  law  was 
crockery  instead  of  porcelain.] 

Stone  and  sand.  Hurrstone  in  blocks,  rough  or 
manufactured  and  not  bound  up  into  millstones; 
cliff  stone,  unmanufactured;  pumice  stone,  rotten 
■tone, and  sand,  1  rude  Of  mamilai  tured. 

Storax,  or  styrax. 

Strontia,  oxide  of,  and  protoxide  of  strontian, 
and  strontianite,  or  mineral  carbonite  of  strontia. 

SugVi,  all  not  above  No.  16  Dutch  standard  in 
color,  all  tank  bottoms,  all  sugar  draining*  and 
sugar  sweepings;  sirups  of  cane  juice,  melada. 
Concentrated  melada  and  concrete  ami  COD* 
centrated  molasses  and  molasses.  [Old  law; 
All  sugars  not  above  No.  13  Hutch  standard  in 
color  shall  pay  duty  on  their  polariscopic  test  as 
follows,  viz:  All  sugars  not  above  No.  13  Dutch 
standard  fan  oolor,  all  lank  bottoms,  sirups  of 
cane  juice  or  of  beet  juice,  melada,  concen- 
trated melada,  concrete  and  concentrated  mo- 
lasses, testing  by  the  polariscope  not  above 
seventy- five  degree*,  shall  pay  a  d»ty  of  one  and 
forty -hundredths  cents  j>er  pound,  and  for  every 
additional  degree  or  fraction  of  a  degree  shown  by 
the  polariscopic  test,  they  shall  pay  four  hun- 
dredths of  a  cent  per  pound  additional;  (a.  Pro* 
tided.  That    concentrated  melada,  or  concrete, 


ugi 

m-lada  shall  be  known  and  defined  as  an  art.  c 
made  in  the  process  of  sugar-making  being  the 
cane  juice  boiled  down  to  the  sugar  point  and 
containing  all  the  sugar  and  molasses  resulting 
from  the  boiling  process  and  without  any  process 
of  purging  or  clarification,  and  any  and  all  pro- 
ducts of  the  sugar  cane  imported  in  bags,  mats, 
baskets,  or  other  than  tight  packages  shall  be 
considered  sugar  and  dutiable  as  such.  Andfro- 
vided  further  t  That  of  the  drawback  on  refined 
sugars  exported  allowed  by  section  three  thou- 
sand and  nineteen  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the 
United  States,  only  one  per  centum  of  the  amount 
so  allowed  shall  be  retained  by  the  United  States. 
Act  of  March  3,  1875,  sec.  3.)  Sugar,  thirteen  to 
sixteen  Dutch  standard,  two  and  seventy-five 
one-hundredths  cents  per  pound.  [Old  law;  Mo- 
lasses testing  not  above  fifty-six  degrees  by  the 
polariscope,  shall  pay  a  duty  of  four  cents  per 
gallon;  molasses  testing  above  fifty-six  degrees, 
shall  pay  a  duty  of  eight  cents  per  gallon.] 

Sulphur,  lac  or  precipitated,  and  sulphur  of 
brimstone,  crude,  in  bulk,  sulphur  ore,  as  pyrites, 
or  sulphuret  of  iron  in  its  natural  state,  containing 
in  excess  of  twenty-five  Der  centum  of  sulphur 
(except  on  the  copper  contained  therein)  and 
sulphur  not  otherwise  provided  for.  [Old  law; 
Sulphur,  or  brimstone,  not  especially  enumerated 
or  provided  for  in  this  act;  sulphur,  lac  or  precip- 
itated, free.] 

Sulphuric  acid,  which  at  the  temperature  of  00 
degrees    Fahrenheit  does  not  exceed  the  specific 
gravity    of   one  and  three  hundred  and  eighty 
thousandths,  for  use  in  manufacturing  superphos- 
phate of  lime  or  artificial  manures  of  any  kind  or 
for  any  agricultural  purposes.     [Old  law;     1'rce 
under  general  provision  for  acid.] 
Sweepings  of  silver  and  gold. 
Tapioca,  cassava  or  cassady. 
Tar  and  pitch  of  wood  and  pitch  of  coal  tar. 
[Old  law:    Wood  tar,  ten  per  centum;  coal  tar, 
crude,  ten  percentumad  valorem.] 
Tea  and  tea  plants. 
Teeth,  natural  or  unmanufactured. 
Terra  alba.     [Word  aluminous  omitted.] 
Terra  japonica. 

Tin  ore,  cassiteriteor  black  oxide  of  tin,  and  tin 
In  bars,  blocks,  pigs  or  grain  or  granulated,  until 
July  the  first,  1893,  and  thereafter  as  otherwise 
provided  for  in  this  act. 
Tinsel  wire,  lame  or  lahn. 

Tobacco  stems.    [Old  law:    Fifteen  cents  per 
pound.] 
Tonouin,  tonqua  or  tonka  beans. 
Tripoli. 
Turmeric 

Turpentine,  Venice. 

Turpentine,  spirits  of.      [Old   law:      Twenty 
cents  per  gallon.] 
T'irtles. 

Types,  oldand  fit  only  to  be  remanufactured. 
Uranium,  oxide  and  salts  of. 
Vaccina,  virus 
Valonia 

Verdigris  or  suhacetateof  copper 
Wafers,  unmedicated. 
Wax,  vegetable  or  mineral. 
Wearing  apparel  and  other  personal  effects  (not 
merchandise)  of  persons  arriving  in  the   United 
States,  but  this  exemption  shall  not  be  held  to  in- 
clude articles  not  actually  in   dm   and  necessary 
and  appropriate  for  the  use  of  such  persons  for 
the  purposes  of  their  journey  and  present  comfort 
and  convenience,  or  which  are  intended  for  any 
other   person  or  persons,  or  for  sale;     Provided. 
Ao:.'tT'er,  That   all   sn.  h    wearing    apparel    and 
other  personal  effects  as  may  have  been  once  im- 
ported  into  the  United  States  and  subjected  to 
Stent  of  duty,  and  whu  h  may  have  been 
a<  ttialfy  used   and    taken    or   exported  to  foreign 
countries  by   the   persons  returning  therewith  to 
the  United  States,  shall,  if  not  advanced  in  value 
or  improved  in   condition   by  any  means  situ  e 
their   exportation  from  the  1  ,  be  en- 

titled to  I 

being  established,  BndffUCA raise  and  regulations 
as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  [Old  law:  Wearing  apparel,  in  actual 
use.  and  other  personal  effects  (not  merchandised. 
professional  books,  implements,  instruments,  and 
tools  of  trade,  occupation  or  employment  of  per- 
sons arriving  in  the  United  States.     But  this  ex- 


ception shall  not  be  construed  to  Include  ma- 
chinery or  other  articles  imported  for  use  in  any 
manufacturing  establishment,  or  for  sale.] 

Whalebone,  unmanufactured. 

Wood — Logs  and  round  unmanufactured  timber, 
not  specially  enumerated  or  provided  for  in  this 

Firewood,    handle  bolts,  heading  bolts,  stave 
bolts,  shingle  bolts,  bop  poles,  fence  posts,  railroad 
ties, ship  timber,  and  snip  planking,  not  specially 
led  for  in  this  act. 

Woods — Namely,  cedar,  lignumvitse,  lance- 
wood,  ebony,  box,  granadilla,  mahogany,  rose- 
wood, satin  wood,  and  %\\  forms  of  ca&m**.  woods, 
in  the  log,  rough  or  hewn;  bamboo  and  rattan,  un- 
manufactured; briar  root  or  briar  wood,  and  simi- 
lar wood  unmanufactured,  or  not  farther  man- 
ufactured than  cut  into  blocks  suitable  for  the  ar- 
ticles into  which  they  are  intended  to  be  con- 
vened; bamboo,  reeds,  and  sticks  of  partridge, 
hair  wood,  pimento,  orange,  myrtle,  and  other 
woods  not  otherwise  specially  provided  for  in  this 
act,  in  the  rough,  or  not  further  manufactured 
than  cut  into  lengths  suitable  for  sticks  for  um- 
brellas, parasols,  sun-shades,  whips,  or  walking- 
canes;  and  India  malacca  joints  not  further  man- 
ufactured than  cut  into  suitable  lengths  for  the 
manufactures  into  which  they  are  intended  to  be 
converted. 

Works  of  art,  the  production  of  American  artists 
residing  temporarily  abroad  or  other  works  of  art, 
including  pictorial  paintings  on  glass,  imported 
expressly  for  presentation  to  a  national  institution 
or  to  any  State  or  municipal  corporation  or  in- 
corporated religious  society,  college,  or  other  pub- 
lic institution,  except  stained  or  painted  window- 
glass  or  stained  or  painted  glass  windows;  bat  such 
exception  shall  be  subject  to  such  regulations  as 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  prescribe. 
[Old  law:  Works  of  art,  painting,  statuary, 
fountains  and  other  works  of  art,  the  production 
of  American  artists.  Hut  the  fact  of  such  pro- 
duction must  be  verified  by  the  certificate  of  a 
consul  or  minister  of  the  United  States  indorsed 
upon  the  written  declaration  of  the  artist; 
paintings,  statuary,  fountains,  and  other  works  of 
art,  imported  expressly  for  presentation  to  na- 
tional institutions,  or  to  any  State,  or  to  any  mu- 
nicipal corporation  or  religious  corporation  or 
society.] 

Works  of  art,  drawings,  engravings,  photo- 
graphic pictures  and  philosophical  and  scientific 
apparatus  brought  by  profession  si  artists,  lec- 
turers, or  scientists  arriving  ftcest  abroad  f-  n  e  by 
them  temporarily  for  exhibiiio*  .fthd 
promotion,  and  encourages*^  ax.  .  -rrmce,  or 
industry  in  the  United  State*  r<-*d  act  r  sale, 
and  photographic  pictures,  -Intingr  »  statu- 
ary. Imported  for  exhibition  by  aviy  assoriition 
established  in  good  faith  an  an.v  authorised 
under  the  laws  of  the  Unit*  dS.mes  oTsVany 
State,  expressly  and  solel  f>  r  th  -o- "Of. "or  and 
encouragement  of  scienc  -,  rr!  In  nsti  and 
not  intended  for  sal-,  aha?*  b  a  **-  .  ee  of 
duty,  under  such  s*  lotion  a  »*;•  r-ecretary 
of  the  Treasury  shat  vreacrll;  ;b  !«nds  h  M  be 
r  the  pa;  meet  t  Unit-.*  States  of 
such  duties  as  may*  *  unpoeca  *  -  Uw  upon  any 
and  all  of  suchaftiVea  a  aVt  no  be  exported 
within  six  nv^jssi  a  er  sue'  Importation:  Pro* 
I  o^  n.-tary  of  the  Treasury  may, 
in  his  discretion  .tend  such  period  for  a  further 
term  of  six  mont'is  In  cases  where  applications 
therefor  shall  be  made. 

Works  of  art,  collections  ta  fllusrration  of  the 
progress  of  the  arts,  science,    or  manufactures, 
photogtaphs,  works  in  terra  cotta,  panan,  • 
or  porcelain  and  artistic  copies  of  annuities  sn 
metal  or  other  material,  h 

good  faith  for  permanent  exhibition  at  s  fixed 
place  by  any  society  or  institution  established  for 
the  encouragement  of  the  arts  or  of  science,  and 
all  tike  articles  imported  in  good  faith  by  any  so- 
ciety or  association  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  a 
public  monument,  and  not  intended  for  sale,  nor 
for  any  other  purpose  than  herein  expressed;  but 
bonds  shall  be  given  under  such  rules  and  regula- 
tions as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  pre- 
scribe, for  the  payment  of  lawful  duties  which  may 
accrue  should  any  of  the  articles  aforesaid  be  sold, 
transferred,  or  used  contrary  to  this  provision, 
and  such  articles  shall  be  subject,  at  any  time,  to 
examination  and  inspection  by  the  proper  officers 


Kr 


THE     TARIFF. 


437 


^ 


of  the  customs;  Provided,  That  the  privileges  oi 
this  and  the  preceding  section  shall  not  be  allowed 
to  associations  or  corporations  engaged  in  or  con- 
nected with  business  of  a  private  or  commercial 
character. 
Yams. 
Zaffsr. 

Sec.  3.  That  with  a  view  to  secure  reciprocal 
trade  with  countries  producing  the  following  ar- 
ticles, and  for  this  purpose,  on  and  after  the  first 
day  of  January,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-two, 
whenever  and  so  often  as  the  President  shall  be 
satisfied  that  the  government  of  any  country  pro- 
ducing  and  exporting  sugars,  molasses,  coffees, 
teas,  and  hides,  raw  and  uncured,  or  any  of  such 
articles,  imposes  duties  or  other  exactions  upon  the 
agricultural  or  other  products  of  the  United  States, 
which  in  view  of  the  free  introduction  of  such 
sugar,  molasses,  coffee,  tea,  and  hides  into  the 
United  States  he  may  deem  to  be  reciprocally 
unequal  and  unreasonable,  he  shall  have  the 
power  and  it  shall  be  his  duty  to  suspend,  by 
proclamation  to  that  effect,  the  provisions  of  this 
act  relating  to  the  free  introduction  of  such  sugar, 
molasses,  coffee,  tea,  and  hides,  the  production  of 
such  country,  for  such  time  as  he  shall  deem  just, 
and  in  such  case  and  during  such  suspension 
duties  shall  be  levied,  collected,  and  paid  upon 
sugar,  molasses,  coffee,  tea,  and  hides,  the  pro- 
duct of  or  exported  from  such  designated  country, 
as   follows — namely: 

All  sugars  not  above  number  thirteen  Dutch 
standard  in  color  shall  pay  duty  on  their  polari- 
scopic  tests  as  follows,  namely: 

All  sugars  not  above  number  thirteen  Dutch 
standard  in  color,  all  tank  bottoms,  sirups  of  cane 
juice  or  of  beet  juice,  melada,  concentrated  melada, 
concrete  and  concentrated  molasses,  testing  by 
the  polariscope  not  above  seventy-five  degrees, 
seven-tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound,  and  for 
every  additional  degree  or  fraction  of  a  degree 
shown  by  the  polariscopic  test,  two  hundredths  of 
one  cent  per  pound  additional. 

All  sugars  above  number  thirteen  Dutch  stand- 
ard in  color  shall  be  classified  by  the  Dutch  stand- 
ard of  color  and  pay  duty  as  follows — namely: 
AH  sugar  above  number  thirteen  and  not  above 
number  sixteen  Dutch  standard  of  color,  one  and 
three-eighths  cents  per  pound. 

All  sugar  above  number  sixteen  and  not  above 
number  twenty  Dutch  standard  of  color,  one  and 
five-eighths  cents  per  pound. 

All  sugar  above  number  twenty  Dutch  stand- 
ard of  color,  two  cents  per  pound. 

Molasses  testing  above  fifty-six  degrees,  four 
cents  per  gallon. 

Sugar  (trainings  and  sugar  sweepings  shall  be 
subject  to  duty  either  as   molasses  or  sugar,  as 
the  case  may  be,  accordingto  polariscopic  test. 
On  coffee,  three  cents  per  pound. 
On  tea,  ten  cents  per  pound. 
Hides,  raw  or  uncured,  whether  dry,  saltea  or 
pickled.     Angora    goat-skins,  raw,   without  the 
wool,  unmanufactured,  asses*    skins,  raw  or  un- 
manufactured,   and    skins,    except    sheep-skins, 
with  the  wool   on,  one  and  one-half   cents  per 
pound.     [Section  3  is  new  matter.] 

Sec,  4.  That  there  shall  be  levied,  collected  and 
paid  on  the  importation  of  all  raw  or  unmanufact- 
ured articles,  not  enumerated  or  provided  for  in 
this  act,  a  duty  often  per  centum  ad  valorem;  and 
on  all  articles  manufactured,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
not  provided  for  in  this  act,  a  duty  of  twenty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  [Old  law:  Ammonia,  aqua 
or  water  of,  twenty  per  centum.  Ammonia, 
anhydrous,  liquefied  by  pressure,  twenty  per 
centum.  Coal-tar,  products  of,  such  as  naptna, 
benzine,  benzole,  dead  oil  and  pitch,  twenty  per 
centum  ad  valorem.  All  non-dutiable  crude  min- 
<  rate,  bat  which  have  been  advanced  in  value  or 
condition  by  refining  or  grinding,  or  by  other 
process  of  manufacture,  not  specially  enumerated 
or  provided  for  in  this  act,  ten  per  centum.  Can- 
dles and  tapers  of  all  kinds,  twenty  per  centum. 

Sec.  5.  That  each  and  every  imported  ar- 
ticle, not  'enumerated  in  this  act,  which  is 
similar,  either  in  material,  quality,  texture,  or 
the  use  to  which  it  may  be  applied,  to  any  article 
enumerated  in  this  act  as  chargeable  with  duty 
shall  pay  the  same  rate  of  duty  which  is  levied  on 
the  enumerated  article  which  it  most  resembles 
in  any  of  the  particulars  before  mentioned;  and  if 
any    non-enumerated   article    equally    resembles 


two  or  more  enumerated  articles  on  which  different 
rates  of  duty  are  chargeable  there  shall  be  levied 
on  such  non-enumerated  article  the  same  rate  of 
duty  as  is  chargeable  on  the  article  which  it  re- 
sembles paying  the  highest  rate  of  duty;  and  on 
articles  not  enumerated,  manufactured  of  two  or 
more  materials,  the  duty  shall  be  assessed  at  the 
highest  rate  at  which  the  same  would  be  charge- 
able if  composed  wholly  of  the  component  ma- 
terial thereof  of  chief  value;  and  the  words  "com- 
ponent material  of  chief  value,"  wherever  used  in 
this  act ,  shall  be  held  to  mean  that  component  mate- 
rial which  shall  exceed  in  value  any  other  single 
component  material  of  the  article;  and  the  value  of 
each:component  material  shall  be  determined  by  the 
ascertained  value  of  such  material  in  its  condition 
as  found  in  the  article.  If  two  or  more  rates  of 
duty  shall  be  applicable  to  any  imported  article,  it 
shall  pay  duty  at  the  highest  of  such  rates.  [Old 
law:  Sec.  2,499.  There  shall  be  levied,  collected 
and  paid  on  each  and  every  non-enumerated  arti- 
cle which  bears  a  similitude  either  in  material, 
quality,  texture,  or  the  use  to  which  it  may  be 
applied,  to  any  article  enumerated  in  this  title  as 
chargeable  with  duty,  the  same  rate  of  duty  which 
is  levied  and  charged  on  the  enumerated  article 
which  it  most  resembles  in  any  of  the  particulars  be- 
fore mentioned;  and  if  any  non-enumerated  article 
equally  resembles  two  or  more  enumerated  articles 
on  which  different  rates  are  chargeable,  there 
shall  be  levied,  collected,  and  paid  on  such  non- 
enumerated  article  the  same  rate  of  duty  as  is 
chargeable  upon  the  article  which  it  resembles 
paying  the  highest  duty;  and  on  all  articles  manu- 
factured from  two  or  more  materials  the  duty  shall 
be  assessed  at  the  highest  rates  at  which  thecom- 

?onent  material  of  chief  value  may  be  chargeable, 
f  two  or  more  rates  of  duty  should  be  applicable 
to  any  imported  article,  it  shall  be  classified  for 
duty  under  the  highest  of  such  rates.  Provided, 
That  non -enumerated  articles  similar  in  material 
and  quality  and  texture,  and  the  use  to  which 
they  may  be  applied,  to  articles  on  the  free  list, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  which  no  dutiable  ma- 
terials are  used,  shall  be  free.] 

Sec.  6.  That  on  and  alter  the  first  day  of  March, 
eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-one,  all  articles  ol 
foreign  manufacture,  such  as  are  usually  or  ordi- 
narily marked,  stamped,  branded,  or  labeled,  and 
all  packages  containing  such  or  other  imported  ar- 
ticles, shall,  respectively,  be  plainly  marked, 
stamped,  branded,  or  labeled  in  legible  English 
words,  so  as  to  indicate  the  country'  of  their  origin; 
and  unless  so  marked,  stamped,  branded  or  labeled 
they  shall  not  be  admitted  to  entry.  [Section  6  is 
new  matter.] 

Sec.  7.  That  on  and  after  March  first,  eighteen 
hundred  and  ninety-one,  no  article  of  imported 
merchandise  which  shall  copy  or  simulate  the 
name  or  trade-mark  of  any  domestic  manufacture 
or  manufacturer,  shall  be  admitted  to  entry  at  any 
custom  house  of  the  United  States.  And  in  order 
to  aid  the  officers  of  the  customs  in  enforcing  this 
prohibition  any  domestic  manufacturer  who  has 
adopted  trade-marks  may  require  his  name  and 
residence  and  a  description  of  his  trade-marks  to 
be  recorded  in  books  which  shall  be  kept  for 
that  purpose  in  the  Department  of  the  Treasury 
under  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  shall  prescribe,  and  may  furnish  to  the 
Department  fac-similes  of  such  trade-marks;  and 
thereupon  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  shall 
cause  one  or  more  copies  of  the  same  to  be  trans- 
mitted to  each  collector  or  other  proper  officer  of 
the  customs.  [Old  law:  Sec.  2,496.  No  watches, 
watch-cases,  watch-movements,  or  parts  of 
watch-movements,  or  any  other  articles  of  foreign 
manufacture,  which  shall  copy  or  simulate  the 
name  or  trade-mark  of  any  domestic  manufacture 
(manufacturer),  shall  be  admitted  to  entry  at 
the  custom  house  of  the  United  States,  unless 
such  domestic  manufacturer  is  the  importer  of  the 
same.  And  in  order  to  aid  the  officers  of  the 
customs  in  enforcing  this  prohibition,  any  domes- 
tic manufacturer  who  has  adopted  trade-marks* 
may  require  his  name  and  residence  and  a  de- 
scription of  his  trade-marks  to  be  Jrecorded  in 
books  which  shall  be  kept  for  that  purpose  in  the 
Department  of  ithe  Treasury,  under  such  regula- 
tions as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  shall  pre- 
scribe, and  may  furnish  to  the  Department  fac- 
similes of  such  trade-marks;  and  thereupon  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  shall  cause  one  or  more 


copies  of  the  same  to  be  transmitted  to  each  col- 
lector or  other  proper  officer  of  the  customs.  ] 

Sec.  8.  That  all  lumber,  timber,  hemp,  nianil.i 
wire  ropes  and  iron  and  steel  rods,  bars,  spikes, 
nails,  plates,  tees,  angles,  beams,  and  bolts  anc 
copper  and  composition  metal  which  may  be  nec- 
essary for  the  construction  and  equipment  of  ves- 
sels built  in  the  United  States  /or  foreign  account 
and  ownership  or  for  the  purpose  of  being  em- 

Sloyed  in  the  foreign  trade,  including  the  trade 
etween  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports  of  the 
United  States;  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  may 
be  imported  in  bond  under  such  regulations  as  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  prescribe;  and 
upon  proof  that  such  materials  have  been  used 
for  such  purpose  no  duties  shall  be  paid  thereon. 
But  vessels  receiving  the  benefit  of  this  section 
shall  not  be  allowed  to  engage  in  the  coastwise 
trade  of  the  United  States  more  than  two  months 
in  any  one  year,  except  upon  the  payment  to  the 
United  States  of  the  duties  on  which  a  rebate  is 
herein  allowed:  Provided,  That  vessels  built  in 
the  I  'nited  States  for  foreign  account  and  own- 
ership shall  not  be  all&ioed  to  engage  in  the 
coastwise  trade  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  q.  That  all  articles  of  foreign  production 
needed  for  the  repair  of  American  vessels  engaged 
in  foreign  trade,  including  the  trade  betzveen  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States, 
may  be  withdrawn  from  bonded  warehouses  free  ot 
duty,  under  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  may  prescribe. 

Sec.  10.  That  all  medicines,  preparations,  com- 
positions, perfumery,  cosmetics,  cordials  and 
other  liquors  manufactured  wholly  or  in  part  of 
domestic  spirits,  intended  for  exportation,  as  pro- 
vided by  law,  in  order  to  be  manufactured  and 
sold  or  removed,  without  being  charged  with  duty 
and  without  having  a  stamp  affixed  thereto,  shall, 
under  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  may  prescribe  be  made  and  manufact- 
ured in  warehouses  similarly  constructed  to  those 
known  and  designated  in  Treasury  regulations  as 
bonded  warehouses,  class  two:  Provided ,  That 
such  manufacturer  shall  first  give  satisfactory 
bonds  to  the  collector  of  internal  revenue  for  the 
faithful  observance  of  all  the  provisions  of  law, 
and  the  regulations  as  aforesaid,  in  amount  not 
less  than  half  of  that  required  by  the  regulations  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  1  reasury  from  persons  al- 
lowed bonded  warehouses.  Such  goods,  when 
manufactured  in  such  warehouses, may  be  removed 
for  exportation  under  the  direction  of  the  proper 
officer  having  charge  thereof,  who  shall  be  des- 
ignated by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  without 
being  charged  with  duty,  and  without  having  a 
stamp  affixed  thereto.  Any  manufacturer  of  the 
articles  aforesaid,  or  any  of  them,  having  such 
bonded  warehouse  as  aforesaid,  shall  be  at  liberty 
under  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  may  prescribe,  to  convey  therein  any 
materials  to  be  used  in  such  manufacture  which 
are  allowed  by  the  provisions  of  law  to  be  ex- 
ported free  from  tax  or  duty,  as  well  as  the  neces- 
sary materials,  implements,  packages,  vessels, 
brands,  and  labels  for  the  preparation,  putting  up, 
and  export  of  the  said  manufactured  articles;  and 
every  article  so  used  shall  be  exempt  from  the  pay- 
ment of  stamp  and  excise  duty  by  such  manufact- 
urer. Articles  and  materials  so  to  be  used  may 
be  transferred  from  any  bonded  warehouse  in  which 
the  same  may  be,  under  such  regulation  as  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  prescribe,  into 
any  bonded  warehouse  in  which  such  manufacture, 
may  be  conducted  and  may  be  used  in  such  manu- 
facture, and  when  so  used  shall  be  exempt  from 
stamp  and  excise  duty;  and  the  receipt  of  the  officer 
in  charge  as  aforesaid  shall  be  received  as  a  voucher 
for  the  manufacture  of  such  articles.  Any  mate- 
rials imported  into  the  United  States  may,  tinder 
such  rules  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may 
prescribe,  and  under  the  direction  of  the  proper 
officer,  be  removed  in  original  packages  rfrom  on 
shipboard,  or  from  the  bonded  warehouse  in  which 
the  same  may  be,  into  the  bonded  warehouse  in 
which  such  manufacture  maybe  carried  on,  for  the 
purpose;ofbeing[usedin  such  manufacture,  without 
payment  of  duties  thereon,  and  may  there  be  used 
in  such  manufacture.  No  article  so  removed,  nor 
any  article  manufactured  in  said  bonded  ware- 
house, shall  be  taken  therefrom  except  for  expor- 
tation, under  the  direction  of  the  proper  officer 
having  charge  thereof  as  aforesaid,  whose  certifi- 


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cate,  describing  the  articles  by  their  mark  or  other- 
wise, th«-  quantity,  the  date  of  importation,  and 
name  of  vessel,  with  such  additional  particulars  as 
nny  hum  time  to  time  be  required,  shall  be  re- 
ceived by  the  collector  of  customs  in  cut,. 
of  the  bond  or  return  of  the  amount  of  foreign  im- 
port duties.  All  labor  performed  and  services 
rendered  under  these  regulations  shall  be  under 
the  supervision  of  an  officer  of  the  customs,  and  at 
the  expense  of  the  manufacturer.     [Some  change 

in  text,  1 

Sec.  11.  All  persons  are  prohibited  from  import- 
ing into  the  United  States  from  any  foreign 
country  any  obscene  book,  pamphlet,  paper,  writ- 
ing, advertisement, circular  .print,  picture, drawing 
or  other  representation,  figure  or  image  on  or  of 
paper  or  other  material,  or  any  cast,  instrument 
or  other  article  of  an  immoral  nature,  or  any 
drug  or  medicine,  or  any  article  whatever,  for  the 
prevention  of  conception,  or  for  causing  unlawful 
abortion.  No  such  articles,  whether  imported 
separately  or  contained  in  packages  with  other 
goods  entitled  to  entry,  shall  be  admitted  to  entry; 
and  all  such  articles  shall  be  proceeded  against, 
seized  and  forfeited  by  due  course  of  law.  All 
such  prohibited  articles  and  the  package  in  which 
they  are  contained  in  the  course  of  importation 
shall  be  detained  by  the  officer  of  customs,  and 
proceedings  taken  against  the  same  as  prescribed 
in  the  following  section,  unless  it  appears  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  collector  of  customs  that  the 
obscene  articles  contained  in  the  package  were 
inclosed  therein  without  the  knowledge  or  consent 
of  the  importer,  owner,  agent  or  consignee; 
Provided,  That  the  drugs  hereinbefore  men- 
tioned, when  imported  in  bulk  and  not  put  up  for 
any  of  the  purposes  hereinbefore  specified  are 
excepted  from  the  operation  of  this  section. 
[Note — Changes  text  of  sections  3,491,  2,492, 
2,493,  Revised  Statutes.] 

Sec.  13.  That  whoever,  being  an  officer,  agent 
or  employe  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  shall  knowingly  aid  or  abet  any  person  en- 
gaged in  any  violation  of  any  of  the  provisions  of 
law  prohibiting  importing,  advertising,  dealing  in, 
exhibiting  or  sending  or  receiving  by  mail  obscene 
or  indecent  publications,  or  representations,  or 
means  for  preventing  conception  or  procuring  abor- 
tion, or  other  articles  of  indecent  or  immoral  use 
or  tendency,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misde- 
meanor, and  shall  for  every  offence  be  punishable 
by  a  fine  of  not  more  than  five  thousand  dollars, 
or  by  imprisonment  at  hard  labor  for  not  more 
than  ten  years,  or  both. 

Sec.  13.  That  any  judge  of  any  district  or  cir- 
cuit court  of  the  United  States,  within  the  proper 
district,  before  whom  complaint  in  writing  of  any 
violation  of  the  two  preceding  sections  is  made, 
to  the  satisfaction  of  such  judge,  and  founded  on 
knowledge  or  belief,  and  if  upon  belief,  setting 
forth  the  grounds  of  such  belief,  and  supported  by 
oath  or  affirmation  of  the  complainant,  may  issue 
conformably  to  the  constitution ,  a  warrant  directed 
to  the  marshal  or  any  deputy  marshal,  in  the 
proper  district,  directing  him  to  search  for,  seize 
and  take  possession  of  any  such  article  or  thing 
mentioned  in  the  two  preceding  sections,  and  to 
make  due  and  immediate  return  thereof  to  the 
end  that  the  same  may  be  condemned  and  de- 
stroyed by  proceedings,  which  shall  be  conducted 
in  the  same  manner  as  other  proceedings  in  the 
case  of  municipal  seizure,  and  with  the  same  right 
of  appeal  or  writ  of  error. 

Sec.  14.  That  machinery  for  repair  may  be  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  without  payment  of 
duty,  under  bond,  to  be  given   in  double  the  ap- 
praised value  thereof,  to    be  withdrawn  and  ex- 
ported nfter  said  machinery  shall  have  been  re- 
and  tiie  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  au- 
and  directed  to  prescribe  such  rules  and 
regulations   as  may   be  necessary  to  proiei  t  the 
revenue  against  fraud,  and  secure  the  identity  and 
character    of  all  such    Importation*  when  again 
withdrawn  and  exported,  restricting  and  ! 
the  export  and  withdrawal   to  the  tame  j 
entry  where  Importi  d.  and  alto  limiting  ill  bonds 
1  not  more  than  six  months 
from  the  date  of  the  importation. 

S<  1     15.  That  the  produce  of  the  forests  of  the 
State  of  Mama  upon  the  St  John   rives 
trfDOtarfee.   owned   be  American   citizens,   and 
sawed  or  hewed  in  the  province  of  New  Bruns- 


wick by  American  citizens,  the  same  being 
unmanufactured  in  whole  or  pan , 
admitted  into  the  ports  of  the  United  States  free 
of  duty,  shall  continue  to  be  so  admitted  under 
such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
•ball  from  time  to  time,  prescribe. 

Thai  the  produce  of  the  forests  of  the 
State  of  Maine  upon  the  St.  Croix  river  and  its 
tributaries  owned  by  American  citizens,  and 
sawed  in  the  Province  of  New  Brunswick  by 
American  citizens,  the  same  being  unmanufact- 
ured in  whole  or  in  part,  shall  be  admitted  into 
the  ports  of  the  United  States  free  of  duty,  under 
such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
shall,  from  time  to  time,  prescribe. 

Sec.  17.  That  a  discriminating  duty  often  per 
centum  ad  valorem,  in  addition  to  the  duties  im- 
posed by  law,  shall  be  levied,  collected  and  paid 
on  all  goods,  wan  I  or  merchandise  which  shall  be 
imported  in  reatshtBOt  of  the  United  States;  but 
this  discriminating  duty  shall  not  apply  to  goods, 
wares  and  merchandise  which  shall  be  imported  in 
vessels  not  of  the  United  States,  entitled,  by  treaty 
or  any  act  of  congress,  to  be  entered  in  the 
ports  of  the  United  States  on  payment  of  the 
same  duties  as  shall  then  be  paid  on  goods,  wares 
and  merchandise  imported  in  vessels  of  the  United 
Stales. 

Sec.  18.  That  no  goods,  wares  or  merchandise, 
unless  in  cases  provided  for  by  treaty,  shall  be 
imported  Into  the  United  States,  from  any  foretgn 
port  or  place,  except  in  vessels  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  sin  h  foreign  vessels  as  truly  and 
wholly  belong  to  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  that 
country  of  which  the  goods  are  the  growth,  pro- 
duction or  nun.  rom  which  such  goods, 
wares  or  merchandise  can  only  be,  or  most 
usually  arc,  first  shipped  for  transportation.  All 
goods,  wares  or  merchandise  imported  contrary 
to  this  section,  and  the  vessel  wherein  the  same 
shall  be  imported,  together  with  her  cargo,  tackle, 
apparel  and  furniture,  shall  be  forfeited  10  the 
United  States;  and  such  goods,  wares  or  mer- 
chandise, ship  or  vessel  and  cargo  shall  be  liable  to 
be  seized,  prosecuted  and  condemned,  in  like 
manner  and  under  the  same  regulations,  re- 
strictions and  rrovisons  as  have  been  h< 
established  for  the  recovery,  collection,  distribu- 
tion and  remission  of  forfeitures  to  the  United 
States  by  the  several  revenue  Ian  s. 

Sec.  19.  That  the  preceding  section  shall  not 
apply  to  vessels  or  gift  r  merchandise 

imported  in  vessels  of  a  foreign  nation  which  does 
not  maintain  a  similar  regulation  against  vessels 
of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  20.  That  the  importation  ot  neat  cattle 
and  the  hides  of  neat  cattle  from  any  foreign 
country  Into  the  United  Stales  is  prohibited:  Pro- 
vtdtd,  That  the  operation  of  thai  ascthmabaJI  be 
suspended  as  to  any  foreign  country  or  countries, 
or  any  pans  of  such  country  or  countries,  when- 
ever the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  shall  officially 
determine,  and  give  publice  notice  thereof  that 
such  importation  will  not  tend  to  the  introduction 
or  spread  of  contagious  or  infectious  diseases 
among  the  cattle  of  the  United  States;  and  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  hereby  authorized 
and  empowered,  and  it  shall  be  his  duty,  to  make 
all  necessary  orders  and  regulations  to  cany  this 
section  into  effect,  or  to  suspend  the  same  as 
therein  provided,  and  to  send  copies  thereof  to  the 
proper  or  at,  and  to  such 

officers  or  agents  of  the  United  States  in  foreign 
countries  as  ne  shall  judge  necessary. 

Sec.  21.  That  any  1  ted  of  a*  willful 

violation  of  any  of  the  - 1  ceding 

•hall  be  fined  not  exceeding  five  hundred 

dollars,  or  imprisoned  not  exceeding  one  year,  or 

both,  in  tin- discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec.  2  j.  That  upon  the  reimportation  of  articles 
once  exported  of  the.  |  tact  or  manu- 

fat  ture  1  -t  the  Unhed  States,  upon  whfc  h  no  inter- 
i.l  ti  ,  or  upon  which 

toch  tax   has  Urn  paid    and    refunded    by  allow- 

drawhack,  there  shall  be  levied,  collected 

(]  to  the  tax  imposed  by  the 
internal-rcvenu<  .   except 

tirticits   manufactured  m  ^eaaaW wmrtkmutt 

and  exf»orttd  pmrtm  •  •Mkk  j*«7/rV 

suh'ret  to  the  same  rate  <fdnty  at  (/ originally 
imported. 

\,  That    whenever    any    vessel    ladened 


with  merchandise  in  whole  or  in  pan  sol 
duty  has  been  sunk  in  any  river,  harbor,  bay  or 
water  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
States,  arid  within  its  limits,  for  the  period  of  two 
years,  and' is  abandoned  by  the  owner  thereof, 
any  person  who  may  raise  such  vessel  shall  be  per* 
milled  to  bring  any  merchandise  recovered  there- 
from into  the  port  nearest  to  the  place  where  such 
vessel  was  so  raised,  free  from  the  payment  of  any 
duty  thereupon,  and  without  being  obliged  to 
enter  the  same  at  the  custom  house;  but  under 
such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
may  prescribe. 

4.  That  the  works  of  manufacturers  en- 
gaged in  smelting  or  refining  metals  in  the  Unhed 
States  may  be  designated  as  bonded  warebooscs 
under  sucn  regulations  as  tha  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  may  prescribe;     Provided,  That  1 


manufacturers  shall  first  give  satisfactory  I 
to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  Metals  in  any 
crude  form  requiring  smelting  or  refining  to 
make  them  readily  available  in  the  arts,  imported 
inio  the  United  States  to  be  smelted  or  refined 
and  intended  to  be  exported  in  a  refined  Lot  on- 
manufactured  state,  shall,  under  such  rules  as  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  maypresoibe  and  under 
the  direction  of  the  proper  officer  be  removed  in 
original  packages  or  in  bulk  from  the  vessel  or 
ot  her  vehicle  on  which  it  has  been  imported,  or  from 
the  bonded  warehouse  in  which  the  same  may  be, 
into  the  bonded  warehouse  in  which  such  smelting 
and  refining  may  be  carried  on,  for  the  purpose  of 
being  smelted  and  refined  without  payment  of 
duties  thereon,  and  may  there  be  smelted  and  re- 
fined together  with  other  metals  of  home  or 
foreign  production:  Pror-ided,  That  each  day  a 
quantity  of  refined  metal  equal  to  the  amount  of 
imported  metal  refined  that  day  shall  beset  aside, 
and  such  metal  so  set  aside  shall  not  be  taken 
from  said  works  except  for  exportation,  tinder  the 
direction  of  the  proper  officer  having  charge 
thereof  as  aforesaid,  whose  certificate,  describing 
the  articles  by  their  marks  or  otherwise,  the 
quantity,  the  date  of  importation  and  the  name  of 
vessel  or  other  vehicle  by  which  it  was  imported, 
m  ah  such  additional  particulars  as  may  from  time 
to  time  be  required,  shall  be  received  by  the  collec- 
tor of  customs  as  sufficient  evidence  of  the  expor- 
tation of  the  metal,  or  it  may  be  removed,  under 
such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury- 
may  prescribe,  to  any  other  bonded  w  .1  rehouse ,  or 
upon  entry  for,  and  payment  of  dune-,  for  domes- 
tic consumption.  All  labor  performed  and  serv- 
ices rendered  under  these  regulations  shall  be 
under  the  supervision  of  an  officer  of  the  < 
to  be  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  T:  _ 
and  at  the  expense  ot  the  manufacturer.  [No 
New  provision.] 

Sec.  25.  That  where  imported  materials,  on 
which  duties  have  been  paid,  are  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  articles  manufactured  or  produced  in 
the  United  States,  there  shall  be  allowed  on  the 
exportation  of  such  articles  a  drawback  equal 
in  amount  to  the  duties  paid  on  the  materials 
used,  less  one  per  centum  of  such  duties:  Pro- 
-ided.  That  when  the  articles  exported  are 
made  in  part  from  domestic  materials,  the  im- 
ported materials,  or  the  parts  of  the  articles  made 
from  such  materials  shall  so  appear  in  the  com- 
pleted articles  that  the  quantity  or  measure 
thereof  may  l>e  ascertained:  And  /rorided 
further.  That  the  drawback  on  any  article  al- 
lowed under  existing  law  shall  be  continued  at  the 
rate  herein  provided.  That  the  imported  mate- 
rials used  in  the  manufacture  or  production  of 
articles  entitled  to  drawback  of  customs  duties 
when  exported  shall  in  all  cases  where  drawback 
of  duties  paid  on  such  materials  is  claimed,  be 
identified,  the  quantity  of  such  materials  used  and 
the  amount  of  duties  paid  thereon  shall  be  as- 
certained, ihe  facts  of  the  manufacture  or  pro- 
of such  ankles  in  t  •**  and 
their  exportation  therefrom  shall  be  determined, 
and  the  drawback  due  thereon  shall  be  paid  to  the 
turer,  producer  or  exporter,  to  the  agent 
of  either  or  10  the  person  to  whom  such  manu- 
exporter  i»r  agent  shall 
in  wrttr  ach  drawback  paid,  under 
such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury" 
shall  prescnl>e.  [This  is  an  enlargement  of  the 
tti  ot  sections  3,019  and  3,oao  Revised 
Statutes.] 


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A    LIGHTNING    CALCULATOR. 


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IRIE^IDTZ"    I3ECaZ©3*TE.ie. 


For  Computing  the  Price  of  Cattle,  Hogs,  Cotton,  or  Any  Commodity  Sold  by  the  Hundred  or  Part  of  the  Hundred. 

If  the  desired  amount  or  quantity  is  not  in  the  table,  add  two  numbers  together. 


$  Cls. 

$  Cts. 

$  Cts. 

$  Cts. 

$  Cts. 

$  Cts. 

t  Cts. 

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4-   i.l 

-,     Ml 

600  H 

8  57 

8   75 

9    1.1 

»  27 

8  45 

Ml 

80 

8    Ml 

8^5o— 

10.00 

8   20 

8    1.1 

i  1.. 

1(1.50 

I  6.1 

8.80 

24    B 

"  «   75 

117  00 

100  Ml  ' 

*TB  K 

175  i\) 
•25  00 

10  20 

11  17 

10   40 

lo  60 

ion 

11.00 

00 

9   22 
III    2.. 

0  61 

10  75 

II  78 

17  57 

Ii. 1 

II    Ml 

12  75 

II  oil 

11.73 

no 

211  M 

41    Ml 
1,1    Ml 

3,  B 

I!    Ml 
33   .50 

..1  00 

1 

2  1    Ml 
32  25 

22  Ml 

22    Ml 

■35  .50 

■  50 

27   (» 

17.50 

3MI 

.1.1    Ml 

5  1   Ml 

S3  75 

S-   25 

39  75 

68  as 

64  n 

11.71 

400 

II 

Ml  Ml 

Ml    Ml 

(3   Ml 

41   Ml 

4.   Ml 
U  25 

101  3 

8C  Ml 

93   Ml 

11 .  oo 

6.1  75 
74  50 

89   25 
102   Ml 
111  75 
177    50 

17-   Ml 
637   7* 

5i.n 

600 

53   75 
64    Ml 

86  Ml 

11-  26 
138  :  . 

161    '. 

173   Ml 

215  Ml 

88    Ml 

11"   Ml 

1  '1    Ml 

1  IS    Ml 
151    Ml 



1«7    00 

2311   Ml 
3311   Ml 
(HI  Ml 

88  25 

87. M 

6-71 

600 

7-    Ml 

79  5. 

IUI' 

.11  ,.l 

ST   Tl 

94   50 

--•» 

8MI 

"II  I.I 

IMI    l"l 



1  311    Ml 

130   Ml 
llll   Ml 

1  

IMI  Ml 
170  Ml 
180   Ml 

2181    Ml 

II 

"  9-2    25  ' 
I"/    .... 

1  !3  Ml 

I'll     Ml 
(III    Ml 

517   Ml 

105    Ml 

l.'ll  Ml 
1  ,0   Ml 

11.     Ml 
10-    Ml 

178  50 

211'  Ml 
4211  Ml 

inn 

m  00 

laUi 

m  10' 

113  75 

135  0." 

117  5. 

its  n 

14.50 

111.25 

135   Ml 
III,    25 

1 .-  ... 

161   00 

sal  aj 

nan 

165  00 

16*  in 

1:1  ■ 

HUI 

1,400 

I.21W 

185  Ml 

"aas  5»- 

ss5  n 

inn 

1*1.3* 

16-   75 
18 

|8|    Ml 

7311  Ml 

m.so 

21.  2  5 

*  141  OO 

28'   Ml 

11ST5 

247  1. 

ISO.  58 

~no.n- 

stilt 

"»■» 

112.58 

54.. .« 

...«. 

5  .0  Ml 

.,:  .  I.I 

4*77.58 

4k= 

■f « — •- 


\ 


t 


ft 


k. 


AN    INSTANTANEOUS    METHOD    OF    COMPUTING    INTEREST. 


441 


<""" " "---'•' •~yBM*SB^»*aaa^*A***s*^*M*******M*i*3S 


To  compute  interest  at  three  per  cent,  divide  the  figures  in  the  six  per  cent  table  bv  two.  To  compute  interest  at  eight  per  cent,  double  the  figures 
in  the  four  per  cent  table ;  at  ten  per  cent,  double  the  figures  in  the  five  per  cent  table ;  at  nine  per  cent,  make  the  computation  at  three  per  cent  and 
multiplv  the  result  bv  three. 

TABLES    OF    INTEREST. 


-A.T  TOXTTS     PEB     CE1TT. 

DAYS.                                                                                                                                                       MONTHS. 

Ye»r. 
1 

12    3    4    5    6    7     8 

9      10      11      12      13      14      15      16     17      18      19    20     21     22     23     24     25     26     27     28     29  i      1       2         3         1         a         6         7         8         9        10       11 

Anil. 

INTEREST. 

t    $1  1 

0    0    0    0    0    0    0    II 

0        00000000000000000000 

00111222333 

4 

(2 

000000    0    0 

0        00000000000000000000 

01          2          284         45667 

8 

*:; 

0  0   11   0   1)   11   6   11 

0        000000000       0       0001111111 

12         3         456         789       10       11 

12 
16~ 

•4 

00000000 

000000001111111111111 

12          4         5         6         8         9       10       12       1 1        1  1 

$a 

00000000 

00000111111. 1111111111 

13         5         6         8       10        11       13       15       16       18 

20 

*6 

00000000 

000111111111111222222 

14         9         8       10       12        14       16       18       20       22 

24 

S7 

00000000 

011111111112        22       2       222222 

'2      4         7          9       11       14        16       18       21       23       25 

M 

$8 

00000000 

1         111111112        2        2        2       2       2       2       2       2       2       2       2 

2     5         8        10       13       16        18       21        24       27       29 

32 

S9 

0    0    0    0    0    0,  0     1 

1        111111122        2        2        222222333 

3     6         9        12       15       18       21       24       27       30       33 

36 

■10 

0    0    0    0    0    0    1     1 

1        1        1        1        1        1        1        22        2       2222       2       233333 

3     6        10       13       16       20       23       26       80       33       37 

40 

$100 

12    3    4    6    7    8    9 

10      11      12      13     15      15     16      18      19     20     21      22     23      24     25     26     28     29     30    31     32 

33  67     1.00    1.33    1.67    2.00    2.33    2.67    3.00    8.33   3.67 

4.00 

S1.000 

11  22  33  14  56  60  74  89  l.im  1.11  l.ll  1.33  1.44  LM  1.H7  1.7s  1  .s<4  1,00  '.Ml  2.22  MB  144  IM  M7  L7I  LSI  MOMl  Ml 

Ml  «.*>!  in. mi  IMI  it.'iT  SMI  SMI  SM7  ;i".""  *■'■■■'■*  SMI 

40.00 

-A.T     PIVE     FES     OE1TT. 

DATS.                                                                                                                                                       MONTHS. 

Year 
1 

12    3    4    6    6    7 

8       9      10      11      11     13      14     15     16     17     18     19     20     21     22     23     24     25    26     27     28     29  |       1       2         3         4         5         6         7         8         9       10       11 

Ami. 

INTEREST. 

*1 

0    0    0    0    0    0    0 

0000000000000000000000 

01112233444 
11234566769 

5 
15" 

•1 

0    0    11    1)    0    0    11 

0000000000000000001111 

$3 

0    0    0    0    0    0    0 

0000000001111        11111        1111 

11         4         5         6         7         9       10       11       12       14 

n 

0    0    0    0    0    0    0 

0000011111111111111111 

13         5         6         8       10       11       13       15       16      18 

20 

a 

0    0    0    0    0    0    0 

000111111111111112       2       222 

2       4         6         8       10       12       14       16       19       21      23 

25 

u 

0    0    0    0    0    0    0 

0        111111111112        2       2        2       2       2       2       2       2       2 

2       5         7       10       12       15       17       20       22       25      27 

30 

*7 

0    0    0    0    0    0    0 

11111111112       2        2222222223 

3       6         9       11        14       17       20       23       26       29      32 

:i.i 

•a 

0    0    0    0    0    0    1 

1        11        1        1       1       1        12       222        2        22        2233333 

3       6       10       13       16       20       23       27       30       33      IT 

40 

•• 

0    0    0    0    0     11 

I        1        1        1        112        2       2       2       2       2        2        2       3       3       3       3       3       S       3       3 

4       7       11       15       19       22       26       30       34       37      41 

45 

$10 

0    0    0    0    0     11 

1        1        1        1        122       2222       2        333        333       3       444 

4       8       12       16       21       25       29       33       37       42      46 

50 

$100  1  1     3    4    5    7    8    9 

11      11      14      la      16     18     19     21     22     23    2a     26     28     29     30     32     33     34    36     37     89    40 

41     83    1.25   1.67    2.09   2.50    2.91    3.83    3.76    4.17    4.59 

5.00 
MUM 

81,000  |l4  28  41  55  70  83  97  1.11  1.2a  1.39  I.5S  1.66  1.86  1.94  2.08  2.22  2.36  2.502.64  2.78  2.91  3.05  3.203.333.47  3.61  3.7a 3.89  4.03 

4.16  6.83  12.50  16.67  20.83  25.00  29.16  33.33  37.50  41.67  45.88 

-A.T    SI2C    PEB    CENT. 

DAYS.                                                                                                                                                       MONTHS. 

Yt-ar. 

I 

12    3    4    5       6       7 

8       9     10     11     12     13     14     15     16     17     18     19     20     21     22     23     24     25     26     27     28     29  |      1        2        3        4        6        6         7         8         9       10      11 

Am'l. 

INTEREST. 

SI 

0   0    0    0   0       0       0 

0000000000000000000000 

11223         3         44556 

ti 

*2 

0   0   0    0   0       0       0 

000000011111111111        1        I        1        1 

1         2         3         4         5        6        7         8         9       10       11 

12 

$3 

0   0   0   0   0       0       0 

0     0     1      1      1      1      1      1      1      1      1      1      1      1      1      1      I      1      1      1      1      1 

2        3        5        6        8        9       11       12       14       U       17 

18 
24 

(4 

0   0   0   0   0       0       0 

1111111111111112       222222 

2        4        6        8       10       12       14       16       18       20       U 

*5 

0   0   0   0   0        1        1 

1111111111222       2       22223222 

3        5        8       10       13       15       18       20       23       S3       18 

30 

$6 

0   0   0   0    1        1        1 

1111111222222222238833 

3        6        9       12       15       18       21       24       27       30       33 

36 

S7 
(8 

0   0   0   0    1        1        1 

111112       22       2       2222233333333 

4        7       11       14       18       21       25       28       32       35       39 

42 

111 

1       1       1       12       2       2222.2333       8       383       3       4       4        4 

4        8       12       16      20      24       28       32       36       40       44 

48 

*9 

0   0   0    11        1        1 

11222222       2       333333344        4       4        4        4 

5        9       11       18       23       27       32       36       41       45       50 

54 

(10 

lioo" 

0  0    I    1    1       1       1 

122       2       222333333444444555 

5       10       15       20       25       30       35      40      45       50       65 

60 

2   3   5   7    8      10     12 

irusor  8:1  i.k  1.17 

13     15     17     18     20     22     23     25     27     28     80     32     33     35     37     38     40     42     43     45     47     48 

50    1.00    1.50   2.00   2.50   3.00   3.50   4.00   4.50   5.00   5.50 

COO 

•1,000 

.33  1.50  1.67  1.83  2.00  2.17  2.33  2.50  2.67  2.83  3.00  3.17  3.33  3.50  3.67  3.83  4.00  4.17  4.33  4.50  4.67  4.83 

5.00  10.00  15.00  20.00  25.00  30.00  35.00  40.00  45.00  50.00  65.00 

•Ml 

-A.T    SEVE1T    tE»BI5    CENT. 

DAYS.                                                                                                                                                       MONTHS. 

Ye»r. 

12    3    4    5      6       7 

8       9     10     11     12     13     14     la     16     17     18     19     20     21     22     23     24     2a     26     27     28     29  |      1         2        3         4        5        6         7         8         9       10       11 

1 

Am'l. 

1 

INTEREST. 

(1 

0   0   0   0    0       0       0 

0000O000000000O000        1        1        1        1 

112         2         3445567 

7 

S2 

0   0   0   0   0       0       0 

00000111      ill      1      11      11      111      I      11 

1         2         4        5         6        7         8         9       11       12       13 

14 

S3 

0   0   0   0    0       0       0 

01111111111111111        12122 

2         4         5         7         9       11       12       14       16       18       19 

21 

(4 

0   0   0   0    0       0       1 

11111111111122222        2        2222 

S         5         7         9       12       14       16       19       21       23       26 

28 

•1 

0   0   0   0   0       1        1 

1111111122       22       2       222223333 

3        6        9       12       15       18       20       23       26       29      32 

35 

to 

0  0  0  0   1       1        1 

1111122222222       2333        3       3       333 

4        7       11       14       18       21       25       28       32       35       39 

42 

«7 

0   0   0    11        1        1 

11112222222333333       3        4444 

4        8       12       16       20      25       29       83       37       41       45 

49 

M 

0   0   0    11       1        1 

1       1       22222       2       233333344        4        4        4        4       5 

5        9       14       19      23       28       S3       37       42       47       51 

56 

*9 

0  0   111       1       1 

1222222333334444445555 

5       11       16       21       26       32       37       42       47       53       58 

63 

•it 

0  0   111       1       1 

2222233333444444555550 

6       12       18       23       29       35       41       47       53       58       64 

70 

•100 

2    4   6   810     12     14 

16     18     19     21     23     25     27     29     31     33     35     37     39     41     43     45     47      49     51     53     54     56 

58    1.17    1.75    2.33    2.92    3.50   4.08   4.67    6.25   5.83    6.42 

7.00 

91.000 

19  39  58  78  97  1.17  1.36  1.56  1.76  1.94  2.14  2.33  2.53  2.72  2.92  3.11  3.31  3.50  3.69  3.80  4.06  4.28  4.47  4.67  4.86  5.06  5.25  5.44  5.64 

5.83 11.67  17.50  23.33  29.17  35.00  40.81 46.67  52.50  58.83  64.17 

70.00 

/ 

• 

\ 

rFr 


442 


COMPOUND    INTEREST,    ETC. 


COTTON  PICKER'S  CALCULATOR.     COMPOUND  INTEREST  TABLES. 


Rate  per  Hundred  Pounds. 

-J 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

1.00 

1.26 

1R0 

e.ts 

cts 

eti 

eti 

Otl 

'■ts 

els 

rts 

0U> 

ills 

cts 

eti 

cts 

1 

0 

0 

(1 

0 

i> 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

3 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

:; 

I 

S 

4 

4 

4 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

II 

3 

3 

8 

8 

4 

4 

4 

6 

6 

6 

1 

9 

2 

2 

2 

3 

:: 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

8 

6 

fi 

7 

6 

2 

'» 

2 

i 

3 

3 

4 

•1 

4 

4 

1 

6 

8 

1; 

6 

7 

9 

7 

2 

9 

3 

H 

8 

4 

4 

1. 

6 

6 

II 

6 

6 

7 

7 

9 

10 

8 

2 

a 

:, 

4 

4 

1 

B 

.'. 

6 

6 

a 

7 

7 

8 

8 

in 

12 

9 

:; 

:i 

4 

4 

1 

5 

ft 

11 

6 

7 

7 

8 

8 

11 

9 

11 

13 

10 

H 

8 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

0 

7 

7 

8 

K 

Ii 

1' 

10 

12 

15 

16 

■1 

:( 

6 

7 

7 

8 

'.) 

10 

10 

11 

12 

III 

18 

14 

16 

19 

n 

20 

t 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

111 

11 

16 

HI 

17 

lh 

l'i 

20 

26 

80 

26 

7 

«J 

in 

11 

12 

11 

16 

HI 

17 

Hi 

20 

21 

22 

21 

26 

31 

87 

30 

I 

10 

12 

111 

1;> 

18 

18 

Id 

21 

22 

21 

2.". 

27 

28 

30 

37 

45 

3b 

|ii 

12 

11 

11; 

17 

111 

21 

211 

21 

2(1 

28 

lid 

ill 

88 

88 

44 

62 

40 

a 

II 

16 

18 

20 

22 

21 

28 

28 

30 

82 

in 

11(1 

US 

40 

60 

60 

46 

it 

ia 

U 

211 

22 

2.". 

27 

211 

31 

111 

88 

IIS 

10 

■III 

46 

66 

67 

60 

is 

17 

20 

22 

21, 

27 

80 

Hi1 

86 

37 

4(1 

■lv 

48 

17 

Ml 

62 

76 

66 

in 

111 

22 

28 

27 

3(1 

38 

in; 

lis 

41 

II 

47 

IV 

62 

66 

UK 

82 

60 

18 

21 

21 

27 

III! 

:k; 

:  :n 

4.' 

46 

■Is 

.',1 

64 

67 

60 

76 

9rt 

66 

I'.i 

211 

211 

29 

112 

III', 

39 

42 

46 

49 

62 

66 

68 

62 

66 

81 

97 

70 

21 

21 

28 

111 

86 

lis 

12 

46 

•in 

62 

.Ml 

68 

no 

68 

7(1 

87 

1  06 

76 

22 

211 

m 

III 

87 

11 

4.5 

41) 

62 

66 

66 

in 

67 

71 

76 

94 

1  12 

80 

2-1 

28 

■.',.! 

36 

40 

11 

Is 

62 

,',<; 

60 

61 

(Is 

72 

76 

SO 

1  no 

1  ill 

86 

26 

mi 

Ill 

38 

•12 

-17 

61 

.',:> 

.V.I 

III 

68 

72 

78 

si 

86 

1  06 

1  27 

90 

27 

HI 

llll 

411 

US 

III 

6-1 

88 

mi 

67 

72 

711 

81 

86 

!«l 

1  12 

1  86 

96 

28 

33 

88 

43 

17 

82 

.',7 

62 

88 

71 

76 

81 

88 

80 

96 

1  19 

1  42 

SHORT  INSURANCE  RATES. 


Policy  for 
1  year. 

Policy  for 
2  years. 

Policy  for 
3  years. 

Policy  for 
4  years. 

Policy  for 
5  years. 

Charge  this  pro- 
portion of  whole 
Premium. 

1  mo. 

2  mo. 

3  1110. 

4  mo. 

5  mo. 

20  per  cent. 

2     " 

4     " 

6     " 

8     '• 

10     " 

«T     " 

8     " 

6     " 

9     " 

12     " 

15     " 

40       " 

4     " 

8     " 

12      " 

16     " 

20     " 

50       " 

5     " 

10     " 

16      " 

20     " 

25     " 

60       " 

6     " 

12     " 

18     " 

24     " 

SO     " 

70       " 

7     " 

14     " 

21     " 

2S       •' 

35     " 

75 

8     " 

16     " 

24      " 

32      " 

40     " 

80       " 

9     " 

18     " 

27      " 

36      " 

45     " 

86 

10     " 

20     " 

SO     " 

40      " 

60     " 

»n 

11     " 

22      " 

33      " 

44      " 

56     " 

116 

HOW  INTEREST  ACCUMULATES. 

If  one  dollnr  be  invested  and  the  interest  added  to  the  princi- 
pal,  annually,  at  the  rates  named,  wo  shall  have  the  following 
1  i'miII  as  the  accumulation  of  one  hundred  years: 
One  Dollar  100  years,  at  1  per  cent 


H 

3 
8* 

4 

H 
5 

'i 

7 

8 

II 
10 
12 
15 
18 
24 


$2.75 
7.25 
11.75 

111.2.-. 
50.60 
81.60 

aiM 

340.00 

SOS. 00 
2,203.00 
5,543.00 

I  i.sootm 

1,171,405.00 

16, 145,007.00 

2,561,799,404.00 


ll.llls 

3  per  cent. 

4  per  cent. 

6  per  cent. 

e  per  cent. 

T  per  cent. 

1 

1.03000 

1.04000 

1.09000 

1.06000 

1.070000 

2 

1.06090 

1.08160 

1.10250 

1.12360 

1.144900 

3 

1.0!  (273 

1.12486 

l.li. 

1.19102 

1. 328043 

4 

1.12551 

1.16686 

121551 

1.26248 

1.310796 

5 

Lift 

1.21666 

1.27628 

1.38823 

1.402962 

6 

1.19406 

1.26632 

1.34010 

1.41892 

1.500730 

7 

1.22087 

131693 

1.40710 

1-50363 

1.609781 

8 

1.21.677 

1.36867 

1.47745 

1.68889 

1.718186 

9 

1.30477 

1.42it;l 

una 

1.68818 

1.838459 

10 

1.34 

1.48024 

1.62889 

1.79085 

1.967151 

11 

138423 

1.63945 

1.71034 

1.89830 

2.10483* 

12 

1.42676 

1.00103 

1.79586 

2.01- 

2.262192 

13 

1.46863 

1.66607 

1.88565 

2.13298 

2.409849 

14 

1.51259 

17U68 

197993 

U8880 

2.578534 

15 

1.55797 

1.80094 

2.07893 

2.S9658 

2.759031 

16 

1.60471 

187188 

2.18287 

2.54035. 

2.992164 

17 

1. 65283 

1.94790 

2.29262 

2.69277 

3.158819 

.  1I! 

1.70313 

2.02582 

2.40602 

2.85134 

Lsnan 

19 

1.75361 

2.106S5 

J698 

2.02660 

3.61(938 

20 

1.80611 

2.19112 

2.66330 

3.20713 

...-*.'*. "-4 

Example. — At  5  per  cent  compound  interest  what  will  $1,000 
amount  to  in  seven  years?  The  table  shows  that  $1  in  seven  years 
at  5  per  cent  compound  interest  amounts  to  $1.40710,  which 
amount  multiplied  by  1,000  equals  $1,407.10. 

Time  in  which  Money  Doublet*. 


t% 

Simple  Int. 

Comp.  Int. 

3 
6 

8 
9 

10 

Simple  Int. 

Comp.  Int. 

2 

2t 
3 

34. 

4 

50  years. 
40  years. 
33  yrs.  4  mos. 
28  yrs.  208  da. 
25  years. 
22  yrs.  81  da. 

35  years. 
28  yrs.  26  da. 
23  yrs.  164  da.  ; 
20  yrs.  64  da. 
17  yrs.  246  da. 
15  yrs.  273  da. 

20  years. 
16  yra.  8  mos. 
14  yrs.  104  da. 
12)  years. 
11  yrs.  40  da. 
in  year-. 

14  yrs.  79  da. 
11  yrs.  327  da. 
10  yra.  89  da. 
9  yrs.  2  days. 
8  yrs.  16  days. 
7  yra.  100  da. 

Daily  Savings  at  Compound  Interest. 


I.AII-l     SAVIN. .s. 


2X  seats 

" 

8*       " 
II 

56 

$1.10  .  .  . 

1.37  .  .  . 

2.74  .  .  . 


VEAHI.Y.         TEX  TEARS.    FIFTY  TEAHS 


$     10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

100 

200 

400 

500 

1,000 


$      130 

M 
390 
540 
650 

urn 

2.6MI 

tjtoa 

6,50(1 

l.l.OOo 


I  M 
8,700 
11.600 

14,500 
29.000 
58,00(1 
116,000 
145,000 


SHORT  INTEREST  RULE. 

To  And  the  interest  on  a  given  sum  (or  any  number  of  days,  at 
any  rate  of  interest,  multiply  the  principal  by  the  number  of  days 
and  divide  as  follows: 

.  .  M 
.  .  30 
.  .  24 
.    .     18 


At  5  per  cent,  by 72 

At  0  per  cent,  by 60 

At  7  per  cent,  by 52 

At  s  per  ceut.  In    ....  45 

At  9  per  rent,  by 40 


A 1  in  per  cent,  by 
At  12  per  cent,  by 
At  15  per  cent,  by 
At  20  per  cent,  by 


V- 


Al 


WAGES BOARD LUMBER    MEASURE. 


443 


A  QUICK  METHOD  OF  COMPUTING  WAGES, 

On  a  Basis  of  Ten  Hours'  Labor  per  Day. 


HOUBS. 

$1.00|  $1.50 
.01    |    .01} 

|  $2.00  |  $2.50  |  $3.00  |  $3.50  |  $4.00  |  $4.50  |  $5,110  |  $5.50  |  $6.00  |  $6.50  |  $7.00  |  $7.50  |  $8.00  |  $9.00  | 

$10    |     $11    | 

«ri 

i 

.01f  |     .02    |     .0241     -03    |     .03J|     .03}  |     .04  J  |     .0141      05    1     -OoJ  |     .06    |     .06}  |     .06}  |     .074  1 

.0841      -09    1 

.10 

1 

.01|  |    .02} 

.0341     .044  1    .05    |     .06    |    .06}  |     .0741     -«Si  1     -<»4  1     -10    |     .11    |    .11}  |    .1241    .1341    -16    1 

.16}  |      .1841 

.20 

2 

.03il    -05 

.06}  |    .0841    -10    I    -11}  |    .1341    -18    1    -16}  |    .1841    -20    1    -21J  |    .2341    •'■»    1    -Sfe»  1    -30    | 

■334  1      -36}  1 

.40 

3 

.05   |    .074 

.10    |    .1241    -I*    1    -1"4I    -20    1     -22*  1    -25    I    .2741    ■*»    1    -3241    -35    |    .3741    .40    |    .45    | 

.50    I      .55    | 

.60 

4 

.06}  |    .10 

.18JI     -l«il    -20   1    -23il     .26}  |     .30    |     .3341     -36}  |     .40   |    .43}  |     .46}  |     .50    |     .88)1     .00    | 

.66}  |      .734  | 
.834  1     -914 1 

i.oo  |  l.io  | 

.80 

5 

.084  |    .12) 

.165  |    .21    |    .2(5    |    .294  |     .334  |     -3"i  1     -41}  I     .46    |     .50    |     .544  |    .584  1      «'-4  1     Mi  1     ■'■'    1 

1.00 

6 

.10    |     .15 
.ll|.l     .17.J 

.20    |     .25    |     .80    |     .35    |     .40    |     .45    |     .50    |     .55    |     .60    |     .68    1     .70    I     .75    !     .80    i      .90    I 

1.20 

7 

.23J|     -2941     -35    |     .41    |     .46}  |     .524  1     -58*  |     .644  1     -70    |     .76    |     .81}  |     .874  1     .934  |  1.0".    \ 

1.16)1    1.2841 

1.40 

8 

.mil   .20 

.2li}|     .3341     -4«    1     •«fl     -5341     .60    |     .66}  |     .7341    -80    1    -86}  I    .934  |  1.00    1  1.06}  |  1.20    | 

1.3341    l-*6} ) 

1.60 

9 

.15    |    .22) 

.30    |    .3741     -45    I    .5241     •6"    1    -6HI     -'S    1    -8241    .90    |     .9741  1.05    1  1-1241  1.20    U-35    | 

1.50    |    1.65    | 

1.80 

DAYS. 

1 

1             1             i             1             1             1             1             1             1             1             1             1             1             1 

1              1 

1 

.16||     .25 

.3341    -4111    -60    I     .5841    -«6f )    .75    |    .8341     .91}  I  1.00    |  1.08}  |  1.16}  |  1.25    |  1.3*411.50    | 

1.66}  |    1  8341 

2.00 

<j 

•SSI  I     .50 

.66}  |    .83411.00    |  1.16}  |  1.3341  1.50    |  1.66}  |  1.834  |  2.00    1  2.16}  |  2.334  |  2.50    I  2.66}  |  3.00    j 

3.3341    3.66}  | 

4.00 

:i 

.50    |     .75 

1.00    |1.25    |1.50    |1.75    |2.00    |  2.25    |  2.50    1 2.75    |3.00    |  3.25    |3.50    |  3.75    |  4.00    |  4.50    | 

5.00    |    5.60    | 

6.00 

4 

.66}  |  1.00 

1.3341  1.66}  |  2.00    |  2.334  |  2.66}  !  3.00    1  3.334  |  3.66}  |  4.00    1  4.334  |  4.66}  |  5.00   1  5.334  |  6.00    i 

6.66}  |    7.3341 

8.00 

5 

.88|  I  1.25 
1.00    |  1.50 

1.66}  12.0841  2.50    |  2.91}  |  3.334  |  3.75    |  4.16}  |  4.584  |  5.00    |  5.41}  |  5.83}  |  6.26    |  6.66}  1  7.50    | 
2.00    |2.50    |3  00    |3.50    |  4  00    |  4.60    |  5.00    |  5.50    |  6.00    |  6.50    |  7.00    |  7.50    |  8.00    |  9.00    | 

8.3341    9.16}  | 
10.00    |  11.90 

10. (X) 

« 

12.00 

To  find 

wages  at  813,  814,  815,  816,  or  more,  per  week,  find  the  amount  at  86.50,  87,  87.50,  88,  etc.  and  multiply  by  2 

EXPENSE  OF  BOARD   PER   DAY. 


50c.  |  75c.  |  $1.00  |  $1.25  |  $1.60  |  $1.75  |  $2.00  |  $2.25  |  $2.50  |  $3.00  |  $3.50  |  $4.00  |  $4.50  |  $5.00  [  $6.00  |  $7.00  |   $8.00  |  $9.00  |    $10 


.07   |     .11   |     .14  |     .18  |     .21   |     .25   |     .29   |     .32  |     .36   I     .43   |     .50  [     .57  |     .64  |     .71   |     .86  |   1.00  |     1.14   |     1.29  | 


.14 


.21 


■29   |      .36    |      .43    |      .50   |      .57    |      .64    |      .71    | 


1.001    1.14    |    1.5 


1.43  |  1.71  I  2.00  |     2.29  |    2.57  I 


1.43 
2.88 


.21 


■32   |     .43   |     .54  1     .64  |     .75   | 


|     .98  |   1.07   |   1.29  |   1.50  [  1.71   |   1.93  |  2.14  |  2.57   |  3.00  |     3.43  |     3.86   |    4.29 


.29  |     .43   |     .57   |     .71   |     .86   |   1.00  |   1.14  |   1.29  |   1.43   |   1.71   I  2.00  |  2.29  |  2.57   I  2.86  |  3.43  |  4.00  |     4.57   |     5.14   |    6.71 


.36  |     .54   |     .71   | 


|   1.07   |   1.25   |   1.43   |   1.61    I   1.79  |  2.14   |  2.50  |  2.86  |  3.21 


.48   | 

.50   | 


.64    |      .82    |_1.07 

.75"  I  i.oe  I  1.25 


1.29  |   1.50  |   1.71 
1.50    |    1.73    |    2.00 


l_3.57J_4.29_L  5.00 
[38   j   2.14   |  2.57   |  3.00  |  3.43   |  3.86  1  4.29   |  5.14"  |  6.00  | 
2.25   |  2.50   |  3.00  |  3.80  |  4.00  |  4.50  |  5.00  |  6.00  |  7.00  | 


5.71   | 
6.86  | 


6.43 


7.71   I 


7.14 
8.57 


8.00   |     9.00  |  10.00 


For  rates  not  given  in  this  table  the  result  may  be  obtained  by  addition  or  multiplication. 


LUMBER    MEASURE. 


LENGTH    IN    FEET. 


3  inches  wide.., 

4  inches  wide... 

5  inches  wide... 

6  inches  wide... 

7  inches  wide.., 

8  inches  wide... 

9  Inches  wide... 

10  inches  wide... 

11  inehes  wide.. 

12  inches  wide.., 

13  inches  wide.., 

14  inches  wide.. 

15  inches  wide.. 

16  inches  wide.. 

17  inches  wide.. 

18  inches  wide.. 

19  inches  wide.. 

20  inches  wide.. 

21  inches  wide.. 

22  inches  wide.. 

23  inches  wide.. 

24  inches  wide.. 

25  inches  wide.. 

26  inches  wide.. 

27  inches  wide.. 

28  inches  wide.. 

29  inches  wide.. 

30  inches  wide.. 


4  it. 


ft.  in. 
1..00 
1..04 
1..08 
2. .00 
2. .04 
2.. 08 
3.. 00 
3. .04 
3. .08 
4.. 00 
4. .04 
4.. 08 
5.. 00 
5. .04 
5.. 08 
6.  .00 
6.. 04 
6.. 08 
7. .00 
7. .04 
7.. 08 
8.. 00 
8.. 04 
8.. 08 
9.  .00 
9.. 04 
9..  I 
10.. 00 


5  ft. 


6  ft. 


.03 
.08 

.in 
.08 
.11 
.ill 
.08 
.02 
.117 
.1)11 
,08 
.l» 
.08 
OS 
.01 
.00 

.11 

.04 

.09 
.09 
.0 

.00 
.09 

.10 
.03 
.0814 
.01  14 
.06  15 


7  ft.     8  ft.     9  ft. 


8. 
9. 
9. 

10. 

11. 
11. 

12. 
12. 

0613. 

00'H. 
.0614. 
.00  15. 
.08  15. 
.00  16. 
.06.16. 
.00.17. 


in.  ft. 

.mi 

.04 

.11 

.08 

.in 

.08 

.08 

.10 

.05 

.IK) 
.07 

.09 

.0.1 

.04 

.11 
.06 

.01 

.68 
.08 

.10 

.05 


in.  ft.  in. 


10  ft. 


.00  16 
.07116 
.02J17 
.99  18 
.04  18 
.11,19 
.06,20 


9. 

10. 
.0011. 
.08:12. 
.04  12. 
.00  13. 
.08  14. 
.04:15. 
.00  15. 
.08il6, 
.0417, 
.00  18, 
.0818, 
.04;  19 
.00  20 
.08  21 
.0421 
.00  22 

I 


.08 
.00 

.mi 
.08 
.08 

.011 
.09 

.0)1 
.03 
.00  10 

.00  10. 

.0611. 
.03  12. 
.00  13. 
.0.1  14. 
.06,15. 
.03115. 
.00.16. 
.Ofl!  17. 
.08  18. 
.03  19. 
.00  20. 
.09  20. 
.0621. 
.03  22. 
.00,23 
.09  24 
.0625 
I 


lift. 


9, 

10, 

11, 
11, 

12, 
.08  13, 

.04  11 
.02115 
.00  16 
.10  17 
.08,18 
.06  19 
.0420 
.02  21 
.00  22 
.10  22 
.08:23 
.06124 
..04:25 
.02  26 
.00J27 


12  ft. 


.03  16. 
.07(17. 
.06)18. 
.05ll9. 
.01  20. 
.03  21. 
.02  23. 
.01  23. 
.00  24. 
.1125. 
.1026. 
.09127. 
.08  28. 
.07  29. 
.06  30. 


13  ft. 


14  ft.    15  ft.    16  ft. 


in. ft. 

.06 

.06 


.00  27 
.00,28 
.00  29 
.00130 
.00131 
.00:32 
I 


.05  111. 
.06  21. 
.07  22. 
.08  98. 
.09  24. 
.10  25. 
.11]26. 
.00!28. 
.01!  29 
.02:30. 
.0331. 


5 
6. 
7. 
8. 
10. 

.oe'n. 
.08112. 

.10  13. 
.0015. 
.02!  16. 
.04  17. 
.06118. 
.08  20. 
.I1121. 
.00  22 . 
.02  23. 
.0125. 
.08  96. 
.0827. 
.10  28. 
.00  30. 
.02  31. 
.04  32. 
.08  33. 
.08  35. 
.10  36. 
.00,37. 


17  ft. 


ft.  in.  ft.  in. 
4 
5 
6. 
8. 
9 


00!10 
.03|12. 
.06[13. 
.09114. 
.0016. 
.03  17. 
,08  18. 
.IK)  20. 
.00  21. 
.03122. 
.06|24. 
.09  96. 

.00:26. 
.03128. 
.08:29. 
.09,30. 
.00'32. 
.0.133. 
.06  34. 
.09  36. 
.00  37. 
.03J38. 
.06  40. 


..00 

.01 


.08:11 
.00  1 

-HI    It 

.OS  16 
.00:17 
.04'l8 
.08  1!) 
.00  21 
.04  22 
.08  24 
.00  25 
.04  26 
.08  28 
.00  29 
.04131 
.08,32 
.00  34 
.04  35 
.0836 
.00  38 
.04  39 
.0841 
.00  42 


.07 
.01 

.08 

.11 
.04 
.  .09  13 


18  ft.    19  ft, 


in.  ft. 

.06    4. 
.00    6. 

.03    7. 


02 

,07 
.00 
.08 
.10 

.03 

.08124 
.01125 
.06127 
.1128 
.04  30 
.09,31 
.02  33 


,00;22 
.08  23 
.0025 
.06J26 
.0028 
.06  30 


20  ft.  21  ft. 


,00 

.06  33 
.00  34 
.0*36 
.00  38 
.06  39 
.00141 
.06  42 
.00  44 
.06:45 
.00147 


10 

11 

18 
15 
16 
18 
90 

a 

23 
26 
98 
28 
30 
.01)31 
,08|33 
.03!S5 
.10136 
.06]38 
.0040 
.07141 
.0243 
.09!45 
.04  40 
.11|48 
.0650 


7. 
8. 
10. 
12. 
14. 
15. 
17. 
19. 
21. 
99 . 
24. 
28. 
28. 
29. 
St. 
88. 
85. 
86. 
88. 
40. 
00:42 
.08)43 

."I   15 

.0047. 
.08149. 
.04  50. 

.00  52. 


22  ft. 


ft.  in. 
5. .06 
7.. 05 
9.. 02 

11.  .00 
.03  12.. 10 
.00  14.. 08 
.09  16.. 06 
.06  18. .04 
.03  20.  .00 
.00  22.. 00 
.09  23.. 10 
.06  25.. 08 
.03  27.. 06 
.00  29.  .04 
.09  31.. 02 
.06  33.. 00 
.03  34. .10 
.00  36.. 08 
.09  38.. 06 
.06  40.. 04 
.03  43.. 02 
.00  44. .00 
..09  45. .10 
.06  47.. 08 
.03  49.  .06 
.00  51.  .04 
.09  53.. 02 
.06  55. .00 

I 


Explanation.  —  To  ascertain  the  number  of  feet  multiply  the  number  of  feet  in  length  by  the  number  of  inches  in  width,  and  divide 
the  product  by  12 ;  the  result  will  be  the  number  in  feet  and  inches.  Thus,  multiply  »  inches  wide  by  26  feet  long,  and  the  result  will 
be  234.    Divide  this  by  12  and  we  have  the  product  10  feet  and  6  inches. 


**7 


Y- 


-v 


444 


Tf 


PRACTICAL  CALCULATIONS. 


g=^-»^lQg?jgaP£«-»-=3 


PRACTICAL  +  6AL6ULATI0NS  >. 


*Zr< 


*=~-**%£ffi?&r^* 


To  Measure  Wells  or  Cisterns. 

Square  the  diameter  in  inches,  multiply  by  the  decimal  .7854,  and  the 
product  by  the  depth  of  the  well  or  cistern  in  inches.  The  result  will  be 
the  full  capacity  of  the  well  in  cubic  inches.  If  the  actual  quantity  of 
water  be  sought,  multiply  by  the  depth  of  water  in  inches,  and  in  either 
case  divide  by  231  for  the  number  of  gallons. 

Circular  Cisterns,  One  Foot  in  Depth,  Computed. 


DIAMETER 
IN  INCHES. 


'5 
16 


CONTENTS 
IN  GALLONS. 

....    5-875 

9.18 

IO.44 


DIAMETER 

IN   INCHES. 

18    .... 


CONTENTS 
IN  GALLONS. 


20 


.13.218 
•  16.32 


For  any  greater  depth  than  one  foot,  multiply  by  the  number  of  feet  and 
fractions  of  a  foot.  As  the  areas  of  circles,  and  consequently  the  capaci- 
ties of  circular  cisterns  of  equal  depth,  vary  as  the  squares  of  their  diame- 
ters, it  is  unnecessary  to  multiply  calculations.  For  instance,  should  it 
be  required  to  find  the  contents  of  a  circular  cistern  of  two  feet  in  diame- 
ter, say  as  the  square  of  1 :  to  the  square  of  2 :  5.875,  that  is,  as  1 ;  4  : : 
5.875,  and  5.875  X  4=23.5=  the  contents  of  such  cistern.  This  formula 
will  apply  to  any  diameter;  for  three  feet,  multiply  by  9;  for  four  feet, 
multiply  by  16,  etc. ;  for  5,  by  25. 

The  Amount  of  Rainfall  on   a  Building. 

In  this  calculation  the  amount  of  annual  rainfall  is  assumed  to  be  thirty- 
six  inches,  which  is  about  the  average  for  the  Northern  States.  Find  the 
area  covered  by  the  building,  in  square  inches.  Multiply  it  by  36,  the 
depth  of  rainfall;  divide  the  product  by  231,  the  cubic  inches  in  a  gallon, 
and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  gallons  of  water  shed  by  the  roof 
in  one  year. 

The  Diameter  of  a  Circular  Cistern  that  will  Contain  the 
Rainfall  on  a  Building. 

The  side  of  a  square  is  to  the  diameter*  of  a  circle  of  equal  area  as 
1 : 1. 128.  The  square  root  of  the  area  of  the  building,  multiplied  by  1. 128, 
will  be  the  required  diameter,  assuming  depth  of  cistern  and  rainfall  to  be 
•qual.  Allowance  must  of  course  be  made  for  greater  or  less  depth  of 
cistern  than  three  (bet,  as  well  as  for  daily  or  occasional  use  of  rainwater. 

The  Per  Cent  of  Profit  or  Loss. 

Add  two  ciphers  to  the  difference  between  the  cost  and  selling  price, 
divide  by  the  cost,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  gain  or  loss  per  cent. 

Weights  of  Hay  by  Measurement. 

Four  hundred  cubic  feet  of  dry  meadow  hay  are  estimated  at  one  ton 
weight.  The  actual  measurement  to  make  a  ton  will  be  modified  by  the 
density  of  the  volume  of  hay,  the  pressure  it  has  been  subjected  to  as  in 
a  large  or  long-standing  suck,  and  the  like.  In  barns  the  volume 
is  variously  estimated  from  400  to  550,  according  to  coarseness  and 
the  length  of  time  it  has  been  piled  up.  Find  the  cubic  contents  by 
II  nig  the  three  dimensions  of  the  pile  in  feet,  and  divide  by  400,  450, 
500  or  550  (according  to  circumstances,  as  explained),  and  the  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  tons,  approximately. 


Weights  of  Cattle  by  Measurement. 
To  find  the  approximate  weight,  measure  as  follows :  1.  The  girth  be- 
hind the  shoulder*.  2.  The  length  from  the  fore  part  of  the  shoulder- 
blade  along  the  back  to  the  bone  at  the  tail,  in  a  vertical  line  with  the 
buttocks.  Then  multiply  the  square  of  the  girth,  in  feet,  by  five  times 
the  length,  in  feet.  Divide  the  product  by  1.5  for  average  cattle  (if 
cattle  be  very  fat,  by  1.425;  if  very  lean,  by  1.575) ;  and  the  quotient  will 
be  the  dressed  weight  of  the  quarters.  Thus:  The  girth  of  a  steer  is 
6.5  feet,  and  the  length  from  the  shoulder-blade  to  the  tail-bone  is  5.25. 
The  square  of  6.5  is  42.25,  and  5  times  5.25  is  26.35.  Multiplying  these 
together  gives  1109.0625,  which,  when  divided  by  1.5,  produces  739.375 
lbs.,  the  approximate  net  weight  of  the  steer  after  being  dressed. 

The  Number  of  Shingles  Required  for  a  Roof. 

Multiply  the  length  of  the  ridge-pole  by  twice  the  length  of  the  rafter, 
and  the  product  by  eight  if  the  shingle  is  to  be  exposed  \%  inches  to  the 
weather,  and  by  7  1-5  if  exposed  five  inches. 

The  Number  of  Square  Yards  in  a  Floor  or  Wall. 
Multiply  the  length  and  width  of  the  floor,  or  height  and   width  of  the 
wall,  in   feet  and   fractions  of  a  foot,  divide  by  nine,  and  the   quotient  is 
the  number  of  square  jrmfds. 

The  Number  of  Bricks  Required  for  a  Building. 
The  average  brick  is  eight  inches  long,  four  inches  wide,  and  two  inches 
thick,  or  64  (8  X  4  X  a)  cubic  inches.  1728  cubic  inches  make  one  cubic  foot, 
and  27  bricks  make  1728  (64X27)  cubic  inches.  In  laying  bricks,  1-6 
is  allowed  for  mortar,  or  4^  out  of  every  27,  leaving  %*%  actual 
bricks  for  each  cubic  foot  Therefore,  multiply  the  dimensions— length, 
height  and  thickness— in  feet  and  fraction  of  a  foot,  of  the  several  brick 
walls,  and  the  product  by  aa#,  and  the  result  will  be  the  number  of  bricks 
required.  Multiply  by  30,  instead  of  aa#,  if  the  bricks  are  larger  than 
the  average  above  given.  Allowance  should  be  made  for  chimneys,  pro- 
jections for  mantels,  and  the  like,  on  the  same  basis. 

The  Number  of  Perches  of  Stone  Required  for  a  Wall  or 
Cellar. 
The  perch  of  stone  is  now  com;.  1. 1  rtt  a  perch,  or  16.5  feet  in  length. 
by  1.5  feet  in  width  and  1  foot  inherit,  or  24.75(16.5  X  1.5  X  1)  cubic  feet. 
Of  this  amount  one-ninth,  a.  75  cubic  feet,  is  allowed  for  mortar  and  fill- 
ing. Multiply  the  three  dimensions  of  the  wall  or  walls  in  feet— width, 
height  and  thickness— and  divide  by  2a  (24.75 — a.75)  if  the  needed  qual- 
ity of  stone  is  the  subject  of  enquirj'i  or  by  24.75  if  it  be  sought  to  ascer- 
tain the  amount  of  masonry  in  the  wall  or  cellar. 

The  Number  of  Feet,  Board  Measure,  in  a  Lot  of  Boards. 
Planks,  Flooring,  Scantling,  Joists,  Sills  or  Beams. 

The  foot  of  board  measure  is  a  superficial  or  square  foot,  one  inch 
thick.  Multiply  the  product  of  the  width  and  thickness  of  each  board, 
plank  or  other  article,  in  inches,  by  the  length  in  feet  and  fraction*  of  a 
foot,  divide  by  ta,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  feet  of  board 
measure.  In  flooring,  allowance  muM  he  made  for  rabbeting,  the  pro- 
portion varying  with  the  depth  of  the  groove  and  the  width  of  the  boards. 

The  Cubic  Feet  in  Squared  Timber  or  Beams. 

Multiply  as  in  board  measure,  but  divide  by  144  instead  of  ta,  or  multi- 
ply the  three  dimensions  in  feet  a>id  fractions  of  a  foot 


7  t — «"- 


^ 


The  Number  of  Cubic  Feet  in  a  Round  Log  of  Uniform 
Diameter. 

Square  the  diameter,  in  inches,  multiply  by  .7854,  and  multiply  this 
product  by  the  length  in  feet,  divide  by  144,  and  the  quotient  is  the 
number  of  cubic  feet. 

Estimate  of  the  Number  of  Cubic  Feet  in  the  Trunk  of  a 
Standing  Tree. 

Find  the  circumference  in  inches,  divide  by  3.1416,  square  the  quotient, 
multiply  by  the  length  in  feet,  divide  by  144,  deduct  about  one-tenth  for 
thickness  of  bark,  and  the  result  will  be,  approximately,  the  number  of 
cubic  feet. 

The  Number  of  Feet,  Board  Measure,  in  a  Log  of 
Unequal  Diameters. 

Square  the  smallest  diameter  in  inches,  multiply  by  .7854,  and  the 
product  by  the  length  of  the  log  in  feet,  divid«  by  12,  and  the  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  feet  of  board  measure,  approximately. 

The  Area  of  a  Circle. 

Of  all  plane  figures,  the  circle  is  the"  most  capacious,  or  has  the  greatest 
area  within  the  same  limits.  It  is  geometrically  demonstrable  that  it  has 
the  same  arc£  as  a  right-angled  triangle  with  a  base  equal  to  its  circum- 
ference, and  a  perpendicular  equal  to  its  radius,  that  is,  half  the  product 
of  the  radius  and  circumference.  It  is  obviously  larger  than  any  figure, 
of  however  many  sides,  inscribed  within  its  perimeter,  and  smaller  than 
any  circumscribed  polygon.  As  a  result  of  laborious  calculations  on  this 
basis  (pushed  in  one  instance  to  600  places  of  decimals  without  reaching 
the  end  ),  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  ratio  of  the  diameter  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  any  circle  (sufficiently* exact  for  all  practical  purposes),  is 
as  1 :3.i4i6  (3.141592653X)  or  in  whole  numbers,  approximately,  as  7:22, 
or  more  nearly  as  113:355.  Hence,  to  find  the  circumference  or  diameter, 
the  other  quantity  being  known,  multiply  or  divide  by  3.1416  ;  and  to  find 
the  area,  multiply  half  the  diameter  by  half  the  circumference,  or  the 
square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854  (3. 1416-74). 

Capacity  or  Contents  of  a  Granary,  Bin,  Crib  or  Wagon. 

Multiply  the  three  dimensions — the  length,  width  and  depth — in  feet 
(the  inches,  if  any,  being  reduced  to  fractions  of  a  foot),  multiply  the 
product  by  the  decimal  .803564 — or  deduct  one-fifth,  which  is  sufficiently 
exact  for  ordinary  purposes— and  the  result  is  the  number  of  bushels. 
Where  the  wagon  or  crib  flares  considerably  in  length  or  width,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  obtain  a  mean  dimension.  This  is  done  by  taking  the  longest 
and  shortest  measures,  with  one  or  more  intermediate  ones,  and  dividing 
the  sum  of  all  by  the  number  taken.  The  quotient  will  be  the  mean  dimen- 
sion sought.  The  greater  the  flare  the  larger  the  number  of  intermediate 
dimensions  that  should  be  taken  to  insure  accuracy.  Corn  in  the  ear, 
when  first  cribbed,  is  estimated  at  twice  the  bulk  of  shelled  corn. 

To  Measure  Corn  or  Similar  Commodity  on  a  Floor. 

Pile  up  the  commodity  in  the  form  of  a  cone;  find  the  diameter  in  feet; 
multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854,  and  the  product  by  one-third 
the  height  of  the  cone  in  feet;  from  this  last  product  deduct  one-fifth  of 
itself,  or  multiply  it  by  .803564,  and  the  result  will  be  the  number  of 
bushels. 

To  Measure  Casks  or  Barrels. 

Find  mean  diameter  by  adding  to  head  diameter  two-thirds  (if  staves 
are  but  slightly  curved,  three-fifths)  of  difference  between  head  and  bung 
diameters,  and  dividing  by  two.  Multiply  square  of  mean  diameter  in 
inches  by  .7854,  and  the  product  by  the  height  of  the  cask  in  inches.  The 
result  will  be  the  number  of  cubic  inches.  Divide  by  231  for  standard  or 
wine  gallons,  and  by  282  for  beer  gallons. 

The  Number  of  Cords  in  a  Pile  of  Wood. 
A  cord  of  wood  is  four  feet  wide,  four  feet  high  and  eight  feet  long,  or 
138  (4X4X8)  cubic  feet.     Multiply  the  three  dimensions — length,  height 


and  width — of  the  pile  in  feet,  divide  by  128,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the 
number  of  cords.  The  odd  inches  in  any  or  all  of  the  three  dimensions 
must  be  reduced  to  decimals  or  common  fractions  of  a  foot,  before  begin- 
ning to  multiply. 

Contents  of  Fields  and  Lots. 


The  following  table  will  assi 
of  the  amount  of  land  in  diffei 


st  farmers  in  making  an  accurate  estimate 
ent  fields  under  cultivation  : 


10  rods 


16  rods    = 


8    "  X 

5    M  X  32     ■        = 

4  "  X  40      M        = 

5  yards  X  968      "        = 
10    "  X  484  yards  = 


40 

80  M 

70  M 
220  feet 

440  M 

no  ** 

60  « 

120  " 

240  ** 

200  ** 


X  242   - 

X  121  u 
X  60^  - 
X  6g%« 

X  198  feet 
X   99   ■ 

X  369  " 

X  726   M 

x  363  " 

X  181  %  feet 

X  108  ft-   =  % 

X  145  ft"   =  X 


100  feet 

X 

.08  ft 

fee 

M  a. 

25     " 

X 

IOO 

■ 

= 

■0574  " 

25   " 

X 

J  JO 

" 

= 

.0631  M 

25  " 

X 

X20 

" 

Z3 

.0688  " 

25   " 

X 

125 

" 

=r 

.0717  " 

=5     " 

X 

ISO 

■ 

= 

.109   " 

2178  square  feet 

= 

•  05 

435* 

M 

■ 

s 

.xo       " 

6534 

" 

" 

as 

.15     " 

8713 

" 

■ 

SB 

.20      " 

10890 

■ 

" 

ss 

.25     " 

13068 

u 

" 

= 

•30 

15246 

" 

" 

= 

■35       " 

17424 

■ 

** 

S3 

•40       " 

19603 

■ 

■ 

= 

•45        " 

21780 

• 

■ 

SS 

■  50 

32670 

■ 

■ 

=: 

■75       " 

34848 

44 

* 

SS 

.80       " 

Boxes  of  Different  Measure. 

A  box  24  inches  long  by  16  inches  wide,  and  28  inches  deep,  will  con- 
tain a  barrel  (3  bushels). 

A  box  24  inches  long  by  16  inches  wide,  and  14  inches  deep,  will  con- 
tain half  a  barrel. 

A  box  16  inches  square  and  8  2-5  inches  deep  will  contain  one  bushel. 

A  box  16  inches  by  8  2-5  inches  wide,  and  8  inches  d<ep,  will  contain 
half  a  bushel. 

A  box  8  inches  by  8  2-5  inches  square,  and  8  inches  deep,  will  contain 
one  peck. 

A  box  8  inches  by  8  inches  square,  and  4  1-5  inches  deep,  will  contain 
one  gallon. 

A  box  7  inches  by  4  inches  square,  and  4  4-5  inches  deep,  will  contain 
half  a  gallon. 

A  box  4  inches  by  4  inches  square,  and  4  1-5  inches  deep,  will  contain 
one  quart. 

In  purchasing  anthracite  coal,  20  bushels  are  generally  allowed  for  a 
ton. 

A  Key  to  the  Metric  System. 

It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  we  have  in  the  nickel  five-cent  piece 
of  our  coinage  a  key  to  the  tables  of  linear  measures  and  weights. 
The  diameter  of  this  coin  is  two  centimeters,  and  its  weight  is  five 
grammes.  Five  of  them  placed  in  a  row  will,  of  course,  give  the  length 
of  the  decimeter;  and  two  of  them  will  weigh  a.  decagramme.  As  the 
kiloliter  is  a  cubic  meter,  the  key  to  the  measure  of  length  is  also  the  key 
to  the  measures  of  capacity.  Any  person,  therefore,  who  is  fortunate 
enough  to  own  a  five-cent  nickel,  may  carry  in  his  pocket  the  entire  metric 
system  of  weights  and  measures. 

Comparison  of  Thermometric  Scales. 

To  convert  the  degrees  of  Centigrade  into  those  of  Fahrenheit,  multiply 
by  9,  divide  by  5,  and  add  32. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Centigrade  into  those  of  Reaumur,  multiply  by 
4  and  divide  by  5. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  into  those  of  Centigrade,  deduct  32, 
multiply  by  5,  and  divide  by  9. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  into  those  of  Reaumur,  deduct  32, 
divide  by  9,  and  multiply  by  4. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Reaumur  into  those  of  Centigrade,  multiply  by  5, 
and  divide  by  4. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Reaumur  into  those  of  Fahrenheit,  multiply  by  9, 
divide  by  4,  and  add  32. 

In  De  Lisle's  thermometer,  used  in  Russia,  the  gradation  begins  at 
boiling  point,  which  is  marked  zero,  and  the  freezing  point  is  150. 


4^ 


V 


446 


^f 


STANDARD    WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


&&7QW 


-=«»■ 


^f^r^. 


STANDARD  WEIGHTS  &  MEASURES. 


^i^s^r 


T^ZZZT 


AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 

16  drachms i  ounce  (oz.),  =  28.35  gr'nTs. 

16  ounces i  pound  (lb.).  =453-°      ** 

25  pounds 1  quarter 

4  quarters 1  hundrcdw't.  " 

20  hundred-w't.  1  ton,  2,000  pounds. 

The  standard  avoirdupois  pound  of  the 
United  States,  copied  from  the  British  stand- 
ard, is  0.00734  grain  too  heavy.  The  gramme 
is  legal  at  15.432  grains,  and  the  kilogramme 
at  2.2046  pounds.  In  some  States  the  ton  rates 
at  2,240  pounds.  In  that  case,  the  quarter, 
of  course,  consists  of  2S  lbs.,  or  2  stone. 

TROY  WEIGHT. 

24  grains 1  pennyweight  (dwt). 

20  pennyweights r  ounce,  =  480  grains. 

12  ounces 1  pound,  =  5,760  grains. 

Gold,  silver,  platinum,  and  some  gems,  are 
weighed  by  this  scale.  Pearls  and  diamonds 
arc  weighed  by  the  carat  of  4  grains,  5  dia- 
mond grains  being  equal  to  4  grains  troy. 

APOTHECARIES*  WEIGHT. 

20  grains 1  scruple. 

3  scruple 1  drachm. 

8  drachms* 1  ounce. 

12  ounces* 1  pound. 

*  Same  as  in  troy  weight,  as  is  also  the  grain. 

LINEAR  MEASURE. 

3  barleycorns 1  inch. 

7.92  inches 1  link. 

12  inches 1  foot,  =  0.3047  metre. 

3  feet 1  yard,  =0.91438  metre. 

5J  yards 1  rod,  perch,  or  pole. 

4  poles,  or  100  links   1  chain. 
10  chains  1  furlong. 

8  furlongs 1  mile  =  1.6093  kilom'rs. 

3  miles 1  league. 

liine 1/12  inch. 

1  nail  (cloth  measure) 2J  inches. 

1  palm j        «« 

1  hand  (used  tor  h'ht  of  horses)  .4        •* 

1  span 9        « 

1  cubit  18      ■■ 

1  pace  (military) 2  ft.6inchcs. 

1  pace  (geometrical) 5  feet. 

1  Scotch  ell 37.06  inches. 

1  Bnjgttfh^U 45  4* 

1  fathom  6  feet. 

1  cable's  length 120  fathoms. 

1  league 3  mile*. 

1  degree  of  the  equator... .....69.1613  miles, 

or    60    nautical    knots  or   geographical 
miles. 
1  degree  of  meridian...* 69.046  miles. 


SQUARE  OR  SURFACE  MEASURE. 

144  square  inches  ..1    sq.    foot,  =  9.29  square 
decimetres. 

9  *'      feet 1  sq.   yard,  =0.836  square 

metre. 
304      "       yards  ..1  square  rod. 
16        "       rods  ...1  chain. 
40        "  "     ...1  rood. 

4  roods 1  acre,  or  43,560  sq.  ft. 

640  acres   1  sq.  mile,  =  259  hectares. 

The  acre  =  0.405  hectare. 

CUBIC  OR  SOLID  MEASURE. 

172S  cubic  inches 1  cubic  foot. 

27      "        feet 1       "      yard. 

40      "         "     of  rough,  or  i     .  ,      , 

50      "       ft.  of  hewn  timber  j  ■  tonorload. 

42      "        feet  of  timber 1  British  ship- 
ping ton. 

40  cubic  feet j  American 

shipping  ton. 

10S  cubic  feet 1  stack  wood. 

12$        "        "     1  cord  wood. 

APOTHECARIES'  MEASURE. 

60  minims 1  fluid  drachm. 

8  drachms   1      '*      ounce. 

20  ounces  1  pint. 

S  pints 1  imperial  gallon. 

LIQUID  MEASURE. 

4  gills I  pint  (pt.) 

2  pints 1  quart  (qt.) 

4  quarts 1  gallon  (gal.) 

42  gallons 1  tierce. 

63        "       1  hogshead    (hhd.) 

84        "       1  puncheon, 

126        "       1  pipe. 

252        "       1  ton. 

10  "       1  anker. 

18        "       1  runlet. 

32*     M       1  barrel  (bbl.orbrl.) 

*  In  some  of  the  States  31^  gallons  make  a 
barrel. 

DRY  MEASURE. 

The  bushel  is  2150.42  cubic  inches,  that  of 
England  being  221S.192  cubic  inches.  The 
imperial  bushel  is,  therefore,  I.0315  United 
States  bushels.  In  dry  measure  the  litre  is 
tegal  at  0.90S  quart.  The  following  table  is 
grin-rally  used: 

2  pints 1  quart. 

4  quarts  . . .  1  gallon  of  268.8  cubic  Inches. 

a  gallons  . .  1  peck  (pk.) 

4  peeks....!  bosh*]  (hush,  or  bu.) 
36  bushels  .  .1  chaldron  (for  coke  and  coal). 
CIRCULAR  MEASURE. 

60  seconds 1  minute. 

60  minutes 1  degree. 


360  degrees 1  circle. 

30  degrees 1  sign  of  zodiac 

12  signs , 1  zodiac  circle. 

360  degrees,  the  circumference  of  the  earth. 

24,899  statute  miles,  circumference  of  the  earth 
at  the  equator. 

69,124  statute  miles,  1  degree  of  the  equator. 

1. 1527  statute  miles,  1  geographic  mile. 

60  geographic  miles,  1  degree. 

MEASURES  OF  TIME. 

60  seconds 1  minute. 

60  minutes 1  hour. 

24  hours 1  day. 

7  days t  week. 

28  days 1  lunar  month. 

3S,  29,  30  or  3 t  days 1  calendar  month. 

1 2  calendar  months 1  year. 

365.25  days 1  common  year. 

366  days 1  leap  year. 

LONGITUDE  AND  TIME  COMPARED. 

LONGITUDE.  TIME. 

i  second 0666  second. 

1  minute 4  seconds. 

15  minutes  1  minute. 

1  degree 4  minutes. 

360  degrees 1  day. 

Add  difference  of  time  for  places  east,  and 
subtract  for  places  west,  of  the  given  place. 

ODD  \VI  K.IITn 

14  pounds 1  stone  of  iron  or  lead. 

56  pounds 1  firkin  of  butter. 

100  pounds 1  quintal  of  fish. 

196  pounds 1  barrel  of  flour. 

200  pounds 1  barrel  of  beef  or  pork. 

250  pounds 1  pig  of  iron  or  lead. 

FOR  HOUSEKEEPERS. 

Wheat  flour t  pound  =  1  quart. 

Indian  meal 1  pound  2  01.=  1 

Butter,  when  soft 1  pound  =  1 

Loaf  sugar,  broken 1  pound  =  1 

White  sugar,  pwd  .1  pound  1  oz.  =  i 

Brown  sugar 1  pound  2  ox.  =  1 

Eggs 10  eggs  =  1  povnd. 

Flour 8  quarts  =  1  peck. 

••     4  pecks  =e  1  bushel. 

LIQUIDS. 

«6  large  tablespoonfuls S  p**t 

8      «•  "  1    gill. 

4      <•  ««  *»  gilt 

a  gills H  P'nt. 

3  pints »    quart. 

4  quart.-.  1    gallon. 

1  common-sited  tumbler  holds  ...*»'  P»**t. 

1         "             *'      wine-glass  holds  H'  g*H. 
25  drops  are  equal  to 1  teaspoonful. 


V 


THE  LEGAL  BUSHEL. 


447 


LEGAL  WEIGHT  OF  A  BUSHEL  IN  ALL  THE  STATES.* 


PRODUCT. 

§ 

i 

id 

< 

5 

i 

< 

g 

,2 

3 

g 
~z 

r. 
c 
0 
'J 

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*  Local  usage  sometimes  varies  from  kgal  enactment.  All  the  States  recognize  the  use  of  the  standard  U.  S.  bushel,  withou'  reference  to  weights 
of  articles  measured,  and  some  of  the  States  no  longer  legalize  any  other,  f  Used  by  railroad  companies  when  it  is  not  convenient  to  ascertain 
actual  weights. 


V 


^A 


-.  ~~*3&^®@\&$ 


France. 

/.    Measure  of  Length. 
i  Myrlametre..  =  10,000 metres, 
i  Kilometre  ...  =  1,000  metres. 
1  Decametre...  =  10  metres. 

1  Metre =  The  10,000,000th  part  of  the 

quarter  of  the  meridian  of  the  earth. 
1  Decimetre  .  ..  =  i-ioth  of  a  metre. 
1  Centimetre. . .  =  1  -  100th  of  a  metre, 
i  M illimetre  . . .  =  1  •  1 ,000th  of  a  metre. 
//.     Measure  of  Surface* 

1  Hectare =  too  ares. 

1  Are =  100  square  metres. 

1  Centiare =  1  square  metre. 

///.    Measure  of  Solidity. 

1  Stere =  1  cuhic  metre. 

1  Dscistere  . . . .  =  j  •  10th  of  a  stere. 

IV.    Measure  of  Capacity. 

1  Kilolitre =  1  cubic  metre. 

1  Hectolitre  , . .  =  10  decalitres. 
1  Decalitre  ....=:  10 litres. 

1  Litre =  1  cubic  decimetre. 

1  Decilitre m  i-ioth  of  a  litre. 

V.    Measure  of  Weight. 

1  Millia =  1 ,000  kilogrammes,   and   is 

the  weight  of  a  ton  of  sea -water. 

1  Quintal =  100  kilogrammes. 

1  Kilogramme  =  Weight  of  a  cubic  decimetre 
of  water,  at  the  temperature  of  40  above 
inciting  ice,  or  about  400  Fahrenheit. 

1  Hectogramme  =  100  grammes. 

1  Decagramme  =  10  grammes. 

1  Gramme =  1  -1,000th  of  a  kilogramme. 

1  Decigramme,  =  i-ioth  of  a  gramme. 

These  measures  may  be  compared  with  the 
English  measures  by  means  of  the  following 
table : 

1  Metre =39.38  English  inches,  nearly. 

I  Are =  3.9  English  perches,  nearly. 

1  Stere =35.32  English  cubic  feet. 

1  Litre =    1.76  English  pints. 

1  Gramme....  =15.44  English  grains. 

The  French  Metrie  System  has  been 
either  introduced  or  legalized  in  the  Argen- 
tine Confederation,  Austria,  Belgium,  Boli- 
via, Brazil,  Chili,  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Egypt, 
the  German  Empire,  Greece,  Italy,  Mexico, 
Portugal  and  Spain.  The  present  system  of 
Switzerland  is  upon  a  semi -metric  basis.  In 
the  United  States  the  metric  system  was  le- 
galized  by  an  act  of  Congress  passed  in  1S66. 

Kelgium.— The  metrical  system  is  used 
hen  ;  but  the  kilogramme  is  termed  a  Iivre  ; 
the  litre,  a  litron ;  and  the  metre,  an  aune. 

Nethei -liiiifls.  II,  n  ,  also,  the  metric  sys- 
tern  has  been  adopted;  but  Flemish  names 
are  employed  instead  of  those  used  in  France. 

Lombardo-Venettan  Kingdom. —  The 
metric  system,  with  Italian  names  substituted 
for  the  most  of  the  original  terras,  is  used  of- 
ficially; but  the  old  measures  are  also  used. 
See  Venice. 

A  nutria—  The  ell  =  30.6  inches.  The  joch 
=  1  acre  1 .75  rood.  The  metzen  =  1  -7th  bushel. 
The  eimcr=i2.4  gallons.  The  pfund=H 
pound.  Gold  and  silver  are  weighed  bv  the 
mark  of  Vienna,  which  =4333  grains. 

Rasle.—  too  pounds  =  108.6 pounds  avoirdu- 
1">  I'll'  ohm  =  10.7  gallons.  Thcsack  =  3.6 
bushels.  The  large  and  small  ells  =40.4  and 
j  1. 4  inches  respectively. 

Bavaria. — The  long  and  short  ells  =  34  and 
13.3  inches  respectively.  The  schaff  of  8  met- 
icns 5.6  bushels.     The  muid  of  48  mass  =  15 


gallons.  100  pounds  heavy  and  lightweight 
=  108.3  anQl  >°4-2  pounds  avoirdupois  respect- 
ively.   The  mark  of  Augsburg  =  3,643  grains. 

Bremen. — The  foot  or  half  ell  =11.4  in. 
The  ohm  =31.5  gallons.  The  last=  10.3  quar- 
ters.    100  pounds  =  109.9  pounds  avoirdupois. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope. — The  centner  or 
too  pounds  Dutch  weight  =  10S.9  pounds 
avoirdupois.  The  leager  of  15  ankers  =  126.5 
gallons.  The  II  HI  Id  —  J  bushels.  The  ell  01 
27  Rhynland  inches  =  27.8  inches. 

China. — The  chang  of  10  chih  =  4  yards, 
nearly.  The  shing  sa  1  pint,  10  ho=  1  shing; 
10  shing  =  1  tow;  10  tow  =  1  hwuh  or  120 cat- 
ties. The  catty  =  1.33  pound  avoirdupois.  16 
tacls=  1  catty  ;  100  catties  =  1  pecul.  Liquids 
are  sold  by  weight;  but  the  English  gallon  is 
used  in  trading  with  foreigners. 

Denmark. — The  foot=i2.3  inches.  100 
ells  =  6S.6  yards.  The  viertel  =  1.7  gallon.  100 
tonnen  =  47.8 quarters.  The  pound!  =  1.1  pound 
avoirdupois.  The  pound  for  gold  and  silver 
weighs  7,266  grains. 

Kant  Indies.  —  Bengal.  —  The  factbry 
maund  =  74.06  pounds  avoirdupois.  10  bazar 
maunds=  11  factory  maunds.  16  chittacks  = 
1  seer ;  40  seers  =  1  maund.  The  guz  of  two 
cubits  =  1  yard.  Bombay. — The  maund  =  28 
pounds  avoirdupois.  40 "seers  =  1  maund;  20 
maunds=  1  candy.  The  candy  =  24.5  bushels. 
Madras.— The  maund  =  25  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. 40  pollams  =  1  vi ;  Svis=i  maund;  20 
maunds  =  1  candy.  The  covid  =  18.6  inches. 
The  gars  of  80  parahs  =  16.S75  quarters,  and 
weighs  8,400  pounds  avoirdupois. 

Egypt.— The  Turkish  pike  m  27  in.  The 
ardeb  of  24  Cairo  rubbie  =  6  quarters.  The 
cuntar  =  100  pounds  avoirdupois.  216  drams 
or  144  meticals=i  rottole"  100  rottoli  or  36 
okes  =  1  cantar. 

Frankfort  on  the  Main. — The  c!I=2i.2 
inches.  The  foot  =  11.2  inches.  The  matter 
=  3  bushels,  nearly.  The  viertel=  1.6  gallon, 
nearly.  The  pound,  light  and  heavy  weight, 
=  1.03  and  1.1  pound  avoirdupois.  The  Zoll- 
centner  =  1 10.2  pounds  avoirdupois.  The 
Cologne  mark,  used  for  gold  and  silver, 
weighs  3,609  grains. 

Geneva.— The  ell  =45  Inches.  The  acre  mm 
1  acre  1.1  rood.  The  coupe,  or  sack,  =  2.1 
bushels.  The  setier=  10  gallons.  The  heavy 
pound  =  i.j  pound  avoirdupois;  the  light 
pound  I -6th  less.  The  mark  weighs  3,785 
grains. 

Genoa.— The  braccto  of  2.5  palmi  =  22.9 
inches.  The  mina  =  3. 3 bushels.  The  barile 
—  IO-3  gallons.  The  pound  =0.7  pound  avoir- 
dupois. 1.5  pound ss«  1  rottole.  The  pound 
BOtttte,   for'gold     and     silver,  weighs  4891.5 

grains. 

Greece. — The  Venetian  measures  of  length 
are  used,  the  hraccio  being  called  a  piehc. 
1--)  kil. 1=11.4  quarters.  The  cantaro  of  40 
okes  =  112  pounds  avoirdupois. 

Ifnmhnrfr.— The  foot  =  11.3  In.  nearly: 
t.*>  ,  Us —o.'.o  yards.  I  he  srlieffel=i  acre*  o 
perches.  The  viertcl  =  1.6  gallon.  The  pound 
=  1.06  pound  avoirdupois.  For  the  Cologne 
in.uk, see  I'rankfort.   2  marks  =  I  pound  troy. 

I,uheck.—  The  ell  =  22.9  inches.  The  last 
=  11  quarter!.  The  viertel=  1.6 gallon.  The 
pound  =  1.07  pounds  avoirdupois,  nearly. 

Malta. —The  pat  me  =  10.15  inches  ;  3.5  pal- 
ml  ail  vard;8  palmi  =  1  canna.    I 
7.8  bushcis      The  caffiso  =  4. <  gallon 
barile  ~y-3t  gallons.     04  rottoli  =  1  hundred- 
weight.   The   cantaro  =  175  pounds  avoirdu- 


Mauritltift — Besides  the  English  weight! 
and  measures,  those  of  France  before  the  late 
alteration  are  used.  The  aune  =  1.3  yard.  The 
velte  =  1.7  gallon.  The  poid  dc  marc  =  1.0S 
pound  avoirdupois. 

Naples.— The  canna  =  83.1  inches.  The 
moggia  —  3  roods  12  perches.  The  tomolos 
cl.  The  barile=9.i  gallons.  The 
cantaro  grosso  and  piccolo  =  196.5  and  106 
pounds  avoirdupois,  respectively.  The  pound 
used  in  weighing  gold  and  silver  contains 
4,950  grains. 

Portugal.— The  covado  =  25.8  inches.  The 
almude  =  ^.6  gallons.  The  pound  =1.01 
pound  avoirdupois. 

Prussia,— The  ell  =  26.5  inches.  The  mor- 
gen  =2  roods  21  perches.  The  scheffel  =  1.5 
bushel.  The  cimcr  =  15.1  gallons.  The  pound 
— 1.03  pound  avoirdupois.  The  mark  of 
Cologne  is  used  for  gold  and  silver. 

Rome. — The  canna  of  8  palmi  =  2.2  yards. 
The  canna  of  10  palma  =  88  inches,  nearly. 
Therubbio  =  8.1  bushcis.  The  boccalc=o*4 
gallon.     The  pound  =  0.7  pound  avoirdupois. 

Russia.— The  arshine=2S  inches.  The 
foot  =  ij.Tcinches.  The  dcssetnia=  2  acres 
2. S  roods.  The  t*chetwert  =  5.7  bushels.  The 
wedro  =  2.7  gallons.  The  pound  =  0.0  pound 
avoirdupois.  The  pood  sst  36  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. 

St.  Gallen.— The  ells  for  silks  and  wool* 
ens  =31. 5  and  24.25  inches,  respectively.  The 
mutt  of  4  viertels=  2.09  bushels.  The  eimer 
=  11.25  gallons.  The  pound,  light  and  heavy 
weight,  =  1.03  jind  impound  avoirdupois,  re- 
spectively. 

Saxony. — The  foot  =11.1  inches.  The  acre 
=  1  acre  1.5  rood,  near!  v.  The  eimer,  at  Drrs- 
den,=  14.9 gallons;  at Leipsic=  16.8 gallons. 
The  wispel,  at  Dresden,  =  69.9  bushels;  at 
Leipsic  =  qi.7  bushels.  The  pound  =1.03 
pound  avoirdupois. 

Sicily.  — The  canna  =?6c  inches.  The 
salma  =  7.6  bushcis.  The  barrel  =  8  gallons, 
nearly.  The  pound  of  12  ounces  =  0  7  pound; 
avoirdupois.  The  cantaro  =  175  pounds  avoir* 
dupois. 

Smyrna.— The  pike  =  27  inches.  The  kil* 
lnw=  1 1 .3  gallons.  The  rottolo  =  i.J  pound 
avoirdupois. 

South  America.— The  Spanish  and  Por- 
tuguese measures  are  most  generally  employ- 
ed? The  use  of  the  English  prevails  in  some 
parts. 

Spain.— The  vara  or  ell  =  33.3  inches.  The 
fanegada=i  acre  31  perches.  The  arroba  = 
3  5  gallons.  The  f  ancga  =  1.5  bushel.  The 
pound  =  1 .01  pound  avoirdupois. 

Sweden  and  Norway.—  The  ell  =  33.3 
inches.  The  tunneland  =  1  acre  1  rood,  nearlv. 
The  tunnu  =0.6  quarter.  The  kanrsxo.O  gal- 
lon.    The  pound  x=  0.9  pound  avoirdupois. 

Turkey.— The  pike  =  16 -2$  Inches,  The 
killow  =0.9  bushel.  The  almud=  1.1  ^r*llon. 
The  okc  =  j.S  pounds  avoirdupois.  The  rot- 
tolo =  1.3  pound  avoirdu  p 

Tuscany.— The  hraccio=  23 Inches,  nearly. 
The  saccata  =  1  acre  0.9  rood.  The  sacche  » 
2  bushels.  The  nasche  =  4  pints.  The  pound 
=  12  ounces  avoirdupois. 

Venice.— Besides  the  metrical  system,  the 
following  measures  are  used:  Thebraccio, 
for  woolens  =  26.6  Inches;  for  silks  =  24. S 
inches.  The  su»o  =  3. 1  bushels.  The  sec- 
chia  =  3.4  gallons.  The  pound  s©ttiles»o.y 
pound  avoirdupois,  nearly;  gTosso^i.05 
pound  avoirdupois. 


s 


-\ 


V 


THE    METRIC    SYSTEM. 


449 


A, 


/ 


The  Metric  System  originated  In  France  about  1700.  In  1799,  on  the  invitation  of  the  Government,  an  international  convention,  at  which 
were  present  representatives  from  Prance,  Holland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Spain,  Savoy  and  the  Roman  Republics,  assembled  at 
Paris  to  settle,  from  the  results  of  the  great  Meridian  Survey,  the  exact  length  of  the  "  definitive  metre."  As  a  result  of  the  investigations  of 
this  learned  body,  the  Metric  System  was  based  upon  the  length  of  the  fourth  part  of  a  terrestrial  meridian.  The  ten-millionth  part  of  this  arc 
was  chosen  as  the  unit  of  measures  of  length,  and  called  Metre.  The  cube  of  the  tenth  part  of  the  metre  was  adopted  as  the  unit  of  capacity, 
and  denominated  Litre.  The  weight  of  a  litre  of  distilled  water  at  its  greatest  density  was  called  Kilogramme,  of  which  the  thousandth  part, 
or  Gramme,  was  adopted  as  the  unit  of  weight.  The  multiples  of  these,  proceeding  in  decimal  progression,  are  distinguished  by  the  employ- 
ment of  the  prefixes  deca,  hecto,  kilo  and  myria  (ten,  hundred,  thousand,  ten  thousand),  from  the  Greek,  and  the  subdivisions  oy  decit  cents' 
and  milli  (tenth,  hundredth,  thousandth),  from  the  Latin. 


Measures  of  Length  (Unit,  Metre). 


equal  to  Inches. 

0.03937 

0.39371 

3-937oS 

39-37079 

393-70790 

Hectometre 3,937.07900 

Kilometre. 39,370.79000 

Myriametre 393,707.90000 


Millimetre  . 
Centimetre . 
Decimetre ., 

Metre 

Decametre. 


Yards. 

0.0010936 

0.0109363 

0. 1003633 

1. 093633 1 

10.9363306 

109.3633056 

1.093-6330556 

10,936.3305556 

Cubic  Measures,  or  Measures  of  Capacity  (Unit,  Litre). 


jai.  to  Cubic  Inches. 

0.06103 

0.61027 

6.10271 

61.02705 

610.27052 

Hectolitre,  or  Decistere 6,102.70515 

Kilolitre,  or  Stere,  or  cubic  metre 61,027.05152 

Myrialitre,  or  Decastere 610,270.51519 


Millilitre.or  cubic  centimetre... 
Centilitre,  10  cubic  centimetres. . 
Decilitre,  100  cubic  centimetres., 

Litre,  cr  cubic  Decimetre 

Decalitre,  or  Centtstere. 


Cubic  Feet. 
0.000035 
0.000353 

0.003532 

0.0353' 7 
0.353166 

3-531658 

35-316581 

353.165807 


Pints. 

0.00176 

0.01761 

0.17608 

1.76077 

17.60773 

176.07734 

1,760.77341 

17,607.73414 


Measures  of  Weight  (Unit,  Gramme). 


EQUAL  TO 

Milligramme 

Centigramme 

Decigramme 

Gramme 

Decagramme , 

Hectogramme 1, 543.2348^ 

Kilogramme 1 5,432 .34880 

Myriagrainme 154,323.48800 


Grains. 

0.01543 

0-15433 

1-54323 

15.43235 

154.323- 


Troy  Oz. 
0.000032 
0.000322 
0.003315 
0.032151 
0.321507 

3.215073 

32.150727 

321.507267 


Avoirdupois  Lbs. 
0.0000022 
0.0000220 
0.0002205 
0.0022046 
0.0220462 
0.2204621 
2.2046213 
22.0462129 


Square  Measures,  or  Measures  of  Surface  (Unit,  Are). 

equal  to  Sq.  Feet.  Sq.  Yards.  Sq.  Perches, 

Centiare,  or  square  metre 10.794299  ..  1.196033  ..  0.0395383 

Are,  or  100  square  metres 1,076.429934  ..  119. 603326  ..  3.953S290 

Hectare,  or  io,ooosquare  metres 107,642.993419  ..  11,960.332602  ..  395.3S2S959 


Fathoms. 

0.0005468 

O.0054682 

O.0546816 

0.5^68165 

5.4681653 

54.6816528 

546.8165278 

5,468.1652778 


Gallons. 

0.0002201 

0.0022010 

0.0220097 

0.2200967 

2.2009668 

22.0096677 

220.0966767 

2,200.9667675 


Cvtt.  of 113  Lbs* 
0.0000000 
0.0000002 
0.0000020 
0.0000197 
0.0001968 
0.00196S4 
,  0,0106841 

0.190S412 


Bushels. 
0.0000275 
0.0002751 
0.0027512 
0.0275121 
0.275 1 208 
2.7512085 
27.5120846 
275.1208459 


0.0098421 


Sq.  Acret. 
0.0002471 
0.02471 11 
2.471 1434 


CONVERSION   OF   METRIC   WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES    INTO    ENGLISH. 


METRES   INTO 

KILOMETRES   INTO 

LITRES   INTO  GALLONS 

HECTOLITRES  INTO 

KILOGRAMMES 

INTO 

HECTARES   INTO 

YARDS. 

MILES 

AND 

YARDS. 

AND  QUARTS. 

QUARTS  AND 

BUSHELS. 

CWTS. 

,  QRS., 

LBS.,   OZ. 

ACRES 

ROODS,  1 

'CH'S. 

, 

I.O94 

I 

0 

'.094 

I           O 

o.SSo 

I 

0 

2-75' 

I 

0 

0 

2 

3* 

I 

2 

I 

35 

2 

2.187 

2 

I 

427 

2           O 

1. 761 

2 

0 

5-502 

2 

O 

0 

4 

(>y. 

2 

4 

3 

3i 

3 

3-281 

3 

1 

I,|2I 

3        0 

2.641 

3 

1 

0.254 

3 

0 

0 

6 

9H 

3 

7 

1 

26 

4 

4-374 

5.46§ 

4 

2 

4        0 

3  521 

4 

1 

3.005 

4 

0 

0 

8 

13 

4 

9 

3 

22 

5 

5 

3 

1S8 

5 

0.402 

5 

1 

5-756 

5 

0 

0 

1 1 

o* 

5 

12 

1 

17 

6 

6.562 

6 

3 

1,282 

6        1 

1.2S2 

6 

2 

0.507 
3-25S 

6 

0 

0 

13 

Vi 

6 

'4 

3 

12 

I 

If 

9-k. 

7 

4 

615 

i  : 

2.163 

I 

2 

S 

0 

0 

'.=; 

7 

I 

"7 

1 

S 

S 

4 

'.709 

3-043 

2 

6.010 

0 

0 

■7 

10  "i 

■9 

3 

£ 

9 

9 

8 

i.<H3 

9  1 

3-923 

9 

3 

0.761 

9 

0 

0 

19 

<3H 

9 

22 

0 

10.936 

*' -873 

10 

376 

10  2 

10 

3 

3-512 

10 

0 

0 

■a 

o'4 

10 

24 

2 

U 

20 

20 

12 

753 

20  j 

30       6 

1.60S 

20 

6 

7.024 

20 

0 

1 

16 

'X 

20 

49 

1 

30 

32.809 

30 

iS 

1,129 

2.412 

30 

10 

2-536 

30 

0 

2 

iO 

2« 

30 

11 

0 

21 

40 

43-745 

40 

H 

■>5°5 

40        S 

3-215 

4° 

'3 

6.048 

40 

0 

3 

4 

3 

40 

3 

■5 

50 

54-6S2 

50 

3> 

122 

50      11 

0.C19 

5o 

17 

1.560 

50 

I 

3 

20 

M 

5o 

14S 

2 

9 

60 

65.61S 

60 

37 

49S 

§74 

1,251 

60      13 

0.S23 

60 

20 

5-072 
0.5S5 
4.097 

60 

I 

0 

20 

4* 

60 

1 

3 

£ 

76-554 
87.491 

98-427 

So 

43 

49 

70      15 
So      17 

1.627 
2-431 

e 

24 
27 

g 

I 
I 

1 

2 

1 

6 

So 

173 
'97 

3 
2 

9 

90 

90 

55 

1,627 

90      19 

3-235 

9° 

.30 

7.609 

OO 

I 

3 

2 

t>H 

90 

222 

1 

Jl 

109.363 
218.727 

IOO 

62 

2i* 

487 

100     22 

0.039 

100 

i 

3. 121 

IOO 

I 

3 

H 

7 

100 

247 

0 

200 

& 

200     44 
300      66 

0.077 

200 

6.242 

200 

3 

3 

20 

'I 

200 

494 

0 

37 

300 

328.090 

300 

730 

0. 116 

300 

>o,3 

1.362 

300 

n 

3 

«J 

300 

$ 

1 

'5 

400 

437-453 
546.816 

400 

24s 

973 

400      88 

0.IS5 

400 

'37 

4-+S3 

400 

7 

3 

M 

H 

400 

1 

33 

500 

500 

3"o 

1,217 

500    no 

0.193 

500 

181 

7.604 

500 

9 

3 

10 

5 

500 

.235 

2 

n 

•  In  the  majority  of  States   the  hundred  weight  rates  at  100  lbs.  and  the  ton  accordingly  at  2,000  lbs.,  but  in  this  table  the  computation  has  been  made  at  112  and  2,2*0  lbs. 

respectively,  as  the  computation  en  the  other  basis  is  very  simple. 


\ 


30 


45° 


A  CALENDAR  FOR  THE  CENTURY. 


A  CALENDAR  FOR  THE  CENTURY. 


To  And  the  days  of  the  week  corresponding  to  the  days  of  the  month  for  any  year  of  the  century,  find  the  year  in  the  left-hand  upper 
division.  Follow  the  Index  (or  hand)  to  the  right,  to  the  month  sought ;  then  downward  to  the  day  of  the  week,  and  to  the  left  for  the 
corresponding  days  of  the  month.  In  leap-years,  if  seeking  the  day  of  the  month,  after  the  29th  of  February,  subtract  one  day ;  but  if 
the  day  of  the  week  is  sought,  go  forward  one  day.  The  heavy  figures  are  leap  years.  The  civil  year  is  365.2422414  days ;  but  on  the 
basis  of  an  added  day  (for  leap-year)  every  fourth  year,  it  is  reckoned  as  36.1.25  days,  an  excess  of  .0077586  of  a  day,  or  one  day  in  1S0 
years,  and  threo  day*  in  3X7  (or  roundly,  400)  years.  To  correct  this  excess,  Instead  of  100  leap-years  in  400  years  only  97  are  reckoned, 
the  three  century-years  that  are  not  exact  multiples  of  400  being  treated  as  common  years. 


1800 
■51 
•06 

•12 
•98 

•17 
•62 

•23 
•88 

•45 

•73 

•34 

•79 

•40 

•90 

**r 

June. 

Sept. 
Dec. 

April. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 
Mar. 

Nov. 

'•5 

•50 

'11 
'68 

•95 
'61 

•22 

'67 

•28 

•89 

•33 
'78 

•39 
•84 

*a- 

Sept. 
Dec. 

April. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 
Mar. 
Nov. 

June. 

•49 
1900 

•10 
•55 

•18 

•94 

•21 

•66 

•27 
•72 

'44 

'77 

•38 
•83 

*w 

April. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 
Mar. 
Nor. 

June. 

Sept, 

I  ><•••. 

'04 

•93 
•99 

•09 
'54 

•16 
•80 

•43 
•65 

•26 
•71 

•32 
•88 

•37 
•82 

«r 

Jan. 
Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 
Mar. 
Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 
Dec 

April. 
July. 

•03 
'48 

•42 
•53 

•14 

'59 

•20 

•87 

•25 
•70 

•31 
•78 

•98 
'81 

**■ 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 
Mar. 
Nov. 

Juno. 

Sept. 
Dec. 

April. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct. 

•02 

'(B 

•97 

'08 

•86 

•13 
•58 

•19 
'84 

•41 

•69 

•30 
•75 

•38 
•92 

*»• 

Aug. 

Feb. 
Mar. 
Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 
Dec. 

April. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct. 

May. 

•01 
•85 

•07 
•52 

•46 
•57 

•18 
•63 

•24 

•91 

'29 
'74 

•35 
•80 

mw 

Feb. 
Mar. 
Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 
Dec. 

April. 
July. 

Jan. 
Oct, 

May. 

Aug. 

* 

*               * 

% 

1 

J 

1 

\ 

29 

22 

15 

8 

1 

-e» 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

30 

23 

16 

9 

2 

-w 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

.-on. 

SI 

24 

17 

10 

3 

-w 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

25 

18 

11 

4 

-s» 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

•• 

26 

19 

12 

5 

-w 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tar-. 

Wed. 

27 

20 

IS 

6 

-w 

Fri. 

Sat.            Sun. 

Mon.          Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

•• 

28 

SI 

14 

7 

-«• 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wad. 

Thurs. 

Tri. 

£= 


=_j 


r 


LEGAL  BUSINESS   DEPARTMENT. 


451 


A} 


+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 


ABfMINT 


+  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  -y^M^(-  +  +  +  +  + 


2*0  •  AVOID  LITIS 


fNTIL  the  millennium  begins,  men  will  not  be 
...  able  to  exist  without  courts,  law  and  lawyers. 
II  When  man  was  in  a  state  of  nature,  before 
p  what  the  philosophers  call  the  social  com- 
pact was  entered  into,  the  law  that  prevailed  was  the 
strong  hand.  Property  belonged  not  necessarily  to 
him  who  manufactured  it  or  found  it,  but  to  him  who 
had  the  physical  ability  to  prevent  other  people  from 
depriving  him  of  it.  As  the  verse  runs,  humanity  be- 
gan with 

— The  good  old  plan, 
That  they  shall  take  who  have  the  power, 
And  they  shall  keep  who  can. 

And  much  as  we  may  talk  about  the  reasonableness  and 
light  of  our  civilization,  that  theory  lies  underneath  every  legal 
process  we  use  today.  First  the  man  righted  his  own  wrongs 
according  to  his  natural  reason  —  a  sort  of  wild  justice  that 
was  made  up  of  all  injustice,  and  in  which  capital  punishment 
was  the  only  penalty  recognized.  Next  the  family  took  up  the 
administration  of  the  law — a  step  in  the  right  direction,  but  only 
a  step — and  so,  as  men  grew  older  in  wisdom  and  experience, 
a  man's  wrongs  were  redressed  first  by  himself,  next  by  his 
family,  next  by  his  tribe,  and  lastly  by  his  nation.  Each  of  these 
changes  was  a  change  for  the  better,  an  approach  toward  impar- 
tiality and  justice  Even  in  the  night  of  time  wise  judges  were 
at  work  making  precedents  which  grew  gradually  into  law,  and 


that  great  system  which  we  have  to-day  is  as  much  a  natural  out- 
growth of  humanity  as  our  civilization.  It  was  seen  early  in  our 
history  as  a  race  that  the  wisdom  of  the  umpires  to  whom  men 
addressed  their  disputes  was  not  alone  enough  to  insure  peace  and 
tranquillity  to  the  land,  and  hence  great  law-givers  appeared  from 
time  to  time  in  every  nation,  who  have  left  codes  out  of  which 
we  have  built  our  common  law  and  statute  law  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Each  family  of  nations  had  its  own  statutes,  differing 
widely  in  practice,  but  all  founded  upon  justice  and  common 
sense.  The  English  law,  which  we  in  America  have  brought 
with  us  from  the  old  home,  is,  like  the  English  language,  an 
olla  podrida  of  many  elements.  The  Saxon  code  lies  under  all 
with  its  strong  tendency  to  personal  liberty,  and  exact  and  equal 
justice  to  high  and  low,  just  as  the  Saxon  tongue  is  the  basis  and 
foundation  of  our  language. 

The  Norman  Conquest  brought  in  changes  in  the  tenure  of  land, 
together  with  the  martial  law,  the  game  laws  and  the  criminal 
and  the  feudal  laws  of  France.  Mixing  in  this  hotch-potch,  the 
Roman  Church  added  the  ecclesiastical  and  part  of  the  criminal 
law,  drawn  directly,  as  the  French  laws  came  indirectly,  from  the 
great  Codex  Justiniani,  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  this  strange 
mixture  has  grown  in  the  centuries  that  have  passed  into  the 
great  guarantee  of  liberty  and  justice  which  our  law  to-day 
represents. 

Always  seeking  after  right  and  common  sense,  our  law  is  not 
perfect,  nor  is  it  perfectly  administered,  but  the  whole  world 
admits  that  the  English-speaking  people  have  the  best  laws 
known  to  man.     Perfection  erring  humanity  will  never  attain. 


Jl« 


^ % 


V 


45  2 


LEGAL    BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT. 


Our  criminal  law  has  been  built  upon  the  theory  that  the 
criminal  must  be  protected,  and  it  is  for  his  protection  that  the 
statutes  run.  At  first  the  only  punishment  that  men  knew  was 
death  or  maiming.  In  the  middle  ages  thieves  were  boiled  in 
oil,  and  robbers  were  impaled  alive.  Witnesses  were  questioned 
on  Ihe  rack,  and  evidence  extorted  with  thumbscrew  and  the 
iron  boot,  crushing  the  flesh 
in  the  search  for  truth.  As 
the  years  rolled  by  all  of  this 
was  ameliorated,  and  to-day 
mercy  is  tempered  with  jus- 
tice, and  the  shameful  bar- 
barisms of  the  courts  of  the 
middle  ages  are  becoming 
rarer  and  rarer. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of 
this  work  to  make  any  man 
a  lawyer  learned  in  the  law. 
It  were  idle,  and  worthy  only 
of  a  catchpenny  mountebank, 
to  pretend  that  in  a  volume 
like  this  could  be  compressed 
the  whole  of  a  great  science  which  demands  of  its  professors 
years  of  toil  and  years  of  study  and  experience.  Once  involved 
in  litigation,  go  to  a  lawyer,  and  to  the  best  lawyer  you  can 
afford.  Any  one  who  gives  the  reader  different  advice  is  dis- 
honest and  knavish,  and  common  sense  must  recognize  this 
indictment. 

An  ounce  of  prevention, 
however,  is  worth  a  pound 
of  cure,  and  we  verily  believe 
that  in  the  pages  that  follow 
many  ounces  of  prevention 
will  be  found.  Law  is  a 
costly  luxury  that  should  only 
be  indulged  in  as  a  last  re- 
sort, when  justice  cannot  be 
gained  by  less  expensive 
means.  The  wise  man  avoids 
it  as  he  would  avoid  bank- 
ruptcy or  fire,  and  he  takes 
all  the  prudent  precautions 
that  he  can  to  escape  litiga- 
tion. We  claim  that  the 
student  of  these  pages  will  be  fully  equipped  for  that  purpose. 

Law  is  a  costly  luxury,  we  have  said ;  and  the  wisdom  of  an- 
tiquity, which  built  the  law,  has  built  also  on  this  truism.  One 
of  the  earliest  fables  the  child  is  told,  is  the  story  of  the  two  cats 
who  referred  a  cheese  case  to  a  monkey  learned  in  the  law,  and 
whose  chosc-in-action  gradually  went  into  the  digestive  system 


THE  SUIT  BEGINS  :     The  Lawyer  gets  the  Milk  foe  his  Fees. 


of  the  court.     The  story  we  illustrate  below  conveys  a  moral 
that  all  should  heed. 

Observe  the  obstinate  litigants  pulling  at  the  head  and  tail  of 
the  disputed  cow ;  how  determined  each  is,  not  to  win  the  ani- 
mal, but  to  prevent  the  other  from  getting  her,  and  see  the  attor- 
ney, learned  and  gentlemanly,   industriously  milking  fees  and 

retainers  into  his  bucket  and 
advising  the  plaintiff  to  hold 
hard  and  steady.  And  when 
the  cow  is  milked,  see  how 
the  litigation  ends :  one  man 
has  the  horns  and  a  severe 
fall,  the  other  has  the  tail 
and  an  equally  unpleasant 
tumble,  while  the  lawwr 
walks  off  with  the  cow  and 
the  milk  and  an  exceedingly 
good  opinion  of  the  law. 
The  satire  may  be  rather 
broad,  but  it  teaches  what 
every  sensible  man  will  tell 
you,  that  there  is  no  dearer 
commodity  in  this  world  than  justice. 

No  matter  what  transaction  you  are  about  to  engage  in,  study 
the  forms  we  give,  read  the  hints  we  publish.  Do  nothing 
blindly.  In  no  case  is  knowledge  power  so  much  as  in  busi- 
ness law.  Who  are  the  men  that  succeed  ?  They  are  those  who 
understand  it.     Which  of  your  friends  is  tangled  up  in  costly, 

perhaps  ruinous,  litigation  ? 
Ask  him  how  it  began,  and 
he  will  point  out  to  you 
some  trifling  error,  made  in 
a  culpable  ignorance,  which, 
had  he  the  lesson  we  teach 
before  him,  he  would  have 
avoided.  Then  study  these 
pages  if  you  would  gain  the 
benefit  that  lies  before  you. 
A  half  hour's  attention  be- 
fore a  transaction  is  con- 
summated may  save  you 
thousands  afterwards.  The 
diligent  student  may  be  sure 
of  one  thing,  that,  with  this 
manual  at  command,  its  hints  obeyed,  its  instructions  followed, 
its  forma  used,  it  will  take  a  very  much  better  lawyer  than  the 
average  business  man  to  force  him  into  a  lawsuit,  Mid  yet  his 
lights  will  be  as  thoroughly  secure  as  though  they  had  Ix-cn 
vindicated  and  asserted  by  all  the  supreme  courts  of  the  Re- 
public. 


END  OF  THE  SUIT  :    The  Lawyer  gets  both  Cow  and  Milk. 


r 


w 


■$ 


"* S-  V 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


453 


-7 


•>7kv  ke^al  v^Li^ine^v  Fo^m^.  •>>? 


■*& 


-t^J-foco  tfieij  are  properfu,  ©racoi}  anc}  Gxee-ufec|..es3»- 


AGREEMENTS  AND  CONTRACTS. 

CONTRACT  is  legally  defined  to  be 
XI  an  agreement  between  persons  com- 
petent to  contract  to  do  or  not  to 
do,  for  a  consideration,  some  speci- 
fied thing.  Following  upon  this  definition, 
it  is  evident  that  those  things  to  be  specially 
examined  about  a  contract  are  the  parties, 
their  legal  ability  and  their  consent.  There 
must  be  two  or  more  persons  concerned,  and 
it  is  vital  that  they  must  be  able  to  contract. 
"Persons"  is  here  taken  in  the  legal  meaning, 
which  includes  artificial  persons,  such  as  cor- 
porations and  States.  Corporations  can  only 
contract  as  they  are  empowered  by  their  char- 
ters ;  States,  as  they  are  permitted  by  their 
constitutions.  Persons  not  of  legal  age  can 
not  usually  contract,  but  when  of  age  they 
may,  in  certain  cases,  ratify  contracts  made 
in  infancy.  The  contract  of  marriage  may  be 
entered  into  under  age.  Idiots  and  insane 
persons  cannot  contract. 

Consent  is  vital  to  a  contract.  It  may  be 
given  by  a  word  or  a  nod,  by  the  shaking  of 
hands  or  by  a  sign.  Often,  in  law,  the  old 
saying  that  "  silence  gives  consent  "  is  upheld. 
In  a  written  contract  assent  is  proven  by  the 
signature  or  mark  of  the  persons. 


The  first  step  toward  a  contract  is  the  propo- 
sition or  offer,  which  may  be  withdrawn  at 
any  time  before  it  is  agreed  to.  When  the 
proposition  is  verbal,  and  no  time  is  specified, 
it  is  not  binding  unless  accepted  at  once.  To 
give  one  the  option  or  refusal  of  property  at 
a  specified  price,  is  simply  to  give  him  a  cer- 
tain time  to  make  up  his  mind  whether  he  will 
buy  the  property  or  not.  To  make  the  option 
binding  he  must  accept  within  the  time  named. 
The  party  giving  the  option  has  the  right  to 
withdraw  it,  and  sell  the  property  to  another, 
at  any  time  previous  to  its  acceptance,  even 
within  the  time  for  which  the  refusal  was 
given,  because  the  offer  is  gratuitous,  and 
there  is  no  consideration  to  support  it. 

A  written  proposition  may  be  accepted  at 
any  time  before  notice  of  withdrawal.  But 
the  proposer  can  retract  at  any  time  before  it 
is  accepted.  If  a  letter  of  acceptance  is  mailed, 
however,  and  immediately  after  a  letter  with- 
drawing the  offer  is  received,  the  contract  is 
binding.  An  acceptance  takes  effect  from  the 
time  it  is  mailed,  not  from  the  time  it  is  re- 
ceived ;  it  must  be  in  accordance  with  the 
original  proposition,  for  any  new  matter  intro- 
duced would  constitute  a  new  offer.  When 
the    offer   is    accepted,   either  verbally  or   in 


^J 


454 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


writing,  it  is  an  express  assent,  and  is  bind- 
ing. Express  assent  is  not  affected  by  custom 
or  usage  of  trade.  Implied  assent  is  accepted 
by  the  law  when  common  sense  seems  to  de- 
mand it.  For  instance,  if  John  Jones  draws  a 
draft  on  Abraham  Swift,  which  Swift  refuses 
to  accept,  and  James  Smith  accepts  the  draft 
to  save  John  Jones'  credit,  there  is  an  im- 
plied assent  on  the  part  of  Jones  to  indemnify 
Smith. 

A  contract  made  under  a  mistake  of  law  is 
not  void.  Everybody  is  presumed  to  know  the 
law,  and  ignorance  is  no  excuse.  This,  how- 
ever, applies  only  to  contracts  permitted  by 
law  and  clear  of  fraud.  A  refusal  of  an  offer 
cannot  be  retracted  without  the  consent  of  the 
second  party.  Once  a  proposition  is  refused, 
the  matter  is  ended.  And  no  one  has  the  right 
to  accept  an  offer  except  the  person  to  whom 
it  was  made. 

The  consideration  is  the  reason  or  thing  for 
which  the  parties  bind  themselves  in  the  con- 
tract, and  it  is  either  a  benefit  to  the  promisor 
or  an  injury  to  the  other  party.  Considera- 
tions arc  technically  divided  into  valuable  and 
good,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  con- 
sideration need  not  be  expressed,  but  is  im- 
plied. A  valuable  consideration  is  either 
money  or  property  or  service  to  be  given,  or 
some  injury  to  be  endured.  A  promise  to 
marry,  for  instance,  is  a  valuable  considera- 
tion. A  good  consideration  means  that  the 
contract  is  entered  into  because  of  consan- 
guinity or  affection,  which  will  support  the 
contract  when  executed,  but  will  not  support 
•in  action  to  enforce  an  executory  contract. 
Whether  a  consideration  is  sufficient  or  not  is 
tested  by  its  being  a  benefit  to  the  promisor  or 
an  injury  to  the  other  party.  If  it  has  a  legal 
value,  it  makes  no  difference  how  small  that 
value  may  be.  The  promisor  need  not  always 
be  benefited,  as,  for  instance,  the  endorser  of  a 
note,  who  is  liable  although  he  gets  no  benefit. 
Hut  if  a  person  promise  to  do  something  him- 


self for  which  no  consideration  is  to  be  received, 
there  is  no  cause  of  action  for  breach  of 
the  contract.  Among  sufficient  considerations 
we  may  include  "  forbearance,"  the  waiting 
for  payment  or  for  the  execution  of  another 
contract,  and  "  mutual  promises,"  if  made  si- 
multaneously, not  otherwise,  and  finally  a  pre- 
existing "  moral  obligation,"  as,  for  instance, 
when  a  debt  has  become  outlawed  through  the 
statute  of  limitations,  a  promise  to  pay  it  will 
renew  the  liability  of  the  debtor. 

THE  STATUTE  OF  FRAUDS. 
The  English  Statute  of  Frauds,  which  has 
been  re-enacted  in  most  of  the  American 
States,  provides  that  "  no  action  shall  be 
brought  whereby  to  charge  the  defendant  upon 
any  special  promise  to  answer  for  the  debt, 
default  or  miscarriage  of  another  person,  un- 
less the  agreement  upon  which  such  action 
shall  be  brought,  or  some  memorandum  or 
note  thereof,  shall  be  in  writing,  and  signed 
by  the  party  to  be  charged  therewith,  or  some 
other  person  thereunto  by  him  lawfully  author- 
ized. "  This  is  held  not  to  apply  to  original 
promises,  but  only  to  collateral  engagements 
or  cases  where  a  debt  already  exists  on  the 
part  of  a  third  person.  As  in  the  case  of  a 
note  already  given  to  Brown  by  Jones,  a 
promise  from  Smith  to  pay  must  be  in  writing 
to  be  binding.  If  Brown  tells  Jones  to  deliver 
goods  to  Smith,  saying:  "  I  will  pay  if  he 
doesn't,"  or  "  I  will  see  you  paid,"  it  is  a  mere 
offer  of  guaranty,  and  is  a  collateral  undertak- 
ing, which  comes  within  the  statute  ;  but  it  is 
different  if  he  says:  "  Charge  them  to  me," 
or  "I  will  pay."  The  latter  is  an  original 
promise,  and  need  not  be  in  writing.  No 
consideration  is  necessary,  so  far  as  the  person 
who  guarantees  is  concerned,  if  it  is  a  benefit 
to  the  person  in  whose  favor  the  promise  i- 
made.  This  statute  does  not  apply  in  cases 
where  an  original  promise  is  mule  at  the  time 
the   debt    is  created.     The  statute    of   frauds 


I  GAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


455 


also  provides  that  no  sale  shall  be  binding  un- 
less the  buyer  shall  first  accept  part  of  the 
goods  so  sold,  and  actually  receive  them  ;  or, 
2d,  give  something  in  earnest,  to  bind  the  bar- 
gain, or  in  part  payment;  or,  3d,  that  some 
note  or  memorandum,  in  writing,  of  the  said 
bargain  be  made  and  signed  by  the  parties 
or  their  agents.  The  writing  must  state  the 
promise,  and  also  the  consideration.  Where 
goods  exist  in  the  condition  in  which  they  are 
to  be  delivered,  and  the  delivery  is  to  take 
place  in  the  future,  a  sale  of  such  goods  comes 
within  the  statute. 

CAUSES  WHICH  VITIATE  CONTRACTS. 

There  are  several  causes  which  void  con- 
tracts, first  among  which  is  fraud.  Fraud  is 
defined  to  be  "  every  kind  of  artifice  employed 
by  one  person  for  the  purpose  of  wilfully 
deceiving  another  to  his  injury."  No  fraudu- 
lent contract  will  stand  in  law  or  in  equity. 
The  party  upon  whom  the  fraud  has  been 
practiced  must  void  the  contract  as  soon  as  he 
discovers  the  fraud,  for  if  he  goes  on  after 
having  knowledge  of  the  fraud  he  cannot  after- 
wards avoid  it.  But  the  one  who  perpetrates 
the  fraud  cannot  plead  that  ground  for  voiding 
it.  Contracts  in  restraint  of  trade  are  void, 
as  also  are  contracts  in  opposition  to  public 
policy,  impeding  the  course  of  justice,  in 
restraint  of  marriage,  contrary  to  the  insolvent 
acts,  or  for  immoral  purposes.  Any  violation 
of  the  essential  requisites  of  a  contract,  or  the 
omission  of  an  essential  requisite,  will  void  it. 

THE  DEFENCES 

which  may  be  set  up  against  an  action  on  con- 
tract are  eleven  in  number,  and  may  be  sum- 
marized thus:  Performance,  Payment,  Re- 
ceipts, Accord  and  Satisfaction,  Arbitrament 
and  Award,  Pendency  of  Another  Action,  Re- 
lease, Tender,  Statute  of  Limitations,  Set-OfT, 
Recoupment. 


A  Building  Contract. 

Memorandum  of  Agreement,  made  this  10th  day  of  May,  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  eighty-three,  between  Henry  Davis,  of  St.  Louis, 
of  the  first  part,  and  Joseph  Stephenson,  of  the  same  place,  builder,  of  the 
second  part.  The  said  party  of  the  second  part  covenants  and  agrees 
with  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  to  make,  erect,  build  and  finish  in 
good,  substantial  and  workmanlike  manner,  on  the  lot  belonging  to  the 
party  of  the  first  part,  and  known  as  No.  243  North  Nineteenth  street,  one 
brick  house,  agreeable  to  the  draft,  plan  and  explanation  hereto  annexed, 
of  good  and  substantial  materials  (or  of  such  materials  as  the  party  of  the 
first  part  may  find  and  provide  therefor),  by  the  1st  day  of  September 
next.  And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  covenants  and  agrees  to  pay 
unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  for  the  same,  the  sum  of  one 
thousand  dollars  lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  as  follows  :  the  sum 
of  $200  on  the  1st  of  June,  $200  on  the  1st  of  July,  $200  on  the  1st  of 
August,  $400  on  the  completion  of  the  house. 

( If  the  owner  is  to  furnish  materials,  add:  and,  also,  that  he  will 
furnish  and  procure  the  necessary  materials  for  the  said  work,  in  such 
reasonable  quantities,  and  at  such  reasonable  time,  or  times,  as  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part  shall  or  may  require.) 

And  for  the  true  and  faithful  performance  of  all  and  every  of  the 
covenants  and  agreements  above  mentioned,  the  parties  to  these  presents 
bind  themselves,  each  unto  the  other,  in  the  penal  sum  of  $200,  a.i  liqui- 
dated damages  to  be  paid  by  the  failing  party. 

In  witness  wherof  The  parties  to  these  presents  have  hereunto  set 
their  hands  (and  seals)  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Henry  Davis. 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  in  presence  of    )    Joseph  Stephbnson. 
Tames  Wilson. 
«.  C.  Boyd. 


n 

:  of    J    Jo 


Contract  with  Employe. 

This  Agreement^  made  this  22d  day  of  December,  1883,  between  J, 
F.  Townley,  of  Chicago,  of  the  first  part,  and  Campen,  Strauss  &  Co.,  of 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  of  the  second  part,  witnesseth:  That  the  said  J.  F. 
Townley  agrees  faithfully  ;md  diligently  to  serve  the  said  Campen,  Strauss 
&  Co.,  as  clerk,  in  the  store  of  said  Campen,  Strauss  &  Co.  (or  other- 
wise), at  St.  Louis,  for  the  period  of  one  year,  from  and  af'.er  the  ist  day 
of  January  next,  for  the  sum  of  $1,500  per  year.  In  consideration  of 
which  service,  so  to  be  performed,  the  said  Campen,  Strauss  &  Co. 
agree  to  pay  the  said  J.  F.  Townley  the  sum  of  $125  per  month,  payable 
on  the  first  day  of  each  month,  during  said  term. 

And  it  is  understood  and  agreed  that  the  death  of  either  of  them, 
occurring  prior  to  the  expiration  of  said  term  of  one  year,  shall  terminate 
this  agreement. 

In  witness  whereof,  etc.  Campen,  Strauss  &  Co. 

J.  F.  TOWMLBV. 

Contract  for  the  Sale  of   Property. 

This  Agreement,  made  this  5th  day  of  March,  1883,  between  Alan 
McDowell,  of  St.  Louis,  and  C.  S.  Wheeler  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  wit- 
nesseth: That  the  said  Alan  McDowell  agrees  to  sell  and  deliver  to 
the  said  C.  S.  Wheeler  &  Co.,  at  their  store  in  New  York,  five  thousand 
bushels  of  potatoes  on  or  before  the  2d  day  of  May,  1883,  and  the  said 
C.  S.  Wheeler  &  Co.,  in  consideration  thereof,  agree  to  pay  to  the  said 
Alan  McDowell  fifty  cents  per  bushel  for  said  potatoes,  immediately  upon 
the  completion  of  the  delivery  thereof. 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands,  this  5th    day  of 

March,  1883,  at  New  York  City.  C.  S.  Wheeler  &  Co. 

\lan  McDowell. 

Short  Form  of  Contract. 

John  D.  Simons  hereby  agrees  to  sell  one  thousand  head  of  two-year- 
old  cattle,  to  be  delivered  in  Chicago  before  February  1,  1883,  to  Knox, 
Stout  &  Co.,  at  $20  a  head,  and  the  said  Knox,  Stout  &  Co.  agree  to  pay 
$20  per  head  for  all  two-year-old  cattle,  up  to  one  thousand  head,  deliv- 
ered by  said  John  D.  Simons,  prior  to  February  1,  1883. 
Signed  at  Chicago,  111.,  this  20th  day  of  September,  1881. 

Knox.  Stout  &  Co. 
John  D.  Simons. 


^ 


C" 


IV 


456 


AGENCY  AND  ATTORNEY. 


-.&'.  ' 


ffieney  •>  and  •>  flttopney. 


'HEN  one  person  is  authorized  to  act 
in  a  business  capacity  for  another, 
under  a  contract  either  express  or 
implied,  he  becomes  the  agent  of 
the  latter,  and  the  act  of  the  agent,  when 
legally  authorized,  is  the  same  as  if  done 
by  the  principal.  For  ordinary  contracts 
constituting  an  agency,  a  written  or  verbal 
agreement  or  appointment  is  required,  but 
contracts  required  to  be  under  seal  can  only 
be  made  by  an  agent  whose  appointment  is 
established  by  a  sealed  instrument.  An  agent 
may  be  so  constituted  by  his  acts  without  a 
formal  appointment.     Where  a  principal  will- 


ingly and  knowingly  allows  a  person  to  do 
acts  in  his  name,  he  will  be  presumed  to  have 
given  him  authority.  Where  several  persons 
are  appointed  by  law  as  agents,  the  thing  to 
be  done  may  generally  be  executed  by  a 
majority  of  them. 

The  extent  to  which  the  agent's  authority 
binds  the  principal  is  to  be  gathered  from  the 
appointment,  and  depends  upon  the  power 
which  has  been  delegated  to  him  by  express 
or  implied  contract.  The  principal  is  not 
bound  if  the  agent  go  beyond  his  authority, 
unless,  with  knowledge  of  the  fact,  he  has 
taken  the  benefit  of  it. 


~*§**IH 


£<-*- 


-H^fe 


-*-H 


fHE  various  kinds  of  agency  are  called 
special  and  general ;  limited  and  un- 
limited ;  factor  and  broker.  A  special 
agency  is  an  agency  to  do  a  single  act, 
and  every  person  doing  business  with  a  special 
agent  must  ascertain  what  the  extent  of  his 
authority  is,  and  at  his  own  risk.  A  general 
agency  consists  of  delegated  authority  to  do 


anything  about  a  particular  business,  the  prin- 
cipal being  bound  for  all  acts  of  the  agent  that 
come  within  the  scope  of  the  business.  Lim- 
ited agency  is  that  in  which  particular  instruc- 
tions restrict  and  limit  the  agent's  authority. 
Unlimited  agency  is  one  in  which  a  special 
agent  is  given  authority  to  use  any  means  he 
may  find  necessary  to  accomplish  the  desired 


•- 


IN- 


DIFFERENT KINDS  OF  AGENCY. 


>t* 


457 


"7 


end.  The  factor,  commonly  called  commis- 
sion merchant,  is  one  who  has  the  property  of 
his  principal  in  his  own  possession,  for  sale, 
such  property  being  called  a  consignment. 
Such  agent,  accompanying  a  cargo  on  a  voy- 
age, is  called  a  supercargo.  A  broker  is  one 
who  is  employed  to  negotiate  sales  between 
the  buyer  and  seller.  He  does  not  have 
possession  of  the  property  which  he  nego- 
tiates, nor  authority  to  sell  in  his  own  name. 

With  few  exceptions  to  the  rule,  an  agent  is 
not  obliged  to  account  for  the  price  of  goods 
he  has  sold  until  he  has  recovered  the  money 
from  the  purchaser. 

When  an  agent  makes  the  contract  in  the 
name  of  the  principal,  and  under  his  authority, 
he  generally  avoids  personal  liability. 

The  agent  is  given  the  right  of  lien  on  the 
property  in  his  possession,  and  also  the  right 
to  insure  it,  to  secure  the  payment  of  his  com- 
mission. He  is  also  entitled  to  reimbursement 
for  costs  and  damages  which,  through  no  fault 
of  his,  he  has  been  obliged  to  pay  in  relation 
to  the  agency. 

The  principal  has  reciprocal  rights  against 
third  persons,  corresponding  with  his  own  lia- 
bilities, and  may  sue  them,  when  they  are 
responsible,  or  their  contracts  made  with  the 
agency.  He  is  liable  to  third  persons  for  the 
negligence  or  unskilfulness  of  the  agent,  when 
he  is  acting  in  the  fulfilment  of  the  agency 
business,  even  if  he  is  not  under  his  immedi- 
ate direction.  The  general  principle  is,  that  for 
all  torts,  frauds,  misfeasances  and  defaults  of 
the  agent,  done  in  the  regular  course  of  the 
agency  business,  the  principal  is  liable,  whether 
he  participated  in  it  or  not,  provided  it  were 
not  the  agent's  wilful  act.  The  agent  is  liable 
equally  with  the  principal  for  all  wrongs  done 
by  him  under  order  of  his  principal. 

Unless  expressly  authorized,  the  agent  has 
no  right  to  delegate  his  own  powers  to  a  sub- 
agent. 


A  notice  to  an  agent  is  generally  considered 
notice  to  the  principal. 

Money  paid  by  an  agent  can  be  recovered 
by  the  principal,  if  it  has  been  paid  by  mis- 
take ;  if  the  consideration  has  failed  ;  if  the 
money  was  illegally  extorted  from  him  as  agent; 
or  if  it  was  fraudulently  applied  to  some  illegal 
purpose  by  the  agent. 

An  agency  may  be  dissolved :  by  a  revoca- 
tion by  the  principal  of  the  power  of  the  agent; 
by  operation  of  law. 

Power  of  Attorney — Short  and  Simple  Form. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents  :  That  I,  the  undersigned,  of  Minne- 
apolis, Minn.,  do  hereby  make,  constitute  and  appoint  R.  J.  Belford,  of 
St  Paul,  Minn.,  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for  me,   and   in  my  name 

and  stead (here  insert  the  subject-matter  of  the  poiver  ) ;  to  do  and 

perform  all  the  necessary  acts  in  the  execution  and  prosecution  of  the 
aforesaid  business,  and  in  as  full  and  ample  a  manner  as  I  might  do  if  I 
were  personally  present 

Howard  Belden. 
Executed  in  presence  of  I 

Henry  Lemson.     1 

Letter  of  Substitution. 

(  To  be  endorsed  on  the  power  0/  attorney.  J 
I  hereby  appoint  Geo.  W.  Jones  as  my  substitute  and  in  my  stead  to 
do  and  perform  every  act  and  thing  which  I  might  or  could  do  by  virtue 
of  the  within  power  of  attorney.  (Signed)  R.  J.  Belford. 

Power  of  Attorney   to  Collect  Debts,    Rents,    Etc. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents  :  That  I,  Samuel  Adams,  of  Boston, 
Mass.,  do  by  these  presents  make,  constitute  and  appoint  Chas.  E.  Foster 
my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for  me,  and  in  my  name,  place  and  stead, 
to  demand,  ask,  sue  for,  collect  and  receive  all  sums  of  money,  accounts, 
debts,  dues,  rents  and  demands  of  every  description,  kind  and  nature 
whatsoever,  which  are  due,  owing  or  payable  from  any  person  or  persons 
whomsoever,  and  to  give  good  and  sufficient  receipts,  acquittances  and 
discharges  therefor;  giving  and  granting  unto  my  said  attorney  full 
authority  and  power  to  do  and  perform  every  act  and  thing  whatsoever 
necessary  and  requisite  to  be  done  in  the  premises,  as  I  might  or  could  do 
if  personally  present. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this 

day  of ,  188 — .  Samuel  Adams.  [l.s.] 

Signed  and  sealed  j 

in  presence  of  > 

Jerome  Beasey.    ) 

Letter  of  Revocation. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents  :    That  I,  R.  S.  Miller,  of  Covington, 

Tenn.,  in  and  by  my  letter  of  attorney,  bearing  date  the  day  of , 

did  make,  constitute  and  appoint  J.  H.  Pitt  my  attorney,  as  by  said 
letter  more  fully  appears. 

That  I,  the  said  R.  S.  Miller,  do  by  these  presents  annul,  countermand, 
revoke  and  make  void  said  letter  of  attorney  and  all  authority  and  power 
thereby  given  said  attorney,  J.  H.  PitL 

In  witness,  etc.  R.  S.  Miller.  [l.s.] 

Power  of  Attorney  to  Sell  Stock. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents :  That  I,  J.  E.  Hartman,  of  Cen- 
tralia,  HI.,  do  by  these  presents  make,  constitute  and  appoint  J.  A.  L. 
Romig  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for  me  and  in  my  stead  to  sell  and 
transfer  unto  any  persons  whomsoever,  and  for  such  price  as  my  said 
attorney  shall  think  fit.  all  and  any  of  the  following  stocks  (describing 
them.) 


/ 


^ 


*T 


K 


458 


AFFIDAVITS. 


And  also  for  me,  and  in  my  name,  to  make  and  pass  all  necessary  acts  of 
assignment,  and  to  give  and  receive  receipts  and  releases  for  the  consider* 
ation  money  arising  from  the  sale  thereof. 

And  also  for  mc,  and  in  my  name,  to  give  receipts  for  all  interest  and 
dividends  now  due  or  that  shall  hereafter  become  due  on  said  capital 
stock,  until  the  sale  and  transfer  thereof. 

In  witness,  etc. 

Power  to  Vote  as  Proxy  at  an  Election. 

Knotv  all  men  by  these  presents :  That  I,  Homer  Huston,  of  Paxton, 
III.,  do  hereby  appoint  1'.  M.  Elliott  to  vote  as  my  proxy  at  any  election 
of  directors  or  other  officers  of  the  (name  the  company  or  corporation) 
according  to  the  number  of  votes  I  should  be  entitled  to  if  I  were  then 
personally  present. 

IIomkr  Huston.  [i..s.] 


Power  to  Take  Charge  of  and  Carry  on  Business. 

Know  all  men  hy  these  presents  :  That  I,  Julius  Schonfeld.  of  Jeffer- 
son, Texas,  do  by  these  presents  appoint,  constitute  and  make  R.  V. 
Jennings  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for  me  and  in  my  place  and  stead, 
to  take  charge  of  my  business  of  general  merchandising,  at  Mar*hall, 
Texas;  to  purchase  and  sell,  for  cash  or  on  credit,  all  such  articles,  goods, 
merchandise  and  wares  as  he  shall  deem  proper,  necessary  and  useful  to 
said  business:  to  sign,  accept  and  endorse  all  notes,  drafts  and  bills;  to 
state  accounts;  v,  mm  and  prosecute,  compromise,  collect  and  settle  all 
claims  or  demands  due  or  to  become  due,  now  existing  or  hereafter  to 
exist  in  my  favor;  to  adjust  and  pay  all  claims  or  demands  which  now 
exist  or  may  hereafter  arise  against  me,  either  connected  with  said  busi- 
ness or  otherwise. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this day 

of ,  188—.  Julius  Schokpxld.  lL.a.J 


-i-»~S-«-£=§*e>g+-HS-i- 


0 »-W- 


<> — +& 


— — fr~ H- 


*  •:•*•>  ^.ffidav'ity.  ->)r<v 


c — ft-M- 


yN  affidavit  is  a  sworn  declaration,  taken 
before  a  competent  official,  which  dif- 
fers from  a  deposition  in  the  fact 
that  no  cross-examination  is  possible. 
When  an  affidavit  is  amended  by  order  of  court, 
it  must  be  re-sworn.  It  should  be  positive  in 
the  description  of  amounts,  places,,  persons, 
etc. ;  even  if  an  amount  is  uncertain,  some  sum 
must  be  named.  It  must  also  specify  the  day 
and  place  whereon  it  was  sworn.  The  date  is 
given  in  what  is  called  the  jurat,  and  the  place 
in  the  venue  of  the  affidavit.  Where  a  person 
is  unable  to  read  or  write,  or  is  blind,  the  jurat 
must  show  that  the  affidavit  was  read  over  to 
the  affiant,  and  his  mark  or  signature  must  be 
properly  witnessed,  and  the  jurat  must  be  also 
signed  in  all  cases  by  the  officer  before  whom 
the  affidavit  is  made.  The  jurat  .is  that  part 
of  an  affidavit  which  tells  how,  when,  by  whom 
and  before  whom  the  oath  was  taken.  The 
venue  simply  states  the  place  where,  thus  : 

State  of , ) 

County  of ,  )  "• 

An  omission  of  the  venue  is  fatal,  as  it  is 
the  only  evidence  that  the  person  administer- 
ing the  oath  had  power  to  swear  witnesses. 


Where  an  affidavit  is  required  by  law,  the 
maker  of  a  false  one  can  be  punished  for  per- 
jury, although  in  courts  of  law  or  equity  affi- 
davits are  not  considered  as  testimony. 


General  Form  of  Affidavit. 

Statf  of  Missouri,  Franklin  County,  Town  of  Washington,  //. 

Bernard  Mcn.sc,  being  duly  sworn,  deposes  and  says  for  alleges  and 
says) :  Thai  —  (Here  set  out  in  full  and  accurate  language  tke  mat- 
ters to  be  alleged.) 

[Seal.]  Bernard  Minsk. 

Sworn  for  affirmed)  before  roe,  this  twenty-ninth  day  of  August, 
A.  D.  1883.  John  Willenkamf, 

Justice  0/  tke  Pesue. 

(If  the  affiant  is  unable  to  read,  the  subscription  should  be  as  follows:) 

Subscribed  and  sworn  to  before  mc,  this  day  of  ,  A.D.  18 — , 

the  same  having  been  by  me  for  in  my  presence)  read  to  this  affiant,  be 
being  illiterate  for  blind),  and  understanding  the  same. 

t  Officer's  signature  and  title., 

Affidavit   to  Accounts. 

State  of  Illinois.  Polabu  Count*,  ss. 

Before  me,  the  undersigned,  one  of  the  justices  of  the  peace  in  and  for 
said  county,  personally  came  Theodore  Wehrfriti,  of  Mound  City,  and, 
being  duty  sworn  according  to  law,  deposes  and  says  :  That  the  above 
account,  as  staled,  isjust  and  true. 

That  the  above  sum  of  seventy-nine  dollars  is  now  justly  due  and 
owing  to  this  deponent  by  the  above  named  Robert  Robinson. 

That  he,  the  said  Theodore  Wchrfriu,  has  never  received  the  same  or 
any  part  thereof,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  nor  any  person  for  him,  by 
his  direction  or  order,  knowledge  or  consent. 

Theodore  Wehrfriti. 

Sworn  and  subscribed  before  me,  this  thirteenth  day  of  August,  A.D. 
li,J^  William  Western 

Justice  of  tke  Pomc-e. 


VL 


APPRENTICES. 


459 


Affidavit  to   Petition. 

State  of  Illinois,  Clinton  County,  ss. 

Theodore  Volmer,  being  duly  sworn,  says  :  That  the  facts  set  forth 
in  the  foregoing  petition  are  true  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  belief. 

Theodore  Volmer. 

Sworn,  etc.  (as  in  preceding  forms ). 

Affidavit  to  Signature  of  Absent  or  Deceased   Witness. 

State  of  Kansas,  Crawford  County,  ss. 

Beit  remembered.  That  on  the  fourth  day  of  September,  A.D.  1883, 
before  me,  the  undersigned,  James  Atkinson,  one  of  the  justices  of  the 
peace  in  said  county,  personally  appeared  William  Hawley,  who,  being 


duly  sworn,  deposes  and  says  :  That  Alexander  Stuart,  one  of  the  sub- 
scribing witnesses  to  the  within  ( 'will  or  deed )  is  i dead  or  absent  from 
the  State,  as  the  case  may  be). 

That  he  has  frequently  seen  said  Alexander  Stuart  write,  and  that  he 
is  well  acquainted  with  the  handwriting  of  said  Alexander  Stuart. 

That  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  belief  (or  he  verily  believes) 
the  name  of  Alexander  Stuart,  signed  to  the  same  as  one  of  the  subscrib- 
ing witnesses,  is  the  proper  and  individual  handwriting  of  said  Alexander 
Stuart.  William  Hawley. 

Subscribed  and  sworn  to  before  me,  this  fourth  day  of  September, 
A.D.  1883.  James  Atkinson, 

Justice  of  the  Peace. 


«^f 


K  ^pppentiee^.  ?k  -+~+ 


J^N  APPRENTICE  is  one  bound  out  to 
|f  service  in  due  form  of  law,  to  learn  some 
art,  trade  or  business.  The  contract  con- 
tinues for  no  longer  time  than  the  minor- 
ity of  the  apprentice,  and  the  instrument  should 
be  signed  by  the  apprentice  and  his  father,  or,  in 
case  of  death  or  incapacity  of  the  latter,  by  the 
mother  or  legally  constituted  guardian. 

The  master  stands  toward  the  apprentice  in 
the  relation  of  a  parent,  and  cannot  dismiss  the 
latter,  except  by  decree  of  the  proper  tribunal, 
assigned  by  the  laws  of  the  particular  State. 
An  apprentice,  on  his  part,  is  under  obligation 
to  obey  all  the  lawful  commands  of  the  master, 
to  advance,  as  far  as  he  may,  his  interests,  to  en- 
deavor to  learn  his  art,  trade  or  business,  and 
perform  all  the  covenants  entered  into. 

The  death  of  the  master  terminates  the  appren- 
ticeship, unless  the  indenture  run  to  the  execu- 
tors or  administrators.  An  apprentice  will  be 
discharged  by  the  proper  authority  for  acts  of  the 
master  injurious  to  his  mind  or  morals. 


Indenture  of  an  Apprentice. 

This  indenture  of  apprenticeship  between  John  Garrett,  father  of  Philip 
Garrett,  on  the  one  part,  and  William  Nead,  of  the  other  part,  witnesseth . 
That  the  said  Philip  Garrett,  aged  15  years  on  the  20th  day  of  August, 
A.D.   1882,    is  hereby  bound  as  an  apprentice  under  the  said  William 


Nead,  from  the  date  hereof  until  the  20th  day  of  August,  i88fi,  to  learn 
the  trade  and  art  of  a  printer;  and  is  faithfully  to  serve  the  said  William 
Nead  and  correctly  to  conduct  himself  during  the  term  of  his  apprentice- 
ship. 

And  the  said  William  Nead  hereby  covenants  that  he  will  teach  the 
said  Philip  Garrett  the  said  trade  and  art,  and  will  furnish  him,  during 
said  apprenticeship,  with  board,  lodging,  washing,  clothing,  medicine, 
and  other  necessaries  suitable  for  an  apprentice  in  sickness  and  in  health ; 
and  will  send  him  to  a  suitable  public  school  at  least  three  months  during 
each  of  the  first  two  years  of  the  said  term  ;  and  at  the  expiration  of  the 
said  apprenticeship  will  furnish  him  with  two  new  suits  of  common  wear- 
ing apparel  and  one  hundred  dollars  in  money." 

In  testimony  whereof,  the  parties  hereto  have  set  their  hands  and 
seals  this  twentieth  day  of  August,  A.D.  1882. 

Executed  in  presence  of  ) 

Peter  Day,  J- 

Notary  Public.  ) 


John  Garrett,  [l.s.1 
William  Nead.   [l.s.J 


Consent  of  the  Minor. 

I  hereby  consent  to  the  foregoing  indenture,  and  agree  to  conform  to 
the  terms  thereof  in  all  things  on  my  part  to  be  performed. 
Dated  the  20th  day  of  August,  in  the  year  1882. 

Philip  Garrett. 


Release  of  an  Apprentice. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents  :     That  Philip  Garrett,  son  of  John 

Garrett,  did  by  his  agreement,  bearing  date  the  day  of ,  bind 

himself  as  an  apprentice  unto  William  Nead,  of ,  for  a  term  of 

from  the  date  thereof,  as  by  said  indenture  more  fully  appears. 

That,  complaint  having  been  made  to  the  undersigned  Justice  of  the 
Peace  upon  oath  of  Philip  Garrett,  apprentice  of  William  Nead,  to  whom 
said  Garrett  is  bound,  that  ( here  state  the  cause  for  release ).  That  by 
reason  thereof,  said  William  Nead  does  hereby  release  and  forever  dis- 
charge said  Philip  Garrett  and  John  Garrett,  his  father,  of  and  from  said 
agreement  and  all  service  and  all  other  agreements,  covenants,  matters 
and  things  therein  contained,  on  their  or  either  of  their  parts  to  be 
observed  and  performed,  whatsoever,  from  the  beginning  of  the  world 
unto  the  date  hereof. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand,  this day  of , 

A-D.  .  William  Nead. 


:r 


460 


"7 


ARBITRATION. 


^ 


^ 


■»*#*»•     *#*     ##*|    -£**#«,*£-    |*#«,|*#*     **#** 


/l\ 


^pkitration. 


*  7i\  * 


*»»»»■    ***|»*»l   -&***&■   |»*fr|*#*  [■**#»#- 


'HEN  it  becomes  necessary  or  expe- 
dient in  matters  of  dispute  to  have 
an  equitable  settlement  without  the 
interposition  of  the  courts,  what  are 
termed  arbitrators  are  selected  by  the  parties 
in  interest.  In  ordinary  cases  the  question  is 
usually  referred  to  a  single  person  who  has  the 
confidence  of  both  parties,  and  is  conversant 
with  the  law  and  the  rules  of  evidence.  Ar- 
bitrators are  not  bound  by  legal  rules  in  the 
admission  or  exclusion  of  evidence,  unless  it 
is  so  stipulated  in  the  agreement.  An  award 
must  be  conformable  to  the  terms  of  the 
submission,  and  only  the  precise  questions 
submitted  to  them  should  be  answered.  A  sub- 
mission to  arbitration,  voluntarily  entered  into 
by  the  parties,  without  the  aid  of  the  statutes 
or  rules  of  court,  may  be  revoked  by  either  of 
the  parties  at  any  time  before  the  publication 
of  the  award,  though  this  would  render  the 
revoking  parties  liable  in  damages,  which  would 
include  all  the  expenses  incurred  by  the  other 
party  and  all  he  could  prove  he  had  lost  in  any 
way  by  the  revocation. 

Form  of  Submission  to  Arbitration. 

Kmoiv  all  men,  That  a  controversy  exists  between  the  undersigned, 
Lewis  Anderson  and  James  Ray,  concerning  the  boundary  and  division 
lines  of  the  following  tract  of  land,  situated  in  (here  describe  tht  land, 
and  state  the  portion  in  controversy ). 

Th;it  said  Lewis  Anderson  and  James  Ray  do  hereby  submit  said  con- 
troversy to  the  abitrament  of  Nelson  West  and  John  Farnsworth. 


That  said  award  shall  be  made  in  writing  under  the  hands  of  said  arbi- 
trators, ready  to  be  delivered  to  said  parties,  or  such  of  them  as  may  de- 
sire the  same,  on  or  before  the  second  day  of  February  nexL 

That  said  award  shall  in  all  things  by  us  and  each  of  us  be  well  and 
faithfully  kept,  observed  and  performed. 

Witness  our  hands,  etc 
In  presence  of  1  Lewis  AMD 

Walter  Rex,  >  James  Rat. 

Notary  Public.  I 


Form  of  Arbitration  Bond. 

Knotv  all  men  by  these  presents  :     That  I-ewi*  Anderson  and  Ja 

Ray  have,  this day  of ,  A.  D. ,  submitted  their  matters  in 

controversy,  concerning  the  boundary  and  division  lines  of  a  certain  tract 
of  land  (describe  it),  to  Nelson  West  and  John  Farnsworth,  to  arbitrate, 
award,  order,  judge  and  determine  of  and  concerning  the  same. 

That  we,  the  undersigned,  bind  ourselves,  in  the  sum  of dollars, 

that  said  Lewis  Anderson  and  James  Ray  shall  submit  to  the  decision  and 
award  of  said  arbitrators,  provided  said  award  be  made  in  writing  on  or 

before  the  second  day  of  February,  A.  D. . 

(Signed)  Eugene  Small. 

Jldsos  Willis. 

Form  of  Notice  to  Arbitrators. 

Gentlemen — You  have  been  chosen  arbitrators  on  behalf  of  the  under- 
signed, to  arbitrate  and  award  between  them,  in  divers  matters  and  things, 
set  forth  in  their  submission,  which  will  be  produced  for  your  inspection 

when  you  meet  at ,  in ,  on  the day  of  ,  at  —  o'clock 

—  M.,  to  hear  the  allegations  and  proofs. 

Dated,  etc  Lewis  Akhison. 

James  Ray. 

General  Form  of  Arbitrators'  Award. 

To  all  to  whom  these  /resents  shall  come,  or  may  concern,  knar*  ye  : 

That  the  matter  in  controversy  existing  between  Lewis  Anderson,  of , 

and  James  Ray,  of ,  as  by  their  submission  in  writing,  bearing  date 

the day  of ,  more  fully  appears,  was  submitted  to  Nels.. 

and  John  Farnsworth.  as  arbitrators. 

That  said  arbitrators,  being  sworn  according  to  law,  and  having  heard 
the  proofs  and  allegations  of  the  parties,  and  examined  the  matter  in  con- 
troversy by  them  submitted,  do  make  this,  their  award,  in  writing: 
(  H  rite  out  in  full  the  award.) 

In  fitness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names,  thi> 

day  of ,  A.D. . 

Nelson  West, 
John  Farnsworth. 

ArbitrmUre. 


•• 


/. 


-£. 


ASSIGNMENTS. 


461 


.NY  transfer  of  property  made  in  writing 
|f  is  properly  called  an  assignment,  thus 
1  distinguishing  the  act  from  a  transfer 
made  by  delivery.  In  effect,  it  is  pass- 
ing to  another  person  all  of  one's  title  or  inter- 
est in  any  sort  of  real  or  personal  property, 
rights,  actions  or  estates.  However,  some 
things  are  not  assignable  ;  an  officer's  pay  or 
commission,  a  judge's  salary,  fishing  claims, 
Government  bounties,  or  claims  arising  out  of 
frauds  or  torts.  Personal  trusts  cannot  be 
assigned,  as  a  guardianship  or  the  right  of  a 
master  in  his  apprentice. 

Unlike  many  other  legal  devices,  the  holder 
of  an  assignment  is  not  bound  to  show  that  a 
valuable  consideration  was  given.  The  owner 
of  a  cause  of  action  may  give  it  away  if  he 
pleases,  and  in  the  absence  of  positive  evi- 
dence to  the  contrary  the  court  will  presume 
that  the  assignment  was  for  a  sufficient  con- 
sideration. Proof  will  only  be  called  for  when 
it  appears  that  the  assignment  was .  a  mere 
sham  or  fraudulent.  No  formality  is  required 
by  law  in  an  assignment.  Any  instrument 
between  the  contracting  parties  which  goes  to 
show  their  intention  to  pass  the  property  from 
one  to  another  will  be  sufficient.  It  may  be 
proved,  for  instance,  by  the  payee  of  a  note, 
that  he  endorsed  (or  deliverea  without  endorse- 
ment) the  note  to  the  assignee,  and  this  is 
sufficient  evidence  of  assignment 


In  every  assignment  of  an  instrument,  even 
not  negotiable,  the  assignee  impliedly  war- 
rants the  validity  of  the  instrument  and  the 
obligation  of  the  third  party  to  pay  it.  He  war- 
rants that  there  is  no  legal  defence  against  its 
collection  arising  out  of  his  connection  with  the 
parties  ;  that  all  parties  were  legally  able  to  con- 
tract, and  that  the  amount  is  unpaid. 

An  assignment  carries  with  it  all  the  collat- 
eral securities  and  guaranties  of  the  original 
debt,  even  though  they  are  not  mentioned  in 
the  instrument. 

It  is  usual  to  use  as  operative  words  in  an 
assignment  the  phrase,  "  assign,  transfer  and 
set  over ; "  but  "  give,  grant,  bargain  and  sell, " 
or  any  other  words  indicating  an  intention  on 
the  part  of  the  parties  to  transfer  the  property, 
are  sufficient  in  law. 

Where  property  is  assigned  for  the  benefit 
of  creditors,  its  actual  transfer  to  the  assignee 
must  be  made  immediately.  When  an  assign- 
ment is  made  under  the  common  law,  the  as- 
signor may  prefer  certain  creditors;  but  in  a 
State  where  this  sort  of  an  assignment  is  gov- 
erned by  statute,  no  preference  can  be  shown. 
An  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  cov- 
ers all  of  the  assignor's  property,  wherever  or 
whatever  it  may  be,  that  is  not  exempt  from 
execution. 

When  insured  property  is  sold,  the  insurance 
policy  should  be  assigned.     This  can  only  be 


=^L 


462 


BILLS  "I    SALE. 


done  with  the  consent  of  the  insurer,  and  that 
consent  must  be  at  once  obtained. 

Correct  schedules  of  the  property  assigned 
should  accompany  and  be  attached  to  every  as- 
signment. 

Assignment  of  a  Note. 

I  hereby,  for  value  received,  assign  and  transfer  the  within  written 
(or  above  written),  together  with  all  my  rights  under  the  same,  to  John 
Dobson.  William  Atwood. 

Assignment  with  Power  of  Attorney. 

In  consideration  of  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars  (the  receipt  of 
which  is  hereby  acknowledged),  I  do  hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over 
to  John  G.  Stewart  (of  St.  Louis,  Mo.),  all  my  right,  title  and  interest  in 
and  to  (here  describe  71'hatJ. 

(And  I  do  hereby  constitute  said  John  G.  Stewart  my  attorney,  in  my 
name  or  otherwise,  but  at  his  own  costs  and  charges,  to  take  all  legal 
measures  which  may  be  proper  or  necessary  for  the  complete  recovery  and 
enjoyment  of  the  premises.) 

Witness  my  hand  (and  seal)  this  28th  day  of  August,  1883. 

(Witnesses. J  William  Snyder,     [l.s.] 

Assignment  with  Guaranty  of  Assignor. 

For  value  received,  I  do  hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over  to  John 
G.  Stewart  the  within  obligation,  and  all  moneys  due  and  to  become  due 
thereon. 

In  case  the  same  cannot  be  recovered  of  the  within  named  Edwin 
Byron,  I  agree  and  promise  to  pay  to  said  John  G.  Stewart  the  pnTJMIlM 
thereof,  together  with  all  necessary  and  reasonable  charges  thereupon 
accruing. 

Witness  my  hand,  etc.  William  Snyder, 

(Witnesses.) 


Shorter  Form. 

For  value  received,  I  hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over  to  John  G. 
Stewart  the  within  obligation,  hereby  guaranteeing  payment  thereof. 
(Witnesses.)  William  Ssydci. 

Assignment    Without    Recourse. 

\-  <>v  value  received,  I  hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over  to  John  G. 
Stewart  the  within  obligation,  and  all  moneys  due  (and  to  become  due) 
thereon.  All  failure  of  recovery,  liabilities,  losses,  wholly  at  tho  risk  of 
said  John  G.  Stewart,  without  recourse  in  any  event  upon  me. 

(Witnesses.)  William  Snyder. 

Assignment   of  Wages. 

Know  alt  men  by  these  presents;  That  I,  William  Snyder  (of  Sl 
Joseph,  Mo.),  in  consideration  of  one  hundred  dollar*,  the  receipt  of 
which  I  hereby  acknowledge,  do  hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over  to 
John  G.  Stewart  (of  St.  Louis,  Mo.)  all  claims  and  demands  which  I  now 
have,  and  all  which,  at  any  time  between  the  date  hereof  and  the  30th  day 
of  December  next,  I  may  or  shall  have,  against  Edwin  Byron,  for  all  sums 
of  money  due  or  to  become  due  to  me  for  services  as      -  . 

That  I  do  hereby  appoint  and  constitute  said  John  G.  Stewart  and 
his  assigns  my  attorney,  irrevocable,  to  do  and  perform  all  acts,  matters 
and  things  in  the  premises,  in  like  manner  and  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses as  I  could  if  personally  present. 

In  witness  whereof,  etc. 

Assignment  of   Money  Due  on  Account. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents:  That  William  Snyder,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars  to  him  in  hand  paid,  docs 
hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over  all  his  title  and  interest  in  and  rights 
under  an  account  for  (state  what)  in  the  sum  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars,  hereunto  annexed,  and  all  other  sum  and  sums  of  money  remain- 
ing due  and  payable  upon  said  account,  unto  John  G.  Stewart,  with  full 
power  to  ask,  demand  and  receive  the  same  (at  his  own  costs  and  ex- 
penses) to  his  own  use,  and  to  give  discharges  and  receipts  for  the  same, 
or  any  part  thereof. 

That  there  is  due  said  William  Snyder,  on  said  account,  at  the  date  ol 
these  presents,  the  sum  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  and  thai  he  hat 
not  received  or  discharged  the  same. 

In  witness,  etc 


-^^x&^-h 


:•  ^ill^vof  *$ale.  •:•    * 


BILL  OF  SALE  is  a  formal  written  con- 
veyance of  personal  property.  If  the 
property  is  delivered  when  sold,  or  if 
part  of  the  purchase-money  is  paid,  a 
written  instrument  is  not  necessary  to  make 
the  conveyance,  but  it  is  convenient  evidence 
of  the  transfer  of  title.  But,  to  protect  the 
interests  of  the  purchaser  against  the  creditors 


of  the  seller,  the  bill  is  not  sufficient  of  itself; 
then-  should  also  be  a  delivery  of  the  prop- 
erty. If  an  actual  and  continued  change  of 
possession  does  not  accompany  the  sale,  it  is 
void  as  against  the  creditors  of  the  seller  and 
subsequent  purchasers  uul  mortgagees  in  good 
faith,  unless  the  buyer  can  show  th.it  his  pur- 
chase was  made  in  good  faith,  without  intent 


V- 


K= 


A 


BONDS. 


4<53 


to  defraud,  and  that  there  was  some  good  rea- 
son for  leaving  the  property  in  the  hands  of 
the  seller. 

Short  Form  of  Bill  of  Sale. 

I,  Henry  Anderson,  of  Chester,  Pa.,  in  consideration  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars,  paid  by  A.  D.  Criste,  of  Minister,  Pa.,  hereby  sell  and 
convey  to  said  A.  D.  Criste  one  bay  horse  (give  sex,  size,  color,  age,  etc.), 
warranted  against  adverse  claims. 

Witness  my  hand,  this  4th  day  of  Sept,  A.D.  1883. 

(Witness.)  (Signed)     Henry  Anderson.  [l.s.J 

Common  Form — With  Warranty. 

Know  ait  men  by  these  presents  :  That  in  consideration  of  one  thou- 
sand dollars,  the  receipt  of  which  is  hereby  acknowledged,  I  do  hereby 
grant,  sell,  transfer  and  deliver  unto  A.  A.  McHatton,  his  heirs,  execu- 
tors, administrators  and  assigns,  the  following  goods  and  chattels,  viz. : 
(here  describe  the  property ). 


To  have  and  to  hold  all  and  singular  the  saij  goods  and  chattels  for- 
ever. And  the  said  grantor  hereby  covenants  with  said  grantee  that  he  is 
the  lawful  owner  of  said  goods  and  chattels;  that  they  are  free  from  all 
encumbrances;  that  he  has  good  right  to  sell  the  same,  as  aforesaid;  and 
that  he  will  warrant  and  defend  the  same  against  the  lawful  claims  and 
demands  of  all  persons  whomsoever. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  grantor  has  hereunto  set  his  hand,  this 
12th  day  of  December,  A.D.  1883. 

(Witness.)  N.  R.  Jennek. 

Sale  of  Personal  Property. 

Knoiv  all  ttten  by  these  presents  :  That  I,  Peter  Dolan,  of  the  city  of 
Cleveland,  county  of  Cuyahoga,  State  of  Ohio,  farmer,  in  consideration  of 
four  hundred  dollars,  to  me  in  hand  paid  by  Conrad  Ullner,  the  receipt 
whereof  I  hereby  acknowledge,  have  bargained,  sold,  granted  and  con- 
veyed unto  the  said  Conrad  Ullner  the  following  property,  to-wit :  two 
horses;  to  have  and  to  hold  the  same;  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns  forever. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this  20th 
day  of  March,  1883.  Peter  Dolan. 


S— GQ_ 


-O- 


s— & 


•or 


§OQg^. 


•^ 


JS— j 


%■ 


"© 
^ 


•O- 


Te— I 


WRITTEN  instrument,  admitting  an 
(vf  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  maker 
to  pay  a  certain  sum  of  money  to 
another  specified  person  at  a  fixed 
time,  for  a  valuable  consideration,  is  called 
a  bond.  The  obligor  is  the  one  giving  the 
bond;  the  beneficiary  is  called  the  obligee. 
This  definition  applies  to  all  bonds,  but  gen- 
erally these  instruments  are  given  to  guarantee 
the  performance  or  non-performance  of  cer- 
tain acts  by  the  obligor,  which  being  done, 
or  left  undone,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  bond 
becomes  void,  but  if  the  conditions  are  broken, 
it  remains  in  full  force.  As  a  rule,  the  bond 
is  made  out  for  a  sum  twice  the  amount  of  any 
debt  which  is  apt  to  be  incurred  by  the  obligor 
under  its  conditions,  the  statement  being  set 
forth  that  the  sum  named  is  the  penalty,  as 
liquidated  or  settled  damages,  in  the  event  of 
the  failure  of  the  obligor  to  carry  out  the  con- 
ditions. 


An  act  of  Providence,  whereby  the  accom- 
plishment of  a  bond  is  rendered  impossible, 
relieves  the  obligor  of  all  liability. 

A  bond  may  be  sued  upon  twenty  years 
after  right  of  action  begins. 

A  bond  simply  for  the  payment  of  money 
only  differs  from  a  promissory  note  in  having 
a  seal. 

Short  Form  of  Bond. 

Kno™  all  men  by  these  presents  :  That  we,  John  Smith,  as  principal, 
and  William  Meeser  and  A.  J.  Driscoll,  as  sureties,  all  of  Bladensburg, 
in  the  county  of  Prince  George,  State  of  Maryland,  are  holden  and 
stand  firmly  bound  unto  David  Wright,  of  said  county,  in  the  sum  of  nine 
hundred  dollars  to  be  paid  to  the  said  David  Wright,  to  the  payment 
whereof  we  jointly  and  severally  bind  ourselves  and  our  respective  heirs 
firmly  by  these  presents.     Sealed  with  our  seals. 

Dated  at  Bladensburg,  this  tenth  day  of  June,  1882. 

(The  condition  attached  is  the  same  as  in  the  succeeding  forms.) 

Executed  and  delivered  J 

in  presence  of  > 

Walter  Wren.  ) 


John  Smith. 
William  Meeser. 
A.  J.  Driscoll. 


Bond  Secured  by  Mortgage. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents  ;  That  I,  Arthur  Dean,  of  Towanda, 
IN  Bradford  county,  and  State  of  Pennsylvania,  am  held  and  firmly  bound 
unto  Samuel  Crafts,  of  Wyoming,  in  the  same  county  and  State,  in  the 
sum  of  two  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid  to  the  said  Samuel  Crafts,  his 


/ 


_vJ 


^2 


IV 


464 


"7 


BONDS. 


heirs,  executors,  administrators  or  assigns,  and  to  thus  payment  I  hereby 
bind  myself,  my  heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  firmly  by  these  pres- 
ents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal,  this  iath  day  of  November,  A.D.  1883. 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is: 

That  if  I,  the  said  Arthur  Dean,  or  my  heirs,  executors  or  adminis- 
trators,  shall   pay  or  cause  to  be  paid  unto  the  said  Samuel  Crafts  the 

sum  of  one  thousand  dollars  on  the day  of ,  with  interest  at  the 

rate  of per  cent  per  annum,  payable  six  months  from  the  date  hereof, 

and  every months  afterwards,  until  the  said  sum  is  paid,  then  the 

above  obligation  shall  be  void  and  of  no  effect;  and  otherwise  it  shall 
remain  in  full  force. 

And  I  further  agree  and  covenant,  that  if  any  payment  of  interest  be 
withheld  or  delayed  for  ■—  days  after  such  payment  shall  fall  due,  the 
said  principal  sum  and  all  arrearage  of  interest  thereon  shall  be  and 
become  due  immediately  on  the  expiration  of  — —  days,  at  the  option  of 
said  Samuel  Crafts,  his  executors,  administrators  or  assigns. 


Executed  and  delivered 
in  presence  of 
John  Simmons 


:i 


Arthur  Dean.  [i..s.] 


General  Form  of  Bond. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents  :  That  I,  John  Grubb,  of  the  town 
of  Mound  City,  in  the  county  of  Pulaski,  and  State  of  Illinois,  am  held 
and  firmly  bound  unto  J.  A.  Williams,  of  Cairo,  in  the  sum  of  one  thousand 
dollars,  to  be  paid  to  the  said  J.  A.  Williams,  his  executors  or  assigns;  for 
which  payment,  well  and  truly  to  be  made,  I  bind  myself,  my  heirs,  ex- 
ecutors and  administrators,  firmly  by  these  presents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal.     Dated  the  28th  day  of  July,  1883. 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is  such: 

That  if  the  above-bounden  John  Grubb,  his  heirs,  executors  or  admin- 
istrators, shall  well  and  truly  pay,  or  cause  to  be  paid,  unto  the  above- 
named  J.  A.  Williams,  his  executors,  administrators  or  assigns,  the  just 
and  full  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars,  in  five  equal  annual  payments,  from 
the  date  hereof,  with  annual  interest,  then  the  above  obligation  to  be  void ; 
otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force  and  virtue. 


Sealed  and  delivered  in 
presence  of 
Jno.  G.  Stewart, 
W.  F.  George. 


John  Grubb.  [l.s.] 


A  Bond  to  Execute  a  Deed. 

Know  alt  men  by  these  presents:  That  I,  John  T.  Nixon,  of  the 
city  of  St.  Ixniis,  in  the  State  of  Missouri,  am  held  and  firmly  bound  unto 
George  Kline,  of  the  same  place,  in  the  sum  of  nine  hundred  dollars, 
to  be  paid  to  the  said  George  Kline,  his  executors,  administrators  or 
assigns;  for  which  payment,  welt  and  truly  to  be  made,  I  bind  myself,  my 
heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  firmly  by  these  presents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal.     Dated  the  30th  day  of  July,  1883. 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is  such : 

That  if  the  ibove-boundcn  John  T.  Nixon  shall  well  and  truly  make, 
execute  and  deliver  to  the  said  George  Kline  a  deed  of  release  and 
quit-claim  of  said  John  T.  Nixon's  interest  in  ( designating  the  property ) 
and  shall  suffer  and  permit  the  said  George  Kline,  his  heirs  and  as- 
signs, to  peaceably  occupy  and  possess  said  interest,  then  this  obligation 
is  to  be  void ;  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force. 

Sealed   and   delivered      \  John   T.  Nixon,  [u*.] 

in  presence  of 

Jos.  Peterson. 


J 


A  Bond   to  Execute  an  Assignment. 

Know  alt  men  by  these  /resents :  That  I,  Chas.  Curtman,  of  the 
town  of  Washington,  in  the  county  of  Franklin,  State  of  Missouri,  am 
held  and  firmly  bound  unto  William  T.  Smith,  of  the  town  of  Pacific, 
in  the  sum  of  two  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid  to  the  said  William  T. 
Smith,  his  executors,  administrators  or  assigns;  for  which  payment,  well 
and  truly  to  be  made,  I  bind  myself,  my  heirs,  executors  and  administra- 
tors, firmly  by  these  presents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal.     Dated  the  14th  day  of  August,  1883. 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is  such  : 

That  if  the  above-bounden  Chas.  Curtman,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators or  assigns,  pn  'or  before  the day  of next,  shall,  upon  the 

reasonable  request,  and  at  the  proper  cost  and  charges  of  the  said  Will- 
iam T.  Smith,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  make,  execute  and  deliver,  or  cause  so  to 
be,  to  the  said  William  T.  Smith,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  or  to  such  person  or 
persons  as  he  or  they  shall  nominate  and  appoint,  and  to  such  uses  as  he  or 
they  shall  direct,  a  good  and  sufficient  assignment  of  all  such  estate  and 
interest  as  he,  the  said  Chas.  Curtman,  now  has  in  the  lands  and  tene- 
ments of  John  Thompson  at  Washington,  Mo.,  then  this  obligation  to  be 
void ;  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force. 

Sealed  and  delivered    )  Chas.  Curtman.     [us.] 

in  presence  of  > 

Sou  Winston.  \ 


v  r •- 


-r 


CORPORATIONS. 


465 


Co ppo patio  115.  •>  )*- 


jSJfl  EVERAL  persons  joining  together  for 
the  accomplishment  of  any  business 
or  social  purpose  can,  if  they  wish, 
legally  organize  themselves  into  a  cor- 
poration, a  form  of  partnership  which  com- 
bines the  resources  of  all,  and  yet  gives  a 
limited  pecuniary  liability,  amounting  only  to 
the  amount  of  stock  owned  by  each  stock- 
holder. In  the  States,  the  legislature  of  each 
Commonwealth  enjoys  the  power  of  regulating 
the  corporations,  and  in  the  Territories  this 
power  is,  of  course,  vested  in  the  General 
Government.  The  actual  cost  of  organization 
amounts  to  something  less  than  $10,  most  of 
which  is  in  fees  to  the  Secretary  of  State. 
When  the  stock  has  been  subscribed  a  meeting 
is  called,  where  each  shareholder  casts  a  vote 
for  every  share  which  he  owns  or  holds  a 
proxy  for,  for  each  person  who  is  to  be  elected 
director,  or  he  may  give  one  director  as  many 
votes  as  the  number  of  shares  he  is  voting, 
multiplied  by  the  number  of  directors  to  be 
elected,  amounts  to,  or  distribute  his  votes  as 
he  chooses.  Thus,  if  he  owns  ten  shares  of 
stock  and  there  are  six  directors  to  be  elected, 
he  has  sixty  votes,  which  he  can  give,  either 
ten  for  each  director,  or  twenty  for  each  of 
three,  or  sixty  for  one,  or  in  any  other  way 
that  he  sees  fit,  so  that  his  whole  vote  will  not 
be  more  than  sixty  votes.  These  directors 
meet  as  soon  after  the  election  as  possible  and 
choose  a    president,  vice-president,   secretary 


and  treasurer,  whereupon  the    corporation  is 
ready  for  business. 

FORMS  FOR  INCORPORATING. 

The  law  in  all  the  States  on  the  subject  of 
incorporating  companies  is  very  similar,  and 
the  following  forms  of  the  Milwaukee  Water 
Gas  Company  will  furnish  a  good  example  of 
how  this  important  public  act  is  accomplished: 


STATE  OF  WISCONSIN, 
City  of  Milwaukee. 


To- 


,  Secretary  of  State  : 


Wc,  the  undersigned,  John  Smith,  John  Jones,  Charles  Ford,  James 
Bell,  John  O'Nei!,  propose  to  form  a  corporation  under  an  act  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  State  of  Wisconsin,  entitled  "  An  act  concerning  cor- 
porations," approved  May  24th,  1880,  and  all  acts  amendatory  thereof,  and 
that,  for  the  purpose  of  such  organization,  we  hereby  state  as  follows,  to- 
wit: 
The  name  of  such  corporation  is  Milwaukee  Water  Gas  Company. 
The  object  for  which  it  is  formed  is  to  carry  on  the  business  of  manu- 
facturing water  gas,  or  hydrogen,  and  to  sell  the  product  so  manufactured. 
The  capital  stock   shall  be  five  hundred  thousand  ($500,000)  dollars, 
divided  into  five  thousand  shares  of  one  hundred  dollars  each. 

John  Smith. 
John  Jones. 
Charles  Ford. 
James  Hell. 
John  O'Neil. 

( Endorsed  on  the  back  by  the  notary.) 
STATE  OF  WISCONSIN,  I 
City  of  Milwaukee.        ( 

I,  a  notary  public,  in  and  for  the  said  city  of  Milwaukee,  and  State 
aforesaid,  do  hereby  certify  that  on  this  30th  of  November,  A.D.  1880, 
personally  appeared  before  me  John  Smith.  John  Jones,  Charles  Ford, 
James  Hell,  John  O'Neil,  to  me  personally  known  to  be  the  same  persons 
who  executed  the  foregoing  statement,  and  severally  acknowledged  that 
they  executed  the  same  for  the  purposes  therein  set  forth. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  the  day  and 

year  above  written.  , 

Notary  Public. 

Also,  there  must  be  a  further  endorsement  describing  the  nature  of 
the  corporation  thus :  Statement  of  incorporation  of  the  Milwaukee  Water 
Gas  Co.  Location,  City  of  Milwaukee,  State  of  Wisconsin.  Capital 
stock,  $500,000.     Object,  manufacture  of  water  gas. 


V 


a! 


31 


Kr 


466 


. 


CORPORATION 


State  License  for  Incorporating. 

STATE  OF  WISCONSIN,  J       c„. ^^ •      ,  «-*, 

Department  ok  State.      \     Secretary  0/ State. 

To  all  to  whom  these  presents  shall  come— Greeting  ; 

Wmkrbas,  It  being  proposed  by  the  persons  hereinafter  named  to 
form  a  corporation  under  an  act  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of 
Wisconsin,  entitled  "An  act  concerning  corporations,"  approved  M;iy 
24th,  1880,  the  object  and  purposes  of  which  corporation  arc  set  forth  in  a 
statement  duly  signed  and  acknowledged  according  to  law,  and  filed  this 
day  in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State. 

Now,  therefore,  I, ,  Secretary  of  State  of  the  State  of  Wisconsin, 

by  virtue  of  the  powers  and  duties  vested  in  me  by  law,  do  hereby  author- 
ize, empower  and  license  John  Smith,  John  Jones,  Charles  Ford,  James 
Hell  and  John  O'Neil,  the  persons  whose  names  are  signed  to  the 
before  mentioned  statement,  as  commissioners  to  open  books  for  subscrip- 
tion to  the  capital  stock  of  the  Milwaukee  Water  Gas  Co.,  such  being  the 
name  of  the  proposed  corporation  as  contained  in  the  said  statement,  at 
such  times  and  places  as  the  said  commissioners  may  determine. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  hereto  set  my  hand  and 
cause  to  be  affixed  the  great  seal  of  State. 
,  —**— .  .  Done  at  the  city  of  Madison,  this  6th  day 

J  great  (  of  December,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one 

"j  seal.  C  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-one,  and 

*  — »-v-»-  '  of  the   independence  of  the  United   States 

the  one  hundred  and  sixth. 

Secretary  0/ State. 

To , 

Secretary  of  State: 
The  commissioners  duly  authorized  to  open  books  of  subscription  to 
the  capital  stock  of  the  Milwaukee  Water  Gas  Company,  pursuant  to 
license  heretofore  issued,  bearing  date  of  the  sixth  day  of  December,  A. 
D.  1881,  do  hereby  report  that  they  opened  books  of  subscription  to  the 
capital  stock  of  the  said  company,  and  that  the  said  stock  was  fully  sub- 
scribed ;  that  the  following  is  a  true  copy  of  such  subscription,  viz. :  We, 
the  undersigned,  hereby  severally  subscribe  for  the  number  of  shares 
set  opposite  our  respective  names  to  the  capital  stock  of  the  Milwaukee 
Water  Gas  Company,  and  we  severally  agree  to  pay  the  said  company  on 
each  share  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars. 

SHARES  AMOUNT. 

John  Smith i.ooo  $100,000 

John  Jones 1,000  100,000 

Chas.  Ford 1,000  100,000 

James  Hell 1,000  100,000 

John  O'Neill 1,000  100,000 

5,000  $500,000 


That  said  subscriber*  met  at  the  time  and  place  specified  and  pro- 
ceeded to  elect  directors,  and  that  the  following  persons  were  duly  elected 
for  the  term  of  one  year  :  Joho  Smith,  John  Jones,  Chas.  Ford,  James 
Hell,  John  O'Neil. 

(Signed)  John  Smith. 

John  Jokes. 
Chas.  Foko. 
James  Bell. 
John  O'Neil. 

When  this  document,  properly  endorsed,  is  sent  to  the  Secretary  of 
State,  he  at  once  issues  a  charter  to  the  corporation,  which  reads  as 
follows : 


E  OF  WISCONSIN,  (       S*cr,tarv  of  State 

Dept.  op  State.  j     Secret*ry  •/ s**"- 


To  all  to  whom  these  presents  shall  come — Greeting: 

Whp.rkas,  A  statement  duly  signed  and  acknowledged  nas  been  filed 
in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State  on  the  30th  day  of  November,  1881, 
for  the  organization  of  the  Milwaukee  Water  Gas  Company,  under  and 
in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  "An  act  concerning  corporation*." 
approved  May  24,  1880,  and  in  force  July  1,  1880,  and  all  acts  amenda- 
tory thereof,  a  copy  of  which  statement  is  hereto  attached  ;  and 

Whereas,  A  license  having  been  issued  to  John  Smith,  John  Jones, 
Charles  Ford,  James  Hell,  John  O'Neil,  as  commissioners,  to  open  books 
for  subscription  to  the  capital  stock  of  said  company  ;  and 

Whereas,  The  said  commissioners  having,  on  the  20th  day  of  Decem- 
ber, A.D.  1881,  filed  in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State  a  report  of 
their  proceedings  under  the  said  license,  a  copy  of  which  report  is  hereto 
attached  ; 

Now,  therefore,  I,  ,  Secretary  of  State  of  the  State  of  Wiscon- 
sin, by  virtue  of  the  powers  and  duties  vested  in  me  by  law,  do  hereby 
certify  that  the  said  Milwaukee  Water  Gas  Company  is  a  legally  organ- 
ized corporation  under  the  laws  of  this  State. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  hereby  set  my  hand  and  cause 
to  be  affixed  the  great  seal  of  State.  Done  at  the 
city  of  Madison  this  loth  day  of  January,  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty- 
two,  and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States 
the  one  hundred  and  seventh. 


Secretary  0/ State, 


£ 


V  <s- 


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DKEDS. 


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Jfoca   f^ectP  Qi&fafe  i<*>  <UraniSferrec|.      eh  j?uPP  (HoPPeciTon  of?  eforrrjA  ar£o 

MoileP<§>   of  dion^e^ance^. 


DEED  is  a  writing  by  which  lands,  tene- 
ments or  hereditaments  are  conveyed, 
i  sealed  and  delivered.  It  must  be  written 
or  printed  on  parchment  or  paper ;  the 
parties  must  be  competent  to  contract ;  there 
must  be  a  proper  object  to  grant;  a  sufficient 
consideration  ;  an  agreement  properly  declared  ; 
if  desired,  it  must  have  been  read  to  the  party 
executing  it ;  it  must  be  signed  and  sealed ; 
attested  by  witnesses,  in  the  absence  of  any  stat- 
ute regulation  to  the  contrary  ;  properly  acknowl- 
edged before  a  competent  officer,  and  recorded 
within  the  time  and  in  the  office  prescribed  by 
the  State  wherein  executed. 

The  maker  of  a  deed  is  the  grantor ;  the  party 
to  whom  it  is  delivered,  the  grantee.  If  the 
grantor  have  a  wife,  she  must,  in  the  absence  of 
a  statute  to  the  contrary,  sign  and  acknowledge 
the  deed ;  otherwise,  after  the  husband's  death, 
she  may  claim  the  use  of  one-third,  during  her 
life. 

By  a  general-warranty  deed  the  grantor  cove- 
nants to  insure  the  lands  against  all  persons 
whatsoever ;  by  a  special-warranty  deed,  he  war- 
rants only  against  himself  and  those  claiming 
under  him.  In  deeds  made  by  executors,  admin- 
istrators or  guardians,  there  is  generally  no  war- 
ranty. A  quit-claim  deed  releases  all  the  interest 
which  the  grantor  has  in  the  land,  whatever  it 
may  be. 


A  deed  of  trust  is  given  to  a  person  called  a 
trustee,  to  hold  in  fee  simple,  or  otherwise,  for 
the  use  of  some  other  person  who  is  entitled  to 
the  proceeds,  profits  or  use. 

A  deed  may  be  avoided,  by  alterations  made 
in  it  after  its  execution ;  by  the  disagreement  of 
the  parties  whose  concurrence  is  necessary;  or 
by  the  judgment  of  a  competent  tribunal. 

Interlineations  or  erasures  in  a  deed,  made 
before  signing,  should  be  mentioned  in  a  note, 
and  witnessed  in  proper  form.  After  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  a  deed,  the  parties  have  no  right  to 
make  the  slightest  alteration.  An  alteration  of 
a  deed  after  execution,  if  made  in  favor  of  the 
grantee,  vitiates  the  deed.  If  altered  before  deliv- 
ery, such  alteration  destroys  the  deed  as  to  the 
party  altering  it. 

The  statutory  provisions  of  the  several  States 
and  Territories  relating  to  deeds  will  be  found 
under  the  head  of  "Special  Laws." 

Chancellor  Kent's  Deed. 

This  form  is  given  by  Chancellor  Kent  as  sufficient  to  convey  an  abso- 
.  lute  fee  in  any  part  of  the  United  States. 

I,  F.   H.   Hill,  in  consideration  of  three  thousand  dollars,  to  me  paid 
by  John  F.  Waite,  do  bargain  and  sell  to  John  F.  Waite  (and  his  heirs) 
the  lot  of  land  (bounded  or  described),  etc. 
Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  etc. 

Short  Deed  in  California. 

I,  W.  B.  Baird,  grant  to  D.  D.  Parsons  all  that  real  property  situated 
in  Et  Dorado  county,  in  the  State  of  California,  bounded  (or  described) 
as  follows : 

Witness  my  hand  this day  of . 

W.  B.  Baird. 


tffS= 


-M 


ABSTRACT  OF  TIT  IK 


Short  Form  in  Indiana. 

Enos  Baldwin  conveys  and  warrants  to  William  Green  t description 
of  the  premises  J  for  the  sum  of  four  thousand  dollars. 

Witness  iny  hand  and  seal  this day  of . 

Enos  Baldwin.  [i..s.] 

Short  Form  Used  in  Virginia  and  Texas. 

M.    F.    Crenshaw  doth  bargain,  sell  and  grant  unto  W.  H.  Cavanagh 
all  (here  follows  the  description  of  the  real  estate  conveyed). 
Witness  the  following  signature  and  seal. 

M.  F.  Crenshaw,  [l.s.] 

Short  Form  Warranty  Deed  with  Full  Covenants. 

This  conveyance,  made  this  10th  day  of  May,  by  C.  S.  Smith,  of 
Bcloit,  Wis.,  to  Wm.  Evans,  of  Lansing,  Mich.,  witnesseth : 

That  in  consideration  of  (state  -what),  the  said  Smith  doth  with  the 
said  Evans  bargain,  sell  and  grant,  all,  etc.  (here  describe  the  property, 
and  add  whatever  covenants,  conditions,  restrictions,  limitations, 
etc.,  agreed  upon). 

And  the  said  Smith  covenants,  That  he  has  the  right  to  convey  said 
land  to  the  grantee;  that  the  same  is  free  from  all  encumbrances;  that  the 
grantee  shall  have  quiet  possession  of  said  land;  that  he  will  execute 
such  further  assurances  of  said  lands  as  shall  be  requisite;  and  that  he 
will  warrant  generally  {or  specially)  the  property  hereby  conveyed. 

Witness  the  following  signature  and  seal,  etc. 

General  Form  of  Warranty  Deed. 

Knoiv  all  men  by  these  presents:  That  I,  J.  A.  Yarbro,  of  Tipton 
county,  in  the  State  of  Tennessee,  have  this  15th  day  of  October,  for  and 
in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  three  thousand  dollars,  to  me  in  hand 
paid,  granted,  bargained  and  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant, 
bargain,  sell  and  convey  unto  J.  B.  Coals,  of  the  same  place,  the  following 
described  tract  or  parcel  of  land,  situate  in  the  county  of  Shelby,  in  the 
State  of  Tennessee,  that  is  to  say  (here  follows  the  description). 

To  have  and  to  hold  the  premises  hereby  conveyed,  with  all  the  rights, 
privileges  and  appurtenances  thereto  belonging,  or  in  anywise  appertain- 
ing, unto  the  said  Coals,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  forever. 


And  I,  the  said  Yarbro,  hereby  covenant  to  and  with  the  said  Coal*, 
his  heirs  and  assigns,  for  myself,  my  heirs,  executors  and  administrator*, 
to  warrant  and  defend  the  title  to  the  premises  hereby  conveyed  against 
the  claim  of  every  person  whomsoever.     •     • 

/*  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto  subscribed  my  name  and  affixed 
my  seal,  this day  of .  J.  A.  Yakbxo.  [i,  s.J 


Quit-Claim    Deed. 

Know  all    men    by  these   presents:     That    we,    W.    H.    Cooley,   of 
Council  Bluffs,  la,,  and  Mary  E  .  wife  of  the  said  Cooley,  in  consideration 

of  the  sum  of ,  to  us  in  hand  paid  by  Charles  Chapman,  of  Hastings, 

Neb.,  the  receipt  whereof  we  do  hereby  acknowledge,  have  bargained, 
sold  and  quit-claimed,  and  by  these  presents  do  bargain,  sell  and  quit- 
claim  unto  the  said  Chapman,  and  to  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever,  all  our 
and  each  of  our  right,  title,  interest,  estate,  claim  and  demand,  both  at 
law  and  in  equity,  and  as  well  in  possession  as  in  expectancy  of,  in  and 
to  all  that  certain  piece  or  parcel  of  land  situate,  etc.  (give  description), 
with  all  and  singular  the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances  thereunto 
belonging. 

In  wttness  whereof  we   have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals,  the 
day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Signed,  scaled  and  delivered,  etc. 

W.  H.  Coolbv.        [us.] 
Mary  E.  Cooley.  [l.*.] 

Short  Form  of  Trust  Deed. 

This  conveyance,  made  this day  of ,  witnesseth: 

That  Thomas  Pritchard,  of  Mills  county,  in  the  State  of  Iowa,  conveys 
(and  warrants)   to  S.  W.  Coleman,  of   Decatur  county,  in  the  State  of 

Iowa,  for  the  Mini   >f dollars,  all  the  following  described  real  estate, 

situated  in  the  county  of  Fremont  and  State  of  Iowa,  to  wit:  ikerejW- 
lows  the  description). 

In    trust,    nevertheless,   for    the  following  purposes,   to-wit:      {here  set 
forth  the  objects  and  purposes  to  be  effected). 

In    witness    whereof,  said  parties  ha%c  hereunto  set  their  hands,  the 
day  and  year  first  above  written.        (Signed/        Thomas  Pritcharix 

N.  W.  Coleman. 


•S^lif* 


•:•  ^l^paet-of-^itle.  * 


>•_•+ 


k 


.BSTRACTS  OF  TITLE  are  brief  ac- 
counts of  all  the  deeds  upon  which 
titles  rest,  and  judgments  and  instru- 
ments affecting  such  titles  —  synopses 
of  the  distinctive  portions  of  the  various  in- 
struments which  constitute  the  muniments  of 
title. 

The  evidences  of  title  are  usually  convey- 
ances, wills,  orders  or  decrees  of  courts,  judg- 
ments, judicial  sales,  sales  by  officers  appointed 


by  law,  acts  of  the  Legislature  and  of  Cong: 

Conveyances.  The  abstract  of  convey- 
ances should  show  : 

1.  Date. 

2.  Character  (whether  an  absolute  or  condi- 
tional conveyance;  as,  in  fee,  mortgage,  or  a 
/ease). 

3.  Names  and  residence  of  parties,  and  of 
executors,  administrators,  guardians,  trustees, 
corporations,  officers,  or  the  like. 


ABSTRACT  OF  TITLE. 


469 


4.  All  recitals  which  materially  affect  the  title. 

5.  The  testatum  clause.  This  part  of  the 
conveyance  embraces  : 

I.  Name  of  grantor.  2.  Name  of  grantee 
and  words  of  limitation  ;  as  to  "  C.  D.,  his 
heirs  and  assigns,"  or,  to  "  C.  D.  and  his  as- 
signs," or,  to  "  C  D.  and  E.  F.,  and  the  heirs 
of  C.  D. "  3.  The  consideration.  4.  The 
description  of  the  premises  or  parcels.  This  is 
generally  done  by  giving  the  premises  at  large 
in  the  abstract  of  the  first  conveyance,  and  in 
subsequent  conveyances  to  note  each  variation. 
5-  The  habendum  —  carefully  and  accurately 
stated.  6.  The  declaration  of  uses,  trusts, 
limitations,  or  special  agreements,  if  any.  7. 
Powers.  If  a  settlement  is  made  in  pursuance 
of  articles,  or  an  appointment  by  virtue  of  a 
power,  an  inspection  should  be  made  of  the 
articles  of  power.  A  deed  executed  by  attor- 
ney should  be  produced  with  evidence  that 
the  power  of  attorney  was  recorded,  and  that 
the  principal  was  alive  when  the  deed  was  exe- 
cuted. 8.  Covenants  which  may  affect  the 
vendee,  and  especially  exceptions  against  en- 
cumbrances. 9.  By  what  parties  the  deed  is 
executed,  the  fact  of  signing,  sealing,  attesta- 
tion and  acknowledgment  and  recording,  as 
required  by  statute. 

If  any  of  the  deeds  in  the  chain  of  title  are 
quit-claim,  the  reason  therefor  should  be  as- 
certained. 

Wills.  In  abstracting  wills  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  : 

1.  The  date  of  the  testator's  death. 

2.  The  court  in  which  the  probate  is  made. 
The  date  of  letters  testamentary,  and  any 
change  in  the  executors  or  administrators,  by 
death,  removal,  or  otherwise. 

3.  Any  charge  imposed  by  the  payment  of 
debts,  legacies,  etc. 

4.  The  persons  to  whom  the  lands  are  de- 
vised. 

5.  Words  of  limitation,  modification,  condi- 
tions, charges  on  the  devisee,  etc. 


6.  Facts  which  operate  a  partial  revocation 
of  the  will  ;  as  the  birth  of  a  child,  or  the  sub- 
sequent alteration  of  the  estate  inconsistent 
with  the  terms  of  the  will. 

Codicils  should  be  given  in  the  order  of  their 
dates. 

Orders  or  Decrees.  Orders  or  decrees 
material  to  the  title  should  be  abstracted. 

Judgments.  A  party  claiming  title  to  real 
estate  under  an  execution  must  show  : 

1.  A  valid  judgment. 

2.  A  levy  and  sale  as  required  by  law. 

3.  A  deed.  The  sheriff's  deed  must,  in  gen- 
eral, recite  the  substance  of  the  execution,  the 
names  of  the  parties,  the  action,  the  amount, 
and  the  date  of  the  rendition  of  the  judgment 
by  virtue  of  which  the  estate  was  sold,  and  be 
executed  and  acknowledged  as  required  by 
law. 

Judicial  sales  made  by  officers,  executors, 
administrators,  guardians  of  miners,  lunatics, 
etc. — 

1.  Must  be  examined  for  the  appointment 
and  authority  of  the  person  making  the  sale, 
and  whether  his  authority  continued  in  force 
till  the  sale. 

2.  The  service  of  summons,  notice,  or  other 
process,  upon  all  defendants,  or  persons  inter- 
ested. 

3.  The  appointment  of  guardians  ad  litem 
for  minors  when  necessary. 

4.  The  order  of  sale  and  its  confirmation. 

5.  The  deed. 

Other  sales  include  those  by  assignees  or 
commissioners  of  insolvents,  or  assignees  of 
bankrupts  and  tax  sales.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  proper  records  should  be  examined  with 
the  utmost  care,  in  order  to  detect  any  omis- 
sion or  defect  in  compliance  with  all  the  requi- 
sitions of  the  statute  ;  in  the  former  case,  the 
leading  points  are  the  authority  of  the  assignee, 
etc.,  the  order  of  sale  and  its  confirmation, 
and  the  deed 


^IC 


47° 


GUARANTY. 


-7fl 


Acts  of  the  Legislature  may  be  consid- 
ered in  the  same  manner  as  private  convey- 
ances.    The  abstract  should  show  : 

1 .  The  date  of  the  act. 

2.  The  title  of  the  act. 

3.  The  recitals  of  the  act. 

4.  The  enacting  clause  in  its  own  terms. 

5.  A  strict  compliance  with  the  terms  of  the 
act. 

Titles  by  Descent.  In  the  absence  of 
deeds  pedigree  should  be  ascertained,  authen- 
ticated and  incorporated. 

Encumbrances.  Encumbrances  may  be  as 
follows  : 

1.  Judgments  in  the  county  where  the  land 
lies. 

2.  Judgments  in  the  United  States  courts. 

3.  Executions  from  other  counties. 


4.  Mortgages. 

5.  Liens  of  the  creditors  of  deceased  per- 
sons. 

6.  Dower. 

7.  Decrees  in  chancery. 

8.  Action  pending. 

9.  Taxes. 

10.  Mechanics'  liens. 

11.  Lien  of  executor,  administrator,  guar- 
dian, or  agent,  who  pays  taxes  upon  the  estate. 

12.  Leases. 

13.  Equity  of  a  vendee  in  possession. 

14.  Lien  of  a  vendor  for  purchase-money. 

15.  Caveats  in  case  of  a  contested  will. 

16.  Rents  assigned  in  lieu  of  dower. 

17.  The  levy  of  a  distress  warrant  upon  the 
property  of  certain  debtors  of  the  United 
States. 


«$*&=> 


,£ 


,@2 


Guaranty.  •  ^w;  '  •* 


GUARANTY  is  an  assurance  made  by 
a  second  party  that  his  principal  will 
perform  some  specific  act.  For  in- 
i*f^-  stance,  "A"  gives  "B"  a  note,  and  "C" 
by  endorsing  the  instrument  guarantees  to 
"  B  "  that  "  A  "  will  pay  it  at  maturity.  "  C  " 
is  the  guarantor.  His  liability  is  special,  and 
if  "  B  "  renews  the  note  when  it  becomes  due, 
then  he  is  no  longer  liable.  A  guaranty  for 
collection  is  a  very  different  thing  from  a  guar- 
anty of  payment.  The  first  warrants  that  the 
money  is  collectible;  the  latter,  that  it  will  be 
paid  at  maturity.  In  the  first  case  the  party 
guaranteed  must  be  able  to  prove  that  due 
diligence  was  employed  in  attempting  to  col- 
lect the  money;  in  the  second,  no  such  proof 
is  necessary.  The  only  form  necessary  in 
guaranteeing  a  note  is  writing  one's  name  across 


it,   a    process  commonly  called 


the  back  of 

endorsing. 

Guaranty  of  a  Note. 

For  value  received,  I  guarantee  the  due  payment  of  a  promissory  note, 
dated  October  8,  1883,  whereby  John  Paxaon  promise*  to  pay  George 
Andrew!  eighty  dollars  in  three  months. 

St.  Louis,  October  10,  1883.  Piths  Fassc 


General   Guaranty. 

I  hereby  guarantee  payment  to  any  person  who  shall  accept  and  retain 
this  instrument  as  a  guaranty,  for  all  goods  which  he  may  from  time  to 
time  supply  to  Eugene  Parsons,  not  exceeding  at  any  time  the  sum  of 
live  hundred  dollars,  this  to  be  a  continuing  guaranty  till  specially 
revoked.     Notice  to  be  given  me  within  ten  days  after  its  acceptance. 

St.  I-ouis,  September  8,  1883.  Duiv  Cohcu. 

Extension  of  Time. 

In  consideration  that  George  Andrews  gives  to  John  Paxson  ad- 
ditional time  to  the  extent  of  one  month  for  payment  of  the  indebtedness 
due  him  from  said  John  Paxson  guaranteed  by  me,  1  hereby  continue  my 
guaranty  for  due  payment  thereof. 

January  8,  1884.  Prrnt  Faux. 

Guaranty  of  Fidelity. 

In  consideration  of  the  performance  of  the  agreements  and  convenants 
specified  in  the  within  agreement  by  M.  M..  with  my  son,  A.  A.,  I  do  hereby 
bind  myself  to  said  M.  M.  for  the  true  and  faithful  observation  and  )>cr- 
form.ux  e  of  all  the  matters  and  things  by  said  A.  A.  agreed  and  cov- 
enanted therein,  and  that  he  shall  well  and  truly  serve  said  M.  M. 

Witness  my  hand  this day  of ,  A.D .  1'     \ 


4 


LANDLORD  AND    TENANT. 


L& 


7 


471 


I  [landlord  •> and  •:•  tenant.  < 


-#   ##   #- 


^*  *  »&- 


-^z- 


■^ 


-#  ##  #-  -^m^- 


LEASE  is  a  contract  for  the  possession 
and  enjoyment  of  real  estate  on  one 
g  hand,  and  for  the  payment  of  rent  or 
other  income  on  the  other.  A  land- 
lord is  one  who  holds  lands  and  houses  which 
he  lets  out  to  others.  A  tenant  is  one  who 
has  temporary  use  of  real  estate  belonging  to 
another,  the  duration  and  terms  of  his  occu- 
pancy being  defined  in  the  lease.  In  this 
instrument  no  particular  form  of  words  is 
necessary ;  but  it  is  important  that  all  the 
conditions  be  plainly  set  forth,  so  that  no 
misunderstanding  can  ensue. 

Verbal  promises  amount  to  nothing  ;  the  law 
only  considers  what  the  lease  states,  so  that 
the  importance  of  clearness  and  comprehen- 
siveness in  this  document  is  apparent. 

Unless  expressly  prohibited  by  the  lease, 
the  lessor  can  sublet  any  part  of  the  property 
acquired  by  the  lease,  or  the  whole  of  it. 

A  married  woman  cannot  lease  her  prop- 
erty, under  the  common  law  ;  but  under  the 
statute,  in  many  of  the  States,  this  prohibi- 
tion is  removed,  as  will  be  found  by  consult- 
ing the  section  devoted  to  the  rights  of  married 
women.  A  husband  cannot  make  a  lease 
which  will  bind  his  wife's  property  after  his 
death ;  even  the  common  law  terminates  his 
control  with  his  life.  A  guardian  cannot 
give  a  lease  extending  beyond  the  ward's 
majority  which  the  ward  cannot  annul,  if  he 


wishes.      But  if  the  ward  does  not  annul  the 
lease,  the  lessee  is  bound  by  it. 

When  no  time  is  specified  in  a  lease,  it  is 
understood  to  run  for  one  year.  A  tenancy 
at  will  is  terminable  by  notice  given  from  one 
month  to  six  months,  in  advance,  according 
to  the  peculiar  statute  of  the  State  in  which 
the  property  exists.  In  the  Eastern  States  a 
written  notice  of  three  months  is  the  general 
custom;  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States, 
six  months,  and  in  the  Western  States,  one 
month. 

The  phrase  "  a  term  of  years  "  is  construed 
to  mean  at  least  two  years  when  the  figure  is 
not  given. 

Leases  on  mortgaged  property,  whereon  the 
mortgage  was  given  prior  to  the  lease,  termi- 
nate when  the  mortgage  is  foreclosed. 

Where  a  tenant  assigns  his  lease,  even  with 
the  landlord's  consent,  he  will  remain  liable  for 
the  rent  unless  his  lease  is  surrendered  or  can- 
celled. 

There  are  a  great  many  special  features  of 
the  law  of  landlord  and  tenant  in  relation  to 
agricultural  tenancy,  which  the  reader  will  do 
well  to  read  carefully. 

Generally  an  outgoing  tenant  cannot  sell 
or  take  away  the  manure.  A  tenant  whose 
estate  has  terminated  by  an  uncertain  event 
which  he  could  neither  foresee  nor  control  is 
entitled  to  the  annual  crop   which  he    sowed 


472 


LANDLORD  AM)  TENANT. 


while  li is  estate  continued,  by  the  law  of  em- 
blements. He  may  also,  in  certain  cases,  take 
the  emblements  or  annual  profits  of  the  land 
after  his  tenancy  has  ended,  and,  unless 
restricted  by  some  stipulation  to  the  contrary, 
may  remove  such  fixtures  as  he  has  erected 
during  his  occupation  for  convenience,  profit 
or  comfort.  For,  in  general,  what  a  tenant  has 
added  he  may  remove,  if  he-  can  do  so  with- 
out injury  to  the  premises,  unless  he  has 
actually  built  it  in  so  as  to  make  it  an  integral 
part  of  what  was  there  originally. 

The  immovable  fixtures  are  the  following  : 
Agricultural  erections.  Fold-yard  walls,  cart 
house,  barns  fixed  in  the  ground,  beast  house, 
carpenter  shop,  fuel  house,  pigeon  house, 
pineries  substantially  fixed,  wagon  house, 
box  borders  not  belonging  to  a  gardener  by 
trade,  flowers,  trees,  hedges.  Ale-house 
bar,  dressers,  partitions.  Locks  and  keys. 
Benches  affixed  to  the  house.  Statue  erected 
as  an  ornament  to  grounds,  sun-dial.  Chim- 
ney piece  not  ornamental.  Closets  affixed  to 
the  house.  Conduits.  Conservatory,  sub- 
stantially affixed.  Doors.  Fruit  trees,  if  a 
tenant  be  not  a  nurseryman  by  trade.  Glass 
windows.  Hearths.  Millstones.  Looms  sub- 
stantially affixed  to  the  floor  of  a  factory. 
Thrashing-machines  fixed  by  bolts  and  screws 
to  posts  let  into  the  ground. 

Short  Form  of  Lease. 
John  Parks    leases  to  George  Drake  (description  of  premises),  for  a 

term  of ,  upon  the  payment  of . 

Dated  the  ist  day  of  May,  1883.  John  Parks. 

Common  Form  of  Lease. 

This  Instrument,  Made  the  ist  day  of  May,  1883,  Witnessetk,  That 
Dominic  Ilolden,  of  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  State  of  Missouri,  hath  rented 
from   William   Hicks,  of   St.  Louis,   aforesaid,   the  dwelling  and   lot  8a 

Chouteau  Avenue,  situated  in  said  town  of  St.  Louis,  for  five  years  1 1 

the  above  date,  at  the  yearly  rental  three  hundred)  dollars,  payable 
monthly,  on  the  first  day  of  each  month,  in  advance,  at  the  residence  of 
the* said  William  Hicks. 

At  the  expiration  of  said  above  mentioned  term,  the  said  Holden 
agrees  to  jjivc  the  laid  Hicks  peaceable  possession  of  said  dwelling,  in  as 
good  condition  as  when  taken,  ordinary  wear  and  casualties  excepted. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  place  our  hands  and  seals  the  day  and  year 
aforesaid. 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  j  Dominic  Holdkn.   [i.s.] 

in  presence  of 
John  Doghrrty,      I 
Notary  Public.  I 


William  Hicks.      [l.».] 


K. 


Lease  of  Farm  and  Buildings. 

This  Indsntukk,  Made  this  ninth  day  of  June,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eighty-two,  between  Raymond  Johnston,  of  the  township  of 
I.ake,  county  of  Ripley,  and  State  of  Missouri,  of  the  first  part,  and 
Anson  Lee,  of  the  said  township  and  county,  of  the  second  part, 

tt'ttnesseth.  That  the  said  Raymond  Johnston,  for  and  in  consider- 
ation of  the  yearly  rents  and  covenants  hereinafter  mentioned,  and  re- 
served on  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  said  Raymond  Johnston,  his  heirs, 
executors  and  administrators,  to  be  paid,  kept  and  performed,  hath 
demised,  set  and  to  farm  let,  and  by  these  presents  doth  demise,  set  and 
to  farm  let,  unto  the  said  Anson  Lee,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  all  that  certain 
piece,  parcel  or  tract  of  land  situate,  lying  and  being  in  the  township  of 
Lake  aforesaid,  known  as  lot  No.  (description  of  farm  AereJ,  now  in  the 
possession  of  Joel  Hancoe.  containing  one  thousand  acres,  together  with 
all  and  singular  the  buildings  and  improvements,  to  have  and  to  hold  the 
same  unto  the  said  Anson  Lee,  his  heirs,  executors  and  assigns,  from  the 
first  day  of  July  next,  for  and  during  the  term  of  seven  years  thence, 
next  ensuing,  and  fully  to  be  complete  and  ended,  yielding  and  paying 
for  the  same,  unto  the  said  Raymond  Johnston,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  the 
yearly  rent,  or  sum  of  two  thousand  dollars,  on  the  first  day  of  July  in 
each  and  every  year,  during  the  term  aforesaid,  and  at  the  expiration  of 
said  term,  or  sooner  if  determined  upon,  he,  the  said  Anson  Lee,  his 
heirs  or  assigns,  shall  and  will  quietly  and  peaceably  surrender  and 
yield  up  the  said  demised  premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said 
Raymond  Johnston,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  in  as  good  order  and  repair 
as  the  same  now  arc,  reasonable  wear,  tear  and  casualties,  which  may 
happen  by  fire,  or  otherwise,  only  excepted. 

/«  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereto  set  our  hands  and  seals. 
Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  \  Raymond  Johnson,    (uj.] 

in  the  presence  of  I  Ansok  La*,  r^j 

Joseph  Jaklk*. 

Lease  of  a  Mill. 

This  Agreement,  Made  this  first  day  of  January,  between  George 
Rain,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  St.  Louis  county,  and  State  of  Missouri,  of  the 
first  part,  and  James  Meek,  of  Marissa,  in  St.  Clair  County,  and  State  of 
Illinois,  of  the  second  part,  witnesseth  : 

That  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the 
rents,  covenants  and  agreements  hereinafter  mentioned,  reserved  and 
contained,  on  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  party  of  the  second  part,  his 
executors,  administrators  and  assigns,  to  be  paid,  kept  and  performed,  doth 
lease  the  mill  property  of  the  party  of  the  first  part,  being  one  of  the  mills 
ki.own  and  designated  as  the  Atlantic  Mills,  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis, 
together  with  all  the  machinery  now  in  the  same  belonging  to  the  said  party 
of  the  first  part,  and  all  stoves,  boilers,  fixtures,  heaters  and  machinery, 
and  every  article  now  in  the  said  mill  which  appertains  to  the  same,  and  is 
necessary  to  its  successful  operation;  and  also  all  the  dwellings  and  store- 
houses used  in  connection  with  said  mill,  which  now  belong  to  said  party 
of  the  first  part 

And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  further  agrees  to  pay  all  taxes  and 
insurances  on  said  premises,  and  to  furnish  water-power,  water-wheels, 
main-shafting  and  gearing  sufficient  at  all  times  to  keep  in  constant  and 
full  operation  said  mill,  and  all  the  running  works  of  the  same,  and  all 
machinery  driven  by  water-power  now  in  said  mill. 

And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  further  agrees  to  secure  to  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part  ihaqnil  and  peaceable  possession  of  all  and 
every  part  of  said  premise.  nl.<  luncry  and  tools,  and  all  grounds  apper- 
taining to  said  mill,  and  all  passage-ways  to  and  from  the  same  which  are 
m»w  used  and  may  be  necessary  for  the  accommodation  of  the  same,  for 
five  years  from  the  first  day  of  April  next. 

It  is  mutually  understood  and  agreed  between  the  parties  hereto,  that 
in  case  said  mill  should  he  necessarily  stopped  from  casualty,  or  in  case 
there  shall  be  a  want  of  or  failure  of  water-power,  the  rent  above  men- 
tioned to  be  paid  shall  cease,  and  not  be  chargeable  during  the  continu- 
ation of  such  stoppage,  want  or  failure. 

/*  witness  whereof  etc. 

Landlord's   Agreement. 

Tab  is  10  certify  that  I  have  this  first  day  of  May,  1883,  let  and  rented 
•minlc  Holden   my  house  and  lot  known  as  number  Sj  Chouteau 


4fc 


-a S> 


~A 


RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN. 


473 


Avenue,  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  with  the  appurtenances  and 
sole  and  uninterrupted  use  thereof  for  five  years,  to  commence  on  the  first 
day  of  June  next,  at  the  yearly  rental  of  three  hundred  dollars,  payable 
monthly  in  advance  on  the  first  day  of  each  and  every  month., 

William  Hicks. 


Tenant's  Agreement. 

This  certifies  that  I  have  hired  and  taken  from  William  Hicks  his 
house  and  lot,  number  82  Chouteau  Avenue,  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri, with  appurtenances  thereto  belonging,  for  five  years,  to  commence 
on  the  first  day  of  June,  1883,  at  a  yearly  rental  of  three  hundred  dollars, 
to  be  paid  monthly  in  advance. 

Dominic  Holden. 


Notice  to  Quit. 
To  Charles  Egan  : 

Sir  :  Please  observe  that  the  term  of  one  year  for  which  the  house 

and  land  at  No.  380  Walnut  Street,  and  now  occupied  by  you,  were  rented 

to  you,  expired  on  the  first  day  of  June,  1883,  and  as  I  desire  to  repossess 

satd  premises,  you  are  hereby  requested  and  required  to  vacate  the  same. 

Respectfully  yours, 

St.  Louis,  June  8,  1883.  Amos  Norton. 

Tenant's  Notice  of  Leaving. 

Afr.  Amos  Norton  : 

Take  notice  that  I  shall,  on  the  first  day  of  May  next,  deliver  up  to  you 
the  premises  I  now  occupy  as  your  tenant,  known  as  No.  380  Walnut 
Street,  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis.  Charles  Egan. 

St.  Louis,  April  1,  1883. 


4-^B^g7-»..\ 


Ri^  •  of  •  CDa  ppied  •Women.  {^ 


sSrr 

!HE  common  law  of  the  United  States 
has  some  curious  provisions  regard- 
ing  the    rights   of    married    women, 

^P*  though  in  all  the  States  there  are  statu- 
tory provisions  essentially  modifying  this  law. 
As  it  now  stands  the  husband  is  responsible 
for  necessaries  supplied  to  the  wife  even  should 
he  not  fail  to  supply  them  himself,  and  is  held 
liable  if  he  turn  her  from  his  house,  or  other- 
wise separates  himself  from  her  without  good 
cause.  He  is  not  held  liable  if  the  wife 
deserts  him,  or  if  he  turns  her  away  for  good 
cause.  If  she  leaves  him  through  good  cause, 
then  he  is  liable.  If  a  man  lives  with  a 
woman  as  his  wife,  and  so  represents  her,  even 
though  this  representation  is  made  to  one  who 
knows  she  is  not,  he  is  liable  the  same  way  as 
if  she  were  his  wife. 

In  many  of  the  States  ante  -  marriage  con- 
tracts are  recognized,  and  they  will  secure  to 
married  women  even  greater  privileges  than 
are  intended  to  be  secured  by  statute,  or 
greater  powers  and  rights  may  be  secured  by 
transferring  the  property  owned  by  them  to 
trustees.     Such  instrument  should  clearly  set 


forth  what  the  trust  is,  and  should  be  care- 
fully drawn. 

When  estates  are  to  be  settled  where  the 
widow  is  entitled  to  a  dower  interest,  some 
definite  calculation  is  necessary  to  learn  how 
long  she  will  probably  live  and  the  present 
value  of  her  interest  in  the  estate.  For  this 
purpose  the  following  table  is  generally  used. 
When  the  sum  is  ascertained  the  estate  can  be 
promptly  settled. 

Expectation  of  Life. 


> 
V. 

Expecta-     > 
tion    in     « 

Kxurc  ra- 

> 
n 
a 

Expecta- 

> 

Expecta- 

> 

Expecta- 

tion   in 

tion    in 

tion   in 

n 

tion  in 

years. 

years. 

years. 

00 

years. 

years. 

0 

28.15        2° 

34.22 

4" 

26.04 

15-45 

80 

5-85 

I 

36.78        21 

33-84 

4" 

25.61 

01 

14.86 

Si 

5- 50 

a 

38.74        22 

33-46 

42 

25.19 

6a 

14.26 

82 

5-i6 

3 

40.01        23 

33.08 

43 

24-77 

63 

13.66 

»3 

487 

4 

40-73         24 

32.70 

44 

=4-35 

"4 

13.05 

84 

4-66 

5 

40.88         25 

32.33 

45 

23.92 

65 

12.43 

8; 

4-57 

<j 

40,69         26 

31-93 

4* 

23.37 

66 

11.96 

80 

4.21 

7 

40-47        27 

31.50 

47 

22.83 

t>7 

11.48 

87 

3-9° 

a 

40.14        28 

31.08 

48 

22.27 

68 

ll.OI 

88 

3-67 

9 

39.72        29 

30.66 

49 

21.72 

69 

10.50 

80 

3-56 

10 

39-  *3        3° 

30.25 

SO 

21.17 

7" 

10.06 

00 

3-43 

j  i 

38.64        31 

29.83 

51 

20.61 

71 

9.60 

9" 

3-32 

12 

38.02        32 

39-43 

5" 

20.05 

72 

9- '4 

9-' 

3-W 

«3 

37-41        33 

29.02 

53 

19-49 

Ti 

8.69 

9) 

2.40 

14 

36.79        34 

28.62 

54 

18.92 

74 

8.25 

94 

1.98 

«s 

36.>7        35 

28.22 

55 

»8-35 

75 

7-83 

9; 

1.62 

16 

35-76        36 

27.78 

5b 

17.78 

76 

7.40 

'7 

35-37        37 

27-34 

57 

17.20 

77 

6.99 

18 

3498        38 

26.91 

.0 

16.63 

7S 

6-59 

■? 

34-59        39 

26.47 

59 

16.04 

79 

6.21 

k= 


a  *r 


[ 


*F? 


^ 9 


7f 


474 


REAL  ESTATE  MORTGAGES. 


Real  •:•  E^tatevCQopt^a^. 


*&&&> 


CONVEYANCE  of  property,  either 
real  or  personal,  made  in  order  to 
secure  payment  of  a  debt,  is  called 
a  mortgage.  When  the  debt  is  paid 
the  mortgage  becomes  void  and  of  no  value. 
The  word,  like  many  others  of  our  legal 
terms,  comes  from  the 
French.  "Mort,"dead, 
and  "  gage,"  pledge; 
a  "  dead-pledge,"  so 
called  because  the 
property  is  dead  to 
the  mortgageor  unless 
he  fulfils  the  condi- 
tions necessary  to  re- 
deem it.  In  real  estate 
mortgages  the  person 
giving  the  mortgage 
retains  possession  of 
the  property,  receives 
all  the  rents  and  other 
profits,  and  pays  all 
taxes  and  other  ex- 
penses. The  instru- 
ment must  be  acknowl- 
edged, like  a  deed, 
before  a  proper  public 
officer,  and  recorded 
in  the  office  of  the  county  clerk  or  recorder, 
or  whatever  officer's  duty  it  is  to  record  such 
instruments.  All  mortgages  must  be  in  writ- 
ing.    They  must  contain  a  redemption  clause 


HOW   THI    MoFTIiAr.K   GftNKRAI.l.Y   TlHMINATBS. 


and  must  be  signed  and  sealed.  The  time 
when  the  debt  becomes  due,  to  secure  which 
the  mortgage  is  given,  must  be  plainly  set 
forth,  and  the  property  conveyed  must  be 
clearly  described,  located  and  scheduled. 
Some  mortgages  contain  a  clause  permit- 
ting the  sale  of  the 
property  without  de- 
cree of  court  when  a 
default  is  made  in  the 
payment  cither  of  the 
principal  sum  or  the 
interest. 

A  foreclosure  is  a 
statement  that  the 
property  is  forfeited 
and  must  be  sold. 

When  a  mortgage  is 
assigned  to  another 
person,  it  must  be  for 
a  valuable  considera- 
tion ;  and  the  note  or 
notes  which  it  was 
given  to  secure  must 
be  given  at  the  sane 
time. 

If  the  mortgaged 
property,  when  fore 
closed  and  brought  to  sale,  brings  more  money 
than  is  needed  to  satisfy  the  debt,  interest  and 
costs,  the  surplus  must  be  paid  to  the  mort- 
gageor. 


V 


REAL  ESTATE  MORTGAGES. 


475 


Satisfaction  of  mortgages  upon  real  or  per- 
sonal property  may  be  either — 

1.  By  an  entry  upon  the  margin  of  the  rec- 
ord thereof,  signed  by  the  mortgagee  or  his 
attorney,  assignee  or  personal  representative, 
acknowledging  the  satisfaction  of  the  mort- 
gage, in  the  presence  of  the  recording  officer ; 
or — 

2.  By  a  receipt  endorsed  upon  the  mortgage, 
signed  by  the  mortgagee,  his  agent  or  attorney, 
which  receipt  may  be  entered  upon  the  margin 
of  the  record  ;  or — 

3.  It  may  be  discharged  upon  the  record 
thereof  whenever  there  is  presented  to  the  prop- 
er officer  an  instrument  acknowledging  the  sat- 
isfaction of  such  mortgage,  executed  by  the 
mortgagee,  his  duly  authorized  attorney  in 
fact,  assignee  or  personal  representative,  and 
acknowledged  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
instruments  affecting  real  estate. 

Mortgages  of  personal  property  will  be  found 
set  forth  at  length  under  the  head  of  Chattel 
Mortgages. 

Promissory  Note  Secured  by  Mortgage. 

$1,000.  Lansing,  Mich.,  Dec.  1st,  1883. 

One  year  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  to  S.  H.  Moore  one  thousand 
dollars  at  the  First  National  Bank  of  Lansing,  Mich.,  with  interest  at 
the  rate  of  ten  percent  per  annum,  for  value  received. 

This  note  is  secured  by  a  mortgage  of  even  date  herewith,  on  a  cer- 
tain tractor  parcel  of  land  situate  (describe  the  premises), 

(Signed)  R.  S    Marsh. 

Mortgage  to  Secure  Payment  of  Money,  with  Power  to 
Sell  on  Default. 

This  Indenture,  Made  this  20th  day  of  Jan' y,  A.D.  1884,  between 
John  Stanton,  of  Norwich,  Conn.,  of  the  first  part,  and  Lyman  Randall, 
of  the  same  place,  of  the  second  part,  witnesseth : 

That  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  ot  the 
sum  of  six  thousand  dollars,  does  grant,  bargain,  sell  and  convey  unto 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  and  to  his  heirs  and  assigns,  all  (give  a 
complete  description  of  the  premises  mortgaged),  together  with  all  and 
singular  the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances  thereunto  belonging,  or  in 
anywise  appertaining. 

This  conveyance  is  intended  as  a  mortgage,  to  secure  the  payment  of 
the  sum  of dollars,  in from  the  day  of  the  date  of  these  pres- 
ents, with  interest,   according  to  the  conditions  of  a  certain  bond, 

dated  this  day,  executed  by  the  said  John  Stanton  to  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part;  and  these  presents  shall  be  void  if  such  payment  be  made. 


But  in  case  default  shall  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  principal  or 
interest,  as  above  provided,  then  the  party  of  the  second  part,  his  execu- 
tors, administrators  and  assigns,  are  hereby  empowered  to  sell  the 
premises  above  described,  with  alt  and  every  of  the  appurtenances,  or 
any  part  thereof,  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  law  ;  and  out  of  the  money 
arising  from  such  sale,  to  retain  the  said  principal  and  interest,  together 
with  the  costs  and  charges  of  making  such  sale  ;  and  the  overplus,  if  any 
there  be,  shall  be  paid  by  the  party  making  such  sale,  on  demand,  to  the 
party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  etc. 

In  witness  whereof,  said  party  of  the  first  part  has  hereunto  set  his 
hand  and  seal  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Executed  and  delivered  1  John  Stanton.  [l.s.] 

in  presence  of  \ 

U.  S.  Gardner.  ) 


Assignment  of  Mortgage. 

Know  all   men  by    these  presents  ;     That   I,  C.  V>.,  of ,    in   

county,  State  of  —  ■■  ,  the  mortgagee  named  in  a  certain   mortgage  given 

by  A.  B.,  of——,  in  — —  county,  State  of ,  to  said  C.  D.,  to  secure  the 

payment  of dollars  and  interest,  dated  the day  of ,  recorded 

in   volume  ,  on  page  ,  of  the  registry  of  deeds  for  the  county 

of ,  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of dollars,  to  me  paid  by  E.  F., 

of  — -,   in  county,    State  of ,   the  receipt  of  which  is  hereby 

acknowledged,  do  hereby  sell,  assign,  transfer,  set  over  and  convey  unto 
said  E.  !■'.,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  said  mortgage  and  the  real  estate  there- 
by conveyed,  together  with  the  promissory  note,  debt  and  claim  thereby 
secured,  and  the  covenants  therein  contained. 

To  have  and  to  hold  the  same  to  him,  the  said  E.  F.,  and  his  heirs  and 
assigns,  to  his  and  their  use  and  behoof,  forever:  subject,  nevertheless,  to 
the  conditions  therein  contained  (and  to  redemption  according  to  law). 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  (and  seal),  this  — 

day  of . 

Executed  and  delivered  1  [Signature.]         [Seal.] 

in  presence  of 


: 


Release  or  Discharge  of  Mortgage. 

This  debt,  secured  by  the  mortgage  dated  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  Jan- 
uary, in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty- 
three,  and  recorded  with  mortgage  deeds  volume  two,  page  two  hundred 
and  six,  has  been  paid  to  me  by  Martin  Klotc,  and  in  consideration  thereof 
I  do  discharge  the  mo-tgage,  and  release  the  mortgaged  premises  to  said 
Martin  Klotz  and  his  heirs. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  December  5th,  1883. 

Benjamin  Eaton.  [l.s.] 
Executed  and  delivered  ) 
in  presence  of  > 

George  Smith.  ) 

CITY  OF  ST.  LOUIS,  I 
State  of  Missouri,     j     *  December  5th,  A.D.  1883. 

The  said  Benjamin  Eaton  acknowledged  the  foregoing  instrument  to  be 
his  free  act  and  will,  Bo/ore  me, 

Gordon  Smith, 

Clerk  of  Circuit  Court, 


Shortest  Form  of  Mortgage. 

I,  Joseph  Smith,  in  consideration  of  five  hundred  dollars,  to  me  paid 
by  Finley  Burke,  do  mortgage  unto  Finley  Burke,  and  his  heirs,  the  follow- 
ing tract  of  land  (describe  it). 

To  secure  the  payment  of  (state  what  amounts,  places,  times,  etc.) 

Joseph  Smith.    [l.s] 


476 


CHATTEL  MOK  I 


=7? 


IjJ 


t.J  LJLJUkJLJ  LJ  LJLJ1LJLJU  k^,k^,t^  k^T) 


•:•  Chattel  -  CQoptfa^.  •> 


OpBH  BHIBH  BBIBHIBBIBIS  BHIB1S  BSIGBI  Ea|E(S|Ea|BB|EBa> 

i*ea  salna  Malhialealea  galea  galea  ualBalBalealKa*! 


«MB*** 


[HATTEL  mortgages  are  mortgages  on 
personal  property.  Most  of  the  rules 
applicable  to  mortgages  on  real 
estate  apply  also  to  those  on  personal 
property,  though  in  some  States  there  are 
laws  regulating  personal  mortgages.  Any 
instrument  will  answer  the  purpose  of  a  chat- 
tel mortgage  which  would  answer  as  a  bill  of 
sale,  with  a  clause  attached  providing  for  the 
avoidance  of  the  mortgage  when  the  debt  is 
paid.  As  with  real  estate,  so  with  a  chattel 
mortgage,  great  care  should  be  taken. 

A  chattel  mortgage  will  not  cover  property 
subsequently  acquired  by  the  mortgageor. 
Mortgages  of  personal  property  should  con- 
tain a  clause  providing  for  the  equity  of 
redemption.  A  mortgagee  may  sell  or  trans- 
fer his  mortgage  to  another  party  for  a  con- 
sideration, but  such  property  cannot  be  seized 
or  sold  until  the  expiration  of  the  period  for 
which  the  mortgage  was  given.  Mortgages 
given  with  intent  to  defraud  creditors  are  void. 

Form  of  Chattel  Mortgage. 

Know  all  tften  by  these  presents  :    That  I,  John  Johnson,  of  the  city 
of  Chicago,    in   the  county  of   Cook,   and   State  of  Illinois,  am  justly 


indebted  unto  James  Lewis,  of  the  same  place,  in  the  sum  of dollars, 

on  account,  to  be  paid  on  the day  of ,  with  interest  from  this  date. 

Now,  therefore,  in  consideration  of  such  indebtedness,  and  in  order  to 
secure  the  payment  of  the  same,  as  aforesaid,  I  do  hereby  sell,  assign, 
transfer  and  set  over  unto  the  said  James  Lewis,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators and  assigns,  the  goods  and  chattels  mentioned  in  the  schedule 
hereto  annexed,  and  now  at  the  residence  No.  1410  Jackson  Street,  in  the 
city  of  Chicago  aforesaid. 

Provided,  however,  that  if  the  said  debt  and  interest  be  paid,  as  above 
specified,  this  sale  and  transfer  shall  be  void;  and  this  conveyance  is  also 
subject  to  the  following  conditions: 

The  property  hereby  sold  and  transferred  is  to  remain  in  my  possession 
until  default  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  debt  and  interest  aforesaid, 
or  some  part  thereof;  but  in  case  of  a  sale  or  disposal,  or  attempt  to  sell 
or  dispose  of  the  same,  or  a  removal  of  or  attempt  to  remove  the  same 
from  said  residence  aforesaid,  or  an  unreasonable  depreciation  in  value 
{or  if  from  any  other  cause  the  security  shall  become  inadequate),  the  said 
James  Lewis  may  take  the  said  property,  or  any  part  thereof,  into  his  own 
possession. 

Upon  taking  said  property,  or  any  part  thereof,  into  his  possession, 
either  in  case  of  default,  or  as  above  provided,  the  said  James  Lewis  shall 
sell  the  same  at  public  or  private  sale;  and  after  satisfying  the  aforesaid 
debt  and  the  interest  thereon,  and  all  necessary  and  reasonable  costs, 
charges  and  expenses  incurred  by  him,  out  of  the  proceeds  of  such  sale, 
he  shall  return  the  surplus  to  me  or  my  representative. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this 

day  of . 

Executed  in  presence  of  i 
Wm.  F.  Georgk.        f 


John  Johnson.  [l.s,] 


Release  and  Satisfaction  of  Mortgage. 

A"*ow  all  men  by  these  /resents  :    That  the  debt  secured  by  mortgage 
upon  the  following  described  ■  property,  situated  in         ■     ,  in  ■- —  — 

county,  in  the  State  of 1  to  wit:  (describing  it),  wherein  John 

Johnson  is  grantor,  and  James  Lewis  is  grantee,  and  dated ,  a 

of  which  is in  volume ,  page  -^— ,  in  the  office  of  the  (register  *w 

recorder)  of  deeds  of county,  ,  has  been  fully  satisfied,  in  con- 


sideration «f  which  said  mortgage  is  hereby  released. 
Witness:  . 


James  Lawn. 


H 


L 


_M 


MECHANIC'S  LIEN— WILLS. 


477 


^  A>' 


:•  [Dee^anie^-  kien 


?HE  purpose  of  all  lien  laws  is  to  retain 
the  possession  of  personal  property  in 
the  hands  of  the   owners  until  it  has 

^F*  been  properly  paid  for.  Without  pos- 
session no  lien  is  admitted  at  common  law.  It 
is  a  created  right,  for  the  benefit  of  mechanics, 
tavern-keepers,  liverymen,  pasturers  and  car- 
riers. Builders  and  persons  furnishing  mate- 
rial are  given  by  statute  a  lien  on  both  land 
and  building,  if  their  claim  is  made  within  the 
time  named  in  the  different  statutes.  These 
periods  will  be  found,  under  their  appropriate 
heads,  in  another  chapter.  No  possession  is 
necessary  under  this  lien,  and  the  right  of  re- 
demption is  lost  by  the  sale  of  the  property 
under  the  lien.  The  surplus,  of  course,  goes  to 
the  owner.  Liens  are  foreclosed  by  order  of 
court,  upon  petition  duly  made.  Liens  will 
lie  against  vessels  and  wharves  as  well  as 
other  buildings. 

When  a  mechanic  desires  to  draw  up  a  lien  for 
the  recovery  of  money  due  him  for  labor  or  ma- 
terial, the  form  given  below  will  be  found  conve- 
nient.  It  is  a  statement  addressed  to  the  county 


clerk  setting  forth  his  bargain,  the  failure  to 
receive  his  pay,  and  the  fear  that  he  will  lose 
the  money  unless  the  lien  be  now  made.  This 
paper  must  be  sworn  to  and  filed  in  the  county 
clerk's  office,  and  if  it  is  not  paid  in  a  reason- 
able time  the  property  will  be  sold  for  the  debt. 
It  does  not  make  any  difference  if  it  is  the  con- 
tractor or  the  owner  of  the  building  who  is  in 
default.  The  mechanic  has  nothing  to  do  with 
either  of  them — he  holds  the  property  itself  for 
his  money;  and  even  if  the  owner  has  paid  the 
contractor,  who  should  have  paid  the  laborer, 
the  property  will  be  sold  unless  the  laborer  is 
paid. 

Sub-Contractor's  or  Workman's  Notice. 
To : 


You  are  hereby  notified  that  I  have  been  employed  by to  (here 

state  whether  to  labor  or  furnish  material,  and  substantially  the  na- 
ture of  the  contract)  upon  your  (here  state  the  building,  and  where 
situated,  in  general  terms  J;  and  that  I  shall  hold  the  (building,  or  as 
the  case  may  be)  and  your  interest  in  the  ground  liable  for  the  amount 
that  (is  or  may  become)  due  me  on  account  thereof. 

(Signature.) 

This  notice,  with  a  copy  of  the  contract,  if  it  can  be  obtained,  shall  be 
served  within  40  days  after  payments  should  have  been  made.  The  owner 
may  retain  money  due  the  contractor  to  pay  such  claims,  and  if  there  is 
not  enough  to  pay  them  in  full,  he  shall  pay  tiiem/ro  rata.  If  such  pay- 
ment shall  not  be  made  within  ten  days  after  the  same  may  become  due, 
suit  may  be  brought  to  enforce  it 


■^3-*®««§t  ■: 


— «~ # 


'7\\' 


WIlsLs, 


*7TV 


WILL  is  an  instrument  of  writing  de- 
claring what  a  person  desires  to  have 
done  with  his  property  after  his  de- 
mise. Any  one  of  lawful  age  and 
sound  mind  can  make  a  valid  will,  although 
in   some   States   during    the  lifetime   of  their 


■r  s ■" 


husbands  married  women  cannot  do  so.  A 
will  only  becomes  of  force  upon  the  death  of 
the  maker,  and  can  be  changed  or  modified  at 
his  pleasure  until  that  event  occurs.  The  last 
will  annuls  all  previous  ones,  unless  it  be  a 
codicil  or  amendment  to  a  previous   will.     A 


JSi 


"^ 


478 


KXECUTORS  AND  ADMINISTRATORS. 


great  deal  of  latitude  is  allowed  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  will.  For  instance,  if  the  testa- 
tor marries  after  making  a  will,  or  has  chil- 
dren subsequent  to  its  date,  it  is  supposed 
that  he  intended  to  change  the  disposition  of 
his  property,  and  the  law  accordingly  will 
change  it  for  him.  Courts  do  not  always  re- 
quire written  wills;  sometimes  what  are  called 
nuncupative  wills  are  admitted  to  probate. 
These  depend  upon  the  testimony  of  witnesses, 
and  are  uncertain  and  dangerous.  Many  of 
the  States  will  not  admit  nuncupative  wills 
unless  made  within  ten  days  before  death,  or 
by  persons  in  the  army  cr  navy. 

A  wife  cannot  be  deprived  of  her  right  of 
dower,  which  is  one-third  of  the  proceeds  of 
the  real  estate  and  appurtenances  of  her  hus- 
band. She  may  be  devised  property  in  lieu  of 
dower,  which  she  can  so  take  or  not,  as  she 
may  choose  ;    but    if  the    words    "  in    lieu  of 


dower  "  are  not  used,  she  may  take  the 
bequest  and  her  dower  also. 

A  corporation  cannot  accept  bequests  unless 
that  power  is  expressly  granted  in  its  charter. 

No  one  can  serve  as  executor  of  a  will  who 
is  under  age,  a  lunatic,  a  drunkard  or  a  con- 
vict. An  executor  may  decline  the  trust  if  he 
chooses,  which  declension  must  be  made  in  the 
presence  of  two  witnesses.  There  is  no  differ- 
ence in  the  duties  of  an  executor  and  adminis- 
trator ;  the  names  have  this  origin:  the  execu- 
tor is  appointed  by  the  person  making  the  will, 
the  administrator  is  appointed  by  the  court. 

When  a  married  woman  makes  a  will,  her 
husband  must  be  appointed  administrator  in 
preference  to  any  one  else. 

No  witness  to  a  will  can  inherit  any  prop- 
erty under  it.  They  are  not  required  to  know 
what  the  will  contains,  but  simply  to  witness 
the  signing  of  the  document. 


-E^S- 


Executors  and  Administrators.  .&£&* 


^w- 


VS  soon  after  the  death  of  the  testator 
as  may  be  possible,  the  will  must  be 
produced  in  court,  and  filed  there  with 
affidavits,  showing  its  custody  and  the 
death  of  the  testator.  The  judge  orders  pub- 
lication to  be  made,  advertising  the  day  when 
the  will  is  to  be  offered  for  probate,  and 
notices  must  be  sent  to  the  heirs-at-law.  At 
the  appointed  time,  all  of  the  persons  inter- 
ested, including  the  exetutor  or  executors, 
assemble  in  court.  The  witnesses  swear  to 
the  signature  of  the  will,  and  to  the  state  of 


the  testator's  mind  at  the  time  the  will  was 
signed.  Letters  of  administration  are  then 
granted  to  the  executor,  and  a  certified  copy 
of  the  will  and  of  the  letters  should  be  recorded 
in  every  county  where  the  deceased  owned 
real  estate.  The  person  administering  must 
give  a  bond  in  double  the  amount  of  the  estate 
for  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duties.  When 
a  person  owning  property  dies  intestate,  that 
is,  leaving  no  will,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the 
next  of  kin,  or  the  widow,  to  petition  the  Pro- 
bate Court  for  letters  of  administration 


-\ 


li- 


As  soon  as  the  letters  are  granted,  the  ad- 
ministrator or  executor  addresses  himself  to 
the  settlement  of  the  estate.  This  is  done  by 
advertising  for  all  persons  owing  the  estate  to 
settle  the  same,  and  for  creditors  of  the  estate 
to  present  their  claims.  At  the  same  time  a 
careful  inventory  of  the  property  of  the 
deceased  is  made,  and  the  same  appraised. 
This  appraisement  and  inventory  is  filed  in  the 
Probate  Court.  The  first  money  coming  in  is 
applied  to  the  payment  of  the  funeral  expenses 
and  the  medical  and  nurses' bills;  next  in  order 
come  debts  to  the  Government,  liens  or  mort- 
gages, and,  last  of  all,  general  debts  of  all 
kinds.  If  there  is  not  enough  property  to  pay 
the  debts,  the  Probate  Court  must  be  at  once 
notified  of  this  insolvency,  and  the  estate  must 
then  be  settled  according  to  the  insolvent  laws. 

The  administrator  is  responsible  for  all  the 
property  of  the  deceased,  valued  and  listed  ac- 
cording to  the  inventory  and  appraisement, 
and  he  must  keep  very  careful  accounts  of  all 
his  transactions  for  the  estate.  He  must  make 
semi-annual  reports  of  the  condition  of  the 
property,  and  when  everything  is  ready  for 
settlement,  he  presents  a  report,  called  his  final 
settlement,  to  the  court,  and,  upon  presentation 
of  the  receipts  in  full  of  the  heirs  and  credit- 
ors, he  is  discharged  from  his  office  and  his 
bond  cancelled  and  destroyed. 

Short  Form  for  a  Will. 

I,  James  Dickson,  of  the  city  of  Chicago,  in  the  county  of  Cook,  and 
State  of  Illinois,  being  of  sound  mind  and  memory  and  understanding,  do 
make  my  last  will  and  testament  in  manner  and  form  following  : 

First.  I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  daughters  Mary  and  Jane  two  thou- 
sand dollars  each  after  they  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty  years. 

Second.  I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  wife  Susan  all  my  household  furni- 
ture, and  all  the  rest  of  my  personal  property,  after  paying  from  the  same 
the  legacies  already  named,  to  be  hers  forever:  but  if  there  should  not  be 
at  my  decease  sufficient  personal  property  to  pay  the  aforesaid  legacies, 
then  so  much  of  my  real  estate  shall  be  sold  as  will  raise  sufficient  money 
to  pay  the  same. 

Third.  I  also  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  my  wife  Susan  all  the 
rest  and  residue  of  my  real  estate  as  long  as  she  shall  remain  unmarried, 
and  my  widow :  but  on  her  decease  or  marriage,  the  remainder  thereof  I 
give  and  devise  to  my  said  children  and  their  heirs,  respectively,  to  be 
divided  in  equal  shares  between  them. 

I  appoint  my  wife  Susan  sole  executrix  of  this  my  last  will  and  testa- 
ment. 

In  testimony  whereof ,  I  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  and  publish 
and  decree  this  to  be  my  last  will  and   testament,  in  presence  of  the  wit- 


nesses named   beluw,  this  eighth  day  of  March,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-three. 

Jamks  Dickson,    [l.s.] 

Signed,  sealed,  declared  and  published  by  the  said  James  Dickson  as 
and  for  his  last  will  and  testament,  in  presence  of  us,  who,  at  his  request 
and  in  his  presence,  and  m  presence  of  each  other,  have  subscribed  our 
names  as  witnesses  hereto. 

John  Smith,  residing  at  Chicago  in  Cook  County. 

Peter  Jones,      "         "       "         "     "  ** 

Another  Form  of  Will. 

Knoiv  all  men  by  these  presents  :  That  I,  Joseph  Atkinson,  of  Media, 
in  the  county  of  Chester,  and  State  of  Pennsylvania,  merchant,  consider- 
ing the  uncertainty  of  this  life,  and  being  of  sound  mind  and  memory,  do 
make,  and  declare,  and  publish,  this  my  last  will  and  testament. 

First.  I  give  and  bequeath  unto  my  beloved  wife  Mary  the  use,  im- 
provement and  income  of  my  dwelling-house,  warehouses,  lands,  and  their 
appurtenances,  situate  in  Nelson  township,  Chester  county,  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania, to  have  and  to  hold  the  same  to  her  for  and  during  her  natural 
life. 

Second.  I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  son  Robert  two  thousand  dollars, 
to  be  paid  to  him  by  my  executor,  hereinafter  named,  within  six  months 
after  my  decease;  and  I  a^Iso  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  my  said  son 
Robert  the  reversion  or  remainder  of  my  dwelling-house,  warehouses,  lands 
and  their  appurtenances,  situate  in  Nelson  township,  Chester  county,  State 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  all  profit,  income  and  advantage  that  may  result 
therefrom,  from  and  after  the  decease  of  my  beloved  wife  Mary. 

Third.  I  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  my  beloved  wife  Mary  all  the 
residue  of  my  estate,  real,  personal  or  mixed,  of  which  I  shall  be  seized  or 
possessed,  or  to  which  I  shall  be  entitled  at  the  time  of  my  decease;  to 
have  and  to  hold  the  same  to  her  and  her  executors  and  administrators 
and  assigns  forever. 

Fourth.  I  do  nominate  and  appoint  my  brother  James  Atkinson  to  be 
the  executor  of  this,  my  last  will  and  testament. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  to  this,  my  last  will  and  testament,  con- 
tained on  two  sheets  of  paper,  and  to  each  sheet  thereof,  subscribed  my 
name  and  set  my  seal;  and  to  this,  the  last  sheet  thereof,  I  have  here  sub- 
scribed my  name  and  affixed  my  seal,  this  eighteenth  day  of  May,  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-three. 

James  Atkinson.     ll.s.] 
Signed,  sealed,  declared  and  published  by  the  said  James  Atkinson, 
as  and  for  his  last  will  and  testament,  in  presence  of  us,  who,  at  his  request 
and  in  his  presence,  and  in  presence  of  each  other,  have  subscribed  our 
names  as  witnesses  hereto. 

Thomas  Mav,  residing  at  Media,  Pa. 
John  Nolan,  "  M  "  " 
Henry  Mann,       "         "       "        *' 

Codicil  to  a  Will. 

Whereas,  I,  Richard  Roe,  of  the  city  of  Pittsburg,  in  the  county  of 
Allegheny  and  State  of  Pennsylvania,  have  made  my  last  will  and  testa- 
ment, in  writing,  bearing  date  the  fourteenth  day  of  February,  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-three,  in  and  by  which 
I  have  given  to  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  Deaf  Mutes,  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars. 

Now,  therefore,  I  do,  by  this  my  writing,  which  I  hereby  declare 
tc  be  a  codicil  to  my  said  last  will  and  testament,  and  to  be  taken  as  a 
part  thereof,  order  and  declare  that  my  will  is  that  only  the  sum  of 
five  hundred  dollars  shall  be  paid  to  the  said  Pennsylvania  Institution  Tor 
Deaf  Mutes  as  the  full  amount  bequeathed  to  the  said  institution,  and  that 
the  residue  of  the  said  legacy  be  given  to  the  person  who  shall  be  acting 
as  treasurer  at  the  time  of  my  decease  of  the  Baptist  Publication  Society, 
located  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  to  be  expended  by  the  society  in  such 
manner  as  the  officers  of  the  said  society  may  deem  best  for  the  interests 
of  said  society  ;  and,  lastly,  it  is  my  desire  that  this  codicil  be  annexed  to 
and  made  a  part  of  my  last  will  and  testament  as  atoresaid,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes. 

In  testimony  whereof,  etc,  (as  in  the  form  of  a  will). 


IT 


<i a^ 


480 


DUTIES  OF  AHMIMSTRATORS. 


-" 


Duties  of  Administrators  in  fettling  Estates. 


>mw*e 


pc 


*->^ 


!:HEN  a  person  dies,  leaving  no  valid 
will  behind  him,  his  estate  is  dis- 
tributed among  his  heirs  by  what 
I  J^,  j  is  known  as  operation  of  laiv.  This 
is  regulated  by  the  statute  of  the  State  in 
which  the  deceased  resided  at  the  time  of  hib 
death.  The  distribution  must  be  made  by  an 
administrator  duly  appointed  by  law.  The 
administrator  is  appointed  by  the  court  having 
jurisdiction  in  such  cases,  on  being  satisfied 
that  the  person  proposed  is  legally  qualified. 
The  appointment  must  be  made  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  person  appointed.  It  is  the  gen- 
erally accepted  rule  that  any  one  is  legally 
competent  to  be  an  administrator  who  is  com- 
petent to  make  a  contract.  Certain  classes  of 
persons  are  disqualified  by  statute,  as  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  for  instance,  drunkards, 
gamblers,  spendthrifts,  etc.  The  relatives  of 
the  deceased  are  considered  as  entitled  to  the 
appointment  to  administer  the  estate,  and  the 
order  of  precedence  is  regulated  by  statute. 
The  husband  is  to  be  granted  administration 
on  the  wife's  personal  estate,  and  administra- 
tion on  the  husband's  estate  is  to  be  granted  to 
the  widow  and  the  next  of  kin  in  the  following 
order  if  they  or  any  of  them  will  accept: 

1.  To  the  widow. 

2.  To  the  children. 

3.  To  the  father. 

4.  To  the  brothers. 

5.  To  the  sisters. 


6.  To  the  grandchildren. 

7.  To  any  other  of  the  next  of  kin  who 
would  be  entitled  to  a  share  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  estate. 

The  guardians  of  minors  who  are  entitled 
may  administer  for  them.  In  case  none  of  the 
relatives  or  guardians  will  accept,  the  admin- 
istration will  be  given  to  the  creditors  of  the 
deceased.  The  creditor  who  applies  first,  if 
legally  competent,  is  to  be  preferred.  If  no 
creditor  applies,  any  person  who  is  legally 
qualified  may  be  appointed.  In  the  city  of 
New  York  the  public  administrator  may  ad- 
minister the  estate  after  the  next  of  kin.  In 
the  State  of  New  York  the  surrogate  may 
select,  among  the  next  of  kin,  any  one  in 
equal  degree,  and  appoint  him  sole  adminis- 
trator to  the  exclusion  of  the  others.  In 
there  arc  several  persons  of  the  same  degree 
of  kindred  to  the  intestate  entitled  to  admin- 
istration, they  are  preferred  in  the  following 
order: 

1.  Males  to  females. 

2.  Relatives  of  the  whole  blood  to  those  of 
the  half  blood. 

3.  Unmarried  to  married  women  ;  and 
should  there  be  several  persons  equally  enti- 
tled, the  surrogate  may  grant  letters  to  one 
<>r  more  of  them,  as  his  judgment  may  sug- 

If  letters  of  administration  should  be  un- 
di;ly  granted  they  may  be  revoked. 


V 


• 


PARTNERSHIP. 


481 


~7 


Administration  may  likewise  be  granted  on 
certain  conditions,  for  a  certain  limited  time, 
or  for  a  special  purpose. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  an  administrator 
differ  from  those  of  an  executor  only  inasmuch 
as  he  must  distribute  and  dispose  of  the  estate 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  law,  as  he 
has  no  will  to  follow. 

First.  The  administrator  must  give  bond, 
with  sureties,  for  the  faithful  execution  of  his 
trust. 

Second.  He  must  make  an  inventory  of  the 
goods  and  chattels  of  the  intestate,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  requirements  of  the  law. 

Third.  Two  copies  of  this  inventory  shall 


be  made,  one  of  which  will  be  lodged  with 
the  judge  of  the  court,  and  the  other  will  be 
kept  by  the  administrator.  The  latter  will  be 
obliged  to  account  for  the  property  mentioned 
in  the  inventory. 

Fourth.  Having  completed  the  inventory, 
the  administrator  must  then  collect  the  out- 
standing debts  of  the  intestate,  and  also  pay 
the  debts  of  the  same.  The  order  of  payment 
is  regulated  by  local  statutes. 

Having  liquidated  all  the  debts  of  the  in- 
testate, the  administrator  will  divide  the  re- 
mainder of  the  assets  among  the  surviving 
relatives  of  the  deceased.  In  so  doing,  he 
will  act  under  the  direction  of  the  court. 


epaptnep^i]®.  ®p-« 


PARTNERSHIP  is  an  agreement  be- 
tween two  or  more  persons  to  share  in 
'  the  profit  and  loss  arising  from  the  use 
and  application  of  their  capital,  labor  and 
skill,  in  some  lawful  business,  whether  the  capi- 
tal be  supplied  by  one,  and  the  labor  and  skill 
by  another,  or  each  contribute  both  labor  or 
skill  and  capital.  It  is  not  constituted  merely 
by  an  interest  of  different  parties  in  the  same 
thing ;  the  test  is,  whether  there  is  a  participation 
in  profits  and  a  joint  liability  to  loss. 

A  general  partnership  is  one  formed  for  trade 
or  business  generally,  without  limitations;  a 
special  partnership  is  one  in  which  the  joint  inter- 
est extends  only  to  a  particular  concern,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  erection  of  a  house ;  a  limited 
partnership  is  one  in  which  one  or  more  of  the 
partners  put  in  a  certain  amount  of  capital,  which 
is  liable  for  the  contracts  of  the  firm,  but  beyond 


that  amount  the  party  or  parties  advancing  are 
not  liable.  The  regulations  concerning  the  last- 
named  species  of  partnership,  in  any  particular 
State  where  it  is  recognized,  are  to  be  found  in 
the  statutes  of  such  State  ;  and  a  strict  compli- 
ance with  the  statutes  is  necessary,  in  order  to 
avoid  incurring  the  responsibilities  attaching  to 
the  position  of  general  partner. 

A  person  who  lends  his  name  as  a  partner,  or 
who  suffers  his  name  to  continue  in  the  firm  after 
he  has  actually  ceased  to  be  a  partner  thereof,  is 
still  responsible  to  third  persons  as  a  partner. 

A  partner  may  buy  and  sell  partnership  effects ; 
make  contracts  in  reference  to  the  business 
of  the  firm ;  pay  and  receive  money  ;  draw,  and 
indorse,  and  accept  bills  and  notes ;  and  all  acts 
of  such  a  nature,  even  though  they  be  upon  his 
own  private  account,  will  bind  the  other  part- 
ners, if  connected  with  matters  apparently  having 


_M 


32 


\ 


482 


PARTNERSHIP. 


reference  to  the  business  of  the  firm,  and 
transacted  with  other  parties  ignorant  of  the  fact 
that  such  dealings  are  for  the  particular  partner's 
private  account.  So,  also,  the  representation 
or  misrepresentation  of  any  fact  made  in  any 
partnership  transaction  by  one  partner,  or  the 
commission  of  any  fraud  in  such  transaction,  will 
bind  the  entire  firm,  even  though  the  other 
partners  may  have  no  connection  with,  or 
knowledge  of  the  same. 

If  a  partner  sign  his  individual  name  to  nego- 
tiable paper,  all  the  partners  are  bound  thereby, 
if  such  paper  appear  upon  its  face  to  be  on  part- 
nership account.  So,  if  the  negotiable  paper  of 
a  firm  be  given  by  one  partner  on  his  private 
account,  and  in  the  course  of  its  circulation  pass 
into  the  hands  of  a  bona  fide  holder  for  value, 
without  notice  or  knowledge  of  the  fact  attend- 
ing its  creation,  the  partnership  is  bound  thereby. 

One  partner  cannot  bind  the  firm  by  deed, 
though  he  may  by  deed  execute  an  ordinary 
release  of  a  debt  due  the  partnership,  thereby 
precluding  the  firm  from  a  recovery  of  the  same. 

If  no  time  be  fixed  in  the  articles  of  copart- 
nership for  the  commencement  of  such  partner- 
ship, it  is  presumed  to  commence  from  the  date 
and  execution  of  such  articles.  If  no  precise 
period  is  therein  mentioned  for  its  continuance, 
a  partner  may  withdraw  at  any  time,  and  dissolve 
such  partnership  at  his  pleasure;  and  even  if  a 
definite  period  be  agreed  upon,  a  partner  may, 
by  giving  notice,  dissolve  the  partnership  as  to 
all  capacity  of  the  firm  to  bind  him  by  contracts 
thereafter  made;  such  partner  subjecting  himself 
thereby  to  a  claim  for  damages,  by  reason  of  his 
breach  of  the  covenant. 

The  death  of  either  partner,  also,  dissolves  the 
partnership,  unless  there  be  an  express  stipula- 
tion that,  in  such  an  event,  the  representatives  of 
such  deceased  partner  may  continue  the  business 
in  connection  with  the  survivors,  for  the  benefit 
of  the  widow  and  children. 

A  partnership  is  dissolved  by  operation  of  law; 
by  a  voluntary  and  bona  fide  assignment  by  any 


partner  of  his  interest  therein  ;  by  the  bankrupt- 
cy or  death  of  any  of  the  partners ;  or  by  a  war 
between  the  countries  of  which  the  partners  are 
subjects. 

Immediately  after  a  dissolution,  a  notice  of 
the  same  should  be  published  in  the  public 
papers,  and  a  special  notice  sent  to  every  person 
who  has  had  dealings  with  the  firm.  If  these 
precautions  be  not  taken,  each  partner  will  still 
continue  liable  for  the  acts  of  the  others  to  all 
persons  who  have  had  no  notice  of  such  dissolu- 
tion. 

Partnership   Agreement. 

This  Agreement,  made  this  first  day  of  April,  lSy3,  between  Charles 
Jean  and  David  Sellers,  both  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  witnesseth  : 

The  said  parties  agree  to  associate  themselves  as  copartners  for  two 
years  from  this  date,  in  the  business  of  buying  and  selling  cotton,  under  the 
name  and  style  of  Jean  &  Sellers. 

For  the  purpose  of  conducting  the  above-named  business,  Charles  Jean 
has  at  the  date  of  this  writing  invested  ten  thousand  dollars  as  capital 
stock,  and  David  Sellers  has  paid  in  the  like  sum  of  ten  thousand  dollars, 
both  of  which  amounts  are  to  be  expended  and  used  in  common,  for  the 
mutual  advantage  of  the  parties  hereto  in  the  management  of  their  business. 

That  the  details  of  the  business  may  be  thoroughly  understood  by  each, 
it  is  agreed  that  during  the  aforesaid  period  accurate  and  full  book  accounts 
shall  be  kept,  wherein  each  partner  shall  enter  and  record,  or  cause  to  be 
entered  and  recorded,  full  mention  of  all  moneys  received  and  expended, 
as  well  as  every  article  purchased  and  sold  belonging  to,  or  in  any  wise 
appertaining  to  such  partnership  ;  the  profits,  gains,  expenditures  and 
losses  being  equally  divided  between  them. 

It  is  further  agreed  that  once  a  year,  or  oftener  should  either  partner 
desire,  a  full,  just  and  accurate  exhibit  shall  be  made  to  each  other,  or  to 
their  executors,  administrators  or  representatives,  of  the  losses,  profits  and 
increase  made  by  reason  of  such  copartnership.  And  after  such  an  exhibit 
is  made,  the  surplus  profit,  if  such  there  be,  resulting  from  the  business, 
shall  be  divided  between  the  subscribing  partners,  fhare  and  share  alike. 

Should  either  partner  desire,  or  should  the  death  of  either  of  the  parties, 
or  other  reasons,  make  it  necessary,  they  will  each  to  the  other,  or,  in  case 
of  death  of  either,  the  surviving  partner  to  the  executors  or  administrators 
of  the  party  deceased,  make  a  full,  accurate  and  final  account  ol  the  condi- 
tion of  the  partnership  as  aforesaid  and  will  fairly  and  accurately  adjust  the 
same. 

It  is  also  agreed  that  in  case  of  a  misunderstanding  arising  with  the 
parties  hereto,  which  cannot  be  settled  between  themselves,  such  difference 
of  opinion  shall  be  settled  by  arbitration,  upon  the  following  conditions,  to- 
wit :  Each  party  to  choose  one  arbitrator,  which  two  thus  chosen  shall 
select  a  third  ;  the  three  thus  chosen  to  determine  the  merits  of  the  cave 
and  arrange  the  basis  of  a  settlement. 

In  witness  tohereo/,  the  undersigned  hereto  set  their  hands  the  day  and 
year  first  above  written. 

Signed  In  presence  of  |  Charles  Jean. 

Frank  Smith,    I  David  Sellers. 

Henry  Stiles.  J 


Notice   of   Dissolution. 

The  partnership  heretofore  existing  under  the  name  of  Jean  &  Sellers  Is 

this day  of ,  A.D.  ,  dissolved  by  mutual  consent. 

Charles  Jran. 
Pavid  Sellers. 


— 


HOW  TO  SECURE  A   PATENT. 


;— S)    --]    X' 


M*M*mt*MXXXXXbMJXXM-*tfrttftf^ 


^f  t  •:•  H ov/  •  to  •  $>eeu  ve  •  a  •  J)a  tent,  « 


2— «r^ 


3=3*- 


5=~Ts — i   *^ 


«K  0>ompfei"e  j^qnop<«>ii>  o{?  tf\e  f^ufe<*>   cu^b   f^egufafioruS  ©[overrurAO*  tfie 
Unifec]   Siafe<&  ^afent  ©j?f?ice. 


sNY  PERSON  who  has  invented  or  dis- 
\f  covered  a  new  and  useful  art,  machine, 
i\£  manufacture  or  composition  of  matter^ 
or  any  new  and  useful  improvement 
thereof,  may  obtain  a  patent,  provided  the 
invention  or  discovery  has  not  been  known 
or  used  by  others  in  this  country,  and  not 
patented  or  described  in  any  printed  pub- 
lication in  this  or  any  foreign  country,  and 
not  in  public  use  or  on  sale  for  more  than  two 
years  prior  to  his  application,  unless  the  same 
is  proved  to  have  been  abandoned.  A  patent 
may  also  be  obtained  by  any  person  who,  by 
his  own  industry,  genius,  efforts  and  expense, 
has  invented  and  produced  any  new  and  orig- 
inal design  for  a  manufacture,  bust,  statue, 
alto-relievo  or  bas-relief;  any  new  and  original 
design  for  the  printing  of  woolen,  silk,  cotton 
or  other  fabrics  ;  any  new  and  original  impres- 
sion, ornament,  pattern,  print  or  picture  to 
be  printed,  painted,  cast,  or  otherwise  placed 
on  or  worked  into  any  article  of  manufacture  ; 
or  any  new,  useful  and  original  shape  or  con- 
figuration of  any  article  of  manufacture,  the 
same  not  having  been  known  or  used  by  others 
before  his  invention  or  production  thereof,  nor 
patented  or  described  in  any  printed  publica- 
tion. 


v_ 


In  case  of  the  death  of  the  inventor,  the 
application  may  be  made  by  his  executor  or 
administrator.  In  such  case  the  oath  will  be 
made  by  the  executor  or  administrator. 

In  case  of  an  assignment  of  the  whole  inter- 
est in  the  invention,  or  of  the  whole  interest 
in  the  patent  to  be  granted,  the  patent  will, 
upon  request  of  the  applicant  or  assignee, 
issue  to  the  assignee  ;  and  if  the  assignee  hold 
an  undivided  part  interest,  the  patent  will, 
upon  like  request,  issue  jointly  to  the  inventor 
and  the  assignee ;  but  the  assignment  in  either 
case  must  first  have  been  entered  of  record, 
and  of  a  day  not  later  than  the  date  of  the 
payment  of  the  final  fee.  The  application 
and  oath  must  be  made  by  the  actual  inventor, 
if  alive,  even  if  the  patent  is  to  issue  to  an 
assignee.  If  the  inventor  be  dead,  it  may  be 
made  by  the  executor  or  administrator,  or  by 
the  assignee  of  the  entire  interest. 

THE  APPLICATION. 

All  applications  for  letters  patent  must  be 
made  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents.  A 
complete  application  comprises  the  petition, 
specification,  oath  and  drawings,  and  the 
model  or  specimen  when  required. 


=M 


o  "^ 


c 


K 


~7 


484 


HOW  TO  SECURE  A  PATENT. 


An  application  for  a  patent  will  not  be  placed 
upon  the  files  for  examination  until  all  its 
parts,  except  the  model  or  specimen,  are 
received. 

THE  SPECIFICATION 
Is  a  written  description  of  the  invention  or 
discovery,  and  of  the  manner  and  process  of 
making,  constructing,  compounding  and  using 
the  same,  and  is  required  to  be  in  such  full, 
clear,  concise  and  exact  terms  as  to  enable  any 
person  skilled  in  the  art  or  science  to  which  it 
appertains,  or  with  which  it  is  most  nearly 
connected,  to  make,  construct,  compound  and 
use  the  same.  It  must  conclude  with  a  spe- 
cific and  distinct  claim  or  claims  of  the  part, 
improvement  or  combination  which  the  appli- 
cant regards  as  his  invention  or  discovery. 

In  framing  the  specification  the  applicant 
should  follow  the  appended  arrangement,  such 
portions  as  refer  to  drawings  being  omitted 
when  the  invention  does  not  admit  of  repre- 
sentation by  drawings.       \ 

1.  Preamble  giving  the  name  and  residence 
of  the  applicant,  and  the  title  of  the  inven- 
tion. 

2.  General  statement  of  the  object  and 
nature  of  the  invention. 

3.  Brief  description  of  the  drawings,  show- 
ing what  each  view  represents. 

4.  Detailed  description,  explaining  fully  the 
alleged  invention,  and  the  manner  of  con- 
structing, practicing,  operating  and  using  it. 

5.  Claim,  or  claims. 

6.  Signature  of  inventor. 

7.  Signatures  of  two  witnesses. 

In  original  applications  the  applicant  must 
distinctly  state,  under  oath,  whether  the  in- 
vention has  been  patented  to  himself,  or  to 
others,  with  his  consent  or  knowledge,  in  any 
country. 

THE  OATH. 
The  applicant,  if  the  inventor,  must  make 
oath  that  he  believes  himself  to  be  the  first 


and  original  discoverer  or  inventor  of  the  art, 
machine,  manufacture,  composition  or  im- 
provement for  which  he  desires  a  patent,  and 
that  to  his  best  knowledge  and  belief  the 
same  was  never  before  known  or  used.  ^Ie 
must  also  state  his  place  of  residence,  and  the 
State  or  country  of  which  he  is  a  citizen. 

When  applications  are  made  by  an  adminis- 
trator or  executor,  the  form  of  oath  varies 
accordingly. 

DRAWINGS. 

The  applicant  for  a  patent  is  required  by 
law  to  furnish  a  drawing  of  his  invention, 
where  the  nature  of  the  case  admits  of  it. 

1.  Drawings  must  be  made  upon  pure 
white  paper  of  a  thickness  corresponding  to 
three-sheet  Bristol  board,  and  the  surface  of 
the  paper  must  be  calendered  and  smooth. 
India  ink  only  must  be  used,  to  secure  per- 
fectly black  and  solid  lines. 

2.  The  size  of  sheet  on  which  a  drawing  is 
made  must  be  exactly  ten  by  fifteen  inches. 
One  inch  from  its  edges  a  single  marginal  line 
is  to  be  drawn,  leaving  the  "  sight"  precisely 
eight  by  thirteen  inches.  Within  this  margin 
all  work  and  signatures  must  be  included. 

3.  All  drawings  must  be  made  with  the  pen 
only. 

4.  Drawings  should  be  made  with  the  fewest 
lines  possible  consistent  with  clearness. 

5.  Letters  and  figures  of  reference  must  be 
carefully  formed.  They  must  never  appear 
upon  shaded  surfaces,  and,  when  it  is  difficult 
to  avoid  this,  a  blank  space  must  be  left  in  the 
shading  where  the  letter  occurs,  so  that  it  may 
appear  perfectly  distinct  and  separate  from  the 
work.  If  the  same  part  of  an  invention  appear 
in  more  than  one  view  of  the  drawing,  it  must 
always  be  represented  by  the  same  character, 
and  the  same  character  must  never  be  used  to 
designate  different  parts. 

6.  The  inventor's  signature  must  be  placed 
at  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the   sheet, 


/ 


-\ 


HOW  TO  SECURE  A  PATENT. 


^ 


48S 


A 


and  the  signatures  of  witnesses  at  the  lower 
left-hand  corner;  all  within  marginal  line. 

7.  Drawings  should  be  rolled,  not  folded, 
for  transmission  to  the  office. 

MODELS 

Must  clearly  exhibit  every  feature  of  a  ma- 
chine which  forms  the  subject  of  a  claim  for 
letters  patent,  but  should  include  no  other  mat- 
ter than  that  covered  by  the  actual  invention 
or  improvement,  unless  necessary  to  the  exhi- 
bition of  the  invention  in  a  working  model. 

Very  often  a  working  model  is  desirable  in 
order  to  fully  and  readily  understand  the  opera- 
tion 

EXAMINATION. 

Applications  are  classified  and  taken  up  for 
examination  in  regular  order,  those  in  the  same 
class  being  examined  and  disposed  of,  as  far  as 
practicable,  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
presented. 

AMENDMENTS,  ETC. 

The  applicant  has  a  right  to  amend  before 
or  after  the  first  rejection  ;  and  he  may  amend 
as  often  as  the  examiner  presents  any  new 
references  or  reasons  for  rejection. 

When  an  original  or  reissue  application  is 
rejected  on  reference  to  an  expired  or  unex- 
pired domestic  patent,  which  substantially 
shows  or  describes  but  does  not  claim  the  re- 
jected invention,  or  to  a  foreign  patent,  or  to  a 
printed  publication,  and  the  applicant  shall 
make  oath  to  facts  showing  a  completion  of  the 
invention  before  the  filing  of  the  application 
for  the  domestic  patent,  or  before  the  date  of 
the  foreign  patent,  or  before  the  date  at  which 
the  printed  publication  was  made,  and  shall 
also  make  oath  that  he  does  not  know  and  does 
not  believe  that  the  invention  has  been  in  pub- 
lic use  or  on  sale  in  this  country  for  more  than 
two  years  prior  to  his  application,  and  that  he 


has  never  abandoned  the  invention,  then  the 
patent  or  publication  cited  will  not  bar  the 
grant  of  a  patent  to  the  applicant,  except  upon 
interference. 

When  an  application  is  rejected  on  reference 
to  an  expired  or  unexpired  domestic  patent 
which  shows  or  describes,  but  does  not  claim, 
the  rejected  invention,  or  to  a  foreign  patent, 
or  to  a  printed  publication,  or  to  facts  within 
the  personal  knowledge  of  an  employe  of  the 
office,  set  forth  in  an  affidavit  of  such  em- 
ploye, or  on  the  ground  of  public  use  or  sale, 
or  upon  the  mode  or  capability  of  operation 
attributed  to  a  reference,  or  because  the  alleged 
invention  is  held  to  be  inoperative,  or  frivolous, 
or  injurious  to  public  health  or  morals,  affida- 
vits or  depositions  supporting  or  traversing 
these  references  or  objections  may  be  received  ; 
but  they  will  be  received  in  no  other  cases, 
without  special  permission  of  the  Commis- 
sioner. 

In  case  an  applicant  neglects  to  prosecute 
his  application  for  two.  years  after  the  date 
when  the  last  official  notice  of  any  action  by 
the  office  was  mailed  to  him,  it  will  be  held 
that  the  application  has  been  abandoned. 

DESIGNS. 

Patents  for  designs  are  granted  for  three  and 
one-half  years,  or  for  seven  years,  or  for  four- 
teen years,  as  the  applicant  may,  in  his  appli- 
cation, elect. 

When  the  design  can  be  sufficiently  repre- 
sented by  drawings  or  photographs,  a  model 
will  not  be  required. 

Whenever  a  photograph  or  an  engraving  is 
employed  to  illustrate  the  design,  it  must  be 
mounted  upon  Bristol  board,  10  by  15  inches 
in  size,  and  properly  signed  and  witnessed. 
The  applicant  will  be  required  to  furnish  ten 
extra  copies  of  such  photograph  or  engraving 
(not  mounted),  of  a  size  not  exceeding  7^ 
inches  by  1 1. 


Al 


Tv* 


*".~ 


486 


. 


-^ 


HOW  TO  SECURE  A  PATENT. 


REISSUES. 

When  the  original  patent  is  invalid  or  in- 
operative by  reason  of  a  defective  or  insuffi- 
cient specification,  or  by  reason  of  the  patentee 
claiming  as  his  invention  or  discovery  more 
than  he  had  a  right  to  claim  as  new,  a  reissue 
will  be  granted  to  the  original  patentee,  his 
legal  representatives,  or  the  assignees  of  the 
entire  interest,  provided  the  error  has  arisen 
from  accident,  mistake  or  inadvertence,  and 
without  any  fraudulent  or  deceptive  intention. 

APPEALS. 

An  applicant  for  a  patent  or  a  reissue,  any 
of  the  claims  of  whose  application  have  been 
twice  rejected,  may  appeal  from  the  decision 
of  the  primary  examiner  to  the  Board  of  Ex- 
aminers-in-Chief,  having  once  paid  a  fee  of 
$10.  The  appeal  must  be  made  in  writing, 
signed  by  the  applicant  or  his  attorney,  and 
must  set  forth  the  points  of  the  decision  upon 
which  the  appeal  is  taken. 

FORM,  DATE  AND  DURATION  OF 
PATENTS. 

Every  patent  will  bear  date  as  of  a  day  not 
later  than  six  months  from  the  time  at  which 
the  application  was  passed  and  allowed,  and 
notice  mailed  to  the  applicant,  if  within  that 
period  the  final  fee  be  paid. 

A  patent  will  not  be  antedated. 

Every  patent  will  contain  a  short  title  of 
the  invention  or  discovery,  and  a  grant  to  the 
patentee,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  for  the  term 
of  seventeen  years,  of  the  exclusive  right  to 
make,  use  and  vend  the  invention  or  discovery 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Territories 
thereof. 

EXTENSIONS. 

Patents  granted  since  March  2,  1861,  can- 
not be  extended,  except  by  act  of  Congress. 


CAVEATS. 

On  payment  of  a  fee  of  $10,  any  citizen 
of  the  United  States  who  has  made  a  new 
invention  or  discovery,  and  desires  further 
time  to  mature  the  same,  may  file  in  the 
Patent  Office  a  caveat  setting  forth  the  distin- 
guishing characteristics  of  the  invention  and 
praying  protection  of  his  right  until  he  shall 
have  matured  his  invention.  Such  caveat 
shall  be  filed  in  the  confidential  archives  of 
the  Patent  Office,  and  shall  be  operative  for 
the  term  of  one  year  from  the  filing  thereof. 

ASSIGNMENTS. 

Every  patent,  or  any  interest  therein,  shall 
be  assignable  in  law  by  an  instrument  in 
writing.  The  patentee  or  his  assigns  may 
also  grant  and  convey,  in  like  manner,  an 
exclusive  right  under  his  patent  for  the  whole 
or  any  specified  part  of  the  United  States. 


Schedule  of   Fees. 

On  filing  each  application  for  a  Patent $15 

On  issuing  each  Original  Patent  (17  years) *o 

On  application  for  Re-issue 30 

On  application  for  Extension 50 

On  granting  every  extension  of  Patent  (7  years; 30 

On  each  Caveat 10 

On  appeal  to  Examiners-in -Chief 10 

On  appeal  to  Commissioner  of  Patents 90 

On  filing  a  Disclaimer 10 

On  application  for  Design  {3%  years) 10 

On  application  for  Design  {7  years) 15 

On  application  for  Design  (14  years) f 30 

On  each  Trade-Mark  (30  years) 15 

On  each  Label  {28  years) 6 


CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  THE 
PATENT  OFFICE. 

Personal  attendance  of  applicants  at  the 
Patent  Office  is  unnecessary,  as  all  business  is 
required  to  be  transacted  in  writing. 

Correspondence  should  be  addressed  to 
"  The  Commissioner  of  Patents.  " 

Express  charges,  freight,  postage,  and  all 
similar  charges,  must  be  fully  prepaid  to  ensure 
reception. 


VL 


A\ 


PENSION  LAWS. 


487 


"7f 


A  letter  concerning  an  application  should 
state  the  name  of  the  applicant,  the  title  of  the 
invention,  the  serial  number  of  the  application 
and  the  date  of  filing  the  same. 

A  letter  concerning  a  patent  should  state  the 
name  of  the  patentee,  the  title  of  the  inven- 
tion, and  the  number  and  date  of  the  patent. 

All  correspondence  of  the  Patent  Office  will 
be  answered  without  unnecessary  delay. 
Telegrams  must  ordinarily  be  received  before 


three  p  m.  to  insure  an  answer  the  same  day. 

AGENTS  AND  ATTORNEYS. 

Any  intelligent  person  of  good  moral  char- 
acter, upon  filing  a  proper  power  of  attorney, 
may  appear  as  the  agent  or  attorney  in  fact 
of  an  applicant. 

The  power  of  attorney  must  be  filed  in  all 
cases  before  an  attorney,  original  or  associate, 
will  be  allowed  to  inspect  papers  or  take  action 
of  any  kind. 


-+-<*- 


spei^ion  •>  LiaW$.  •>>£•> 


E&NY  person  who  has  been,  since  the  4th 
*Siy  of  March,  1861,  disabled  in  the  mili- 
tary or  naval  service  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  its  marine  corps,  shall, 
upon  making  due  proof  of  the  fact,  be  placed 
on  the  list  of  invalid  pensioners  of  the  United 
States.  No  claim  for  pension  on  the  part  of  a 
State  militiaman,  or  non-enlisted  person,  on 
account  of  disability  from  wounds  received  in 
battle,  shall  be  valid  unless  prosecuted  to  a 
successful  issue  prior  to  July  4,  1874. 

RATES  OF  PENSION  PER  MONTH.- 


DISABILITIES. 


Loss  of  both  hands , 

Total  disability  in  both  hands 

Loss  of  both  feet 

Total  disability  in  both  feet. . 
Loss  of  sight  of  both  eyes  — 
Loss  of  sight  of  one  eye,  the  sight  of 

the  other  having  been  previously  lost 

Loss  of  one  hand  and  one  foot 

Total  disability  in  one  hand  and  one 

foot 


Any  disability  equivalent  to  the  loss  of 
a  hand  or  foot 


Any  disability  incapacitating  for  the 
performance  of  any  manual  labor 

Any  disability  resulting  in  a  condition 
requiring  the  regular  aid  and  attend- 
ance of  another  person. 

Total  deafness 


-1 


525  00 
20  00 

25  00 


$20  00 


SSJB 


** 


$25  00 

20  00 
25  CO 


20  00 
15  °° 
20  00 


'» 


$31  *5 
31  25 
31  25 
31  25 
31  25 

31  25 
24  00 


24  00 


$72  00 

72  00 

72  00 

72  00 
36  00 


June 
4.  '74- 
31  25  50  00 
13  °°     


*  Rate  from  June,  1880.  in  case  the  disability  is  permanent  and  requires 
the  regular  aid  and  attendance  of  another  person.  An  applicant  for 
increase  of  pension  from  $31.25  to  $72  per  month  must  furnish  the  testi- 
mony of  his  physician,  or  of  two  credible  witnesses,  to  prove  the  extent 
to  which  he  requires  the  aid  and  attendance  of  another  person. 


The  same  provision  of  law  which  entitles  to 
$31.25  per  month  entitles  to  $72  per  month, 
provided  that  in  the  latter  case  the  disability 
is  permanent.  The  loss  of  a  leg  above  the 
knee,  or  an  arm  at  or  abbve  the  elbow,  entitles 
the  person  so  disabled  to  a  pension  of  $24  per 
month  after  June  4,  1874. 

The  rates  of  $10,  $12,  $14  and  $16  per 
month  will  be  allowed  in  cases  in  which  the  dis- 
ability bears  the  same  proportion  to  that  pro- 
duced by  the  loss  of  a  hand  or  foot  that  those 
rates  bear  to  the  rate  of  $18  per  month.  • 

Under  the  pension  law  of  1890  the  soldier 
who  is  wholly  incapacitated  from  earning  a 
living  receives  the  sum  of  $1 2  a  month,  whether 
the  disability  was  contracted  in  the  service 
or  not ;  for  a  lesser  degree  of  disability,  $10, 
$8  or  $6. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  by  an  applicant 
for  pension  is  to  file  a  declaration  before  a 
court  of  record,  or  before  some  officer  thereof 
having  custody  of  its  seal,  setting  forth  the 
ground  upon  which  he  claims  a  pension.  Blank 
forms  of  declaration  are  furnished  upon  request 
at  Commissioner  of  Pensions  office.  The  iden- 
tity of  the  applicant  must  be  shown  by  the 
testimony  of  two  credible  witnesses,  who  must 
appear  with  him  before  the  officer  by  whom 


A 


r- 


•i 


V 


488 


PENSION  LAWS. 


I 


the  declaration  may  be  taken.  A  pensioner 
who  may  deem  himself  entitled  to  an  increase 
of  pension  should  file  a  declaration  on  a  blank 
form  furnished  for  the  purpose,  setting  forth 
the  ground  upon  which  he  claims  such  increase. 
A  declaration  for  increase  of  pension  may  be 
taken  before  any  officer  duly  authorized  to 
administer  oaths. 

All  invalid  pensions  granted  under  the  gen- 
eral law  will  terminate  at  re-enlistment,  or 
when  the  disabilities  for  which  they  were  al- 
lowed shall  have  ceased. 

A  widow's  pension  will  end  at  her  remar- 
riage, and  not  be  renewable  should  she  again 
become  a  widow. 

Pensions  allowed  to  dependent  mothers  and 
sisters  end  at  remarriage,  or  when  dependence 
ceases.  Pensions  allowed  to  dependent  fathers 
end  when  the  dependence  ceases. 

The  name  of  any  pensioner  shall  be  stricken 
from  the  roll  upon  his  or  her  failure  to  claim 
a  pension  for  three  years  after  the  same  shall 
have  become  due. 

To  entitle  a  widow  or  children  to  pension, 
the  death  of  the  soldier  does  not  need  to  have 
been  the  result  of  injury  received  or  disease 
contracted  under  such  circumstances  as  would 
hava  entitled  him  to  an  invalid  pension  had  he 
been  disabled. 

A  widow  is  entitled  to  a  pension  of  $8  per 
month,  no  matter  whether  the  death  of  the 
soldier  was  due  to  army  service  or  not.  In 
addition  to  this  rate,  she  will  be  allowed  $2 
per  month  for  each  child  of  the  officer  or  soldier 
under  the  age  of  sixteen  years. 

In  the  applications  of  widows  and  children 
for  pensions,  they  are  not  required  to  prove 
that  death  of  husband  resulted  from  the  injury 
or  disease  on  account  of  which  his  pension  was 
granted;  but,  if  the  husband  had  not  estab- 
lished his  claim  for  an  invalid  pension,  the 
widow  shall  prove  origin  and  cause  of  the  fatal 
disease.  Widows  will  be  required  to  prove 
their    marriage  to    the  person  on  account  of 


whose  service  and  death  the  claim  is  made ; 
also  proof  of  dates  of  birth  of  children  by 
copy  of  church  record. 

A  mother  claiming  a  pension  must  prove  the 
cause  and  date  of  the  death  of  her  son  ;  her 
relationship ;  that  he  left  no  widow  or  minor 
child  or  children  surviving;  and  that,  if  living, 
she  would  be  dependent  upon  him  for  support. 

A  father  claiming  pension  on  account  of  the 
death  of  his  son,  upon  whom  he  was  depend- 
ent for  support,  must  prove  facts  similar  to 
those  required  of  a  mother. 

The  claim  on  behalf  of  minor  brothers  and 
sisters  should  be  made  by  a  guardian  duly  ap- 
pointed. 

In  administration  of  the  pension  laws,  no 
distinction  is  made  between  brothers  and  sisters 
of  the  half  blood  and  those  of  the  whole  blood. 
Evidence  in  a  claim  for  pension  cannot  be  veri- 
fied before  an  officer  who  is  engaged  in  the 
prosecution  of  such  claim. 

In  claims  for  increase  of  pension,  a  fee  of 
$2  will  be  allowed.  All  letters  of  enquiry 
relative  to  claims  pending  in  Pension  Office 
should  give  the  number  of  the  claim. 

No  sum  of  money  due,  or  to  become  due, 
to  any  pensioner,  shall  be  liable  to  attachment, 
levy  or  seizure,  under  any  legal  or  equitable 
process. 

Agents  for  paying  pensions  shall  receive 
two  per  centum  on  all  disbursements  made  by 
them  to  pensioners. 

No  agent,  or  attorney,  or  other  person,  shall 
demand  or  receive  any  other  compensation  for 
his  services  in  prosecuting  a  claim  for  pension 
or  bounty-land  than  such  as  the  Commissioner 
of  Pensions  shall  direct  to  be  paid  to  him,  not 
exceeding  $10. 

Every  officer,  or  enlisted  or  hired  man,  who 
has  lost  a  limb,  or  the  use  of  a  limb,  in  the 
military  or  naval  service  of  the  United  States, 
is  entitled  to  receive,  once  every  three  years, 
an  artificial  limb  or  apparatus,  or  commutation 
therefor.    The  period  of  three  years  is  reckoned 


_^J 


K" 


THE    COLLECTION    OF    DEBTS. 


489 


from  the  filing  of  first  application  after  March 
2,  1891.  The  commutation  allowed  in  case  of 
the  amputation  of  a  leg  is  $75  ;  in  all  other 


cases,  $50.  Applications  for  artificial  limbs 
should  be  transmitted  through  the  proper  pen- 
sion agent  to  the  surgeon-general  of  the  army. 


30E 


tye  ^olle^tioi?  of  Debt5 


HOW  TO  SETTLE  ACCOUNTS. 

LEGAL  STEPS  TO  ENFORCE  PAYMENT 


4fe 


■  HE  best  way  to  avoid  all  trouble  with 
debts,  either  by  owing  them  or  by  hav- 
ing them  due  to  you,  is  to  avoid  debts 
altogether.  Do  not  run  in  debt,  and 
do  not  give  credit  unless  it  is  absolutely  un- 
avoidable. By  following  these  rules  an  untold 
amount  of  trouble  may  be  saved  and  greatly 
increased  prosperity  secured. 

But  in  modern  civilized  life  it  is  not  possible, 
as  business  is  done,  to  prevent  debts  from  being 
incurred,  for  so  much  is  transacted  upon  longer 
or  shorter  terms  of  credit,  that  it  is  necessary  to 
give  credit  and  to  have  money  falling  due.  In 
order  to  avoid  trouble  and  loss,  adhere  strictly 
to  the  rule  of  having  the  payment  due  at  a  cer- 
tain time  and  be  prompt  in  collecting.  Much 
more  depends  upon  prompt  collection  as  a  means 
of  avoiding  trouble  and  loss  than  any  other  single 
thing  It  is  a  mistaken  idea  that  any  favor  is 
really  done  the  debtor  by  not  applying  to  him  at 
the  agreed  time,  for  it  is  often  the  case  that  the 
failure  to  pay  you  will  simply  result  in  his  still 
continuing  to  proceed  upon  a  false  basis,  and 
end,  perhaps,  in  a  failure,  which  the  good  habit 
of  paying  his  debts  when  due  would  have 
enabled  him  to  prevent. 

It  is  a  measure  of  common  prudence  to  take 
some  statement  in  writing  from  any  person  to 


whom  money  is  loaned,  which  shall  show  the 
amount,  when  loaned,  by  and  from  whom  due, 
and  when  it  is  to  be  repaid.  This  is  done  either 
by  taking  a  due  bill  or  a  common  promissory 
note,  and  whenever  accounts  are  settled  or  a 
balance  struck  and  agreed  upon,  it  is  well  to  have 
something  in  writing,  which  should  always  be 
signed  by  the  party  to  whom  the  payment  is 
made  or  from  whom  the  nayment  is  due,  if  any 
amount  is  left  unpaid. 

In  all  cases  where  money  is  loaned  on  interest, 
a  note  should  be  taken,  and,  unless  the  lender  is 
personally  acquainted  with  the  business  affairs 
and  standing  of  the  borrower,  if  the  amount  is 
considerable  or  the  terms  of  credit  more  than 
a  few  months,  security  should  be  taken.  In 
arranging  for  security  two  things  are  to  be  con- 
sidered— 

1.  The  title  of  the  party  to  the  property 
which  he  proposes  to  give  as  security.  This 
covers  the  two  points  of  ownership  and  all 
prior  claims  or  encumbrances,  if  any.  If  the 
security  consists  of  personal  property,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  see  whether  there  are  executions 
against  the  owner  in  the  hands  of  the 
proper  officers  and  whether  chattel  mortgages 
have  been  given,  as  well  as  that  the  property  is 
in  the  possession  of  the  person  who  proposes  to 


_iJ 


V- 


**  9 


^=7{ 


490 


THE    COLLECTION    OF    DEBTS. 


pledge  it  as  security.  If  this  is  to  be  done  by 
means  of  a  chattel  mortgage,  then  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  see  that  the  mortgage  is  properly  acknowl- 
edged and  recorded,  and  in  every  other  case  the 
possession  of  the  property  should  be  transferred 
to  the  one  who  takes  it  as  security. 

In  the  case  of  real  estate  there  should  be  an 
Abstract  of  Title  showingthe  title  to  the  property 
to  be  in  the  person  who  claims  to  own  it,  and 
that  it  is  clear  of  all  judgments,  mortgages  and 
mechanic's  liens.  The  better  way  is  to  have  the 
abstract  brought  down  to  cover  the  mortgage  or 
trust  deed,  which  is  given  as  security,  after  it 
has  been  recorded  and  before  the  money  is 
actually  advanced,  to  guard  against  all  possi- 
bility of  anything  happening  between  the  time 
of  the  execution  of  the  mortgage  or  trust  deed 
and  when  it  can  be  recorded. 

2.  The  security  given  depends  directly  upon 
the  value  of  the  property  transferred,  and  this 
should  be  sufficient  in  amount  to  cover  all  prob- 
able contingencies.  The  rule  is  not  to  loan 
more  than  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  value  of 
the  property  given  as  security.  "  Fast  bind, 
fast  find,"  is  a  good  maxim,  especially  in  regard 
to  loaning  money,  and  where  ample  security  is 
held,  the  lender  can  sleep  in  peace.  It  is  often 
necessary  that  fire  insurance  should  be  obtained 
to  protect  the  lender,  in  which  case  the  policy 
should  be  made  in  the.  name  of  the  owner  and 
borrower,  and  have  inserted  in  it  a  "  mortgage 
clause,"  as  it  is  called,  provided  that  the  loss,  if 
any,  shall  be  paid  to  the  lender  as  his  interest 
may  appear. 

REQUEST  FOR  PAYMENT. 

Those  who  have  much  experience  in  any 
kind  of  business  requiring  credit  to  be  given, 
soon  learn,  in  the  dear  school  of  experience, 
what  is  necessary  to  protect  their  own  interests. 
It  is  those  who  have  but  little  to  do  in  this  way, 
or  who  are  about  engaging  in  a  new  line,  that 
are  most  likely  to  suffer  from  want  of  knowledge. 

Of  course,  before  any  suit  is  brought  to 
recover  money  which  is  due,  a  request  or 
demand  for  payment  should  be  made,  if  possible, 
and  there  is  any  hope  the  money  will  be  paid 
without  suit.     Politeness  and  point  should  be 


K_ 


contained  in  the  request,  which  may  take  either 
the  form  of  an  interview  or  a  note,  and  as  pay- 
ment may  result,  this  ought  always  to  be  framed 
as  if  payment  were  expected.  If  a  letter  is  used, 
its  form  will  depend  upon  what  has  previously 
taken  place,  because  it  is  seldom  the  case  that  a 
claim  has  no  previous  history,  and  the  kind  of 
demand  to  be  made  depends  upon  what  has  been 
done,  so  that  it  will  range  from  a  polite  intima- 
tion that  the  money  is  due  and  would  be  thank- 
fully received,  to  a  short  letter  informing  the 
debtor  that  to  avoid  the  trouble  and  costs  of  a 
suit,  immediate  payment  must  be  made. 

COLLECTION  AGENCIES. 

The  tendency  of  all  kinds  of  business  to  run 
into  specialties,  and  for  people  to  follow  par- 
ticular lines  of  business,  to  which  they  give  their 
attention,  has  led  to  the  formation  of  what  are 
known  as  collection  agencies,  which  devote  their 
entire  time  and  skill  to  the  collection  of  debts. 

These  are  of  two  kinds,  namely:  those  which 
are  connected  with  some  particular  trade  or 
branch  of  business,  and  which  seek  to  enforce 
the  payment  of  debts  by  means  of  notifying  all 
those  persons  who  would  naturally  be  called 
upon  to  give  credit  to  the  debtor,  and  also  those 
which  are  organized  without  any  particular  con- 
nection with  any  branch  of  the  business,  but  which 
have  correspondents  (chiefly  lawyers)  through- 
out the  country,  and  who  charge  a  fixed  per- 
centage for  collection  in  ordinary  cases.  Where 
these  agencies  can  be  used  they  are  often  the 
best  means  to  employ  for  many  different  reasons. 

COLLECTION   BY  LAW. 

When  all  reasonable  hope  of  obtaining  pay- 
ment peaceably  is  gone,  consider  whether  it  is 
worth  while  to  follow  the  matter  any  further; 
and  this  will  depend  on  two  things  : 

Is  it  worth  the  necessary  trouble  and  expense  ? 

Can  a  judgment  be  collected  ? 

Sometimes  a  suit  must  be  brought  for  the 
sake  of  the  principle  involved  and  to  prevent 
advantage  being  taken  of  you;  but  if  it  is  merely 
a  business  transaction  and  the  only  question  is 


^ 


Q 


THE   COLLECTION    OF    DEBTS. 


491 


whether  it  will  pay,  then  find  out  as  well  as  you 
can  what  the  result  will  be  before  you  spend  any 
money  on  the  suit;  aqd  learn  whether  the  debtor 
has  property  which  is  not  exempt  and  out  of 
which  the  officer  can  make  the  amount  of  a  judg- 
ment. 

If  you  are  compelled  to  proceed  with  your 
suit,  you  can  place  the  account  in  the  hands  of 
some  Justice  of  the  Peace  whose  jurisdiction 
extends  over  the  place  where  the  debtor  can  be 
served  with  summons,  unless  the  amount  is  too 
large,  for  Justices  of  the  Peace  are  generally 
authorized  and  required  to  collect  accounts 
placed  in  their  hands;  the  amount  of  which  a 
Justice  of  the  Peace  has  jurisdiction  is  fixed  by 
the  laws  of  the  different  States. 

JURISDICTION  OF  JUSTICES  OF  THE  PEACE. 

Justices  of  the  Peace  generally  have  jurisdic- 
tion throughout  the  County  or  Township  in 
which  they  are  elected,  and  the  limit  of  the 
amount  is  as  follows: 


Alabama .$ 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut .... 
Dakota,  N.  200-S. 

Delaware 

Dist.  of  Columb. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois    . 

a  Indiana 

b  Iowa 

Kansas 

a  By  confession, 


100      Kentucky 0    50 

300      Louisiana 100 

300      Maine    20 

300      Maryland 100 

300  Massachusetts..  300 

100      Michigan 100 

100      Minnesota 100 

200  Mississippi  ....  150 

100      Missouri 250 

100      Montana 300 

100  Nebraska..  200 

300     Nevada ...   300 

200  New  Hampshire  13^ 

200      New  J  ersey 200 

100  New  Mexico.   ..  100 

^oo      New  York.  200 

1  $300.    b  By  consent,  $300. 


North  Carolina. $  200 

Ohio 100 

Oregon 500 

Pennsylvania. . .  300 

Rhode  Island..  300 

South  Carolina.  100 

Tennessee 500 

Texas 200 

Utah        300 

Vermont 200 

Virginia 100 

Washington  ....  300 

West  Virginia..  300 

c  Wisconsin  ..  .  200 

Wyoming 300 

c  By  co  fession,  $300. 


SUMMONS  AND  SERVICE. 

The  Justice,  on  request,  will  issue  a  summons 
about  as  follows  : 

Form  of  Summons 


This  summons  will  be  given  to  a  constable 
who  can  only  serve  it  upon  the  debtor  within 
the  Town  or  County,  as  the  case  may  be  where 
the  Justice  resides,  and  in  some  cases  the  debtor 
must  be  served  in  the  Town  where  he  lives  ;  but 
all  necessary  information  can  be  obtained  by 
asking  the  Justice  about  it,  who  will  know,  and 
will  correctly  tell  you  about  the  law  which  ap- 
plies to  himself- 

The  constable  who  serves  the  summons  will 
proceed  to  do  it  by  reading  or  delivering  a  copy, 
or  both  at  once  upon  payment  of  his  legal  fees. 
If  the  debtor  is  a  corporation  then  the  service 
must  be  made  by  delivering  a  copy  of  the  sum- 
mons to  the  proper  officer,  the  President,  if  he 
can  be  found,  and  in  case  of  his  absence  the 
officer  must  state  that  he  can  not  be  found  and 
service  can  be  had  upon  some  other  officer  or 
agent  of  the  corporation. 

If  the  defendant  conceals  himself  to  avoid 
service  or  can  not  be  found,  the  officer  will  write 
upon  the  summons  what  has  been  done  under 
it,  and  return  it  with  his  written  endorsement 
upon  it,  stating  the  facts  to  the  Justice  from 
whom  it  issued.  The  Justice  will  also  enter  in 
his  docket  the  names  of  the  parties,  the  num- 
ber of  the  case,  the  date  of  the  summons,  and 
the  name  of  the  officer  to  whom  it  was  delivered 
for  service  ;  and  when  the  summons  is  returned 
he  enters  a  statement  of  that  fact  together  with 
the  officer's  endorsement  upon  it  in  his  docket. 

The  summons  will  state  the  time  and  place 
for  trial  which  is  generally  not  less  than  five 
nor  more  than  fifteen  days  from  its  date  ;  when 
and  where  the  defendant  is  bound  to  appear  if 
he  has  been  notified  according  to  the  law,  and 
generally  three  days'  service  before  the  trial  is 
sufficient. 


/ 


State  of  \ 

County  of. )  ss' 

The  Feopleof  the  State  of. to   any  constable  0/  said  county— 

Greeting  : 

You  are  hereby  commanded  to  summon  A  B  to  appear  before  me,  at ,  on  the day 

of ,  at o'clock  —  M  ,  to  answer  the  complaint  of  C  D  for  a  failure  to  pay  him  a  certain 

demand,  not  exceeding,..   dollars  ;  and  hereof  make  due  return  as  the  law  directs.    Given  under  my 

hand,  this day  of. ,  18 

John  Doe,/.  P% 


^r 


K" 


492 


THE    COLLECTION    OF    DEBTS. 


DEFENDANT'S  LIABILITY. 

It  is  not  safe  for  any  person  who  has  been 
legally  served  with  summons  to  neglect  the  case, 
even  if  he  owes  nothing,  and  has  been  sued  and 
served  with  summons  by  mistake,  for  if  he  does 
not  appear  and  make  his  defense  a  judgment 
may  be  rendered  against  him  which  he  will  have 
to  pay.  An  immediate  investigation  should 
always  be  made  when  the  summons  is  served, 
and  the  time  and  place  of  the  trial  should  be 
written  down. 

Upon  the  back  of  the  summons  the  Justice 
will  indorse  the  amount  of  the  demand  and  all 
the  costs  already  incurred  before  he  gives  it  to 
the  constable.  Payment  of  this  amount  to  the 
constable  will  discharge  the  debt  and  prevent 
any  further  liability. 

COSTS  OF  SUIT. 

The  Justice  is  entitled  to  charge  about 
twenty-five  cents  for  issuing  the  summons,  and 
also  a  docket  fee,  and  the  constable  is  entitled 
to  about  fifty  cents  for  serving  and  returning 
the  same,  besides  his  mileage,  which  is  usually 
five  cents  per  mile  each  way. 

APPEARANCE. 

If  the  plaintiff  appears  and  is  ready  for  trial 
a  judgment  will  be  entered  against  the  defend- 
ant, if  the  claim  is  proved  and  he  fails  to  ap- 
pear, and  the  execution  will  issue  upon  the 
judgment.  If  the  defendant  should  be  present 
and  the  plaintiff  fail  to  appear,  then  the  suit 
will  be  dismissed  at  plaintiff's  cost  upon  motion 
of  defendant  for  want  of  prosecution.  This, 
however,  will  not  bar  the  claim  by  a  new  suit 
being  brought. 

CHANGE  OF  VENUE. 

Before  the  trial  is  begun  the  defendant  is 
ordinarily  entitled  to  take  a  change  of  venue  to 
the  nearest  Justice  who  is  not  connected  with 
either  of  the  parties  to  the  suit  nor  interested  in 
its  result.  This  is  to  prevent  the  plaintiff  from 
obtaining  any  advantage  by  being  able  to  select 
the  Justice  to  try  the  case,  and  to  give  the  de- 
fendant the  benefit  of  an  impartial  trial. 


The  defendant  is  required  to  make  an  affidavit 
that  he  believes  he  can  not  obtain  an  impartial 
trial  before  the  first  Justice,  in  order  to  have  a 
change  of  venue. 

CONTINUANCE. 

If  both  parties  appear  at  the  time  and  place 
named  in  the  summons,  but  either  one  of  them 
is  not  ready  to  go  on  with  the  trial  because  of 
the  absence  of  any  of  his  witnesses,  or  for  any 
other  valid  reason,  then,  upon  good  cause  being 
shown  by  affidavit,  the  Justice  will  grant  a  con- 
tinuance of  the  case  to  enable  the  party  to  pre- 
pare for  the  trial. 

The  party  applying  for  a  continuance  must 
show  that  he  has  used  due  diligence  to  be  ready, 
and  that  he  has  subpoenaed  the  witness  or  wit- 
nesses whose  presence  he  desires ;  he  must  also 
show  what  he  expects  to  be  able  to  prove  by 
him,  and,  if  he  knows,  the  reason  that  he  did  not 
attend.  It  may  be  that  one  of  the  parties  may 
not  be  able  to  attend  by  reason  of  sickness  or 
unavoidable  absence,  and  then  an  affidavit  must 
be  made  on  his  behalf  by  some  one  who  appears 
for  him  and  applies  for  the  continuance. 

The  party  against  whom  the  continuance  is 
asked  may  usually  proceed  with  the  trial  by 
admitting  that  the  absent  witness  would  testify 
as  the  party  claims,  but  that  does  not  admit  that 
the  matters  stated  are  true.  The  party  may  dis- 
prove the  truth  of  the  statements  the  same  as  if 
the  witness  had  been  present  and  testified  to 
them.  If  the  continuance  is  granted,  then  a 
time  and  place  are  set  for  the  trial,  when  the 
parties  must  again  appear. 

ATTENDANCE  OF  WITNESSES. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  witnesses  by 
whom  the  facts  in  dispute  can  be  established  or 
disproved  should  appear  and  testify.  Without 
this  it  is  impossible  to  try  the  case  so  as  to  do 
justice  between  the  parties.  Therefore,  the  law 
compels  witnesses  who  are  properly  notified  to 
appear  and  testify  to  the  truth  so  far  as  they 
know  the  facts  in  relation  to  the  matters  involved. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  that  a  paper 
called  a  subpoena  should  be  issued  by  the  Jus- 


•- 


THE    COLLECTION    OF    DEBTS. 


493 


£ 


7 


tice,  and  served. upon  the  witness  long  enough 
before  the  trial  to  enable,  him  to  appear.  The 
subpoena  is  substantially  in  the  following  form  : 


Any  free  male  citizen  can  serve  on  a  jury, 
who  lives  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Justice 
and  is  between  the  ages  of  twenty-one  and  sixty 


Form  of 

Subpoena. 

County  of. (■**■ 

The  People  of  the  State  of. to  A 

B... 

You  are  hereby  commanded 

to  appear 

before  me 

at  on  the 

.day 

of.. 

...at 

. .  .o* 

clock 

M. 

then 

and  there  to  testify  to  the  truth  in  a 

matter  in 

suit,  wherein  C  D  is  plaintiff, 

and 

EF, 

defendant 

and  this  you  are 

not  to  omit,  under  the  penalty  of  tlu 

law. 

Given  under  my  hand,  this. . . 

....8.. 

John 

Doe 

/ 

p. 

This  can  be  served  by  the  party  or  the  con- 
stable, and  at  the  same  time  witness  fees,  usually 
fifty  cents  and  mileage,  should  be  tendered  to 
the  witness.  Then,  if  he  refuses  to  appear,  upon 
proof  of  those  facts  being  made,  an  attachment, 
or  warrant,  for  the  arrest  of  the  witness  will 
be  issued  by  the  Justice.  This  will  be  given  to 
the  officer,  who  will  arrest  the  witness  and  bring 
him  before  the  Court,  where  he  will  be  com- 
pelled to  testify,  and  will  also  be  punished  for 
contempt  of  Court,  for  failing  to  obey  the  sub- 
poena, unless  he  gives  some  good  excuse. 

TRIAL  OF  THE  SUIT. 

The  case  may  be  tried  before  the  Justice  with- 
out a  jury,  or  a  jury  may  be  demanded  by  either 
party,  who  deposits  with  the  Justice  the  amount 
of  the  jury  fees.  The  jury  consists  of  not  less 
than  six  nor  more  than  twelve  men,  and  if  one 
party  calls  for  a  jury  of  six,  the  other  party  may 
call  for  six  more,  making  twelve  in  all. 

If  the  case  is  to  be  tried  by  a  jury  the  Justice 
will  issue  what  is  called  a  venire  or  summons 
for  jurymen  and  give  it  to  the  proper  officer, 
which  will  be  in  the  following  form: 

Form  of  Venire 


years  and  can  read,  write  and  understand  the 
English  language,  and  is  not  connected  with, 
nor  prejudiced  for  or  against  either  party. 

Many  persons  are  by  law  exempt  from  jury 
service,  by  reason  of  their  employment  or  offi- 
cial station,  but  this  is  a  personal  privilege  and 
may  be  waived,  so  that  unless  it  is  claimed  by 
themselves  they  can  serve. 

The  jury,  when  impaneled,  will  be  sworn  to 
try  the  cause  according  to  the  law  and  the 
evidence,  and  then  the  evidence  will  be  produced 
before  the  Justice  or  jury  as  the  case  may  be. 

In  all  cases  the  witnesses  are  sworn  by  the 
Justice  to  tell  the  truth,  the  whole  truth  and 
nothing  but  the  truth  upon  the  matters  in  issue 
between  the  parties,  and  each  party  is  entitled 
to  cross-examine  the  witness  produced  by  the 
other  side,  and  to  argue  the  case  before  the 
judgment  is  given. 

VERDICT  AND  JUDGMENT. 

If  the  trial  is  by  jury,  they  will  return  a  verdict 
in  writing  substantially  in  the  following  form: 

"  We,  the  jury,  find  the  issues  for  the  plaintiff 
and  assess  his  damages  at  (stating  the  amount)"; 
or  "We,  the  jury,  find  the  defendant  guilty  and 

before  a  Justice. 


State  of \ 

County  of. ("* 

The  People  of  the Stateof. to  any  constable  of  saidcounty  — 

Greeting: 

We  command  you  to  summon lawful  men  of  your  county  to  appear  before  me  at ,on 

the day  of 18 at..  ..o'clock, —  M.,  who  are  not  of  kin  to , plaintiff,  or  to 

defendant,  to  make  a  jury  between  said  parties,  in  a  certain  cause  pending  before  me  ;  and  have  you  then  and 
there  the  names  of  the  jury  and  this  writ. 

Given  under  my  hand,  this  day  of 18. . 

John  Doe,  /.  P. 


Y- 


^X 


K~ 


494 


"7f 


THE    <  oi.I.ECTION    OF   DEBTS. 


assess  the  plaintiff's  damages  at  (stating  the 
amount)."  But  if  the  jury  find  for  the  defend- 
ant, then  their  verdict  would  be: 

"  We,  the  jury,  find  the  issues  for  the  defend- 
ant"; or  "find  the  defendant  not  guilty,"  accord- 
ing to  the  form  of  action;  and  the  verdict  is  also 
signed  by  all  of  the  jurymen.  If  the  party  who 
is  beaten  desires  to  do  so  he  can  poll  the  jury,  as 
it  is  called,  which  consists  in  asking  the  jury- 
men, one  at  a  time,  "  Was  this,  and  is  this  your 
verdict?"  To  which  the  juryman  is  required 
to  answer,  and  if  any  of  the  jury  upon  being 
called,  state  that  it  is  not  their  verdict,  then  they 
must  retire  and  agree  or  else  they  disagree,  and 
the  result  is  a  mis-trial,  leaving  the  case  to  be 
tried  again. 

If  the  case  is  tried  by  the  Justice,  then  he 
enters  his  finding  in  writing  in  his  docket,  in 
about  the  same  form  as  the  verdict,  and  then 
upon  the  verdict  or  finding,  he  enters  judgment 
or,  in  other  words,  writes  in  his  docket  that  he 
considers  that  the  plaintiff  should  recover  the 
amount  of  the  verdict  or  finding  with  costs  from 
the  defendant;  or  that  the  defendant  should 
recover  his  costs  of  the  plaintiff,  for  the  victor- 
ious party  is  entitled  to  recover  the  costs  of  the 
case  from  the  one  who  is  beaten. 


APPEALS. 
Either  party  has  a  right  to  appeal  his  case, 
usually  to  the  Circuit  Court,  and  have  it  tried 
over  again,  if  he  is  not  satisfied  with  the  result 
of  the  trial,  upon  giving  bond  for  double  the 
amount  of  the  judgment  and  costs  in  the  form 
provided  by  law,  which  is  about  as  follows: 

.    Form  of  Appeal  Bond 


As  soon  as  the  bond  is  filed  and  approved, 
which  must  be  given  usually  within  twenty  days 
from  the  trial,  it  operates  as  a  supersedeas,  as  it 
is  called,  and  prevents  anything  further  being 
done  in  the  case  until  judgment  is  obtained  in 
the  Court  above,  or  the  appeal  is  dismissed. 

Sometimes  one  of  the  parties  will  pretend  to 
be  dissatisfied  with  the  judgment  and  pray  an 
appeal  in  order  to  prevent  the  other  from  doing 
so,  and  having  allowed  the  time  in  which  an 
appeal  can  be  taken  to  expire  will  then  dismiss 
it  and  make  the  judgment  final. 

The  only  way  to  prevent  this  is  for  the  party 
who  desires  to  have  an  appeal  to  ask  for  it 
and  file  his  bond  himself,  in  which  case  he  can 
control  the  matter. 

EXECUTION. 

The  writ  which  issues  from  the  Justice  upon 
the  judgment  is  called  an  execution,  and  runs 
either  against  the  goods  and  chattels,  or  the 
body,  of  the  one  against  whom  judgment  was 
entered.  Whether  execution  can  be  obtained  in 
any  tase  authorizing  the  arrest  of  the  defendant 
and  his  imprisonment  until  the  judgment  is  paid 
or  he  is  legally  discharged  will  depend  upon  the 
law  of  the  State  and  the  circumstances  of  the  case, 
as  this  is  now  an  unusual  remedy,  since  impris- 
onment for  debt  has  been  generally  abolished. 
If  the  plaintiff  avers  that  the  benefit  of  the 
judgment  will  be  lost,  unless  execution  issue  im- 
mediately, he  may  swear  to  this  fact  before  the 
Justice,  who  will  then  issue  execution  at  once  ; 
but  unless  this  is  done  the  execution  will  not  issue 


Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  we,  A  B  and  C  D,  are  held  and  firmly  bound  unto  E  F,  in  the  penal  sum 
of  (here  insert  double  the  amount  of  judgment  and  costs)  dollars,  lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  for  the 
payment  of  which,  well  and  truly  to  be  made,  we  bind  ourselves,  g»*  heirs  and  administrators,  jointly,  severally  and 
firmly  by  these  presents. 

Witness  our  hands  and  seals,  this day  bf ,18.. 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is  such,  that  whereas  the  said  EFdid,  on  the day  of A.  D. 

18. .,  before. .       .  Justice  of  the  Peace  for  the  County  of recover  a  judgment  against  the  above  bounden  A  B, 

for  the  sum  of dollars  (or  for  costs,  as  the  case  may  be);  from  which  judgment  the  said  A  B  has  taken  an  appeal 

to  the court  of  the  County  of lfmwM|   now,  if  the  Bid  A  B  shall  prosecute  his  appeal  with  effect,  and 

pay  whatever  judgment  may  be  rendered  against  him  by  said  Court  upon  the  trial  of  said  appeal  or  by  consent, 
or,  in  case  the  appeal  is  dismissed,  will  pay  the  judgment  rendered  against  him  by  said  Justice,  and  all  costs  occasioned 
by  said  appeal  (or,  if  the  judgment  appealed  from  is  in  favor  of  the  appellant,  omit  the  words  "the  judgment 
rendered  against  him  by  said  Justice,  and  '' )  then  the  above  obligation  to  be  void;  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force 
and  effect.  A  B.  [seal.] 

Approved  by  me,  this    day  of 18..  CD,  1st*  l.  J 

John  Do*,/.  P. 


V- 


• . 


K 


~7 


THE  COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. 


495 


until  the  expiration  of  the  time  for  an  appeal, 
which  is  usually  twenty  days. 

The  execution  is  directed  to  the  proper  officer, 
and  is  in  the  following  form: 


to  be  levied  upon,  which  the  officer  is  not  willing 
to  seize,  and  in  such  case  an  indemnifying  bond 
is  generally  required  and  given,  the  condition 
of  which  is  that  the  plaintiff  will   pay  all  costs 


Execution  against  Property. 


State  of. 


. .  County.      |  **" 
The  People  of  the  State  of ,  to  any  constable  of  said  county — 

Greeting  : 

We  command  you  that  of  the  goods  and  chattels  of  A  B,  in  your  county,  you  make  the  sum  of dollars 

and cents  judgment,  and dollars  and   cents  costs,  which  C  D  lately  recovered  before  me  in  a 

certain  plea,  against  the  said  A  B;  and  thereof  make  return  to  me  within  seventy  days  from  this  date.    Given 
under  my  hand  this day  of    ...,18..  John  Doe,  /.  P. 


Execution  against  Body. 


State  of I 

County       1      • 

The  People  of  the  State  of ,  to  any  constable  of  said  county — 

Greeting  : 

We  command  you,  that  of  the  goods  and  chattels  of  A  B,  in  your  county,  you  make  the  sum  of dollars 

and cents  judgmei.  t,  and  . dollars  and cents  costs,  which  C  D  lately  recovered  before  me  against 

the  said  A  B,  and  for  want  of  such  goods  and  chattels  that  you  take  the  body  of  the  said  A  B,  and  him  convey 
and  deliver  unto  the  keeper  of  the  jail  of  said  county,  who  is  hereby  commanded  to  receive  and  keep  the  said  A  B 
in  safe  custody  until  the  said  sum  and  all  legal  expenses  be  paid  and  satisfied,  or  until  he  is  discharged  by  due 
course  of  law;  and  hereof  make  return  to  me  within  seventy  days  from  this  date. 

Given  under  my  hand  this day  of ,18..  John  Doe,/.  P. 


-£ 


This  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  constable, 
and  it  commands  him  to  levy  upon  and  sell 
enough  of  the  personal  property  of  the  debtor 
to  satisfy  the  judgment  and  make  return  within 
the  time  limited,  to  the  Justice,  showing  what  has 
been  done. 

Although  the  execution  has  been  delivered  to 
the  officer,  it  is  still  under  the  control  of  the 
plaintiff  and  the  officer  is  bound  to  obey  any 
lawful  direction  he  may  give;  but  in  case  of  in- 
terference by  him  he  may  lose  the  benefit  of  the 
execution,  and  also  his  remedy  against  the 
officer. 

The  constable  must  take  care  that  he  obtains 
sufficient  property  to  satisfy  the  judgment  if  the 
debtor  has  it,  and  it  is  not  exempt  by  law;  and 
on  the  other  hand,  he  must  be  equally  careful 
not  to  levy  upon  property  which  belongs  to 
others  or  which  is  exempt  from  execution  by 
law.     Sometimes   the  plaintiff  desires  property 


and  damages  which   the  officer  may   incur  by 
taking  such  property. 

If  the  constable  holds  the  execution  beyond  the 
time  when  he  is  directed  by  it  to  return  it  to  the 
Justice,  he  ordinarily  makes  himself  and  his 
bondsmen  personally  liable  for  the  amount  of 
the  judgment. 

ATTACHMENT. 

Where  the  debtor  is  a  non-resident  or  con- 
ceals himself  to  evade  service  of  the  summons, 
or  stands  in  defiance  of  the  officer,  or  has  con- 
tracted the  debt  by  means  of  a  ^alse  statement  in 
writing  signed  by  himself,  or  has  fraudulently 
concealed  or  disposed  of  his  property  within 
two  years  last  past,  or  is  about  to  do  so  or  to 
remove  his  property  or  effect  from  the  State  for 
the  purpose  of  hindering,  delaying  or  defrauding 
his  creditors,  but  has  property  within  the  juris- 


-^ 


r 


£? 


K~ 


496 


THE   COLLECTION    OF    DEBTS. 


diction  of  the  Justice  which  is  subject  to  levy,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  benefit  of  the  judgment 
being  lost  the  law  provides  that  a  writ  of 
attachment  against  the  property  may  issue  in 
the  first  instance,  upon  a  proper  affidavit  having 
been  made  and  filed  with  the  Justice  by  the 
plaintiff,  which  must  particularly  set  forth  the 
facts  and  is  about  as  follows: 


As  soon  as  the  writ  is  issued  it  is  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  constable,  who  will  levy  upon 
sufficient  property  to  pay  the  claim  and  all  costs. 
If  the  debtor  shall  be  found  the  writ  will  be 
served  on  him  in  the  same  way  as  an  ordinary 
summons  and  will  answer  the  same  purpose,  but 
if  the  debtor  is  no  found  then  the  constable 
will  indorse  upon  the  writ  what  property  he  has 


Affidavit  for  Attachment. 


State  of ( 

County  of. )  "• 

A  B,  being  duly  sworn,  says  :  That  (here  state  if  affiant  is  agent  or  attorney  of  the  creditor,  and  if  the  suit  it 
by  firm,  the  name  of  the  partners,)  has  a  just  demand  against  (name  of  debtor),  on  account  of  (here  make  short 
statement  of  the  nature  of  the  demand),  and  the  affiant  believes  (the  name  of  the  creditor)  is  entitled  to  recover  of  said 

(name  of  debtor),  after  allowing  all  just  credits  and  set-offs, dollars  and cents,  which  is  now  due,  and 

that  he  has  good  reason  to  believe  and  docs  believe  that  (name  of  debtor)  (here  state  some  one  or  more  of  the 
causes  which  authorize  an  attachment),  the  said  (name  of  debtor)  (here  state  the  residence  of  the  debtor  if  known,  or 
if  not,  that  the  affiant  has  made  diligent  inquiry  and  can  nut  ascertain  his  place  of  residence). 


A  bond  is  usually  required  from  the  plaintiff 
before  an  attachment  will  issue,  about  as  follows: 


seized  under  it,  and  that  he  has  been  unable  to 
find  the  debtor,  and  he  will  hold  possession  of 


Condition  of  Bond  for  Attachment. 


The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is  such  that,  whereas  the  above  bounden  hath,  on  the  day  of 

the  date  hereof,  prayed  an  attachment  at  the  suit  of against  the  personal  estate  of  the  above  named 

for  the  sum  of ,  and  the  same  being  about  to  be  sued  out,  returnable  on  the day  of ,  before 

(said  Justice).    Now,  if  the  said shall  prosecute  his  suit  with  effect,  or  in  case  of  failure  therein,  shall  well 

and  truly  pay  and  satisfy  the  said all  such  costs  in  such  suit,  and  such  damages  as  the  said may 

sustain,  by  reason  of  wrongfully  suing  out  the  said  attachment,  then  the  above  obligation  to  be  void;  else  to 
remain  in  full  force  and  virtue. 

Witness  our  hands  and  seals,  this day  of ,  18.. 


The  affidavit  and  bond  having  been  duly 
filed,  then  the  writ  of  attachment  will  issue 
usually  in  the  following  form: 


the  property  so  attached  until  the  case  is  tried. 
Notice  by  publication  or  posting  is  usually  given 
to  the  debtor,  and   in  case  the  plaintiff  proves 


Form  of  Writ  of  Attachment. 


Y- 


:h 


State  or 

County  of. . . 

The  Ptople  of  the  State  of. ...to  any   constable   of  said  county— Gkf.etim,  : 

Whereas,  A  B  (or  agent  or  attorney  of  A  B,  as  the  case  may  be)  hath   complained    that  E  F  is  justly 

indebted  to  the  said  A  B  in  the   amount   of dollars;  and   that  the  said   E  F  (here  state  the  cause 

as  in  the  affidavit)  and  the  said  A  B,  having  given  bond  and  security  according  to  law:  We,  therefore, 
command  you  that  you  attach  so  much  of  the  personal  estate  of  the  said  E  V  to  be  found  in  your  county, 
as  shall  be  of  value  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  said  debt  and  costs;  and  such  personal  estate  so  attached  in  your 
hands  to  secure,  or  so  to  provide  that  the  same  may  be  liable  to  further  proceedings  thereon,  according  to  law, 
before  the  undersigned  Justice  of  the  Peace.    And  that  you  summon  the  said  E  F  to  appear  before  me,  at  my  office, 

on  the day  of ,  next,  and  that  you  also  summon,  as  garnishees,  all  persons,  whom  the  plaintiff  or  his  agent 

shall  direct  to  appear  before  me  at  the  same  time  and  place,  then  and  there  to  answer  what  maybe  objected  against 
him  or  them,  when  and  where  you  shall  make  known  huw  you  have  executed  this  writ:  and  have  you  then  and 
there  this  writ : 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal,  this  day  of 18.. 

C  £>s  Justice  of  He  t,.i.  c.         [-sau] 


^ 


r 


THE  COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. 


497 


/ 


his  claim  when  the  suit  comes  on  for  trial  then  a 
special  execution  directed  only  against  the 
property  attached  is  issued,  and  unless  the 
debtor  has  been  served,  no  general  or  personal 
judgment  can  be  rendered  against  him,  but  it 
only  goes  against  the  property  which  has  been 
attached. 

If  the  debtor  desires  it,  whether  he  has  been 
served  or  not,  he  can  appear  at  the  time  and 
place  of  trial  and  contest  the  justice  of  the  claim 
or  the  right  of  attachment,  or  both,  and  the  two 
issues  so  presented  will  be  tried  and  determined 
as  in  ordinary  suits,  and  judgment  will  be 
entered  upon  the  verdict  or  finding  in  each  case. 

GARNISHMENT. 

One  of  the  most  usual  ways  of  obtaining  the 
benefit  of  attachment  is  by  serving  the  writ  on 
some  one  who  owes  money  to  the  principal 
debtor  and  who  is  named  as  a  garnishee,  and 
upon  such  service,  the  garnishee,  who  is  usually 
entitled  to  witness  fees  and  mileage,  is  bound  to 
appear  at  the  time  and  place  of  trial  and  be  ex- 
amined upon  oath  as  to  any  property  in  his  pos- 
session which  belongs  to  the  debtor,  or  any 
claims  due  to  him  from  the  garnishee,  and,  upon 
proper  proceedings  being  had,  a  judgment  will 
be  entered,  which  will  bind  the  garnishee  to  de- 
liver such  property  or  pay  such  claims  for  the 
benefit  of  the  plaintiff. 

In  case  a  final  judgment  has  been  obtained 
and  the  execution  returned  unsatisfied,  then,  by 
making  a  proper  affidavit,  a  garnishee  summons 
may  be  issued  and  serred  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  writ  of  attachment  upon  any  person  or  per- 
sons who  are  owing  money  to  the  judgment 
debtor,  or  who  have  in  their  hands  goods  or 
effects  belonging  to  him. 


LIEN  OF  WRIT. 

A  writ  of  execution  becomes  a  valid  claim 
and  binds  the  property  of  the  person  against 
whom  it  is  issued  from  the  time  it  is  delivered  to 
the  constable  or  other  proper  officer,  so  that  a 
sale  or  purchase  from  that  time  is  subject  to  be 
set  aside  and  the  property  applied  in  payment 
of  the  execution. 

This  is  of  great  importance  in  dealing  with 
persons  against  whom  writs  of  execution  have 
been  issued  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  offi- 
cer, because  no  valid  sale  can  be  made  of  such 
property  and  the  purchaser  gets  no  title.  A 
writ  of  attachment,  however,  only  becomes  a 
Hen  from  its  levy,  so  that  no  one  is  likely  to  pur- 
chase property  against  which  there  is  an  attach- 
ment. 


ARREST  BEFORE  SUIT. 

Although  imprisonment  for  debt  has  been 
abolished,  yet,  in  certain  cases,  in  most  of  the 
States  and  Territories,  persons,  against  whom 
there  are  claims  exfsting,  are  liable  to  be  arrested 
and  held  until  satisfaction  of  the  claim,  either 
because  the  claim  grows  out  of  some  wrong  that 
has  been  done  to  the  plaintiff  or  because  the 
debtor  refuses  to  turn  over  his  property  in  sat- 
isfaction of  an  execution.  The  writ  for  arrest 
is  called  a  capias,  and  is  very  seldom  used,  and, 
in  most  cases,  it  would  be  unsafe  to  employ  this 
remedy  without  legal  advice.  In  all  cases  an 
affidavit  and  bond  are  required  before  the  Jus- 
tice will  issue  the  capias,  which  will  be  about  in 
the  following  form: 


Form  of  Capias. 


State  of  » 

County  of } 

The  People  of tfte  State  of' to  any  constable  of  said  county — 

Gkeetixg  : 

You  are  hereby  commanded  to  take  the  body  of and  bring  him  forthwith  before 

me,  unless  special  bail  be  entered  ;  and  if  such  bail  be  entered,  you  will  then  command  him  to  appear  before  me 

at on  the day  of : at o'clock. .  ..M.,  to  answer  the  complaint  of 

A  B  for  failure  to  pay  him  a  certain  demand,  not   exceeding   $..   ;  and  hereof   make  due  return  as  the   law 

directs.    Given  under  my  hand  this day  of 18 

John  Doe,  J.  P. 


33 


498 


THE    COLLECTION    OF    DEBTS. 


When  the  capias  or  order  for  the  arrest  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  officer  it  is  a  warrant 
for  that  purpose  and  he  is  bound  to  arrest  the 
defendant  if  he  can  be  found  and  bring  him 
forthwith  before  the  Justice  who  issued  the  writ, 
unless  some  responsible  person  can  be  found 
who  will  become  surety  for  the  appearance  of 
the  defendant  forthe  trial.  This  is  called  "going 
bail  "  and  is  usually  in  the  form  of  a  short  under- 
taking signed  by  the  one  who  becomes  surety 
or  "  goes  bail." 

In  all  cases  the  Justice  indorses  upon  the 
back  of  the  capias  the  amount  of  bail,  which 
will  be  required  in  order  to  liberate  the  defend- 
ant from  arrest  pending  the  trial.  The  bail  is 
only  held  for  the  appearance  of  the  defendant 
at  the  time  and  place  of  trial  and  that  he  shall 
surrender  himself  in  execution  in  case  he  does 
not  pay  the  judgment  against  him,  and  if  he 
fails  to  appear  or  surrender  them  the  person 
who  became  surety  will  be  bound  to  pay  the 
amount  of  the  claim,  with  costs. 

Execution  against  the  body  may  also  be 
issued  after  judgment  as  above,  but  this  is  also 
unusual. 

PRIVILEGE  FROM  ARREST. 

Many  officials  and  many  persons  are  priv- 
ileged from  arrest,  particularly  voters  in  going 
to  and  returning  from  elections,  attorneys  and 
witnesses  attending  Courts  on  business,  and 
judges  and  other  officers  of  the  Court  and  in 
many  cases  militia  men  while  going  and  return- 
ing from  general  drills  or  musters. 


LEVY  AND  SALE  UNDER  EXECUTION. 

Although,  as  we  have  seen  that  the  execution 
becomes  a  lien  from  the  time  of  its  delivery  to 
the  officer,  in  order  to  ripen  into  a  title  and 
hold  the  property,  it  is  necessary  that  a  levy 
should  be  made  upon  the  property  which  is  to 
be  sold  to  pay  the  judgment  and  costs.  This 
requires  that  an  actual  seizure  of  the  property 
be  made,  and  that  the  officer  should  take  such 
possession  of  it  as  will  be  notice  of  his  claim  and 


will  exclude  the  owner  and  all  other  persons 
from  its  use  and  enjoyment. 

The  constable  is  required  to  advertise  the  sale 
generally  for  ten  days,  and  then  he  must  sell  at 
public  auction,  offering  the  property  in  such 
lots  or  parcels  as  will  probably  bring  the  great- 
est amount.  During  the  time  it  is  in  his  care, 
he  must  see  that  it  is  safely  kept  for  the  benefit 
of  all  parties;  and  in  case  an  unnecessary  sacri- 
fice must  result  he  must  postpone  the  sale  from 
time  to  time. 

It  is  his  duty  to  seize  enough  property  to  cover 
the  amount  of  the  judgment  with  interest  and 
costs,  remembering  that  the  property  is  to  be 
sold  at  a  forced  sale  and  that  it  will  probably 
not  bring  full  value;  but  at  the  same  time  he 
must  be  careful  not  to  make  an  excessive  levy 
as  he  would  then  be  liable  to  the  debtor  in 
damages. 

The  levy  must  be  made  according  to  the  nat- 
ure of  the  things  taken,  and  they  must  be  re- 
duced to  possession  so  far  as  can  reasonably  be 
done,  but  it  is  plain  that  a  pile  of  saw  logs  or 
building  materials  can  not  be  handled  in  the 
same  way  that  would  be  required  if  the  property 
were  portable  and  easily  stored. 

Notice  of  the  levy  must  also  be  posted  show- 
ing that  the  property  has  been  seized  and  for 
what  causes. 

After  the  sale  the  constable  should  indorse 
upon  his  execution  what  he  has  done  with  the 
property  upon  its  sale  and  the  amount  realized 
and  the  application  of  the  proceeds,  and  when- 
ever enough  is  obtained  to  pay  the  judgment 
with  interest  and  costs,  then  the  sale  should  be 
stopped  and  the  balance  of  the  property  be  re- 
turned to  the  debtor. 

The  execution  with  its  indorsement  of  sale 
remains  with  the  files  in  the  hands  of  the  Justice 
and  is  a  permanent  record  of  what  was  done  in 
the  case. 

LIEN  ON   REAL  ESTATE. 

When  the  plaintiff  fails  to  obtain  satisfaction 
of  his  judgment  out  of  the  personal  property  of 
the  debtor,  he  can,  in  most  States,  obtain  a  tran- 
script of  the  judgment  or  copy  of   the   docket 


IV 


~7 


THE    COLLECTION    OP   DET5TS. 


499 


entries  together  with  the  original  papers  in  the 
case  from  the  Justice,  and  file  the  same  with  the 
clerk  of  the  Circuit  Court. 

The  judgment  will  then  become  a  lien  upon 
the  real  estate  of  the  debtor  in  that  county  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  if  a  judgment  ren- 
dered in  the  Circuit  Court,  and  execution  will 
issue  and  the  land  may  be  sold  in  the  manner 
provided  by  law  for  the  satisfaction  of  judg- 
ments in  a  Court  of  Record. 

CREDITOR'S  BILL. 
Where  the  judgment  can  not  be  collected  by 
ordinary  process  of  law,  but  the  debtor  has 
assets  which  can  be  reached  by  a  bill  in  chan- 
cery or  proceeding  in  equity,  then,  if  the 
amount  is  sufficient,  this  may  be  done,  and  prop- 
erty held  in  the  name  of  others  for  the  benefit  of 
the  debtor ;  patent  rights  and  other  valuable 
interests  belonging  to  him,  but  which  can  not 
be  sold  on  execution,  may  be  subjected  to  the 
payment  of  the  debt.  This  is  done  by  putting 
the  debtor  and  those  who  are  claimed  to  hold 
rights  or  property  for  him  upon  oath  as  to  the 
extent  and  value  of  the  debtor's  interest,  and  by 
the  appointment  of  a  receiver,  who  is  entitled  to 
take  possession  of  the  property  in  question  ;  and, 
through  the  medium  of  the  Court  he  obtains 
all  the  rights  the  debtor  had,  in  order  to  secure 
a  sale  thereof  and  the  collection  of  money  suf- 
ficient to  satisfy   the  judgment  with  all  costs. 


This,  however,  is  a  somewhat  complicated  and  ex- 
pensive proceeding  and  is  not  usually  resorted  to. 

DOES  IT  PAY. 
The  usual  expense  of  a  suit  in  a  Justice's 
Court  is  from  two  to  five  dollars,  to  which  must 
be  added  all  expense  incurred  upon  execution 
or  through  the  other  means  taken  to  enforce 
collection  of  a  debt,  besides  lawyer's  fees,  if  one 
is  employed  ;  and  in  case  of  an  appeal  to  a 
higher  Court,  it  will  be  proportionately  greater. 
These  costs  are  made  up  of  many  small  items, 
as  the  Justice  is  entitled  by  law  to  a  small  fee 
for  every  paper  that  he  issues  or  files,  for  every 
continuance  granted  or  witness  sworn,  etc.,  so 
that  altogether  it  will  amount  to  about  the 
figures  stated  ;  but  these  costs  must  be  borne 
by  the  party  who  is  beaten,  and  if  a  judgment 
is  obtained  and  collected  the  plaintiff  receives 
them  back. 

CONCLUSION. 

It  is  plain  that  in  matters  of  importance 
where  suit  is  to  be  brought  in  the  upper  Court, 
or  difficult  points  of  law  are  involved,  it  is  neces- 
sary, in  the  first  place,  to  employ  a  lawyer  to 
attend  to  the  matter.  If  this  is  done,  always 
take  care  to  secure  a  competent,  honest  man, 
for  nothing  in  this  world  is  dearer  than  a  cheap 
lawyer. 


—>+<?+- 


THE  SINGLE  TAX  SYSTEM. 


We  hear  much  nowadays  of  the  "single  tax"  agitation.  There  is  a 
"single  tax"  league,  which  has  a  considerable  membership  throughout  the 
country  ;  public  meetings  in  the  interest  of  the  "  single  tax  "  are  held,  and 
several  newspapers  and  many  books  advocating  the  "  single  tax  "  are  pub- 
lished or  have  been  published      What  is  this  "single  tax"? 

It  is,  in  brief,  a  proposition  to  abolish  all  taxation  except  that  upon  land, 
or  the  value  of  land.  It  does  not  propose  that  even  buildings  shall  be  taxed, 
but  that  all  the  taxation  of  the  nat  on,  the  state  and  the  municipality  shall 
be  laid  upon  the  land  alone,  exactly  in  the  same  measure  whether  it  be 
built  upon  or  vacant,  but  in  proportion  to  the  value  which  it  possesses  from 
nearness  to  the  centers  of  population  or  business. 

The  "single  tax"  theory  is  based  upon  the  doctrine  that  the  land  right- 
fully belongs  to  all  the  people.  That  the  exclusive  possession  of  land  by 
individuals  is  not  right,  and  that  the  separate  ownership  of  land  might  be 
merged  into  a  sort  of  joint-stock  ownership  of  the  public  without  injustice, 
was  first  suggested,  in  England,  by  the  social  philosopher,  Herbert  Spencer. 
The  doctrine  received  a  much  fuller  statement  in  this  country  at  the  hands 
of  Mr.  Henry  George,  in  a  book  called  "  Progress  and  Poverty,"  first  pub- 
lished in  1870.  Mr.  George  is  accounted  the  founder  of  the  single  tax  sys- 
tem, and  is  the  head  and  front  ot  the  agitation. 

Mr.  George  and  his  followers  maintain  that,  under  the  present  system  of 
private  ownership  of  land,  the  burden  of  poverty  resting  upon  the  mass  of 
mankind  grows  heavier  as  the  world  makes  material  progress :  that  in  spite 
of  the  increase  in  the  world's  productive  power,  wages  always  tend  to  a 
minimum  which  will  give  but  a  bare  living.  They  hold  that  private  owner- 
ship of  land,  with  the  privilege  of  holding  it  for  speculative  purposes  and  of 
forcing  up  rents  as  population  and  industry  advance,  has  the  effect  to  put  a 


monopoly  ot  natural  opportunities  into  the  hands  ot  the  land-owners.  Tho 
natural  opportunities  being  thus  monopolized,  laborers  are  compelled  to 
compete  with  each  other  to  such  an  extent  as  to  force  wages  down  to  the 
lowest  possible  point 

As  they  hold  that  wages  ot  all  classes  of  laborers  depend  upon  the  pro- 
ductive cultivation  of  the  soil,  Mr.  George  and  his  followers  maintain  that 
the  true  remedy  for  poverty  is  to  make  the  land  common  property. 

They  do  not.  however,  propose  to  disturb  the  occupants  of  land,  so  long 
as  the  occupants  make  full  use  of  their  land.  They  propose,  on  the  con- 
trary, to  allow  the  possessors  of  the  soil  to  continue  to  buy  and  sell  and  be- 
queath it  But  they  do  propose  to  take  all  the  rent  by  taxation.  To  do  this 
would  make  the  occupant  of  the  land  a  tenant  paying  rent  to  the  state 

This  proposition,  which  was  first  known  under  the  name  of  "  land  nation- 
alization," has  since,  by  the  common  consent  of  its  advocates,  become  known 
as  the  "  single  tax"  movement,  the  efforts  of  its  friends  having  been  di- 
rected more  specifically  to  the  abolition  of  all  other  forms  of  taxation  They 
hold  that  the  removal  of  taxation  from  industries  in  general  would  stimulate 
manufactures  and  business,  at  the  same  time  that  it  destroyed  the  specula- 
t'on  in  land,  to  such  an  extent  that  the  general  prosperity  would  be  im- 
mensely increased  and  wages  greatly  raised. 

They  hold  that  the  revenue  from  the  single  tax  would  be  so  large  as  to 
enable  the  government  to  maintain  schools  and  coll-ges,  build  and  operate 
railroads  and  telegraphs,  and  do  many  things  which  it  does  not  now  en- 
gage in. 

Their  plan,  also,  of  course,  being  a  "single  tax,"  involves  the  abolition 
of  tariffs  upon  imports.    The  "single  tax"  men  are  absolute  free-traders. 


J^ 


T" 


K 


500 


THE    AUSTRALIAN    BALLOT    SYSTEM. 


7 


<§>   5"HE  AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT  SYSTEM 


ITS    OBJECT    TO    PREVENT    BRIBERY    AND    INTIMIDATION,    TO    PLACt    ALL    CANOIOATCm 
OM     AW     EQUALITY      BEfORE      TMI     LAW,     AND     TO      BMABH     POLITICAL     MACHINES. 


The  Australian  system  of  voting,  so  called  because  first 
used  in  Australia,  has  been  for  several  years  in  successful 
operation  there,  and,  with  non-essential  variations,  in 
England,  Scotland,  Ireland  and  Canada,  In  1888  it  was 
adopted  in  Massachusetts.  Its  principal  objects  are  to  pre- 
vent bribery  and  intimidation,  to  place  all  candidates  upon 
an  equality  before  ttie  law,  and  to  determine  the  danger- 
ous powers  of  political  machines. 

The  system  will  be  readily  understood  by  reference  to 
the  accompanying  drawing: 

The  voter,  upon  entering  the  polling  place,  turns  to  his 
right  at  the  point  marked  "Entrance,"  where  he  receives 
from  two  election  officers  selected  from  opposing  political 
parties  a  single  ballot  or  a  single  set  of  ballots,  according 
to  the  local  custom  of  voting.  On  the  back  is  indorsed  a 
stamp  or  signature,  sufficient  and  only  sufficient  to  identify 
the  ballot  as  official;  and  on  the  face  are  plainly  printed 
the  names  of  the  candidates  for  each  office,  with  a  designa- 
tion of  their  respective  political  parties,  after  this  manner: 


KuK    M.WdK, 

Vote  For  One. 

Democrat  it , 

Iota  Doc. 

Republican, 

Richard  Roe. 

Prohibition* 

David  Smith. 

Independent, 

Samuel  Jones. 

For  Coroners. 

Vote  For  Two. 

Democratic* 

Alanson  Jacobs. 

Harvey  Sylvester. 

Republican* 

Martin  Kawson. 

Wyman  Simpson. 

Prohibition^ 

Valentino  Remsen. 

Victor  Sampson. 

Independent* 

Krastus  Myers. 

Samuel  Bixby. 

PREPARING   A   BALLOT. 

Having  received  his  ballot,  the  voter  enters  one  of  the 
booths  back  of  the  railing,  where,  secluded  from  observa- 
tion, he  prepares  the  ballot  by  placing  in  the  blank  column 
a  cross  opposite  the  name  of  each  candidate  for  whom  he 
desires  to  vote;  or,  if  he  prefers,  by  writing  the  nann  1  ol 
candidates  of  his  own  nomination  in  place  of  those  already 
there.  If  there  are  several  candidates  for  the  same  kind  of 
office,  as  Coroners  in  the  sample  ballot  above,  or  Presi- 
dential Electors,  and  he  wishes  to  vote  the  "straight" 
ticket  of  his  party,  he  places  the  cross  under  the  name  of 
the  party,  or  draws  it  through  the  space  in  the  blank  column 
alloted  to  the  party's  candidates,  which  signifies  thai  he 
votes  for  each  candidate  named  in  that  space.  Thus,  in 
the  sample  ballot,  a  cross  under  the  word  "  Democratic," 
or  through  the  first  two  spaces  of  the  blank  column  to  the 
right,  is  one  vote  each  for  Alanson  Jacobs  and  Harvey 
Sylvester. 

After  preparing  his  ballot  by  indicating  every  candidate 
for  whom  he  votes,  the  voter  folds  it  in  such  manner  .is  to 
conceal  the  face  and  expose  the  indorsement,  and,  with- 
drawing from  the  booth,  gives  the  ballot  to  the  inspectors, 
who  identify  it  by  the  indorsement  as  official.  It  is  then 
deposited  in  the  box  and  the  voter  passes  out  at  the  gate 
marked  "  Exit." 

From  the  time  he  receives  his  ballot  until  he  casts  it,  the 
voter  is  permitted  to  have  no  communication  with  any  one 
but  the  election  officers,  and   with   them   only  for  official 


purposes;  and  only  election  officers  and   persons  actually 
engaged  in  voting  are  ever  admitted  within  the  railing. 

THE   TASMANIA!*   DODGE. 

Upon  proof  of  inability  from  physical  infirmity  or  illit- 
eracy, a  voter  may  call  into  the  booth  officers  appointed 
and  sworn  for  the  purpose  to  aid  him  in  preparing  his 
ballot ;  and  when  a  ballot  is  accidentally  destroyed  or 
defaced  it  may  be  exchanged  for  a  clean  one.  The  im- 
portance of  the  latter  requirement  may  not  at  once  be 
apparent;  but  to  secure  secrecy  every  ballot  delivered  to  a 
voter  must  be  either  cast  or  returned.  This  explains  the 
necessity  for  indorsing  ballots.  But  for  the  indorsement  a 
blank  paper  outwardly  resembling  a  ballot  might  be  cast  by  a 
voter,  who  would  then  be  able  surreptitiously  to  carry  away 
an  official  ballot.  This  could  be  prepared  for  a  bribed 
voter,  the  proof  of  its  use  being  his  production  of  a  second 
official  ballot.  That  could  be  similarly  prepared  and  used, 
and  so  on.  Such  a  fraud,  known  as  the  "Tasmanian 
dodge,"  was  successfully  perpetrated  in  Australia  in  the 
early  days  of  the  system;  but  its  repetition  was  prevented 
by  requiring  ballots  to  be  officially  indorsed. 

As  it  is  essential  that  ballots  be  printed  at  public  expense 
and  distributed  by  public  officers,  the  system  must  include 
some  mode  of  certifying  nominations  to  the  proper  authori- 
ties a  reasonable  time  before  election.  That  proposed  by 
the  Yates-Saxton  bill  of  New  York  was  perhaps  as  con- 
venient as  could  be  desired.  Under  it  State  nominations 
were  to  be  certified  fifteen  days  and  local  nominations  ten 
days  before  election;  nominations  of  a  political  party  which 
at  the  next  preceding  election  polled  3  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  vote  were  to  be  certified  by  party  officers;  and  inde- 
pendent nominations,  if  for  a  State  office,  were  to  be  certi- 
fied by  a  thousand  voters,  and  if  for  a  local  office  by  a 
hundred. 

SECRECY  OF  THE  BALLOT. 

Penal  laws  are  ineffectual  to  prevent  bribery  and  intim- 
idation. The  primary  remedy  is  a  secret  ballot.  And  this 
is  best  secured  when  the  only  proof  of  an  elector's  vote  is 
his  own  uncorroborated  assertion.  Under  the  Australian 
system  no  other  proof  can  be  made.  That  fact  gives  to  the 
most  timid  among  dependent  voters  a  sense  of  security 
which  makes  him  free.  And  to  briber)-  it  is  fatal.  Bribers 
are  not  likely  to  invest  money  on  the  faith  of  a  bribed  man's 
naked  assertion;  if  there  be  such  a  virtue  as  "  honesty 
among  thieves,"  it  is  not  acceptable  security  to  the  thieves 
themselves. 

But  secrecy,  though  the  primary  remedy  for  briber)'  and 
intimidation,  is  not  all  that  is  required  to  purify  elections, 
nor  the  only  remedy  the  Australian  system  offers. 

HOW  THE  TICKETS  ARE  PRINTED. 

The  printing  and  distribution  of  ballots  is  a  most   im- 
portant part  of  election  machinery,  and,  left  to  private  en- 
terprise, inevitably  tends,  as  docs  the  farming  out   of  any 
other  public  function,  to  breed   corruption   and   build   up 
monopoly.     It  makes  a  necessity  for  UTesponsibte  organi- 
zations which  come   to  wield  autocratic  power  over  tbi 
itical   party   they  claim  to  serve, and  in  turn,  through 
pline  almost  military  In  severity,  arc  dominated  by  an  inner 
circle  of  "  leaders.'      As  ballots  can  neither  be  printed  n«>r 
distributed   without   money,    and   may    not    be    faithfully 
handled  unless  trusty  workers  are  rewarded  with  more 
an  election  day  stipend,  the   organization    undrrt.ikii' . 
work    lias   ,1    plausible,  if  not   reasonable,  claim  for  11 
from  its  bem •ticiarios  and  official  patronage  for  its  retainers. 


~7-< 


M 


"711 


THE    AUSTRALIAN    BALLOT    SYSTEM. 


50I 


kl 


It  is  the  necessity  of  raising  these  funds  and  employingthe 
"  workers  "  that  justifies  assessments,  gives  color  of  volun- 
tary contributions  to  what  in  truth  are  sales  of  nominations, 
excuses  the  submission  of  official  patronage  to  the  distribution 
of  the  machine,  provides  ample  cover  for  collecting  a  corrup- 
tion fund,  and,  through  "workers"  at  the  polls,  a  convenient 
channel  for  disbursing  the  fund  in  bribes.  And  as  corrup- 
tion funds  increase,  masked  in  increasing  demands  for  legit- 
imate expenses,  assessments  grow,  the  price  of  nomina- 
tions rises,  independence  is  shackled,  and  the  organization 
becomes  more  indifferent  to  party  principle  as  its  monopoly 
of  political  power  strengthens.  Born  of  the  necessity  of 
volunteer  machinery  for  preparing  and  distributing  ballots," 
it  develops  into  a  powerful  instrument,  which,  in  the  hands 
of  political  jobbers,  enables  them  to  buy  and  sell  office  "  as 
the  Praetorians  sold  the  Roman  purple." 

EXIT  THE  MACHINE. 

The  political  monster  would  be  destroyed  by  the 
Australian  system.  If  the  State  assumed  its  function 
of  providing  ballots  there  would  be  no  necessity  for 
"workers"  at  the 
polls,  and  the  ex- 
cuse for  raising, 
as  well  as  the 
best  mode  of  using, 
corruption  funds 
would  disappear. 
Assessments  could 
not  then  be  levied 
upon  candidates, 
for  when  "  work- 
ers "  at  the  polls 
are  not  required  ma- 
chines can  neither 
serve  nor  injure. 
Nor  would  nomi- 
nations be  sold  ; 
for  when  ca  ndi- 
dates  stand  upon  an 
equality  in  respect 
to  election  machin- 
ery, and  there  is 
no  opportunity  for 

bribing  voters,  organizations  merely  as  organizations,  have 
nothing  worth  buying,  while  organizations  as  representatives 
of  principles  can  not  be  approached  through  commercial 
channels.  Trafficking  in  office  would  be  replaced  by  political 
discussion,  the  power  of  the  machine  by  the  voice  of  the 
party. 

SOME  OBJECTIONS  CONSIDERED. 

To  this  system  it  is  objected  that  by  requiring  nomina- 
tions to  be  made  in  advance  of  elections  it  denies  a  consti- 
tutional right  of  voters  to  select  candidates  from  the  whole 
body  of  voters.  From  such  eminent  authorities  as  Judges 
Cooley,  McCrary  and  Folger,  and  the  highest  courts  of 
Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts  and  New  York,  it  may  be 
safely  inferred  that  a  restriction  of  the  franchise  to  candi- 
dates nominated  a  short  time  before  election  is  a  reason- 
able regulation  and  not  an  unconstituional  interference  ; 
but  the  inference  is  not  necessary,  since  the  system  allows 
each  voter  to  reject  all  candidates  and  write  new  names 
upon  his  ballot. 

It  is  objected  also  that  by  requiring  the  blind  and  illiter- 
ate to  expose  their  vote  to  election  officers,  secrecy  of  the 
ballot  is,  as  to  them,  violated.  Under  our  present  system 
voting  is  not  secret.  It  was  for  that  reason  rejected  by  the 
British  Parliament  and  the  Australian  system  adopted. 
The  object  now  is  to  secure  secrecy,  but  in  aiming  at  that 
we  are  confronted  with  a  class  of  voters  to  whom  exposure 


of  their  ballots  to  somebody  is  necessary,  and  an  exception 
must  be  made  in  their  favor  to  prevent  their  disfranchise- 
ment. What  form,  which  shall  be  consistent  with  the 
highest  degree  of  secrecy,  can  that  exception  take?  If 
allowed  to  carry  their  ballots  away  these  voters  fall  into 
the  hands  of  irresponsible  and,  perhaps,  dishonest  persons, 
and  may  be  made,  innocently  or  otherwise,  instruments  for 
perpetrating  some  form  of  the  "  Tasmanian  dodge."  If, 
for  their  benefit,  official  ballots  are  generally  circulated,  all 
efforts  for  secrecy  are  frustrated.  And,  if  they  are  per- 
mitted to  take  a  "  friend  "  into  the  booth,  a  door  is  opened 
for  the  bribery  of  every  venal  voter,  who  is  or  can  success- 
fully pretend  to  be  unable  to  read  English.  Exposure  of 
ballots  must  be  prevented  by  every  means  t^iat  ingenuity 
can  suggest,  but,  in  exceptional  cases,  in  which  it  can  not 
be  avoided,  it  may  most  safely  be  confided  to  election 
officers,  who  represent  opposing  parties,  are  under  oath  of 
secrecy  and  fidelity,  can  be  readily  detected  in  malfeasance, 
and,  when  detected,  are  liable  to  severe  penalties.  As  to 
blind  voters,  this  seems  to  be  the  only  course,  but,  respecting 
the  illiterate,  any  exception  to  the  general  rule  may  be  avoid- 
ed by  identifying 
the  names  on  the 
ballots  with  num- 
bers or  by  printing 
them  with  inks  of 
different  colors. 

ITS   ADOPTION     IN 

THE    UNITED 

STATES. 

The  Australian 
Ballot  System  was 
practically  intro- 
duced into  the 
United  States  in 
188S  by  its  adop- 
tion by  law  in  the 
State  of  Massachu- 
setts and  the  city 
of  Louisville,  Ky. 
The  principle  of 
the  system  was 
embodied  in  the  Saxton  bill,  which  passed  the  New  York 
Legislature  in  the  sessions  of  18S8  and  1889,  and  was 
vetoed  both  times  on  the  ground  of  unconstitutionality. 
A  modification  of  the  Saxton  bill  was  introduced  in  the 
Legislature  in  the  session  of  1889,  but  was  not  passed ; 
another  bill  met  with  success  in  1890,  and  was  amended 
in  some  particulars,  without  changing  its  general  form, 
in  1891.  In  1889,  following  the  example  of  Massachu- 
setts, the  Legislatures  of  Indiana,  Montana,  Rhode 
Island,Wisconsin,  Tennessee,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Michi- 
gan and  Connecticut  passed  laws  adopting  the  system. 
Most  of  the  laws  passed  adhered  closely  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts form.  The  Connecticut  form  varied  from  it 
more  than  the  others.  In  1890  laws  which  are  more  or 
less  modifications  of  the  Australian  system  were  adopted 
by  Washington,  New  York,  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  Ver- 
mont, Wyoming  and  Oklahoma.  In  1891  Arkansas,  Cal- 
ifornia, Colorado,  Delaware,  Idaho.  Illinois,  Maine,  Ne- 
braska, Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  North  Dakota,  Ohio, 
Oregon,  South  Dakota,  West  Virginia  and  Arizona 
adopted  laws  based  on  the  Australian  system.  The  Au- 
stralian rule  of  placing  candidates'  names  on  the  ballot 
in  alphabetical  order  under  the  titles  of  offices  prevails  in 
California,  Massachusetts,  Kentucky,  Minnesota,  Mon- 
tana, Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  Oregon,  Rhode  Island, 
Tennessee,  Vermont,  Washington  and  Wyoming. 


5=^ 


502 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


»■,»;,•*».»,  «;,«>?»* 


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OF  THE 


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Assignments,  Attachments.  Chattel  Mortgages,  Divorce,  Exemptions,  Rights  of  Married  Women.  Deeds  and  their  Acknowledgment. 
Wills  and  Mechanics'  Liens.     Illustrations:  The  Coats  of  Arms  of  the  States. 


<P*- 


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ALABAMA. 


CteSZSa52SaS2S25ESE53E35F--257I5Z5ES; 


ASSIGNMENTS  are  regulated  by  statute,  which  forbids  prefer- 
ences or  any  provision  for  the  release  of  the  debtor.  There  is  no 
insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue 
upon  affidavit  of  the  creditor  or 
his  agent  that  the  defendant  is 
non- resident,  has  absconded,  dis- 
posed of,  transferred,  or  attempt- 
ed to  remove  his  property  out  of 
flie  State,  and  garnishment  pro- 
ccss  may  be  issued  in  aid  of  exe- 
cution. Judgments  do  not  con- 
stitute li< us.  Stay  of  execution 
is  allowed  in  justices'  courts  for 
thirty  to  sixty  days,  but  the  only 
way  (o  delay  the  collection  of  a 
judgment  of  the  Circuit  Court  is 
by  appeal,  which  requires  a  bond  for  double  the  amount,  legal  inter- 
est, damages  and  cost  of  the  appeal.  Under  the  Constitution  there  can 
be  no  imnrisonment  for  debt.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace 
ia  limited  to  $ioo. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  in  the  county  where 
the  grantor  resides,  also  where  the  property  is;  and  if  the  property  is 
removed  to  a  different  county  from  the  one  in  which  the  grantor  re- 
sides, must  there  be  recorded  within  six  months  from  the  removal. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  within  the  State  before  judges  of  a 
court  of  record  or  their  clerks,  chancellors  and  registers  in  chancery, 
yi  a  '  of  tin:  p  are  or  notaries  public.  Out  of  the  State  and  in  the 
United  States,  by  the  judges  and  clerks  of  any  court  of  record  in  any 
State,  notaries  public  or  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Governor, 
Out  >f  the  United  States,  by  the  judge  of  any  court  of  record,  mayor  or 
chi^f  >  Beer  of  any  city,  town,  borough  or  county,  notary  public  or  any 
di[>l>  i  uic.  Tonsillar  or  commercial  agent  of  the  United  States.  The 
wife  may  rolfnqnl  -U  her  ri  ;!it  of  dower  by  joining  her  husband  in  a 
conveyance  and  acknowledging  the  relinquishment.  The  husband 
mutt  j-tm  in  conveyance  of  the  wife's  separate  property.  Neither  seal 
nor  send!  is  necessary.     One  witness  is  required. 

DIVORCE  may  be  obtained  for  the  following  causes:  Impotcncy, 
ttdulterv,  desertion  for  two  years,  lia'-it  nil  drunkenness,  imprison- 
ment for tWO  vrurs  an  1  continued  cruelty.  An  allowance  must  be 
made  by  the  court,  out  of  the  husband's  estate,  lor  the  support  of  the 
wife  pending  suit;  also  an   allowance  when  the  decree  is  made.     The 


custody  of  minor  children  may  be  giyen  to  either  parent,  in  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  court. 

EXEMPTIONS  are  as  follows:  A  homestead  not  exceeding  160 
acres  of  land,  or  a  lot  in  a  city,  town  or  village,  with  a  dwelling- 
house  thereon,  not  exceeding  the  value  of  $2,000.  Personal  property 
to  the  value  cf  $i,coo.  May  be  selected  by  the  debtor.  Waiver  of 
exemption  is  not  valid  unless  joined  in  by  the  wife. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  bold  all  property,real  and  personal,  ac- 
quired before  and  aftermarriagc.  as  a  separate  estate  not  liable  forthe 
husband's  debts,  and  it  may  be  devised  or  bequeathed  as  by  a  single 
woman,  This  separate  estate  is  liable  for  debts  contracted  by  the 
woman  before  marriage,  and  for  contracts  after  marriage  for  articles 
of  comfort  and  support  of  family.  The  wife  is  entitled  to  dower  of 
one-half  of  husband's  real  estate,  if  he  leave  no  lineal  descendants, 
one-third  if  there  -  re  any,  provided  she  has  no  separate  estate  ;  if  her 
separate  estate  is  less  than  the  dower  interest  would  be,  she  is  entitled 
to  as  much  as  would  make  it  equal.  Women  attain  their  legal  ma- 
jority at  twenty-one,  but  may  marry  without  consent  of  their  parents 
at  eighteen. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  The  process  of  collecting  on  liens  is  by 
attachment.  Proceedings  must  be  commenced  within  six  months 
after  the  work  is  finished.  Mechanics,  contractors  and  laborers  have 
a  lien  for  work  and  labor  done,  or  materials  furnished;  laborers  and 
other  employes  of  railroad  companies  have  a  lien  upon  all  the  prop- 
erty of  the  company  for  work  done,  and  agricultural  laborers  have  a 
lien  on  the  crops  for  their  wages. 

WILLS  are  recorded  in  the  probate  judge's  office ;  two  witnesses  are 
required.  All  persons  over  twenty-one  years  of  age  can  dispose  of 
real  estate;  all  over  eighteen,  of  personal  property.  Married  women 
may  bequeath  their  separate  estau-s.  No  nuncupative  will  can  dis- 
pose of  more  than  five  hundred  dollars*  worth  of  property. 

ARIZONA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  No  insolvent  or  assignment  law  in  this  Territory. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  in  actions  upon  contract  for  direct  pay- 
ment of  money  whore  plaintiff  has  no  security,  or  when  defendant  Is 
a  non-resident.  The  plaintiff  must  give  bond.  Jurisdiction  of  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  The  statute  specifies  certain  classes  of 
property  on  which  mortgage  can  be  placed.  If  mortgagee  has  pos- 
B  of  property,  recording  U  not  necessary. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  at  any  place  in  the  Territory,  before 
a  justice  or  clerk  of  the  Supreme  Court,  or  of  any  court  of  record,  a 


V. 


_^i 


a.  v 
s 


justice  of  the  peace,  the  mayor  of  a  city  or  a  registrar  of  deeds.  The 
officer  taking  the  acknowledgment  must  affix  thereto  his  official  seal. 
All  rights  of  dower  and  curtesy  are  abolished.  The  wife  must  be 
examined  apart  from  her  husband  to  ascertain  if  she  acts  by  her  own 
free  will. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  carry  on  business  and  sue  and  be  sued 
tn  their  own  names.  All  property  acquired  before  marriage,  and  all 
afterwards  acquired,  by  gift,  grant,  devise  or  inheritance,  is  separate 
estate,  liable  for  her  own,  but  not  for  her  husband's  debts.  She  may 
control  it  and  dispose  of  it  in  all  respects  like  a,  single  woman. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Artisans,  builders,  mechanics,  lumber  mer- 
chants, and  all  others  performing  labor  or  furnishing  material  for  the 
construction  or  repair  of  any  building,  have  a  lien  upon  the  same  for 
the  labor  done  or  material  furnished.  Besides  liens  of  the  usual  de- 
scription, any  mechanic  or  artisan  who  alters  or  repairs  any  article  of 
personal  property  has  a  lien  thereon  to  secure  his  just  charges,  and 
may  retain  possession  until  he  is  paid. 

WILLS.  The  statute  provides  in  great  detail  the  manner  in  which 
wills  shall  be  executed.  Testators,  male  or  female,  must  be  twenty- 
one  j'ears  of  age.  Two  witnesses  are  required.  Nuncupative  wills 
cannot  dispose  of  more  than  three  hundred  dollars*  worth  of  property. 
Married  women  may  devise  their  separate  estate. 

ARKANSAS. 

ASSIGNMENTS  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  maybe  made  with  or 
without  preference.    Bond  must  be  given  by  assignee  in  double  the 

amount  of  property  assigned,  and 
all  property  received  under  as- 
signment must  be  sold  at  auction 
within  120  days. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue 
in  a  civil  action ,  at  or  after 
commencement  thereof,  against 
property,  where  defendant  is  a 
non-resident  of  the  State,  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  or  has  been 
absent  four  months  from  the  State, 
or  has  departed  from  it  with  in- 
tent to  defraud  his  creditors,  or 
has  left  the  county  of  his  resi- 
dence to  avoid  service  of  a  summons,  or  conceals  himself  so  that  a 
summons  cannot  be  served  upon  him,  or  has  transferred,  sold,  con- 
veyed or  removed  his  property  out  of  the  State,  or  is  about  to  sell,  re- 
move or  dispose  of  the  same  with  fraudulent  intent.  Under  a  written 
attachment  debts  due  the  defendant  may  be  garnisheed.  Plaintiff 
must  give  bond  with  sureties  to  pay  all  damages  defendant  may  sus- 
tain if  th'c  action  is  wrongly  maintained.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of 
the  peace  is  limited  to  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  proved  as  other  mortgages. 
They  may  be  filed  and  not  recorded,  at  the  option  of  the  mortgagee, 
and  are  liens  from  time  of  filing.  Before  sale  under  mortgage,  the 
property  must  be  appraised,  and  must  bring  two-thirds  of  the  ap- 
praised value,  or  it  is  reserved  from  sale  sixty  days.  At  second  offer- 
ing it  is  sold  for  what  it  will  bring. 

DEEDS  must  be  acknowledged  before  a  iudge  or  clerk  of  the 
Supreme  or  Circuit  Court,  judge  of  County  Court,  justice  of  the  peace 
or  notary  public.  Two  witnesses  are  required.  No  scroll  or  seal  need 
be  used.  When  husband  and  wife  convey  the  lands  of  the  husband, 
the  certificate  must  show  that  the  wife  acknowledged  the  relinquish- 
ment. 

DIVORCE  maybe  granted  for  impotency,  bigamy,  adultery,  con- 
viction of  felony, habitual  drunkenness,  wilful  desertion  for  one  year, 
cruel  and  barbarous  treatment.  Plaintiff  must  reside  in  the  State  one 
year  before  bringing  suit.    Court  may  allow  alimony  to  the  wife. 

EXEMPTIONS.  The  homestead  of  a  married  person  or  head  of  a 
family  in  the  country,  not  exceeding  160  acres,  with  improvements, 
not  to  exceed  $2,500.    Personal  property  of  married  person,  $500  be- 


sides wearing  apparel,  and  of  a  person  unmarried,  $200  and  wearing 
apparel. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  have  absolute  and  unqualified  right  in  prop- 
erty of  every  kind  and  are  not  liable  for  debts  or  contracts  of  the 
husband.  But  a  schedule  under  oath,  and  verified  by  some  other 
reputable  person,  must  be  made  by  the  husband  and  wife,  and  filed  in 
the  recorder's  office  of  the  county  where  the  property  is,  and  of  the 
county  where  they  reside.  The  wife  may  control  her  property,  may 
carry  on  business  on  her  sole  and  separate  account,  may  sue  and  be 
sued,  may  make  a  will  and  may  insure  her  husband's  life  for  her  ben- 
efit. The  widow  is  entitled  to  one-third  part  of  the  estate,  unless 
legally  relinquished  by  her. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Laborers  have  a  lien  on  the  product  of 
their' labor;  builde-s  and  mechanics,  on  all  buildings  for  which  they 
have  furnished  work,  labor  or  materials.  The  original  contractor 
must  file  his  lien  with  the  circuit  clerk  within  three  months  after  all 
the  work  shall  have  been  done  or  the  material  furnished. 

WILLS  are  recorded  in  the  Probate  Court  of  the  county  in  which 
most  of  the  bequeathed  land  is  situated  ;  but  if  only  personal  property* 
then  in  the  county  where  the  testator  died.  All  over  twenty-one 
years  may  devise  real  estate;  all  over  eighteen,  personal  property. 
Three  witnesses  are  required.  Married  women  may  devise  their  sep- 
arate property. 

CALIFORNIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  insolvent  law  by  which  a  debtor  surrender- 
ing his  property  may  receive  a  discharge  from  his  debts.  No 
preferences  permitted.  No  dis- 
charge in  case  of  fraud,  nor  from 
debts  due  as  a  depositary  of  funds 
received  as  banker,  broker  or 
commission  merchant.  Assign- 
ments are  not  allowed  unless  un- 
der this  law. 


ATTACHMENT  issues  in  an 
action  upon  a  contract  for  the 
direct  payment  of  money,  where 
the  contract  is  made  or  is  pay- 
able in  this  State,  and  is  not  se- 
cured by  any  mortgage  or  lien 
upon  real  or  personal  property, 
or  any  pledge  of  personal  property ;  or,  if  originally  so  secured,  such 
security  has,  without  any  act  of  the  plaintiff,  become  valueless.  Gar- 
nishee process  can  be  had  in  all  cases  where  property  is  liable  to 
attachment.    J  urisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES,  to  be  valid  against  third  parties,  must 
show  the  residence  and  trade  of  the  mortgageor  and  mortgagee,  the 
rate  of  interest  charged  and  when  and  where  it  is  payable,  and  mort- 
gageor and  mortgagee  must  each  make  affidavit  that  the  mortgage  is 
boTtaJide  and  made  without  design  to  defraud  or  delay  creditors. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  within  the  Stute  before  any  judge 
or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  recorder,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary 
public.  Without  the  State,  before  any  judicial  officer,  commissioner 
or  notary.  Husband  or  wife  can  convey  separate  property  without 
the  other  joining,  but  both  must  join  when  the  property  is  In  common. 
A  conveyance  by  a  married  woman  has  no  validity  until  acknowl- 
edged. Deeds  are  known  as  grants,  and  need  not  be  under  seal. 
Two  witnesses  are  required. 

DIVORCES  are  granted  for  adultery,  extreme  cruelty,  conviction  of 
felony,  wilful  desertion,  neglect  or  habitual  intemperance  continued 
for  one  year.    No  divorce  can  be  granted  by  default. 

EXEMPTIONS.  The  homestead  on  which  debtor  resides,  to  the 
value  of  $5,000,  if  he  is  the  head  of  a  family;  if  not,  to  the  value  of 
$1,000.  Personal  property  exempt  includes  chairs,  tables,  desks  and 
hooks,  $200;  necessary  household  and  kitchen  furniture, sewing-ma- 
chines, st:»ves,  beds,  etc. ;  provisions  for  family  forthree  months,  three 
cows,  four  hogs,  two  horses,  oxen  or  mules;  seed,  grain  and  vege- 
tables for  sowing,  not  above  $200  in  value ;  tools  and  implements  of 


V 


^ 


5°4 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THK    STATICS    AND    TKKKITOKIES. 


'    * 


a  mechanic  or  artisan;  instruments  of  a  physician,  surgeon  or  den- 
tist; professional  library  of  attorney,  minister,  editor  or  teacher;  a 
miner's  cabin,  not  exceeding  $500  of  value,  with  all  tools  and  gear 
necessary  for  bis  business,  not  exceeding  $500.  Two  horses  or  mules 
with  harness,  and  the  miner's  claim  worked  by  him,  and  not  exceed- 
ing $1,000  in  value,  are  also  exempt. 

MARRIED  'WOMEN.  AH  property  acquired  in  any  manner  before 
marriage,  or  afterwards  by  gift,  grant,  inheritance  or  devise,  is  wife's 
separate  property,  controlled  by  her  and  not  liable  for  debts  of  the 
husband.  The  husband's  property  similarly  acquired  is  not  liable  for 
debts  of  the  wife.  All  property  acquired  after  marriage  by  husband 
or  wife,  except  as  above, shall  be  common  property,  but  under  the 
husband's  control.  Dower  and  curtesy  arc  abolished,  but  the  sur- 
vivor takes  half  the  common  property  after  payment  of  debts  and 
expenses  of  administration.  A  married  woman  may  dispose  of  her 
separate  estate  by  will  without  the  consent  of  her  husband  and  may 
Insure  her  husband's  life  for  her  benefit. 

MECHANICS*  LIENS.  Mechanics,  laborers  and  material-men 
have  a  lien  on  buildings  for  work  done  or  materials  furnished.  An 
original  contractor  may  file  his  claim  within  sixty  days  ;  others,  within 
thirty  day*.  Suit  must  be  brought  within  ninety  days  from  the  date 
of  filing  the  claim.  A  lien  has  precedence  over  any  subsequent  or 
previous  unrecorded  encumbrance. 

WILLS.  Real  or  personal  property  may  be  disposed  of  by  will  by 
all  persons  over  eighteen  years  of  age.  Two  witnesses  are  required. 
Married  women  may  dispose  of  their  separate  property  without  con- 
sent of  their  husbands.  Nuncupative  wills  not  exceeding  $1,000  are 
valid,  but  must  be  reduced  to  writing  within  thirty  days. 

COLORADO. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  There  is  no  insolvent  or  assignment  law. 
ATTACHMENTS.  Where  defendant  is  a  non-resident  or  a  foreign 

corporation,  evades  service  or  at- 
tempts to  remove  his  goods  with 
intent  to  defraud,  plaintiff  m;iv 
obtain  a  writ  of  attachment  by 
making  affidavit  and  giving  suf- 
ficient bond.  Garnishee  process 
will  issue  in  aid  of  attachment 
where  sufficient  property  to  sat« 
isfy  the  same  is  not  found.  No 
civil  action  can  be  begun  by  ar- 
rest, except  in  cases  where  mal- 
ice, fraud  or  wilful  deceit  is 
shown,  when  execution  may  issue 
against  defendant's  body,  and  he 
may  be  imprisoned  not  exceed- 
ing one  year,  or  until  the  judgment  is  satisfied.  Jurisdiction  of 
Of  the  pMCfl  [l  limited  to  $300. 
CHATTEL  MORTGAGES,  to  be  valid  as  to  third  parties,  must 
be  acknowledged  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public  in  the 
district  where  grantor  lives,  unless  possession  of  the  chattels  actually 
passes.  If  the  mortgageor  retain  possession  the  mortgage  must  ex- 
pressly provide  for  such  possession  ;  otherwise  it  is  void.  Mortgage 
maybe  given  for  a  term  of  two  years,  and  after  default  mortgagee 
must  take  possession  without  delay,  or  his  lien  will  be  void  as  to  third 
parties. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  before  any  justice,  clerk  or  deputy 
clerk  of  the  Supreme  or  District  courts,  county  judge,  county  clerk  or 
n-<  order,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public.  Outside  of  the  State, 
before  the  Secretary  of  any  State  under  the  seal  of  the  Stud,  any 
authorized  officer  in  any  State  or  Territory  or  any  commissioner  of 
deeds.  Witnesses  are  not  necessary,  but  arc  desirable.  A  seal  is  re- 
<] iiirt td|  but  a  scroll  will  answer, 

DIVORCES  may  be  granted  for  adultery,  impotency,  bigamy,  wil- 
ful desertion  for  one  year,  habitual  drunkenness  for  two  years, 
cmivmii'  .riirllv  or  conviction  for  felony  or  infamous  crime.  One 
year's  residence  in  the  State  is  required  before  bringing  suit,  except 


where  the  offence  was  committed  in  the  State  or  while  one  or  both  of 
the  parties  resided  there. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  consisting  of  house  snd  lot  in  town 
or  city,  or  a  farm  of  any  number  of  acres,  in  value  not  exceeding 
$2,000,  is  exempt  if  occupied  by  a  householder  and  head  of  a  family, 
provided  it  has  been  entered  on  record  as  a  homestead  and  so  speci- 
fied in  the  title.  Personal  property,  including  wearing  apparel  of  the 
debtor  and  his  family,  pictures,  school  books,  library,  etc., And  house- 
hold furniture,  not  exceeding  $100;  provisions  for  six  months,  tools, 
implements  or  stock  in  trade,  $200;  one  cow  and  calf,  ten  sheep  and 
necessary  food  for  six  months;  working  animals  up  to  $xx>;  the 
library  and  implements  of  a  professional  man  up  to  $300.  The  head 
of  a  family  may  select  personal  property  to  the  value  of  $1,000;  others, 
to  the  value  of  $300. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  are  treated,  in  all  respects,  as  to  their  prop- 
erty rights,  as  if  they  were  single.  A  wife  may  carry  on  trade  or 
business,  sue  or  be  sued,  contract  debts,  transfer  real  estate,  and  in 
all  ways  bind  her  separate  property,  without  the  husband's  joining. 
She  may  make  a  will,  but  cannot  bequeath  more  than  half  her  prop- 
erty away  from  her  husband  without  his  consent  in  writing.  The 
husband  cannot  by  will  deprive  his  wife  of  over  one-half  of  his 
property.  Dower  is  abolished.  The  husband  is  liable  for  debts  of  the 
wife  contracted  before  marriage  to  the  extent  of  the  property  he  may 
receive  through  her,  but  no  further. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Any  person  furnishing  materials  or  doing 
labor  to  the  amount  of  more  than  $25  on  any  building  may  hold  a  Hen 
thereon.  The  principal  contractor  must  file  his  lien  within  forty  days, 
and  sub -con  tractor  within  twenty  days.  Suit  must  be  brought  within 
six  months. 

WILLS.  To  devise  real  property,  the  testator,  if  male,  must  be 
twenty-one;  if  female,  eighteen  years  of  age.  Either  may  bequeath 
personal  property  at  .seventeen  years  of  age.  Two  witnesses  are  re* 
quired.  Neither  husband  nor  wife  can  deprive  the  other  of  more 
than  one-half  the  property  by  will,  except  the  wife  receive  written 
consent  of  the  husband  allowing  her  to  do  so. 

CONNECTICUT. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  In  cases  of  insolvency,  the  Probate  Court  may 
appoint  a  trustee,  on  motion  of  a  judgment-creditor  for  over  $100, 
when  no  property  can  be  found 
to  attach.  On  the  hearing  which 
follows,  the  petition  may  be 
granted,  and  the  trustee  takes 
posseasion  of  all  property  not  ex- 
empt. An  allowance  is  made  to 
the  debtor  for  the  support  of  his 
familT',  and  if  the  estate  will  pay 
seventy  per  cent  he  receives  a 
full  discharge.  The  debtor's 
property  is  exempt  for  two  years 
from  legal  process  upon  debt* 
Which  might  have  bom  1 
Voluntary  assignments  1 
made  by  a  debtor  to  a  trustee 
chosen  by  himself,  but  the  court  of  probate  may  substitute  another. 

ATTACHMENTS.  In  cases  of  fraud  or  judgment  for  damages  for 
misconduct  or  ni-^ln  t,  dl  W  tnlant  maybe  arrested,  and  may  give  bail 
to  the  person  making  the  arrest.  Goods  concealed  in  the  hands  of 
agents,  or  money  due  the  judgment-debtor,  may  be  reached  by  foreign 
attachment;  and  no  assignment  of  future  earnings,  unless  recorded 
within  forty-eight  hours,  will  prevent  their  attachment  when  due. 
Where  goods  and  lands  cannot  be  found,  the  person  of  a  defendant 
may  be  attached.    J  urUdktiou  of  justices  of  the  peace  limited  to  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  like  deeds  of  real  es- 
tate. A  chattel  mortgage  of  property  not  perishable  in  its  nature  is 
good  although  the  grantor  retains  possession.  Property  exempt 
from  execution  is  also  a  proper  subject  for  a  chattel  mortgage. 


•X — - 


DEEDS  must  be  in  writing;  and  under  seal,  a  scroll  being  sufficient. 
Two  witnesses  are  required.  Acknowledgment  in  the  State  is  made 
before  a  judge  <>f  ;i  court  of  record,  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public, 
town  clerk,  commissioner  of  the  Superior  Court  or  commissioner  of 
the  school  fund.  The  wife  need  not  be  privately  examined  apart 
from  her  husband.  She  must  join  with  her  husband  in  conveyance  of 
her  separate  real  estate,  but  the  husband  conveys  his  property  without 
her  signature.  Dower  attaches  only  to  the  separate  real  estate  of  the 
husband  at  his  death. 

DIVORCE.  Absolute  divorce  may  be  granted  by  the  Superior  Court 
for  adultery,  fraud,  duress  or  force  in  obtaining  the  marriage,  wilful 
desertion  for  three  years,  seven  years'  absence  without  being  heard  of, 
habitual  intemperance,  intolerable  cruelty,  sentence  to  imprisonment 
for  life,  the  commission  of  any  crime  punishable  by  imprisonment  in 
the  State  penitentiary  and  any  such  misconduct  as  permanently  de- 
stroys the  happiness  of  the  petitioner  and  defeats  the  purposes  of  the 
marriage  relation.  Three  years'  residence  in  the  State  is  necessary 
before  filing  a  petition.  Either  party  may  marry  again  after  divorce, 
and  the  court  may  change  the  wife's  name  and  make  order  for  alimony 
and  custody  of  children. 

EXEMPTIONS.  There  is  no  homestead  exemption.  Personal 
property  is"exempt  as  follows:  Libraries  not  above  $500  in  value;  a 
cow  worth  $150;  ten  sheep,  not  over  $50  in  value;  two  hogs,  and  200 
pounds  of  pork.  Implements  of  trade,  the  horse,  harness  and  buggy 
of  a  practicing  physician,  and  the  boat,  not  exceeding  $200  in  .aim-, 
of  a  person  engaged  in  fishing,  and  used  for  that  purpose,  are  also 
exempt. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  Previous  to  the  year  1877,  the  husband  ac- 
quired a  right  to  the  use  of  all  the  real  estate  of  the  wife  during  her 
life,  and  if  he  had  a  child  by  her  and  survived  her,  then  during  his  own 
life  as  tenant  by  curtesy.  By  the  act  of  May  20th,  1877,  the  rights  of 
married  women  are  materially  enlarged.  Any  woman  married  after 
that  date  retains  her  real  estate  as  if  unmarried.  She  may  make  con- 
tracts, convey  real  estate  and  sue  or  be  sued  in  regard  to  any  property 
owned  by  her  at  the  time  of  marriage,  or  afterwards  acquired.  The 
estate  is  liable  for  her  debts,  and,  jointly  with  her  husband,  for  debts 
contracted  for  joint  benefit  of  both  or  household  expenses.  The  sepa- 
rate earnings  of  a  wife  are  her  sole  property.  Dower  exists  only  in 
real  estate  of  which  the  husband  is  possessed  at  the  time  of  his  decease. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Any  person  furnishing  materials  or  rend- 
ering services  exceeding  $25,  in  the  construction  or  repair  of  any 
building  or  railroad,  may  have  a  lien  on  such  building  and  land  upon 
which  it  stands,  or  upon  the  railroad  ;  provided  that  no  such  lien  shall 
attacli  to  any  estate  not  owned  by  the  party  against  whom  such  claim 
exists.  A  certified  claim  must  be  lodged  within  sixty  days,  and  the 
premises  may  be  foreclosed  as  in  the  case  of  a  mortgage.  A  person 
wishing  to  obtain  such  lien  shall  hie  with  the  town  clerk  a  certificate 
in  writing  describing  the  premises,  the  amount  of  the  claim  and  the 
date  of  the  commencement.  Vessels  are  subject  to  a  lien  for  work 
or  materials  furnished  exceeding  $20  in  amount,  claim  to  be  filed  within 
ten  days  of  the  completion  of  the  work.  Liens  for  mariners'  wages 
have  precedence. 

WILLS  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator  and  attested  by 
three  witnesses  in  his  presence  and  in  presence  of  each  other.  All 
persons  over  eighteen  years  of  a^e  can  bequeath  both  real  and  per- 
sonal property.  Wills  are  recorde  \  in  the  Probate  Court,  and  ten  years 
are  allowed  to  probate  a  will  after  tfie  death  of  the  testator. 

NORTH  AND  SOUTH  DAKOTA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences  are  allowed,  but  are  not  valid 
against  any  creditor  not  assenting  thereto,  if  they  tend  to  coerce  the 
creditor  to  release  his  claim,  or  provide  for  payment  of  fraudulent 
claim,  or  reserve  any  benefit  to  assignor  or  confer  any  power  on 
assignee  which  may  delay  the  conversion  of  the  assigned  property  or 
exempt  the  assignee  from  liability  for  neglect  of  duty.  No  insolvent 
law  is  in  force. 


ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  on  plaintiff's  giving  bond  when  de- 
fendant is  a  non-resident,  absconds,  conceals  or  conveys  property  to 
defraud  creditors.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to 
jjuoo  in  North  Dakota,  and  to  $joo  in  South  Dakota. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  are  void  unless  the  original  or  an 
authenticated  copy  be  deposited  with  the  register  of  deeds  in  the 
county  in  which  the  mortgaged  property,  or  any  part  of  it,  at  such 
time  is  situated.  Mortgage  must  be  signed  by  mortgageor  in  the  pres- 
ence of  two  persons,  as  witnesses  thereto,  and  no  other  proof  or, 
acknowledgment  is  necessary.  A  chattel  mortgage  can  be  created, 
renewed  or  extended  only  by  a  writing  subscribed  by  the  mortgageor, 
and  must  be  renewed  every  three  years. 

DEEDS  must  be  in  writing,  duly  signed  by  the  maker,  and  re- 
corded with  the  register  of  deeds  of  the  county  in  which  the  properly  is 
situated.  Acknowledgment  may  be  made  within  the  State  before 
a  justice  or  clerk  of  the  Supreme  Court  or  of  any  court  of  record,  a 
justice  of  the  peace,  the  mayor  of  a  city,  or  a  register  of  deeds.  The 
officer  taking  the  acknowledgment  affixes  thereto  his  official  seal. 
Outside  of  the  State,  before  a  justice,  judge  or  clerk  of  any  court 
of  record  of  the  United  States  or  of  any  State  or  Territory,  a  notary 
public,  or  any  other  officer  authorized  by  law  to  take  such  proof  or 
acknowledgment.  Outside  of  the  United  States,  by  the  represen- 
tative thereof  or  of  the  country  where  proof  is  taken  No  certifi- 
cate of  the  official  character  of  the  officer  is  needed  when  acknowl- 
edgment is  taken  out  of  the  State.  Conveyance  by  a  married  woman 
has  no  validity  until  acknowledged.  Dower  and  curtesy  are  un- 
known, and  the  wife  need  not  join  in  conveying  property  of  the  hus- 
band, nor  the  husband  in  conveyance  of  land  belonging  to  the  wife, 
except  in  case  of  homesteads,  when  both  must  concur  in  and  sign  the 
same  joint  instrument,  provided  the  owner  is  married  and  both  hus- 
band and  wife  are  residents  of  the  State. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  consisting  of  not  more  than  16b 
acres,  with  buildings  and  appurtenances  thereon,  and  personal  prop- 
erty defined  by  statute,  aggregating  in  value  not  to  exceed  $1,500,  is 
exempted  to  a  householder.  A  firm  can  claim  but  one  exemption, 
not  a  several  exemption  for  each  partner.  Tools  and  implements 
of  a  mechanic  to  the  value  of  $200,  books  and  Instruments  of 
a  professional  man  to  the  value  of  $600,  are  also  exempt  from 
seizure. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  transact  business  in  all  respect-  the 
same  as  if  unmarried.  Neither  husband  nor  wife  has  any  interest  in 
the  separate  estate  of  the  other.  The  earnings  and  accumulations  of 
the  wife  are  her  separate  property  and  not  liable  for  the  husband's 
debts  nor  even  for  household  debts  contracted  by  her  as  her  husband's 
agent.  Her  separate  property  is,  however,  liable  for  her  own  debts, 
contracted  before  nr  after  marriage,  if  such  debts  are  contracted  on 
her  own  responsibility, 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Mechanics,  laborers  or  material  •  men 
who  shall  perform  labor  upon,  or  furnish  materials,  machinerv  or 
fixtures  for,  any  building  or  other  improvement,  shall  have  for  such 
labor  performed,  or  materials,  machinery  or  fixtures  furnished,  a  lien 
upon  such  building  or  improvement,  also  upon  the  land  upon  which  it 
is  situate.  The  receiving  of  collateral  security  on  the  same  contract 
will  invalidate  the  lien. 

WILLS.  Both  real  and  personal  property  may  be  disposed  of  by 
will  by  all  persons  above  eighteen  years  of  age.  Two  witnesses  are 
required,  and  wills  the  body  of  which  is  in  the  testator's  handwriting, 
and  signed  and  dated  by  him,  need  not  be  attested.  Married  women 
may  dispose  of  their  separate  property  without  consent  of  their  hus- 
bands, A  will  made  by  an  unmarried  woman  is  revoked  by  her  mar- 
riage and  not  revived  by  the  death  of  her  husband. 


DELAWARE. 

ASSIGNMENTS  must  be  made  for  the  benefit  of  all    creditors 
alike.     Voluntary  assignments  are  governed  by  the  common  law.  ex- 


_M 


So6 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


. 


cept  that  a  special  partnership 
may  not  give  preferences.  The 
assignee  must  file  within  thirty 
days  a  schedule  of  property  as- 
signed, and  two  appraisers  are 
then  appointed  by  the  chancellor. 
A  domestic  insolvent  law  is  in 
existence,  providing  for  a  full 
surrender  and  equal  distribution 
of  all  property,  but  it  is  seldom 
used,  and  no  provision  is  made 
for  the  discharge  of  the  debtor 
upon  his  making  an  assignment. 
ATTACHMENT  may  issue  in 
domestic  cases  when  the  debtor  cannot  be  found,  when  defendant 
has  fraudulently  left  the  State,  etc.,  and  against  foreign  corporations 
or  non-residents  of  the  State.  In  both  cases  an  affidavit  setting  forth 
the  above  facts  must  be  given  by  the  creditor  or  some  responsible 
person  in  his  stead.  A  capias  may  not  be  issued  against  the  body  of 
any  debtor  until  an  execution  against  his  goods  has  been  returned 
unsatisfied.    Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  are  a  valid  lien  for  three  years  when 
recorded  within  ten  days  after  acknowledgment.  The  lien  of  a  pur- 
chase-money mortgage  recorded  within  sixty  days  after  it  is  made 
has  preference  over  any  judgment  against  the  mortgageor  or  other  un- 
known lien  of  a  prior  date.  Foreclosure  is  made  by  order  of  the 
court;  no  equity  of  redemption. 

DEEDS  must  be  recorded  in  the  county  in  which  the  land  lies 
within  one  year  after  the  sealing  or  delivery  thereof.  A  scroll  answers 
for  a  seal,  and  one  witness  is  sufficient.  Acknowledgments  may  be 
made  before  any  judge  or  clerk  of  record,  justice  of  the  peace  or 
notary  public.  Outside  of  the  State,  the  same  as  in  Alabama.  The 
wife  must  relinquish  her  right  of  dower,  must  be  separately  ex- 
amined, and  the  examination  certified. 

DIVORCE  may  be  granted  by  the  Superior  Court  for  adultery,  im- 
potency  at  the  time  of  marriage,  habitual  drunkenness,  extreme 
cruelty,  desertion  for  three  years  or  conviction  of  crime  sufficient  to 
constitute  a  felony.  In  the  case  of  marriage  by  fraud  or  for  want  of 
age,  the  wife  being  less  than  sixteen,  the  husband  being  less  than 
eighteen,  at  the  time  of  marriage,  absolute  divorce  or  divorce  from  bed 
and  board  may  be  granted,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court.  The  wife 
receives  all  her  real  estate  and  such  other  allowance  and  alimony  as 
the  court  may  decree  where  the  husband  is  proved  to  be  in  fault. 
Wilful  neglect  of  the  husband  to  provide  the  necessities  of  life  also 
forms  sufficient  grounds  for  divorce. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Family  pictures,  family  Bible  and  library ;  lot  in 
burial-ground  and  pew  in  church ;  family  wearing  apparel  and  tools 
and  implements  necessary  to  carry  on  business,  the  whole  not  exceed- 
ing  $75  in  value,  arc  exempt  from  attachment.  In  addition  to  the  above 
the  head  of  a  family  may  claim  $200  of  personal  property.  In  New- 
castle county  wages  of  laborers  are  also  exempt.    No  homestead  law. 

MARRIED  WOMEN,  married  since  1873,  retain  all  real  and  per- 
sonal property  held  at  marriage,  or  since  acquired  from  any  person 
other  than  the  husband,  as  their  separate  estate,  and  not  subject  to 
the  disposal  of  the  husband  or  liable  for  his  debts.  They  may  receive 
wages  for  personal  labor,  sue  or  be  sued  in  respect  to  their  own  prop- 
erty as  if  unmarried  ;  and  the  rents,  issues  and  profits  of  their  separate 
estate  are  not  controlled  by  the  husband.  The  widow  is  entitled  to 
one-third  dower  of  all  the  lands  and  tenements  whereof  her  husband 
was  seized  at  any  time  during  her  marriage,  unless  she  shall  have  re- 
linquished such  right  for  and  during  the  term  of  her  natural  life.  She 
may  be  an  administratrix,  and  the  husband's  life  may  be  insured  for 
her  benefit  if  premium  docs  not  exceed  $150. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Any  person  who  has  furnished  material 
or  performed  labor  to  an  amount  exceeding  $25  may  obtain  a  Hen  upon 
the  building  or  structure  for  which  such  labor  was  given  or  such  ma- 
terial furnished.    Claims  raiiat  be  filed  within  ninety  days,  and  con- 


tractors must  file  a  statement  within  thirty  days  after  the  expiration  of 
ninety  days  from  completion  of  the  building. 

WILLS  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  and  two  wit- 
nesses are  required.  Any  person,  male  or  female,  twenty-one  years 
of  age,  and  of  sound  mind,  may  dispose  of  real  or  personal  property. 
Married  women,  in  order  to  dispose  of  their  property  by  will,  must 
obtain  the  written  consent  of  their  husband,  signed,  sealed  and 
attested  by  two  witnesses. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  No  assignment  or  insolvent  law  is  in  force,  ex- 
cept that  assignments  of  the  property  of  a  special  partnership  with 
preferences  are  not  valid. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  by  plaintiff  giving  bond  when  the  de- 
fendant is  a  non-resident,  or  removes,  or  is  about  to  remove  bis  prop- 
erty, etc, 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  within  twenty  days 
after  execution.  In  case  of  bills  of  sale,  deeds  of  trust,  or  other  prop- 
erty which  is  exempt  from  execution,  the  mortgage  must  be  signed  by 
wife  of  grantor. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  before  any  justice  or  court  of  record 
and  of  law,  any  chancellor  of  State,  any  judge  of  Supreme,  Circuit, 
District  or  Territorial  Court,  any  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public  or 
commissioner  of  the  Circuit  Court  of  the  district  appointed  for  that 
purpose.  The  officer  must  annex  to  the  deed  a  certificate  under  his 
hand  and  seal.  Acknowledgments  outside  of  the  District  roust  be 
accompanied  by  certificate  of  the  register,  clerk  or  other  public  officer, 
under  his  official  seal,  that  the  officer  was  what  he  purported  to  be 
at  the  time  of  the  acknowledgment.  Deeds  made  outside  of  the 
United  Stales  may  be  executed  and  acknowledged  before  any  judge  or 
chancellor  of  any  court,  master  in  chancery  or  notary  public,  or  any 
secretary  of  legation  or  consular  officer  of  the  United  States. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Family  wearing  apparel;  household  furniture  to 
the  amount  of  $300;  provisions  and  fuel  for  three  months  ;  tools  or  in- 
struments necessary  to  carry  on  any  trade,  to  the  value  of  %ioa;  library 
and  implements  of  a  professional  man  or  artist  not  above  $300; 
family  pictures  and  library  to  the  value  of  $400,  and  a  fanner's  team 
and  other  utensils  to  the  value  of  $100,  are  exempt  from  attachment  or 
sale  on  execution,  except  for  servants'  or  laborer*'  wages.  There  is 
no  homestead  exemption. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  bequeath,  devise  or  convey  property  or 
interest  therein  in  the  same  manner  as  if  unmarried.  Real  or  per- 
sonal property  belonging  to  the  wife  at  marriage  or  afterwards  ac- 
quired is  separate  estate.  She  may  sue  and  be  sued  in  all  matters 
pertaining  to  her  property,  and  the  husband  is  not  liable  for  any  con- 
tracts made  by  her  in  respect  to  her  personal  estate. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Any  mechanic  or  laborer  or  material-man 
who  shall  perform  labor  or  furnish  materials  for  the  construction  or  re- 
pair of  any  building, shall  have  a  lien  upon  such  building,  and  the  land 
upon  which  the  same  is  situated,  for  such  labor  done  or  material  fur- 
nished, when  the  amount  exceeds  $jo.  Claims  must  be  filed  with  the 
clerk  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  District  within  sixty  days  after  the 
work  is  completed. 

WILLS.  To  dispose  of  real  estate  or  personal  property  by  will, 
males  must  be  twenty-one,  and  females  eighteen  years  of  age,  must  be 
of  sound  mind  and  capable  of  making  a  deed  or  contract.     Three  wit- 
nesses are  required.     Married  women  may  bequeath  their  m 
estate.    Wills  are  recorded  in  the  registry  of  wills. 

FLORIDA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  As  no  insolvent  or  assignment  laws  are  in  exist- 
ence In  this  State,  debtors  may  assign  their  property  with  or  without 
preference. 


V- 


\ 


\W 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


A 


5°7 


ATTACHMENT  may  issue  by 
plaintiff  giving  bond  with  two  se- 
curities in  at  least  double  the 
debtor  sum  demanded.  Adffia- 
vit  must  be  made  setting  forth  the 
amount  actually  due;  that  de- 
fendant is  a  non-resident,  and 
that  plaintiff  has  good  reason  to 
believe  he  is  about  to  part  with 
his  property  fraudulently  before 
judgment  can  be  obtained,  or 
intends  to  remove  from  the  State, 
or  to  fraudulently  secrete  his 
property,  etc.  No  arrest  is  al- 
lowed in  civil  actions,  and  no  imprisonment  for  debt  except  in  case 
of  fraud.    Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  limited  to  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded,  unless  property  is 
delivered  within  twenty  days  and  remains  in  the  possession  of  the 
mortgagee.  Unless  the  mortgaged  property  be  delivered  at  the  time 
of  execution  of  the  mortgage,  or  within  the  twenty  days,  and  unless 
such  mortgage  shall  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  record  for  the  county 
in  which  the  mortgaged  property  shall  be  at  the  time  of  said  execu- 
tion, the  mortgage  becomes  ineffectual  and  invalid.  Foreclosure  is 
made  by  bill  in  equity  or  petit. on  to  the  Circuit  Court  of  the  county  in 
which  the  property  lies. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  before  any  judge,  justice  of  the 
peace  or  notary  public,  or  before  the  clerk  of  a  Circuit  Court.  If  exe- 
cuted in  another  State,  or  foreign  country,  they  may  be  acknowledged 
the  same  way  as  in  Alabama.  Deeds  must  be  in  writing,  sealed  and 
delivered  in  the  presence  of  two  witnesses,  and  must  be  recorded 
within  six  months  after  the  sealing  and  delivery  of  the  instrument.  A 
scroll  is  sufficient  for  a  seal. 

DIVORCE.  Applicants  for  divorce  must  have  resided  two  years 
within  the  State.  Absolute  divorces  may  be  granted  only  by  the  Cir- 
cuit Courts.  Adultery,  impotency,  bigamy,  extreme  cruelty,  habitual 
intemperance  or  desertion  for  one  year  are  sufficient  causes.  Alimony 
may  be  granted  to  the  wife  by  the  courts,  and  provision  for  a  division 
of  property  when  a  decree  is  granted. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  of  160  acres  of  land,  together  with 
improvements,  in  the  country,  or  a  residence  and  one-half  acre  of 
ground  in  a  village  or  city,  is  exempted  to  the  head  of  a  family.  Also 
personal  property  to  the  value  of  $1,000.  No  property  is  exempt  from 
sale  for  taxes  or  for  obligations  contracted  for  its  purchase  or  for  the 
erection  of  improvements  thereon.  The  wages  of  every  laborer  who 
is  the  head  of  a  family  are  also  exempt  under  any  process  of  law. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  retain  all  real  or  personal  property  owned 
at  marriage  or  acquired  thereafter,  and  are  not  liable  for  the  husban  d's 
debts.  In  order  that  it  shall  be  free  from  his  debts,  the  property 
must  be  inventoried  and  recorded  within  six  months  after  mar- 
riage or  subsequent  acquirement  of  the  property.  The  wife  may 
sell  and  convey  all  real  estate  inherited  by  her  the  same  as  if 
she  were  unmarried;  but  her  husband  must  join  in  all  sales, 
transfers  and  conveyances  of  her  property,  both  real  and  per- 
sonal. She  is  entitled  to  dower  in  a  life  estate  in  one-third  of  all  the 
real  estate  of  which  her  husband  was  seized  and  possessed  at  his 
death  or  at  anytime  during  his  life,  unless  she  has  relinquished  the 
same;  also  an  absolute  one-third  of  his  personalty. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Mechanics  and  laborers  have  a  lien  upon 
a  building  for  which  they  have  furnished  labor  and  materials,  and  upon 
the  owner's  interest  in  the  lot  on  which  the  building  stands.  Claims 
must  be  filed  within  six  months  after  the  work  is  done  or  materials 
furnished,  and  suit  be  brought  within  one  year.  Agricultural  laborers 
have  a  lien  on  the  crops  cultivated  by  them  to  the  amount  of  their 
wages,  and  laborers  and  contractors  have  a  prior  lien  on  logs,  lumber, 
etc.,  for  their  labor  in  cutting  or  manufacturing  the  same  into  boards, 
laths  or  shingles.  Machinery  furnished  for  any  mill,  distillery  or 
manufactory  obtains  a  lien  to  the  extent  of  the  interest  of  the  tenant 
or  contractor. 


WILLS.  Any  person  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  of  sound  mind 
may  dispose  of  real  or  personal  property.  Three  witnesses  are  required. 
Nuncupative  wills  must  be  proved  by  three  witnesses  who  were  pres- 
ent when  it  was  made,,  and  such  will  may  be  reduced  to  writing  and 
sworn  to  within  six  days. 

GEORGIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  are  regulated  by  a  statute  which  permits  prefer- 
ences, except  by  special  partnership,  but  every  assignment  made  by 
a  debtor  insolvent  at  the  time, 
either  in  trust  or  in  behalf  of  a 
creditor,  is  fraudulent  and  null 
and  void  when  any  trust  or  bene- 
fit is  reserved  to  the  assignor,  or 
any  person  for  him.  There  is  no 
insolvent  law  and  no  imprison* 
ment  for  debt. 


ATTACHMENTS  may  issue 
by  plaintiff  filing  bond  in  double 
the  amount  involved,  when  de- 
fendant is  a  non-resident,  is 
about  to  remove  without  the  lim- 
its of  the  county,  absconds,  con- 
ceals himself,  or  resists  legal  arrest,  attempts  to  remove  property  be- 
yond the  State,  or  fraudulently  disposes  of  property,  or  threatens  or 
prepares  so  to  do,  or  creates  a  fraudulent  lien  thereon.  First  attach- 
ment levied  has  priority.  Garnishment  issues  in  aid  of  attachment  or 
judgment,  but  wages  of  journeymen,  mechanics  and  laborers  are 
exempt  from  garnishment.  Jurisdiction  of  justice  of  the  peace  is 
limited  to  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  within  thirty  days  in 
the  county  where  the  mortgageor  resides ;  and  if  the  property  is  situ- 
ated in  anothercounty.it  should  be  recorded  there  also.  Foreclos- 
ure by  affidavit  before  justice,  notary,  or,  if  non-resident,  before 
commissioner  for  the  State. 

DEEDS  must  be  attested  by  two  witnesses,  and  if  not  recorded 
within  one  year  the  deed  loses  priority  over  a  subsequent  deed  re- 
corded within  the  year.  A  deed  roust  be  in  writing,  under  seal  (a 
scroll  will  answer),  and  made  for  a  consideration.  Acknowledgments 
within  the  State  may  be  taken  by  a  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record, 
commissioner  of  deeds,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public.  In 
other  States  or  Territories,  by  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  Georgia, 
or  judge  of  court  of  record  in  the  State  where  executed,  with  a  certi- 
ficate of  the  clerk  under  the  seal  of  such  court  of  the  genuineness  of 
the  signature  of  such  judge. 

DIVORCE.  Grounds  for  total  divorce  are  as  follows:  Marriage 
within  the  prohibited  degrees  of  affinity  or  consanguinity ;  mental  or 
physical  incapacity  at  the  time  of  marriage;  force,  menace,  duress  or 
fraud  in  obtaining  it;  adultery,  wilful  desertion  by  either  party  for 
three  years,  cruel  treatment  by,  or  habitual  intoxication  of  either 
party,  or  sentence  to  the  penitentiary  for  two  years  or  over  for  any 
offence  involving  moral  turpitude.  No  total  divorce  may  be  granted 
except  by  the  concurrent  verdict  of  two  juries,  rendered  at  different 
times  of  court;  and  when  a  divorce  is  granted,  the  jury  rendering  the 
final  verdict  determines  the  rights  and  disabilities  of  the  parties. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Each  head  of  a  family,  or  guardian,  or  trustee  of 
a  family  of  minor  children,  and  every  aged  or  infirm  person,  or  per- 
son having  the  care  and  support  of  dependent  females  of  any  age, 
who  is  not  the  head  of  a  family,  is  entitled  to  realty  or  personalty,  or 
both,  to  the  value  in  the  aggregate  of  $1,600.  Said  property  shall  be 
exempt  from  levy  and  sale  by  virtue  of  any  process  whatever,  under 
the  laws  of  this  State,  except  for  taxes,  purchase -money  of  the  home- 
stead, labor  done  thereon,  or  material  furnished  therefor,  or  for  the 
removal  of  encumbrances. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  retain  as  a  separate  estate  all  property  in 
their  possession  at  the  time  of  marriage,  or  afterwards  acquired  and 
are  not  liable  for  any  debts,  defaults  or  contracts  of  the  husband.    By 


^J 


:«F 


5o8 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


consent  of  her  husband  advertised  for  four  weeks  she  may  become  a 
free  trader,  In  which  event  .s.!ie  is  liable  the  same  as  if  unmarried. 
The  wife  may  not  bind  her  estate  by  any  contract  of  suretyship,  either 
in  behalf  of  her  husband  or  any  other  person.  The  widow  takes 
dower  in  one-third  of  all  the  lands  of  which  her  husband  was  seized 
at  his  death;  and  wife  and  children,  after  the  husband's  death,  arc 
entitled  to  one  year's  support  from  his  property,  all  other  claims  yield- 
ing to  this. 

MECHANICS*  LIENS.  Mechanics,  not  having  taken  personal 
security,  have  a  prior  lien  on  the  property  built  or  repaired  by  them, 
which  lien  attaches,  without  regard  to  the  title,  in  said  property.  The 
claimant  must  have  substantially  complied  with  his  contract,  must 
have  recorded  his  lien  within  three  months  in  the  clerk's  office  of  the 
county  in  which  the  property  is  situated,  and  must  bring-  suit  within 
one  year  after  it  becomes  due.  Those  furnishing  machinery,  or  labor 
for  its  repair,  officers  and  employes  of  steamers  or  other  water  craft, 
millwrights,  and  builders  of  railroads,  have  a  like  lien  if  similarly  en- 
forced. Landlords  have  a  special  lien  for  rent  on  crops,  which  is 
superior  to  the  homestead  exemption  law,  and  to  all  other  liens 
except  for  taxes. 

WILLS  may  be  made  by  persons  of  either  sex  who  have  arrived 
at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years.  Three  witnesses  are  required.  Wills 
are  recorded  in  the  Ordinary's  Court.  Married  women  may  bequeath 
their  separate  estate. 

IDAHO. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  insolvent  law  exists,  under  which  the  debtor 
is  discharged  upon  making  an  assignment,  as  therein  provided,  except 
in  cases  of  fraud. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  in  actions  upon  contract  for  the  direct 
payment  of  money,  when  the  plaintiff  has  no  lien  or  security,  or  when 
the  defendant  is  a  non-resident,  etc.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the 
peace  is  limited  to  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  in  the  county  where 
the  debtor  resides ;  otherwise  they  ure  null  and  void  as  regards  credit- 
ors and  purchasers.  Record  should  also  be  filed  in  the  county  where 
the  goods  may  be.  Affidavit  must  be  made  as  to  good  faith,  and  no 
intention  to  defraud  creditors. 

DEEDS  must  be  acknowledged  the  same  as  in  Dakota;  they  must 
be  in  writing,  signed  and  scaled  (scroll  will  do),  and  no  witnesses  are 
required.  Dower  and  curtesy  are  unknown.  The  husband  must  join 
in  conveying  the  realty  of  the  wife,  who  must  be  examined  privatelv, 
certifying  that  the  act  13  free  and  voluntary,  without  fear  or  compul- 
sion, or  influence  of  the  husband,  and  that  she  does  not  desire  to  re- 
tract the  execution  of  the  same. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  worth  $5,000  is  exempted  to  a  house- 
holder who  is  head  of  a  family ;  either  husband  or  wife  may  select  the 
homestead.  Personal  property  is  also  exempted  to  the  value  of  $300. 
Exemption  does  not  extend  to  purchase* money  or  to  mortgages  on  the 

property. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  All  property,  both  real  and  personal,  owned 
at  marriage  or  afterwards  acquired,  by  either  wife  or  husband,  re- 
mains a  separate  estate.  All  property  acquired  after  marriage  is  held 
in  common.  Separate  property  of  the  wife  should  be  inventoried  with 
the  county  recorder;  the  husband  has  control  of  it  during  marriage, 
but  cannot  create  a  lien  or  encumbrance  unless  joined  by  the  wife, 
>vhu  i  I  uciunlned  ••'■paruiely.  If  the  husband  mismanages,  or  commits 
tba  District  Court  may,  on  application  of  wife,  appoint  a  trustee 
to  manage  her  separate  property.  Upon  the  death  of  husband  or  wife 
half  the  common  property  goes  to  survivor;  if  no  direct  descendants, 
all  goes  to  survivor. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  The  Improvement  and  development  of 
mines,  claims,  flumes,  bridges  and  ditches  come  under  the  law  of  me- 
chanicV  liens.  Claims  must  not  be  less  than  $35.  Original  contractor 
must  file  his  claim  within  sixty  days ;  others  within  thirty.     The  lien   | 


\M'  & 


expires  after  one  year  unless  suit  is  brought,  and  continues  in  force 
two  years  and  no  longer.  Mechanics  or  artisans  have  a  lien  on  arti- 
cles left  with  them  to  repair  or  alter,  and  may  sell  them  within  two 
months  unless  charges  are  paid,  provided  the  sale  be  advertised  for 
three  weeks. 

WILLS.  At  twenty-one  years  of  age  testator  may  dispose  of  realty, 
and  at  eighteen  of  personal  property;  two  witnesses  are  required. 
Married  women  may  dispose  of  their  separate  estate,  both  real  and 
personal.  Husband  must  leave  wife  one-half  of  common  property. 
The  will  must  first  be  recorded  in  the  Probate  Court,  afterwards  in  all 
counties  where  any  realty  is  conveyed  by  the  will. 

ILLINOIS. 

ASSIGNMENTS  are  made  without  preference,  and  all  debts  must 
be  paid  /  *v  rata.    While  no  provision  is  made  for  the  discharge  of  the 

debtor,  yet  all  proceedings  may 
be  discontinued  with  the  assent  of 
the  debtor  and  a  majority  of  the 
creditors  in  number  and  amount. 
The  County  Court  has  jurisdic- 
tion in  all  cases  of  assignment 
for  benefit  of  creditors.  Assignee 
must  file  bond,  inventory  and 
valuation,  and  send  notice  to 
creditors,  who  must  present  their 
claims  under  oath  within  three 
months.  Claims  not  so  presented 
do  not  share  in  dividends  until 
after  the  payment  of  all  claims 
properly  presented  and  allowed. 
Assignee  is  required  to  make  legal  division  among  creditors  at  the 
Ant  term  of  court  after  the  three  months  allowed,  and  to  render  final 
account  within  one  year.     No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  by  plaintiff  giving  bond  with  approved 
security,  in  double  the  amount  of  the  claim.  Plaintiff  must  also  make 
affidavit  to  one  or  more  of  the  following  facts:  That  the  debtor  Is 
non-resident,  conceals  himself,  resists  process  being  served  on  him, 
has  departed  from  the  State  or  is  about  to  do  so,  with  the  intention  of 
removing  his  effects  ;  or  has,  within  two  years  preceding,  fraudulently 
disposed  of  his  property,  or  a  part  thereof,  so  as  to  hinder  or  delay 
creditors;  or  where  the  debt  sued  on  was  fraudulently  contracted. 
Writs  may  issue  from  courts  of  record  on  claims  exceeding  $»,  from 
justices' courts  not  exceeding  $200,  and  in  county  courts  claims  may 
not  exceed  $1,000.  The  wages  of  any  person  who  is  head  of  a  family 
are  exempt  from  garnishment  to  the  amount  of  550.  Jurisdiction  of 
justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $joo. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  should  be  properly  acknowledged  and 
recorded,  although  as  between  the  parties  themselves  this  is  not  neces- 
sary. Property  must  be  fully  described  so  it  may  be  identified.  They 
are  invalid  as  to  third  parties  if  given  fur  longer  than  two  years,  or  if 
the  property  mortgaged  is  allowed  to  remain  in  poaseasion  of  the  mort* 
gageor,  unless  expressly  provided  for  in  the  mortgage.  A  mortgage 
given  on  a  stock  of  goods  is  fraudulent  as  to  third  parties,  if  the  mort- 
gageor  be  allowed  to  remain  in  possession  of  the  goods. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged  before  a  master  in  chancer)*,  notary 
public,  United  States  commissioner,  circuit  or  county  clerk,  justice 
of  the  peace,  any  court  of  record  having  a  seal,  or  any  judge,  clerk  or 
justice  of  any  such  court.  Outside  of  the  State  and  in  the  United 
States,  In  c»nformity  with  the  laws  of  the  State,  Territory  or  District 
where  made.  The  officer  must  be  authenticated  by  the  certificate  of 
the  county  clerk  or  clerk  of  record  under  his  official  seal.  If  before 
a  justice  of  the  peace,  it  must  be  certified  by  the  proper  clerk,  under 
the  seal  of  bis  office,  that  the  person  before  whom  the  acknowledg- 
ment was  made  was  a  justice  of  the  peace  at  the  time  of  making  the 
same.  No  deed  will  waive  homestead  right,  unless  expressly  stated, 
both  in  the  deed  and  certificate  of  acknowledgment  A  scroll  answers 
for  a  seal,  and  no  witnesses  are  required. 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


71 


5°9 


DIVORCE  may  be  granted,  where  complainant  has  been  a  resident 
of  the  State  for  one  year,  for  impotency,  bigamy,  adultery,  desertion 
or  drunkenness  for  two  years,  attempt  upon  the  life  of  the  other  by 
poison  or  other  means  showing  malice,  extreme  cruelty,  conviction  of 
felony  or  other  infamous  crime.  If  no  defence  is  interposed,  decree 
may  be  granted  on  testimony  of  complainant  alone ;  but  examination  of 
witnesses  must  be  had  in  open  court,  and  the  judge  is  required  to  be 
satisfied  that  all  proper  means  have  been  taken  to  notify  defendant. 
When  decree  is  granted  the  court  may  restore  the  wife's  maiden  name. 
During  pendency  of  suit  the  court  may  require  the  husband  to  pay 
such  sum  as  may  enable  the  wife  to  maintain  or  defend  the  suit,  and 
alimony,  when  declared  just  and  equitable. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  valued  at  $i, coo  is  exempted  to  every 
householder  who  has  a  family ;  such  exemption  not  covering  liabilities 
for  purchase-money  or  improvementof  the  homestead.  After  the  death 
of  a  householder  his  family  are  entitled  to  the  exemption  so  long  as 
the  survivor  occupies  it,  or  until  the  youngest  child  is  twenty-one  years 
of  age.  There  are  also  exempted  to  every  person  wearing  apparel, 
school  books,  family  pictures  and  family  Bible,  and  $100  worth  of 
other  property  selected  by  the  debtor.  In  addition  to  this,  $300  worth 
may  be  selected  by  the  debtor  if  a  head  of  a  family  ;  but  such  selection 
cannot  be  made  from  any  money  or  wages  due;  no  exemption  is 
allowed  when  the  debt  is  for  the  wages  of  laborer  or  servant;  $50 
of  wages  is  exempt  to  every  head  of  a  family  if  residing  with  the 
same. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  own  in  their  own  right  realty  and  per- 
sonalty, may  sue  and  be  sued,  contract  and  incur  liabilities,  the  same 
as  if  unmarried  ;  but  they  may  not  enter  into  or  carry  on  any  partner- 
ship business  without  consent  of  the  husband,  unless  abandoned  by 
him  or  he  is  incapable  of  giving  assent.  Beyond  the  necessaries,  the 
husband  is  not  liable  for  debts  of  the  wife,  except  in  cases  where  he 
would  be  jointly  liable  if  the  marriage  did  not  exist.  The  estate  of 
both  is  liable  for  family  expenses,  but  the  wife's  separate  earnings  are 
her  own.  A  surviving  wife  or  husband  takes  one-third  of  all  the 
realty  of  the  deceased,  unless  relinquished  in  due  form.  The  husband 
and  wife  are  put  upon  the  same  footing  as  to  dower,  and  the  estate 
of  curtesy  is  abolished. 

MECHANICS*  LIENS.  Any  person  who  shall,  as  principal  con- 
tractor, by  contract,  express  or  implied,  with  the  owner  of  any  lot 
or  piece  of  land,  furnish  labor,  material  or  services,  in  building, 
altering,  repairing  or  ornamenting  any  house  or  building  on  said 
lot,  shall  have  a  lien  upon  the  lot  or  building  for  the  amount  due 
him  for  such  labor,  material  or  services;  provided,  that  the  owner 
shall  only  be  liable  to  the  extent  of  his  interest  therein  ;  and  every  sub- 
contractor, mechanic,  workman  or  other  person  who  shall,  in  pursu- 
ance of  the  original  contract,  perform  any  labor  cr  furnish  any  ma- 
terials for  the  purposes  above  mentioned,  shall  have  a  lien  as  in  the 
case  of  principal  contractors,  the  aggregate  of  such  liens  not  to  exceed 
the  price  stipulated  in  the  original  contract,  unless  it  shall  appear  to 
the  court  that  the  owner  and  principal  contractor  designed  to  defraud 
sub-contractors  by  fixing  an  unreasonably  low  price  in  the  contract. 
When  the  contract  is  expressed,  if  the  time  stipulated  for  its  comple- 
tion is  beyond  three  years  from  its  commencement,  or  if  the  date  of 
payment  is  more  than  one  year  from  its  completion,  there  shall  be  no 
lien.  If  the  contract  is  implied,  no  lien  shall  be  had  unless  the  con- 
tract be  completed  within  one  year  from  its  commencement. 

WILLS.  All  males  twenty-one,  and  all  females  eighteen  years  of 
age,  may  dispose  of  real  and  personal  property.  Two  witnesses  are 
necessary.  Wills  are  filed  in  the  Probate  Court,  and  originals  remain 
there. 

INDIANA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  By  filing  with  the  recorder  of  the  county  in 
which  assignor  resides,  within  ten  days  after  its  execution,  an  indenture 
duly  signed  and  acknowledged,  setting  forth  a  full  description  of  all 
his  realty  and  accompanied  by  a  schedule  of  all  his  personalty,  to 
which  assignor  makes  oath,  any  debtor  in  embarrassed  circumstances 


may  make  a  general  assignment 
of  all  properly  m  trust  for  the 
benefit  of  all  bona  fide  creditors. 
Trustee  makes  oath  and  files 
bond  in  Circuit  Court,  also  copy 
of  assignment,  within  fifteen  days 
after  execution  of  indenture.  If 
the  trustee  named  fails  to  act,  the 
court  may  appoint  a  substitute 
upon  petition.  Trustee's  com- 
pensation is  fixed  by  the  court, 
and  dividends  are  declared  pro- 
rata on  all  claims  allowed  by 
trustee  or  the  court.  No  pro- 
vision for  discharge  of  debtor  from  his  liabilities. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  against  the  property  of  non-residents 
or  foreign  corporations,  and  against  all  who  have  disposed  of,  or  are 
about  to  dispose  of  their  property  to  defraud,  hinder  or  delay  credit- 
ors. Plaintiff  must  give  bond  to  answer  damages  if  proceedings  are 
unjust  or  oppressive.  An  affidavit  is  also  required,  which  may  be 
made  by  the  creditor  or  his  attorney.  All  creditors  who  file  under  the 
original  attachment,  before  final  judgment,  share  pro  rata  in  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  attached  property.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace 
is  limited  to  $200;  or  $300  upon  confession. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  are  not  valid  as  to  third  parties  unless 
recorded  within  ten  days ;  a  mortgage  of  perishable  articles  left  in  the 
hands  of  the  grantor,  with  right  to  use  the  same,  is  void;  a  mortgage 
on  a  stock  of  goods,  the  grantor  having  a  right  to  sell,  is  void ;  any 
mortgage  is  void  if  unregistered  and  the  chattels  left  with  the 
grantor;  so  also  is  a  recorded  mortgage  if  the  goods  are  left  unreason- 
ably long  with  the  grantor,  after  default  is  made  in  payment. 

DEEDS  must  be  in  writing,  and  acknowledged  and  recorded 
within  forty-five  days  from  their  execution  ;  seals  are  abolished  and 
witnesses  are  not  necessary;  dower  and  curtesy  are  unknown ;  hus- 
band and  wife  must  join  in  conveying  the  separate  estate  of  either. 
Acknowledgments  within  the  State  may  be  taken  before  a  judge  or 
clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  justice  of  the  peace,  auditor,  recorder,  no- 
tary, or  mayor  of  a  city;  in  other  States  and  Territories  before  similar 
officers  or  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  Indiana. 

DIVORCE.  Petitioners  for  divorce  must  be  bona  fide  residents  of 
the  State  for  two  years,  and  of  the  county  at  the  time  of,  and  for  at 
least  six  months  prior  to  filing  the  petition  ;  the  oath  of  two  resident 
freeholders  being  required  to  this  fact.  Decrees  may  issue  by  the 
Superior  or  Circuit  Court  for  the  following  causes;  Impotency  at 
marriage;  adultery  (where  connivance  or  collusion  is  not  proven); 
habitual  cruelty  or  habitual  drunkenness  by  either  party ;  abandon- 
ment for  two  years ;  failure  by  the  husband  to  provide  for  the  family 
for  a  period  of  two  years,  and  conviction  of  either  party  of  an  infa- 
mous crime  at  any  time  subsequent  to  marriage. 

EXEMPTIONS.  There  is  no  homestead  exemption;  any  resident 
householder  has  exempted  real  or  personal  property,  or  both,  to  the 
amount  of  $600  on  any  debt  founded  on  contract  since  May  31st,  1S79. 
On  debts  founded  on  contracts  made  previous  to  that  date,  exemption 
is  $300.  Exemption  does  not,  in  any  event,  affect  liens  for  labor, 
purchase-money  or  taxes. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  retain  all  realty  and  personalty  owned  by 
them  at  marriage,  or  afterwards  acquired,  and  are  not  liable  for  the 
husband's  debts.  The  husband  is  liable  for  debts  of  the  wife  con- 
tracted before  marriage  only  to  the  extent  of  the  personal  property  he 
may  receive  from  or  through  her,  or  derive  from  sale  or  rent  of  her 
lands.  She  may  sell  personal  property,  but  she  may  not  convey  or 
encumber  her  real  estate  unless  the  husband  joins.  Suits  against  her 
separate  estate  should  be  brought  in  the  name  of  both.  A  widow 
takes  one-third  of  her  deceased  husband's  real  estate  in  fee  simple, 
free  from  all  demands  of  creditors,  where  the  estate  does  not  ex- 
ceed $10,000;  where  the  estate  is  over  $10,000  and  under  $20,000,  she 
takes  one-fourth;  and  one-fifth  if  it  exceeds  $20,000.  She  also  takes 
one-third  of  the  personalty  after  payment  of  debts,  and  in  all  cases 


~T 


5"> 


/ 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


takes  $500,  without  accounting,  and   may  occupy  the   dwelling   and 
forty  acres  of  land  for  one  year,  rent  free. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  "Workmen,  contractors,  mechanics  and 
others  who  may  furnish  labor  or  materials  have  a  lien  on  the  land 
and  buildings  for  material  or  labor  furnished ;  the  statute  also  pro- 
vides a  lien  on  all  boats,  for  work  or  repairs,  or  wages  earned.  Em- 
ployes of  corporations  have  a  Hen  on  the  property  and  earnings  for 
all  labor  done, which  takes  precedence  of  all  other  claims.  Con- 
tractors have  a  lien  on  railroads  where  they  are  not  in  operation; 
commission  merchants  on  goods  left  for  storage,  artisans  on  articles 
left  for  repair,  and  landlords  on  crops  raised  on  leased  lands.  Notice 
must  be  filed  within  sixty  days  after  the  completion  of  the  work,  and 
suit  must  be  brought  within  one  year. 

WILLS.  All  persons  twenty-one  years  of  age  may  bequeath  both 
real  and  personal  property.  Record  must  be  made  in  the  office  of  the 
county  clerk  where  probated.  Two  witnesses  are  required.  Nuncu- 
pative wills  may  not  exceed  $100.  Married  women  may  dispose  of 
their  separate  estate. 

IOWA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences  are  allowed,  regulated  by 
statute.  A  debtor  may  make  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  all  credit- 
ors, with  inventory  and  schedule 
of  debts.  Claims  must  be  filed 
with  the  assignee  within  three 
months  after  publication  of  as- 
signment. Dividends  arc  made 
pro  rata  after  State  and  mu- 
nicipal taxes  have  been  paid  la 
full.  An  assignment  does  not 
discharge  the  debtor  from  all  lia- 
bilities. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  sub- 
stantially  the  same  as  in  Illinois. 
Upon  plaintiff  giving  bond  for 
penalty  and  making  affidavit  that 
defendant  is  a  non-resident  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  has  disposed  of  or  is  about  to  remove  his  prop- 
erty, intends  to  permanently  remove  from  the  State,  has  absconded  or 
concealed  his  property,  a  writ  of  attachment  may  issue.  Jurisdiction 
of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $100;  by  consent  of  parties,  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded 
the  same  as  deeds  and  other  conveyances.  The  mortgaged  property 
is  left  in  possession  of  the  mortgagee  unless  otherwise  provided. 
Sales  under  foreclosure  may  be  made  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
sheriff  sales,  and  foreclosure  may  be  made  by  sheriff  without  actio  1  ot 
court. 

DEEDS  must  be  in  writing,  signed  and  acknowledged;  no  seat  or 
scroll  is  necessary ;  no  witnesses  are  required.  Acknowledgments  la 
the  State  may  be  made  before  a  judge  or  clerk  of  any  court  of  record, 
county  auditor  or  his  deputy,  each  notary  or  justice  of  the  peace  in 
hts  own  county.  Out  of  the  State,  before  some  court  of  record,  notary 
public  or  justice  of  the  peace,  or  a  commissioner  for  the  State  of 
Iowa. 

DIVORCE  may  be  granted  by  the  District  or  Circuit  Court  of  the 
county  in  which  plaintiff  resides.  Plaintiff  must  declare  under  onth 
that  he  or  she  has  resided  in  the  State  for  one  year  next  preceding 
the  filing  of  the  petition,  unless  defendant  is  resident,  and  N 
personal  service  of  the  writ.  A  decree  may  issue  against  the  hus- 
band for  adultery,  wilful  desertion  for  two  years,  conviction  of  felony 
subsequent  to  marriage,  habitual  drunkenness  and  continued  ill-treat- 
ment. The  husband  may  obtain  a  decree  for  like  causes,  and  also 
when  the  wife  at  the  time  of  marriage  was  pregnant  by  aimtlur. 
Bigamy  or  impotency  at  the  time  of  marriage  is  also  a  sufficient  cause 
to  annul. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  in  country  of  40  acres,  or  in  town 
or  city  of  one-half   acre,  with   improvements  and  buildings  to   the 


aggregate  value  of  $500,  is  exempted  to  the  head  of  every  family.  If 
less  than  $500  in  value,  it  may  be  increased  to  that  amount.  It  is  not 
exempted  from  execution  for  the  purchase-money  thereof,  or  for  debts 
contracted  prior  to  its  acquirement.  Upon  the  death  of  either  hus- 
band or  wife  the  homestead  passes  to  the  survivor.  Professional  men 
are  allowed  their  libraries,  instruments,  etc.,  and  a  team  and  wagon; 
printers  retain  their  presses  and  type  to  the  value  of  %\  ,200.  The  head 
of  a  family  may  claim  wearing  apparel,  tools,  a  gun,  his  library  and 
furniture  to  the  extent  of  $200  in  value.  The  personal  earnings  of  the 
debtor  for  ninety  days  preceding  the  execution,  certain  stock,  with 
food  for  them  for  six  months,  a  pew  in  church  and  a  lot  in  a  burying 
ground  are  also  exempt.  Non-residents  and  unmarried  persons,  not 
being  heads  of  families,  can  only  claim  their  ordinary  wearing  ap- 
parel and  trunk  necessary  to  carry  the  same,  to  the  value  of  175. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  own  in  their  own  right  real  and  per- 
sonal property  acquired  by  descent,  gift  or  purchase,  may  sell,  convey 
and  devise  the  same,  may  sue  and  be  sued,  make  contracts  and  buy 
goods  in  their  own  name.  Wife  or  husband  are  not  liable  for  the 
debts  of  the  other  before  marriage,  or  for  separate  debts  incurred 
aftctwards.  The  wife's  earnings  are  her  own,  and  her  note  is  good 
against  her  own  estate.  Women  attain  majority  at  eighteen,  or  ear- 
lier upon  marriage;  a  female  of  fourteen  may  marry.  The  surviving 
wife  or  husband  is  entitled  to  one-third  of  the  real  estate  of  the  de- 
ceased, free  from  all  claims  of  creditors.  If  they  leave  no  children, 
survivor  takes  one-half,  parents  the  other  half. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Mechanics  and  workmen  have  a  Hen  upon 
buildings  and  improvements,  and  the  ground  upon  which  they  are  sit- 
uated, for  work  done  or  materials  furnished.  Railways  are  liable  for 
construction  and  improvements.  The  taking  of  collateral  security 
invalidates  a  lien.  The  lien  must  be  filed  by  principal  contractor 
within  ninety  days;  by  sub -contractor  and  others,  within  thirty  days- 
Suit  must  be  brought  within  two  years  after  filing  statement.  Liens 
have  priority  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  filed,  and  are  assignable; 
and  when  for  labor  alone,  they  are  exempt  from  execution. 

WILLS.  Testators  must  be  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Two  wit- 
nesses are  required.  Nuncupative  wills  cannot  exceed  $300  worth  of 
property,  and  must  be  sworn  to  by  at  least  two  disinterested  witnesses. 
Foreign  wills  must  be  probated  in  the  State. 

KANSAS. 

ASSIGNMENTS  must  be  for  the  benefit  of  all  creditors  alike,  and 
do  not  discharge  the  debtor.  Creditors  whose  claims  amount  to  more 
than  ten  dollars  are  notified  by 
th,  clerk  of  the  District  Court', 
and  a  meeting  Is  held  to  choose 
i.;nee.  Unless  a  majority 
of  the  creditors  are  present  the 
appointment  rests  with  the  court. 
Those  who  fail  to  appear  are  pre- 
cluded. One  month  is  given 
assignee  to  pay  out  funds  in  his 
hands  after  allowance  of  de- 
mands. The  property  must  be 
appraised,  and  assignee  is  in  all 
respects  subject  to  order  of  the 
court,  and  his  accounts  are 
ad  upon  by  a  commissioner 
bafaw  hJ*  discharge.  An  assignment  must  be  executed' and  recorded 
tne  same  as  any  conveyance  of  real  estate.    No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  arc  substantially  the  same  as  in  Illinois.  They 
may  be  had  agahnc  the  property  of  non-resident  debtors,  or  in  cases 
of  fraud  or  attempt  to  remove  or  secrete  property.  Moncv  or  prop- 
erty due  or  belonging  to  defendant  may  be  reached  by  garnishment. 
Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  S300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  need  not  be  acknowledged;  copy  of 
mortgage  deposited  with  register  of  deeds  in  county  where  mnrtgagcor 
livrs.    Mortgage  of  perishable  articles  left  in  the  hands  of  mortgagcor 


■7Z 


1A 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF   THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


;& 


5" 


with  right  to  use  them,  or  of  ;i  stock  of  goods  left  in  the  hands  of 
the  mortgageor  with  privilege  to  sell,  are  void  as  to  creditors  of  the 
mortgageor  unless  they  are  duly  notified. 

DEEDS  must  be  in  writing;  neither  seals,  scrolls  nor  witnesses  are 
required.  Acknowledgments  in  the  State  must  be  before  a  court  hav- 
ing a  seal,  a  judge,  justice  or  clerk  thereof;  a  justice  of  the  peace, 
notary  public,  county  clerk  or  register  of  deeds,  or  mayor  or  clerk  of 
a  city;  outside  the  State,  before  a  court  of  record,  or  clerk  or  officer 
holding  the  seal  thereof,  a  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace,  or  com- 
missioner appointed  by  the  Governor  of  Iowa;  if  before  a  justice  of 
the  peace  they  must  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  his  official 
character,  to  which  the  seal  of  some  court  shall  be  affixed.  No  sepa- 
rate acknowledgment  is  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  wife,  but  she 
should  join  the  husband  in  conveying,  whether  the  property  is  her 
separate  estate  or  not. 

DIVORCE.  To  obtain  a  decree  of  divorce,  p'laintiff  must  have  re- 
sided in  the  State  one  year,  and  must  bring  suit  in  the  county  of  resi- 
dence. Decrees  are  granted  in  the  Circuit  Court  on  the  following 
grounds:  Adultery,  impotency,  fraudulent  contract,  extreme  cruelty, 
habitual  drunkenness,  gross  neglect,  abandonment  for  one  year  or 
conviction  of  felony. 

EXEMPTIONS.  An  independent  fortune  is  exempted  in  this  State. 
A  homestead  of  160  acres  of  farming  land,  or  of  one  acre  within  an  in  - 
corporated  town  or  cit)',  with  buildings  and  improvements  thereon, 
with  no  limit  to  value.  The  head  of  every  family  is  allowed  personal 
property  as  follows:  The  family  library,  school  books  and  family 
Bible  ;  family  pictures  and  musical  instruments  in  use  ;  pew  in  church 
and  lot  in  burial  ground  ;  all  wearing  apparel  of  the  family,  beds,  bed- 
steads and  bedding,  one  cooking  stove  and  appendages  and  all  other 
cooking  utensils,  and  all  other  stoves  and  appendages  necessary  for 
the  use  of  the  debtor  and  his  family;  one  sewing-machine,  spinning- 
wheel  and  all  other  implements  of  industry,  and  all  other  household 
furniture  not  herein  enumerated,  not  exceeding  $500  in  value;  two 
cows,  ten  hogs,  one  yoke  of  oxen  and  one  horse  or  mule,  or  in  lieu  of 
one  yoke  of  oxen  and  one  horse  or  mule,  a  span  of  mules  or  horses  ; 
twenty  sheep  and  their  wool ;  food  for  the  support  of  the  stock  for  one 
year;  one  wagon,  two  plows,  drag  and  other  farming  utensils  not  ex- 
ceeding in  value  $300;  grain,  meat,  vegetables,  groceries,  fuel,  etc., 
for  the  family  for  one  year;  the  tools  and  implements  of  any  me- 
chanic, miner  or  other  workman,  kept  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on 
his  business,  together  with  stock  in  trade  not  exceeding  $400  in  value ; 
library,  instruments  and  office  furniture  of  any  professional  man. 
Residents,  not  the  head  of  a  family,  have  tools,  implements  and  stock 
iu  trade  up  to  $400.  No  personal  property  is  exempt  for  the  wages  of 
any  clerk, 'mechanic,  laborer  or  servant.  A  Hen  on  the  homestead  may 
be  created  by  husband  and  wife  joining  in  the  mortgage. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  have  the  same  property  rights  as  men,  and 
may  make  contracts,  carry  on  business,  sue  and  be  sued,  and  sell  or 
convey  real  estate  precisely  as  their  husbands ;  their  earnings  or  profits 
r.re  their  own.  A  note  or  endorsement  made  by  a  married  woman  will 
bind  her  property  the  same  as  if  unmarried.  Homestead  is  absolute 
property  of  widow  and  children,  and  neither  wife  nor  husband  may 
bequeath  more  than  half  their  property  without  written  consent  of  the 
other.  If  either  die  intestate  and  without  children,  the  entire  property 
goes  to  the  survivor, 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Mechanics,  workmen  and  others  perform- 
ing labor,  or  furnishing  materials  for  the  construction  or  repair  of  any 
building,  have  a  lien  on  the  building  and  the  whole  tract  of  land. 
Original  contractor  must  file  his  claim  in  the  office  of  the  Circuit  Court 
within  four  months;  sub-contractors  and  others,  within  two  months. 
Suit  must  be  brought  within  one  year.  Artisans  or  mechanics  may 
hold  articles  of  construction  or  repair,  and  if  charges  are  not  paid 
within  three  months  they  may  sell  the  same. 

WILLS  are  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Probate  Court;  if  made  in 
other  States  they  must  be  probated  in  the  county  where  the  property 
lies.  The  testator  must  be  twenty-two  years  of  age,  and  two  witnesses 
are  required. 


&lHSZS3SEHE5aS25E5'H5H5ZSH5E5aSal 


KENTUCKY. 

ASSIGNMENTS  are  regulated  by  statute.  Any  preference  may 
be  set  aside  in  six  months.    Trustee  must  give  bond,  and  settle  his 

account  in  two  years.  A  general 
assignment  for  the  equal  benefit  of 
all  creditors  may  be  made,  and  all 
claims  must  be  proven.  There  is 
no  provision  for  the  discharge  of 
an  insolvent  debtor  unless  debts 
are  paid  in  full.  No  insolvent  law. 
ATTACHMENT  issues  where 
defendant  is  non-resident  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  or  has  been 
absent  from  the  State,  evades 
service,  conceals,  attempts  to  re- 
move, disposes  of  or  conveys 
property  with  intent  to  defraud 
or  delay  creditors.  Plaintiff 
must  give  bond  in  double  the  amount  of  his  claim,  with  security. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  duly  acknowledged  and  re- 
corded, and,  except  as  to  craditors  having  actual  notice,  lake  effect 
only  from  the  time  they  are  recorded  in  the  county  clerk's  office. 
The  mortgaged  property  may  remain  in  possession  of  the  mortgageor, 
and  may  be  redeemed  within  five  years. 

DEEDS  executed  in  this  State  by  others  than  married  women  are 
acknowledged  before  the  clerk  of  a  County  Court,  or  may  be  proved 
by  two  subscribing  witnesses,  or  by  one  who  also  proves  the  attesta- 
tion of  the  other,  or  by  proof  of  two  witnesses  that  the  subscribing 
witnesses  are  both  dead  or  out  of  the  State,  or  one  so  absent  and  the 
other  dead,  and  like  proof  of  the  signature  of  one  witness  and  the 
grantor.  The  deed  of  a  married  woman  must  be  acknowledged  before 
a  clerk  of  the  County  Court,  who  shall  explain  to  her  the  contents  and 
effect  of  the  deed  separately  and  apart  from  her  husband  ;  if  she 
freely  and  voluatarily  acknowledge  the  same,  and  is  willing  for  it 
to  be  recorded,  he  shall  certify  the  same.  Deeds  made  by  residents  of 
Kentucky  must  be  recorded  within  sixty  days  from  the  date  thereof; 
four  months  is  allowed  to  non-residents,  and  if  living  out  of  the 
United  States,  twelve  months.  The  record  dates  from  the  time  when 
the  clerk's  fee  is  paid.  No  seal  or  scroll  need  be  used,  and  no  wit- 
nesses are  required. 

DIVORCE.  Before  a  petition  can  be  presented  for  a  decree  of 
divorce,  one  year's  continuous  residence  in  the  State  is  required. 
Jury  trials  are  not  permitted,  and  decrees  are  granted  by  courts  having 
equitable  jurisdiction.  An  absolute  divorce  maybe  granted  to  the 
party  not  in  fault  on  the  ground  of  adultery,  impotency,  etc.,  separa- 
tion for  five  years,  condemnation  for  felony  subsequent  to  the  mar- 
riage, force,  duress  or  fraud  in  obtaining  the  marriage,  or  uniting-  with 
any  religious  society  which  requires  a  renunciation  of  the  marriage 
contract.  Habitual  neglect  or  maltreatment  on  the  part  of  the  hus- 
band, or  where  the  husband  is  a  confirmed  drunkard,  may  give  the 
wife  a  divorce  ;  and  where  the  wife  is  proven  unchaste,  or  pregnant  by 
another  man  at  the  time  of  marriage,  the  husband  is  entitled  to 
divorce.  The  parties  are  free  to  marry  again,  and  their  personal 
property  is  restored. 

EXEMPTIONS.  To  bona  fids  housekeepers  with  a  family  are  ex- 
empted from  execution  and  attachment  for  debt:  A  homestead  to  the 
value  of  $1,000;  two  work  beasts,  or  one  work  beast  and  one  yoke  of 
oxen  ;  two  cows  and  calves;  one  wagon  or  cart;  two  plows  and  geat ; 
five  head  of  sheep;  provisions  for  family  and  provender  for  stock  for 
one  year ;  the  tools  and  stock  of  a  mechanic  who  is  a  housekeeper  and 
has  a  family,  not  exceeding  $200  in  value ;  libraries  or  instruments  of 
professional  men,  which  may  vary  in  value  from  one  to  seven  hundred 
dollars;  the  wages  of  a  laboring  man  to  the  amount  of  fifty  dollars, 
except  for  house  rent  and  necessaries. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  hold  real  or  personal  property  as  a  sep- 
arate estate  free  from  the  control  of  the  husband  or  liability  for  his 
debts.     By  petition  to  the  Circuit  Court,  in  which  the  husband  must 


Y- 


-M 


!C 


**1 — 


join,  she  may  acquire  the  right  to  transact  business  in  her  own  name. 
Unless  dower  be  barred,  forfeited  or  relinquished,  she  takes  one-third 
of  the  real  estate  and  one-half  of  the  personal  property. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Mechanics,  laborers  and  workmen,  under 
the  general  law,  have  a  lien  for  labor  performed  or  materials  furnished 
upon  the  improvements  and  interest  of  the  employer  in  the  land. 
8ub-contractors  and  workmen  have  a  lien  by  giving-  the  owner  written 
notice  of  their  claim,  and  that  they  look  to  the  land  and  improvements 
for  compensation.  Claims  must  be  filed  within  sixty  days.  Suit  must 
be  brought  within  six  months  after  filing  the  account. 

WILLS.  Any  person  twenty-one  years  of  age  may  make  a  will. 
The  will  must  be  proved  in  the  County  Court  of  the  county  where  tes- 
tator resided.  If  the  will  was  written  by  the  testator  himself,  only 
one  witness  is  necessary;  if  written  by  any  other  person,  two  witnesses 
arc  required.     Married  women  may  dispose  of  their  separate  estate. 

LOUISIANA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences  may  be  made  without  re- 
gard to  the  insolvent  law.     Under  the  State  laws  an  insolvent  debtor 

may  make  surrender  of  property 
to  creditors,  or  an  involuntary 
surrender  may  be  forced  by  any 
creditor  who  issues  an  execution 
which  is  returned  unsatisfied. 
Surrender  vests  all  property  in 
creditors,  and  stops  all  legal  pro- 
ceedings against  the  debtor;  the 
latter  must  file  sworn  schedules 
of  assets  and  liabilities.  The 
debtor  may  be  discharged  by  con- 
sent of  a  majority  of  creditors  in 
number  and  amount,  unless 
guilty  of  fraud  or  preference,  in 
which  case  he  is  deprived  of  the 
benefit  of  the  insolvent  laws,  and  is  liable  to  imprisonment. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  issue  on  application  of  creditor,  under  oath, 
when  the  debtor  is  about  to  leave  the  State  permanently,  without 
there  being  a  possibility  of  obtaining  judgment  against  him  previous 
to  his  departure;  when  the  debtor  resides  out  of  the  State;  when  he 
conceals  himself  to  avoid  service  of  suit;  when  he  has  or  is  about  to 
mortgage,  assign  or  dispose  of  his  property  with  intent  to  defraud  his 
creditors  or  give  an  unfair  preference  to  some  of  them  ;  and  when  he 
has  converted,  or  is  about  to  convert,  his  property  into  money  or  evi- 
dence of  debt  with  intent  to  place  it  beyond  the  reach  of  his  creditors. 
Defendant  must  give  bond  equal  to  the  amount  of  his  claim,  with  at 
least  one  solvent  surety.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is 
limited  to  $n jo. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  are  unknown  to  the  laws  of  Louisiana. 

DEEDS  may  be  acknowledged,  within  the  State,  before  a  no« 
tary  public,  parish  recorder  or  his  deputy,  in  the  presence  of  two  wit- 
nesses. In  other  States,  before  a  commissioner  of  Louisiana,  or  in 
conformity  to  the  laws  of  the  State  where  acknowledged.  The  hus- 
band  must  join  the  wife  in  conveying  her  real  estate,  and  authorize 
her;  in  disposing  of  his  own  real  estate,  the  wife  must  be  examined 
separately  and  renounce  all  her  rights. 

DIVORCE.  Sentence  of  cither  party  to  imprisonment  in  the  peni- 
tentiary is  sufficient  ground  for  divorce.  A  decree  may  also  be  ob- 
tained by  cither  party  for  adultery,  habitual  intemperance  or  cruel 
treatment  of  such  a  nature  as  to  render  living  together  insupportable. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  of  160  acres  of  land,  with  buildings 
and  improvements  thereon,  is  exempted  to  the  head  of  a  family,  if 
owned  and  occupied  as  a  residence,  together  with  personal  property, 
the  whore  not  to  exceed  $j,ooo;  all  wearing  apparel,  implements, 
stock,  etc.,  with  provisions  and  supplies  necessary  for  the  plum  it  um 
for  one  year.  If  the  wife  own  separate  property  in  her  own  right  to 
the  value  of  $j,ooo,  there  is  no  exemption. 


MARRIED  WOMEN  may  hold  and  control  both  real  and  personal 
property  owned  at  time  of  marriage ;  all  property  or  revenues  of  sep- 
arate property  acquired  by  either  husband  or  wife  after  marriage  is 
held  in  common,  and  is  divided  equally  between  them  at  dissolution 
of  the  marriage  either  by  death  or  divorce.  The  wife  may  carry  on  a 
separate  business,  but  her  husband  will  be  bound  by  her  contracts,  so 
long  as  the  community  of  property  exists;  she  cannot  sue  without  the 
concurrence  of  her  husband,  and  - '  s  cannot  hind  herself  or  her  prop- 
erty for  his  debts.    There  is  no  right  of  dower  to  the  wife. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS  are  known  as  "privileges;**  these  are 
allowed  to  architects,  contractors,  workmen  and  furnishers  of  mate- 
ria). For  all  work  exceeding  in  value  five  hundred  dollars,  the  agree- 
ment must  be  reduced  to  writing  and  registered  with  the  recorder  of 
mortgages.  To  be  of  effect  against  third  parties,  all  privileges  and 
liens  must  be  recorded  in  the  parish  where  the  property  is  situated. 

WILLS  of  four  kinds  are  recognized:  nuncupative  by  public  act; 
nuncupative  by  private  act;  mystic  or  sealed  wills,  and  olographic 
wills.  The  first  must  be  dictated  by  testator  to  a  notary  public  and 
read  in  the  presence  of  three  resident  or  five  Don-resident  witnesses, 
and  must  be  signed  by  the  testator  and  witnesses.  The  second  most 
be  written  in  the  presence  of  five  resident  or  seven  non-resident  wit- 
nesses, read  to  them  and  signed  by  the  testator  and  the  witnesses,  or  at 
least  two  of  them.  In  the  country  three  resident  or  five  non-resident 
witnesses  will  suffice,  if  more  cannot  be  obtained.  The  third  form, 
or  mystic  will,  is  first  signed  by  the  testator,  then  enclosed  in  an  envel- 
ope and  sealed  up.  The  testator  then  declares  in  the  presence  of  a 
notary  and  seven  witnesses  that  that  paper  contains  his  will,  signed 
by  himself,  the  notary  endorses  the  act  of  superscription  on  the  will 
or  envelope,  and  that  act  is  signed  by  the  notary,  the  testator  and  the 
witnesses.  Olographic  testaments  are  written  entirely  by  the  testator 
himself,  and  dated  and  signed  by  him.  No  attestation  or  other  form 
is  required.  The  following  cannot  act  as  witnesses:  Women  of  any 
age  ;  males  under  sixteen  ;  the  deaf,  dumb,  blind  or  insane  ;  those  de- 
barred by  the  criminal  law  from  exercising  civil  functions  ;  those  who 
stand  as  heirs  or  legatees  under  the  will,  except  in  case  of  mystic  tes- 
taments. 

MAINE. 

AN  ASSIGNMENT  without  preferences  may  be  made  for  the 
benefit  of  creditors,  who  have  three  months  thereafter  to  become  par- 
ties. All  property,  except  what 
is  lawfully  exempt,  of  the  insol- 
vent debtor  is  transferred  by  such 
assignment  and  may  not  be  at- 
tached for  six  months  after  first 
publication.  Only  creditors  who 
are  parties  to  an  assignment  arc 
benefited.  By  the  insolvent  law 
1S7S-79,  where  his  debts  exceed 
$.yx),  a  voluntary  petition  may  be 
filed  by  the  debtor.  For  involun- 
tary proceedings,  at  least  two 
creditors,  owning  one -fourth  of 
the  debts,  should  act.  Assign- 
ees, approved  by  the  court,  may 
set  aside  an  assignment  made  within  four  months  of  the  filing  of 
insolvency  petition.  They  dispose  of  the  property  and  divide  the 
assets.  The  insolvent  debtor  is  then  discharged.  Preferences  or 
fraudulent  conveyances  are  void.  Proof,  brought  within  two  years, 
of  fraud,  may  annul  the  discharge.  For  debts  of  less  than  three 
hundred  dollars  the  debtor  makes  a  general  disclosure  and  is  dis- 
charged, 

ATTACHMENTS.  All  property  not  exempt  by  law  is  liable 
to  attachment  for  debt;  neither  affidavit  nor  security  being  re- 
quisite, unless  the  creditor  is  a  non-resident.  Hv  consent  of  par- 
tics  or  by  appraisement,  attached  perishable  property  may  be  sold  at 
once,  and  the  proceeds  held  by  the  oAcar,  Upoa  affidavit  of  creditor 
of  his  belief  that  the  debtor  1»  going  to  It  w  e  the  State  and  take  away 
more  property  than  is  necessary  for  his  present  support,  and  that  his 


£ 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


5<3 


V 


claim  is  for  over  ten  dollars,  the  debtor  maybe  arrested.  Debtors 
under  arrest  may  make  complete  disclosure  and  be  discharged.  Any 
person  owing  an  insolvent  debtor  may  be  held  as  trustee  ;  but  claims 
for  wages  under  twenty  dollars  cannot  be  garnisheed  except  in  case 
of  debt  incurred  for  necessaries.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace 
has  been  transferred  to  trial  justices  and  municipal  courts. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  for  over  $30  must  be  recorded  where 
the  mortgageor  resides,  or  possession  of  properly  pass  to  mortgagee. 
Mortgageor  may  redeem  within  sixty  days  after  notice  of  foreclosure. 

DEEDS.  All  deeds  must  be  under  seal.  Within  the  State  ac- 
knowledgments are  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  a  notary  1 
public;  in  other  States,  before  a  magistrate,  justice  of  the  peace,  no- 
tary public  or  commissioner  of  deeds  for  this  State  ;  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, before  a  notary  public  or  United  States  minister  or  consul.  One 
grantor  may  make  the  acknowledgment.  The  wife  joins  to  relinquish 
dower. 

DIVORCE.  The  Supreme  Judicial  Court  grants  divorce  for  impo- 
tency,  adultery,  or  for  three  years'  wilful  desertion.  Alimony  may  be 
allowed  and  dower  if  the  husband  be  to  blame. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead  $500,  or  any  lot  purchased  from  State 
as  a  homestead;  $50  furniture,  $150  library,  $300  team,  $50  poultry, 
$100  sewing  machine,  $10  lumber;  cow  and  heifer,  ten  sheep  and 
lambs,  plow,  wagon,  mowing  machine,  a  two-ton  boat,  the  ilax,  raw 
and  manufactured,  from  one  acre  of  ground,  wearing  apparel,  pro- 
visions, fuel,  seed  grain,  provender  for  stock,  and  tools.  After  the 
debtor's  death,  his  family  has  the  benefit  of  the  exemptions. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  real  and  personal 
property,  acquired  in  any  way  except  from  the  husband,  the  same  as  if 
single.  She  may  make  contracts,  sue  and  be  sued  and  do  business 
in  her  own  name ;  and  her  property  may  be  takeli  to  satisfy  judgments 
against  her.  Her  property  is  liable  only  for  her  own  debts.  She 
joins  husband  in  a  deed  selling  his  property  to  relinquish  dower.  He 
joins  with  her  in  selling  hers  only  when  such  property  comes  from 
him.  A  wife,  being  abandoned  by  her  husband,  may  be  allowed  to 
take  and  use  his  personal  property.  Dower,  life  estate  in-one-third 
of  all  husband's  real  property  owned  during  coverture  ;  one-half  if  no 
children.    He  has  same  interest  in  deceased  wife's  estate. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN  on  buildings  holds  good  and  may  be  en- 
forced by  attachment  within  ninety  days.  Statement  must  be  filed 
within  thirty  days  after  work  is  done  or  material  furnished.  Lien 
against  vessels  four  days  after  launching. 

WILLS.  Three  disinterested  witnesses.  Testator  must  be  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  and  of  sound  mind.  Nuncupative  wills  must  be 
reduced  to  writing  within  six  days.  Wills  devising  real  estate  must 
be  recorded  the  same  as  deeds. 

MARYLAND. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Either  on  his  own  application,  or  that  of  two  or 
more  creditors  whose  claims  exceed  $250,  a  debtor  is  decided  to  be  in- 
solvent. Except  on  proof  of 
fraud  or  preference,  he  is  dis- 
charged by  surrender  of  his  prop** 
erty.  Claims  of  non-resident 
creditors  are  not  affected,  unless 
filed  in  the  proceedings.  Assign- 
ments without  preferences  or  pro* 
visions  for  release  of  debtor  are 
allowed. 

ATTACHMENTS  may  be  ob 

taincd  by  simple  affidavit  when 
defendant  is  a  non-resident,  or 
has  absconded;  and  by  affidavit 
with  security  in  double  amount 
of  claim,  where  plaintiff  believes  defendant  is  about  absconding,  or 
has  disposed  of,  or  intends  to  dispose  of  or  conceal  his  property  to 
defraud  his  creditors.  Attachments  reach  debtor's  property  whether 
in  his  own  hands  o,r  in  those  of  others.     Wages  for  loss  than  $100  not 


34 


yet  due  cannot  be  attached.  No  imprisonment  for  debt.  Jurisdiction 
of  justices  of  the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  have  scal.be  acknowledged  and 
recorded  within  twenty  days.  Before  recording  affidavit  must  be 
made  that  the  consideration  is  true  and  bonajide.  To  foreclose, 
mortgagee  gives  bond  and  twenty  days'  notice  before  sale.  Court 
must  confirm  sale. 

DEEDS  must  be  sealed  and  have  at  least  one  witness.  Acknowl- 
edgments within  the  State  are  taken  by  any  court  of  record,  or  justice 
of  the  peace  who  is  certified  to  under  seal  of  a  court  of  record.  In 
other  States,  by  a  notary  public,  court  of  record  or  commissioner  of 
deeds  for  Maryland.  In  foreign  countries, by  United  States  minister 
or  consul  or  notary  public  under  seal.  Wife  joins  husband  to  release 
dower.  No  separate  examination.  Deeds  must  be  recorded  within 
six  months  from  date  of  execution. 

DIVORCE.  Absolute,  for  adultery,  three  years*  abandonment,  or 
antenuptial  misconduct  of  wife.  Partial,  for  crueltv,  abandonment 
and  desertion.    Alimony  and  restoration  of  wife's  property. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Besides  wearing  apparel,  books,  and  tools  used 
for  earning  a  living,  there  is  exempt  other  property  to  the  value  of 
$100.    No  homestead. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  Property  acquired  by  a  married  woman  is 
her  own,  controlled  by  herself,  and  is  free  from  her  husband's  debts. 
She  conveys  by  joint  deed  with  the  husband,  but  devises  and  be- 
queaths the  same  as  if  single.  She  may  be  sued  with  her  husband  on 
joint  contracts  made  by  them,  and  the  property  of  both  is  equally 
liable.     Dower  one-third,  if  they  have  children;  one-half,  if  none. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN  is  to  one-fourth  of  the  value.  Lien  lasts 
four  ye-.rs  on  stationary  and  two  years  on  floating  property.  In 
Calvert,  Charles,  Kent  and  St.  Mary's  counties  there  are  no. liens  on 
stationary  property.  Notice  must  be  given  to  owner  within  sixty 
days  and  claim  filed  within  six  months. 

WILLS.  Age  twenty-one  for  males,  eighteen  for  females.  Three 
witnesses.    No  witness  needed  for  wills  granting  personal  property. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  all  creditors  is 
good  against  an  attaching  creditor,  but  maybe  voided  by  an  assignee 
in  insolvency.  One  creditor  may 
file  petition  for  bankruptcy  pro- 
ceedings. Discharge,  barring 
fraud  or  preference,  is  granted 
upon  payment  of  fifty  per  cent, 
or  by  consent  of  majority  in  num- 
ber and  value  of  creditors.  At- 
tachments less  than  four  months 
old  are  dissolved  by  insolvency 
proceedings. 

ATTACHMENTS.  All  unex- 
empted  property  is  liable  to  at- 
tachment, but  real  estate  may  not 
be  attached  in  suits  for  less  than 
$20.     Bond  with   good   security 

being  furnished  by  the  debtor,  the  attachment  is  dissolved.  The 
debtor  may  be  arrested  and  held  to  bail  on  sworn  testimony  that  he  is 
about  leaving  the  State,  and  that  he  has  property  which  he  is  reserv- 
ing from  the  payment  of  his  debts.  A  debtor  against  whom  a  judgment 
has  been  obtained  may  be  sworn  as  to  the  amount  of  his  prop- 
erty, and  if  he  refuse  to  surrender  it,  he  maybe  arrested.  He  may 
then  apply  for  relief  by  taking  the  poor  debtor*s  oath.  Jurisdiction 
of  trial  justices,  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  within  fifteen  days. 
Foreclosure  requires  three  weeks'  notice. 

DEEDS  require  to  be  under  seal.  No  witness  is  needed.  Ac* 
knowledgment  of  one  grantor  is  sufficient.  Wife  joins  to  bar  dower. 
No  separate  examination.  Acknowledgments  are  taken  by  justices  of 
the  peace  or  notaries  public.    In  other  States, by  justices  of  the  peace, 


^ aw. 


5M 


V 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


aotaries  public,  magistrates  or  commissioner  of  deeds  for  Massachu- 
jetts.  In  foreign  countries,  by  United  States  Consuls.  A  certificate 
of  his  official  character  should  accompany  the  acknowledgment 
taken  by  any  officer  other  than  the  commissioner  of  deeds. 

DIVORCE.  Unfaithfulness,  Incapacity,  three  years*  desertion,  cru- 
elty, drunkenness,  neglect  to  provide,  sentence  to  five  years' impris- 
onment and  joining  a  sect  which  disavows  marriage.,  are  grounds 
for  absolute  divorce.  Alimony  is  allowed,  and  where  the  husband  is 
at  fault  the  wife's  personal  property  is  restored. 

EXEMPTION.  Homestead,  $800  (must  be  recorded  as  such)  ;  fur- 
niture,  $300;  sewing  machine,  $ioo;  library,  $50;  tools  and  imple- 
ments, $100;  stock  in  trade,  $100;  boats  and  outfit,  $100;  one  cow; 
one  hog  and  six  sheep,  and  wages  under  $20. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman  is  man- 
aged by  herself,  and  is  not  liable  for  her  husband's  debts.  She  may 
make  contracts,  sue  and  be  sued  and  do  business  in  her  own  name, 
provided  a  certificate  is  filed  by  her  or  her  husband  in  the  office  of  the 
town  clerk.  Contracts  and  conveyances  between  husband  and  wife 
are  not  allowed.  Her  conveyances  of  real  estate  are  subject  to  hus- 
band's  tenancy  by  curtesy.  A  wife  cannot  make  a  will  affecting  her 
husband's  right  to  one-half  of  the  personal  property  and  his  tenancy 
by  curtesy  in  her  real  estate,  without  his  written  consent.  Dower  as 
by  common  law. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN  covers  building  and  the  lot  on  which  it  stands. 
A  lien  for  material  not  ordered  by  the  owner  will  be  defeated  un- 
less he  has  been  served  with  written  notice  when  furnished.  Claims 
must  be  filed  within  thirty  days,  and  suit  begun  in  rinety.  Bond  with 
security  to  pay  the  claim  dissolves  the  lien.  Timely  notice  in  writing 
from  the  owner  to  sub -contractors  or  journeymen  that  Tie  will  not  be 
responsible,  will  bar  a  lien  for  their  claims. 

WILLS.  Testator  must  be  of  full  age  and  sound  mind.  Three  wit- 
nesses. Bequest  to  subscribing  witness  is  void.  Will  of  a  married 
woman,  unless  by  consent  of  husband,  is  subject  to  his  rights  by 
curtesy.     Probate  within  thirty  days  after  death  becomes  known. 

MICHIGAN. 

ASSIGNMENTS  may  he  made  either  with  or  without  preferences, 
providing   no  intent  to   defraud   is   evident.     By  insolvent  law  the 

debtor,  with  consent  of  two- 
thirds  of  his  creditors,  surrenders 
his  property  and  is  discharged. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  when 
defendant  is  a  non-resident  or 
foreign  corporation.  Also  when 
he  is  about  to  remove  himself  or 
his  property  with  intent  to  de- 
fraud. Garnishment  whenever 
requisite.  Wages,  less  than  twen- 
ty-five dollars,  due  the  head  of  a 
family,  are  free  from  garnish- 
ment. Jurisdiction  of  justices  of 
the  peace,  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded.  Each  mortgage 
must  contain  provisions  for  its  own  foreclosure.  Mortgagee  must  file 
aitidavit  every  year  for  continuance. 

DEEDS  must  have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgment  before  judge 
of  court  of  record,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public.  When  a  mar- 
ried woman  joins  her  husband  In  a  deed,  her  acknowledgment  Is 
taken  separately.     Record  in  county  where  land  is  located. 

DIVORCE.  Absolute  divorce  may  be  granted  forincapaclty  at  time 
of  marriage,  adultery,  two  years' continuous  desertion,  drunkenness 
or  three  years*  sentence  to  Imprisonment.  A  life  sentence  dissolves 
the  marriage  without  any  proceedings  In  court.  Divorce  from  bed 
and  board  for  cruelty  and  neglect  to  provide.  Separation  of  property, 
duwer  and  alimony  as  per  statute. 


EXEMPTIONS.    Forty  acres  of  land,  with  improvements,  in  the 

country,  or  house  and  lot  worth  $f  ,500  in  town  ;  furniture,  $250 ;  library, 
$150;  two  cows,  five  hogs,  ten  sheep,  team,  tools,  provisions  and  fuel. 
No  exemption*  from  execution  for  purchase -money. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  own  and  control  property  the  tame  as  if 
■ingle.  A  wife  may  do  business  in  her  own  nam*  and  make  contracts, 
even  with  her  husband.  Her  separate  property  U  liable  for  wrong* 
committed  by  her.  Widow  has  dower,  but  there  U  for  the  snrrivins; 
husband  no  right  of  tenancy  by  curtesy. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Copy  of  contract  or  statement  of  agree- 
ment must  be  filed.  Lien  holds  for  six  months,  within  which  time 
suit  must  be  begun. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one.  Two  witnesses.  Witnesses 
may  not  be  beneficiaries.  Record  in  counties  where  lands  lie.  Nun- 
cupative wills  for  more  than  $300  not  allowed. 

MINNESOTA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Inventory  of  property  must  be  filed  within  ten 
days  after  making  an  assignment.  Order  of  payments:  First,  debts 
due  the  United  States,  or  the 
State  of  Minnesota,  in  full;  sec- 
ond, wages  for  labor  and  ser- 
vice within  three  months  preced- 
ing the  assignment,  in  full  if 
there  be  sufficient,  otherwise 
fro  rata;  third,  all  other  debts. 
No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  issued 
on  plaintiff  giving  bond  in  double 
amount,  and  making  affidavit 
that  he  believes  defendant  is  a 
non-resident,  has  absconded  or 
is  about  to  abscond,  that  he  has 
removed  or  is  about  to  remove 
his  property;  that  he  conceals  himself  to  avoid  summons;  that  he  has 
fraudulently  contracted  the  debt,  or  fraudulently  evades  payment.  No 
arrest  for  debt.    Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded 
where  mortgageor  resides,  and  also  where  the  property  is.  They  hold 
good  for  two  years  without  renewal.  If  no  special  terms  in  the  in- 
strument, there  must  be  three  weeks*  notice  to  foreclose. 

DEEDS  require  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  are  taken, 
within  the  State,  by  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public,  register  of 
deeds,  court  commissioner,  county  auditor  or  judge  or  clerk  of  court  of 
record.  Outside  of  the  State,  by  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace, 
judge  of  court  of  record  or  commisioner  for  this  State.  Wife  join*  to 
release  dower,  but  need  not  be  questioned  separately. 

DIVORCE.  Absolute  divorce  for  unfaithfulness,  incapacity,  three 
years'  abandonment,  one  year's  drunkenness,  cruel  treatment  *>r  sen- 
tence to  State's  prison.  Limited  divorce  for  abuse,  desertion  or  fail- 
ure to  support.  Plaintiff,  except  where  breach  of  faith  occurred  in  the 
State,  must  have  been  one  year  a  resident.  The  court  may  order  ali- 
mony and  custody  of  children,  and  the  wife  regains  possession  of 
her  real  estate,  unless  decree  has  been  obtained  on  account  of  her  bad 
conduct. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Eighty  acres  with  Improvement*,  in  country,  or 
lot  with  dwelling  on  it,  in  town.  Household  property, $500;  wagon, 
plows  and  farming  Implements,  $300;  three  cows,  ten  hogs,  twenty 
sheep,  yoke  of  cattle  and  a  horse,  or,  Instead,  a  pair  of  horses;  one 
year's  provisions,  fuel,  feed  for  stock  and  seed  grain.  A  miner's  or 
mechanic's  tools  and  stock  in  trade  to  $400;  the  library  and  instru- 
in.  tils  of  a  professional  man.  Wages  under  $;oof  a  laboring  man, 
earned  within  the  last  ninety  days,  and  where  the  debtor  Is  publisher 
of  a  newspaper,  his  complete  outfit  to  value  of  $1,000,  and  stock  $400. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  property  In  her 
own  name.  She  may  make  contracts,  and  her  propertv  is  liable  only 
for  her  own  debts.     She  cannot  sell  01  convey  real  estate,  further  tkan 


*** 


^ 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


5'5 


r 


»  mortgage  for  purchase-money  or  a  three  years*  lease,  without  her 
husband  joining  her.  Contracts  between  husband  and  wife  are  void. 
The  surviving  husband  or  wife  keeps  the  homestead  for  life,  and  is 
entitled  to  one-third  of  all  the  lands  possessed  by  the  deceased  after 
all  debts  have  been  paid. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Account  must  have  been  filed  within  one 
year,  and  lien  holds  good  for  two  years.  Sub-contraclors  and  jour- 
neymen claiming  a  lien  by  service  of  the  papers  on  the  owner  will 
have  the  amount  of  their  claims  retained  from  what  is  due  the  con- 
tractor. There  is  also  a  lien  for  work  done  on  personal  property, 
which  may  be  sold  after  three  months  if  charges  be  not  paid. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one  for  men,  eighteen  for  women. 
Two  witnesses. 


MISSISSIPPI. 

ASSIGNMENTS,  even  with  preferences,  but  without  reservations 
for  the  debtor's  benefit,  may  be  made.      Intent  to    defraud,   being 

evident,  will  void  any  assign- 
ment.. No  insolvent  law,  and  no 
provision  for  discharge  of  debtor. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  after 
plaintiff  furnishes  bond  and 
makes  affidavit  that  the  debtor  is 
a  non-resident  or  has  absconded 
or  is  about  to  abscond,  has  con- 
cealed himself  or  his  property,  or 
in  any  manner,  by  conveyance  or 
otherwise,  put  his  property  be- 
yond reach  of  his  creditors,  so  as 
fraudulently  to  avoid  payment  of 
his  debts.  Resident  and  non-res- 
ident creditors  have  equal  rights.  The  first  attachment  has  priority 
over  subsequent  ones.    No  arnest  or  imprisonment  for  debt. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded,  or  the  property  must 
be  taken  into  the  possession  of  the  mortgagee.  Foreclosure  and  sale 
must  be  provided  for  in  the  mortgage. 

DEEDS.  Two  witnesses  are  needed  if  not  acknowledged ;  other- 
wise one.  Acknowledgments  may  be  made  before  judges  of  any  of 
the  United  States  Courts,  judges  of  the  Supreme  or  Superior  Courts 
of  any  of  the  States  or  Territories,  justices  of  the  peace,  notaries 
public,  or  before  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this 
State.  In  case  of  a  justice  or  notary,  his  official  character  must  be 
certified  to  under  seal  of  some  court  of  record.  A  married  woman 
joins  her  husband  in  a  conveyance  to  release  dower,  and,  in  making 
her  acknowledgment,  must  be  questioned  separate  and  apart  from 
him. 

DIVORCE.  After  one  year's  residence  in  the  State,  divorce  may  be 
obtained  for  impotency,  adultery,  bigamy,  cruelty,  two  years'  aban- 
donment or  imprisonment  in  the  penitentiary.  Alimony  is  allowed 
when  the  wife  is  the  injured  party,  and  the  court  awards  the  custody 
of  minor  children. 

EXEMPTIONS.  To  householding  head  of  family,  160  acres  of 
land  and  improvements  in  country,  or  house  and  lot  in  town,  either  to 
value  of  $2,000.  Tools  and  farming  implements  necessary  for  two 
male  laborers;  library  and  instruments  of  professional  man  to  value 
of  $250;  two  horses  or  mules  or  a  yoke  of  oxen,  two  cows  and  calves, 
five  hogs,  five  sheep  ;  wagon,  $10-1;  personal  property,  $250;  one  sew- 
ing machine  ;  provisions  and  provender ;  wages  of  a  laborer,  $100. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  property  acquired 
in  any  manner,  and  the  revenues  therefrom,  for  her  own  use  and  free 
from  control  or  liability  of  her  husband.  She  may  convey  and  en- 
cumber the  same  as  if  single,  but  husband  joins  in  conveyance.  She 
may  devise  and  bequeath.  Deed  from  husband  to  wife  is  void  as  to 
creditors   at  time  of  making  it.    A  wife  may  not  encumber  her  estate 


by  mortgage  or  otherwise  for  her  husband's  debts;  she  may  do  busi- 
ness on  her  own  account  the  same  as  if  single,  and  is  then  liable  for 
her  contracts,  housekeeping  and  family  expenses.  She  joins  her 
husband  in  conveyance  of  homestead,  but  not  in  that  of  his  other 
property.    Dower  in  property  of  which  the  husband  dies  seized. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS  must  be  enforced  by  suit  within  six 
months.  Liens  reach  land,  buildings  and  fixed  machinery,  boats  and 
vessels.  Bona  fide  purchasers  cannot  suffer  unless  they  have  been 
served  with  notice. 

WILLS.  Testator  must  bs  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Three  wit- 
nesses. 

MISSOURI. 

ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences.  Inventory  of  assets  must 
be  filed  within  fifteen  days.  Assignee  gives  threo  months'  notice  of  a 
day  fixed  for  hearing  all  claims. 
No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  when 
defendant  is  a  non-resident,  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  or  conceals 
or  absents  himself,  makes  away 
with  or  attempts  to  place  his 
property  out  of  reach  to  defraud 
his  creditors,  or  has  fraudulently 
contracted  the  debt,  or  where  the 
action  is  for  damages  arising  from 
misconduct;  or  where  debtor  fails 
to  pay  for  goods  that  were  to  be 
paid  for  on  delivery.  Garnishee 
process  when  there  is  occasion. 
No  arrest  for  debt.    Justices  of  the  peace  limited  to  $150. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  Possession  of  property  must  pass  into 
hands  of  mortgagee,  or  else  the  mortgage  must  be  recorded.  Fore- 
closure, if  for  less  than  $100,  requires  sixty  days'  notice.  If  for  larger 
amount,  a  judgment  in  court  is  necessary. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  are  made  before  judge  or  clerk  of  a 
court  having  a  seal,  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public.  In  other 
States,  before  commissioner  of  Missouri,  or  court  with  seal,  or  notary 
public.  Wife  joins  in  deed  and  must  be  examined  separately.  Rec- 
ord in  county  where  land  is  located. 

DIVORCE.  Grounds:  Impotency  at  time  of  marriage,  unfaithful- 
ness, bigamy,  conviction  of  crime,  drunkenness,  cruelty,  and  one 
year's  desertion.  Petitioner  must  have  been  one  year  a  resident  of  the 
State.    Trial  without  jury. 

EXEMPTIONS.  To  head  of  family  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  in 
the  country  to  the  value  of  $1,500,  a  lot  (thirty  rods)  in  small  town  to 
same  value,  or  lot  (eighteen  rods)  in  city  having  40,000  inhabitants,  to 
value  of  $3,000.     Personal  property,  $300.     One  month's  wages. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  controls  her  own  prop- 
erty, und  holds  it  through  a  trustee  free  from  liability  for  her  husband's 
debts.  She  may  make  contracts,  sign  notes  and  do  business  in  her 
own  name.  She  may  make  a  will.  She  joins  her  husband  in  his  con- 
veyances to  release  dower.  Her  dower  is  one-third  for  life  of  all 
lands  owned  by  husband. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS  have  priority  over  all  other  encumbrances 
that  may  be  placed  on  property  after  the  work  has  begun.  Claims  of 
original  contractors  must  be  filed  within  six  months.  Those  of  jour- 
neymen and  laborers  in  thirty  days.  Of  other  persons  in  four  months. 
Action  within  ninety  days  of  claims  being  filed. 

WILLS,  Testator's  age  to  devise  real  estate,  twenty-one  for  male, 
eighteen  for  female;  to  dispose  of  personal  property, eighteen,  either 
sex.  Two  witnesses.  Must  be  recorded  thirty  days  after  probate. 
Copy  of  will  must  be  recorded  in  each  county  where  devised  lands 
may  be  situated. 


« ^ 


V 


516 


*fr 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF   THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


MONTANA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  No  insolvent  or  assignment  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  allowed  in  suits  on  contracts  for  payment  of 
money.  Plaintiff  gives  bond  in  double  amount.  An  attachment  may 
be  had  before  a  debt  is  due,  if  debtor  fraudulently  disposes  of  prop- 
erty to  avoid  payment.    Jurisdiction  of  justices  (si  the  peaoe  $3<X>. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  Possession  uf  property  must  pass  to 
mortgagee,  or  the  mortgage  must  be  recorded,  and  must  explictly 
state  that  possession  is  to  be  retained  by  mortgageor.  Holds  good  for 
one  year,  during  which  any  one  selling  said  mortgaged  goods  forfeits 
double  the  value  to  the  purchaser,  is  guilty  of  misdemeanor,  and  is 
liable  to  fine  of  from  $50  to  $500. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  are  made  before  a  judge  or  clerk  of 
court  of  record,  justice  of  the  peace,  mayor  of  a  city,  or  a  register  of 
deeds.  Officer  taking  acKnowledgment  must  affix  his  official  seal.  A 
wife  must  be  questioned  separately. 

EXEMPTIONS.  House  and  a  quarter  acre  lot  in  town,  or  a  farm 
of  eighty  acres,  neither  to  exceed  $2,500  in  value.  Personal  property 
to  the  value  of  $1,400.  No  exemptions  are  good  against  a  mortgage, 
a  mechanics'  lien  or  a  claim  for  purchase-money. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  list  of  a  married  woman's  property  filed 
and  recorded  saves  it  from  being  liable  for  the  husband's  debts,  ex- 
cept necessaries  for  herself  and  children  under  eighteen.  A  married 
woman  may  become  a  sole  trader  by  recording  her  intention.  If  she 
invests  more  than  $10,000  in  business  she  must  make  oath  that  the 
surplus  did  not  come  from  her  husband.  The  husband  is  not  liable 
for  debts  contracted  by  her  in  business.  She  is  also  responsible  for 
the  maintenance  of  her  children.  A  surviving  husband  or  wife  takes 
one-half  of  deceased's  property,  if  no  children  ;  one-third  if  there  are. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claim  of  an  original  contractor  must  be 
filed  within  ninety  days  ;  that  of  a  sub-contractor  within  thirty  days. 
All  liens  filed  within  thirty  days  of  the  filing  of  the  first  one  share 
alike.  Sub-contractor's  suit  must  begin  within  ninety  days.  That 
of  original  contractors  in  one  year. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age  for  either  sex,  eighteen  yean.     Two  wit- 

rrmtt- 

NEBRASKA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Preferences,  except  for  amounts  under  $100  that 
may  be  due  for  labor,  are  not  allowed.    Nor  is  an  assignment  clogged 

with  conditions  for  release  of 
debtor  of  any  value.  Assignee 
files  sworn  schedule  within  thirty 
days  and  gives  bond  in  double 
amount.  Recording  within  the 
thirty  days  is  a  positive  feature 
in  the  validity  of  an  assignment. 
No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS.  When  de- 
fendant  is  a  non- resident,  affida- 
vit and  bond  in  double  amount 
must  be  furnished.  Attachments 
arc  allowed  when  defendant  is  a 
non-resident  or  foreign  corpor- 
ation, removes  or  conceals  his  property,  or  absconds,  or  when  the 
claim  has  already  been  allowed  by  a  decree  in  court.  On  appearance 
of  fraud  the  debtor  may  be  attached  in  person.  Garnishment  in  aid. 
No  insolvent  law.    Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace #200. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  (mortgagee  renewing 
annually}  and  holds  good  for  five  years.  Foreclosure,  twenty  days' 
notice  and  public  sale.  If  provided  for  in  the  instrument,  no  court 
proceedings  are  needed  for  foreclosure. 

DEEDS  mwt  have  one  witness.  Acknowledgments  within  the  State 
are  taken  by  judges,  clerks  of  courts,  justices  of  the  peace  or  notaries 
public.  In  other  States,  by  commissioners  of  deeds  for  Nebraska  or 
by  the  legally  authorized  looal  officers.     In  foreign  countries,  by  no- 


taries public  or  United  States  ministers  or  consuls.  To  bar  dower  or 
curtesy  a  wife  or  husband  must  join  in  deed.  No  separate  examin- 
ation required. 

DIVORCE.  Unless  the  marriage  took  place  in  the  State,  and  the 
plaintiff  has  since  continuously  resided  therein,  a  residence  in  the 
county  of  six  months  next  preceding  the  application  is  necessary. 
Divorce  is  granted  on  the  grounds  of  impotency  at  the  time  of  mar- 
riage, adultery,  two  years'  desertion,  drunkenness,  cruelty,  three 
years'  sentence  to  imprisonment,  or  failure  on  the  part  of  husband  to 
support  wife.  The  court  may  order  alin.ony,  and  where  a  decree  is 
granted  on  account  of  the  husband's  bad  conduct  the  wife  take* 
dower. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Dwelling  and  160  acres  of  land  in  country,  or  two 
adjoining  lots  in  town,  value  $2,000.  If  he  has  no  real  property,  the 
debtor  may  retain  personal  property  to  value  $500.  Clothing,  furni- 
ture, provisions,  animals,  tools  and  other  things  as  per  statute,  and 
sixty  days'  wages  of  laborer.  Exemptions  are  not  good  against 
mechanics'  lien,  mortgage  or  purchase -money. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  her  separate  prop- 
erty free  from  the  disposal  of  her  husband  and  from  liability  for  his 
debts.  She  may  bargain,  sell,  make  contracts,  do  business,  sue  and 
be  sued,  all  so  far  as  her  separate  estate  may  warrant ;  but  she  cannot 
become  surety  for  another,  not  even  being  allowed  to  bind  herself  for 
her  husband's  debts.  Property  coming  to  the  wife  from  the  husband 
is  not  privileged  as  her  separate  property.  Dower,  use  for  life  of 
one -third  of  real  estate  owned  by  husband  during  coverture. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  A  sworn  itemized  account  must  be  filed 
within  four  months  of  the  performance  of  work  or  the  furnishing  of 
material.     Lien  holds  two  years. 

WILLS.  Two  witnesses. 

NEVADA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Insolvent  law  provides  for  discharge  of  the 
debtor  without  any  certain  percentage  or  consent  being  requisite. 
Discharge    is    only    from    debts 


entered  on  the  filed  schedule. 
Assignments,  to  be  valid,  must 
comply  with  the  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS.  In  an  ac- 
tion on  a  contract  for  the  pay- 
ment of  money  not  secured  by 
mortgages  or  lien  on  property 
within  the  State,  an  attachment 
may  be  issued,  plaintiff  making 
affidavit  and  giving  bond.  Also 
when  defendant  is  a  non-resident. 
A  fraudulent  or  absconding 
debtor  may  be  arrested,  plaintiff 
giving  at  least  $500  security. 
Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  With  the  exception  of  a  mortgage  on 
growing  crops,  no  chattel  mortgage  is  valid  unless  possession  p— act 
to  mortgagee. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  are  made  within  the  State  before  a 
judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  having  a  seal,  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  no. 
tary  public.  In  other  States,  by  judge  or  clerk  of  court  having  a  seal, 
a  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public  or  commissioner  for  the  State 
Acknowledgments  taken  by  a  justice  of  the  peace  must  be  accompa- 
nied by  sealed  certificate  from  court  of  record  declaring  his  official 
character.  Wife  joins  husband  in  a  deed  and  is  separately  examined. 
Signature  and  deed,  not  having  been  acknowledged,  may  be  approved 
by  competent  evidence. 

DIVORCE.  Plaintiff  must  have  resided  six  months  in  the  county. 
Grounds  of  divorce  are  physical  incompetency  at  time  of  marriage, 
adultery,  one  year's  desertion,  drunkenness,  cruelty,  conviction  of 
crime  and  failure  on  part  of  husband  to  support* 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $5,000;  tools.  Implements  and  other 
personal  property,  as  per  statute  ;  miner's  cabin,  $500. 


■f? 


Sr- 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


517 


MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  separate  property  of  a  married  woman 
which  is  controlled  by  herself  is  such  as  she  may  have  owned  before 
marriage  or  acquired  afterwards  by  gift,  devise  or  descent.  All  prop- 
erty acquired  otherwise,  by  either  husband  or  wife,  is  common  property, 
and  under  the  absolute  control  of  the  husband.  On  the  death  of  the 
husband  the  widow  receives  one-half  of  the  common  property. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claim  must  exceed  $25,  must  be  recorded 
within  sixty  days,  and  suit  must  be  begun  within  six  months.  A  sub- 
contractor must  file  within  thirty  days.  Railroads,  canals,  mines, 
tunnels,  ditches  and  buildings  subject  to  lien. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  eighteen  years.  Two  witnesses.  A  mar- 
ried woman  disposes  of  her  separate  estate,  and,  with  the  consent  of 
her  husband,  of  her  interest  in  the  common  property.  A  child  whose 
name  nas  been  unintentionally  omitted  in  the  provisions  of  a  will 
takes  a  share  the  same  as  if  a  parent  had  died  intestate. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Without  preferences.  Assignee  files  schedule 
within  ten  days.  Claims  must  be  proved  up  within  six  months.  Dis- 
senting creditors  must  give  no- 
ticeinside  of  thirty  days  after  the 
assignment.  They  receive  no 
benefit,  but  continue  their  claims 
and  hold  any  liens  they  may  have 
obtained.    No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  taken 
out  on  original  writ,  and  are  a 
lien  for  thirty  days  after  judg- 
ment, during  which  time  execu- 
tion must  be  levied.  Mechanics' 
lien  has  precedence  over  attach- 
ments. Trustee  process  to  attach 
debtors*  money  or  other  property. 
Wages,  to  $20,  exempt.  On  plain  - 
tiff's  oath,  the  debt  being  over  $13.33,  debtor  may  be  arrested  if  he  has 
concealed  his  property  or  is  about  to  leave  the  State  to  avoid  payment. 
Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  Mortgagee  must  take  immediate  pos- 
session, or  mortgage  must  be  recorded  with  the  affidavits  of  both  the 
mortgageor  and  mortgagee  that  it  is  bona  fide  and  for  a  real  debt. 
Foreclosed  after  thirty  days  from  breach  of  condition,  and  sale  held 
after  four  days'  notice.  Mortgageor  has  a  right  to  redeem  until  sale. 
DEEDS.  Every  conveyance  of  real  estate  requires  a  seal,  and  must 
have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  may  be  taken  by  notaries 
public,  justices  of  the  peace  or  commissioner  of  deeds.  Wife  joins  to 
release  dower.    No  separate  examination. 

DIVORCES  are  granted  by  the  Supreme  Court  for  physical  incom- 
petency, adultery,  drunkenness,  cruelty,  three  years*  desertion,  one 
year's  sentence  to  prison  or  adherence  to  a  religious  sect  that  con- 
demns marriage. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $500;  $100  furniture;  $100  tools;  $200 
books;  $500  fuel  and  provisions;  sewing  machine,  cook  stove,  bedding 
and  clothing,  one  hog,  six  sheep,  one  yoke  of  oxen  or  one  horse,  and 
four  tons  of  hay. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  property  owned 
before  marriage  or  acquired  afterwards,  except  what  may  come 
from  the  husband,  for  her  own  use.  She  may  sell,  convey  and 
encumber,  devise  and  bequeath,  do  business,  give  notes,  sue  and  be 
sued.  Her  contracts  are  binding,  excepting  that  there  can  be  no  con- 
tracts or  conveyances  between  husband  and  wife,  nor  can  the  wife 
become  security  for  her  husband.    Wife  is  entitled  to  dower. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS  take  precedence  of  all  attachments,  and 
hold  on  stationary  property  for  ninety  days  ;  on  lumber,  logs  and  bark 
for  sixty  days,  and  on  vessels  for  four  days. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one.  Three  witnesses.  Nuncu- 
pative wills  must  be  reduced  to  writing  within  six  days.  Probate 
within  six  months. 


NEW  JERSEY. 


ASSIGNMENTS  with  preferences  are  void.  Swora  inventory  must 
accompany  assignment.  An  insolvent  debtor  is  discharged  on  sur- 
render of  all  his  property.  Wages  R5vsas25S5252SHS2szs252szs2sas2sasz<a 
due  for  service  or  labor  to  the    9  ^~-  -  -^^^ 

amount  of  $300  have  precedence    S  j^  -r*m     ^>v 

over  other  claims. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  when 
defendant  is  a  non-resident  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  or  absconds 
or  assigns  or  conceals  his  prop* 
erty  to  defraud  his  creditors.  If 
fraud  be  evident,  the  defendant 
may  be  arrested.  Limit  of  juris- 
diction of  justices  of  the  peace, 
$200. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  either  be  recorded  or  the  property 
must  pass  into  possession  of  mortgagee.  To  continue  claim  mort- 
gagee must  renew  record  thirty  days  before  the  expiration  of  one 
year.    Foreclosure  by  suit  in  court.    No  redemption. 

DEEDS  must  be  under  seal,  and  have  one  witness.  The  word 
"  heirs  "  must  appear  in  an  instrument  to  convey  in  fee  simple.  Ac- 
knowledgments are  taken  by  the  chancellor  or  justice  of  the  Superior 
Court,  master  in  chancery,  judge  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  or 
commissioner  of  deeds.  In  other  States,  by  commissioners  of  deeds 
for  this  State  or  by  legally  authorized  local  officers.  Husband  and 
wife  join  in  a  deed  conveying  the  estate  of  either,  he  to  give  his  con- 
sent, she  to  release  dower. 

DIVORCE.  Absolute  for  adultery,  bigamy  or  three  years'  abandon- 
ment. Partial  for  cruelty.  Applicant  must  reside  in  the  State,  unless 
the  marriage  or  the  alleged  misconduct  occurred  here. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead  $1,500,  and  $200  household  property. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  owned  before  marriage,  and 
such  as  she  may  acquire  afterwards  by  gift,  descent  or  bequest,  is  the 
sole  property  of  a  married  woman  and  is  not  liable  for  the  husband's 
debts.  She  may  make  contracts,  but  cannot  sell  or  encumber  her  real 
estate  without  consent  of  husband.  She  cannot  endorse  notes  or  be- 
come security.  She  joins  husband  in  his  conveyances  and  mortgages. 
Dower  and  curtesy. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claims  must  be  filed  and  suit  brought 
within  one  year.  On  a  structure  erected  by  contract  which  has  been 
filed  and  recorded  only  the  contractor  may  claim  a  lien. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one  years.  Two  witnesses.  Wit- 
ness cannot  be  a  beneficiary.  A  married  woman  making  a  will  can- 
not impair  her  husband's  rights  by  curtesy. 

NEW  MEXICO. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  No  assignment  or  insolvent  laws. 

ATTACHMENTS  when  defendant  is  non-resident,  absconds,  con- 
ceals property  or  shows  intent  to  defraud.  Jurisdiction  of  justices  of 
the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  Growing  crop  is  the  only  sort  of  per- 
sonal property  that  may  not  be  mortgaged.  Possession  of  property 
must  pass  into  hands  of  mortgagee,  or  the  mortgage  must  be  re- 
corded. Mortgage  holds  for  one  year.  For  continuance,  mortgagee 
must  file  renewal  thirty  days  before  each  year  expires. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  are  made  before  a  judge  or  clerk  of  a 
court  of  record,  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace,  mayor  of  a  city  or 
register  of  deeds.  A  married  woman's  separate  property  is  conveyed 
by  deed  signed  by  both  husband  and  wife.  Her  acknowledgment 
must  be  taken  apart,  and  she  must  be  questioned  as  to  her  freedom  of 
action  in  the  transfer. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $100;  $10  furniture;  $20  tools;  $25 
provisions. 


™" s  > 


MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  separate  property  of  a  married  woman 
!■  what  she  owned  previous  to  marriage,  or  what  she  may  inherit. 
All  that  she  acquires  afterwards,  and  the  revenues  of  her  separate 
estate,  go  into  the  common  property.  The  husband  has  control  and 
management  of  her  separate  estate  and  the  common  property.  There 
is  no  dower,  but  on  decease  of  a  husband  the  wife's  private  property 
Is  first  deducted  ;  then  she  receives  one-half  of  the  common  property, 
after  all  debts  are  paid.  If  there  be  no  children  she  has  a  right  to  all 
the  common  property. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Must  file  claim  within  sixty  days, 'and 
bring  suit  within  one  year.  A  lien  may  be  had  on  movables  repaired 
by  mechanics.  Landlords  may  have  lien  on  property  of  tenants,  and 
inn-keepers  on  the  baggage  of  their  guests. 

WILLS.  Testators'  age,  fourteen  for  males,  twelve  for  females. 
Written  wills  require  three  witnesses  ;  verbal  wills  five.  Probate  judge 
may  disapprove  of  a  will,  but  appeal  can  be  carried  to  District  Court, 

NEW  YORK. 

ASSIGNMENTS  with  preferences  are  allowed.  A  debtor  who 
has  been  imprisoned  on  an  execution  for  a  sum  less  than   $500,  on 

making  an  assignment  of  his 
property,  barring  fraud,  may  be 
discharged  immediately  ;  and  for 
a  larger  sum,  after  three  months* 
imprisonment.  Consent  of  two- 
thirds  of  creditors  may  hasten 
discharge. 

ATTACHMENTS.  When  de- 
fendant is  a  non-resident  or  has 
absconded,  conceals  himself  or 
is  about  to  place  his  property  be- 
yond reach  to  defraud  creditors, 
or  in  an  action  for  damages,  at- 
tachments may  be  issued.  An 
unsatisfied  execution  being  re* 
turned  after  a  judgment,  the  defendant  or  any  other  persons  may  be 
examined  as  to  property  of  debtor  in  their  hands,  and  be  forced  to  use 
what  Is  not  exempted  towards  payment  of  the  debtor.  Jurisdiction 
of  justices  of  the  peace,  $joo;  to  take  contession,  I500. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded,  or  property  must 
change  hands.  Good  for  only  one  year  unless  record  be  renewed. 
Foreclosure,  unless  by  terms  of  mortgage,  by  seizure  and  sale  after 
three  days*  notice. 

DEEDS  must  be  under  seal.  Within  the  State,  acknowledgments 
are  made  before  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace,  surrogate,  judge 
of  court  of  record,  recorder  or  commissioner  of  deeds.  In  any  other 
State,  before  commissioner  for  this  State,  judge  of  United  States 
Court,  judge  of  Supreme,  Circuit  or  Superior  Court,  or  the  mayor  of  a 
■  ity,  or  before  any  legally  authorized  officer. 

DIVORCE.  Only  for  adultery  will  an  absolute  divorce  be  granted. 
Partial  divorce  is  ordered  for  cruelty,  desertion  and  neglect.  Mar- 
riages are  annulled  for  fraud  or  force,  idiocy,  lunacy  or  impotency  at 
the  time  of  marriage,  or  for  bigamy. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $1,000;  $250  furniture,  tools,  team  and 
other  personal  property  ;  sixty  days'  wages. 

MARRIED  WOMEN  may  have  real  and  personal  property,  buy 
and  sell  and  do  business  in  their  own  names.  A  carried  woman  i* 
liable  for  debts  contracted  in  her  own  trade  or  business,  or  when  an 
agreement  or  contract  has  been  made  for  the  benefit  of  her  separate 
property,  when,  by  the  terms  of  such  instrument,  her  separate  prop- 
erty is  to  be  charged  with  the  liability.     Dower. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Time  for  filing  notice  varies  in  different 
counties  from  thirty  days  to  three  months.  Suit  must  be  brought  with* 
in  one  year. 

WILLS.  Testator's  ag*  to  dispose  of  real  estate,  twenty-one  years; 
of  personal  property,  eighteen  for  males,  sixteen  for  female*.  Two 
witnesses.     The  at' dress  of  a  witness  acompanics  his  signature. 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  with  preferences  are  allowed.  An  insolvent 
debtor,  by  filing  petition  and  assigning  his  property  to  trustee  for 
benefit  of  all  creditors,  is  dis- 
charged. But  property  that  he 
may  afterwards  acquire  is  liable 
for  the  feame  old  debts.  If  con- 
cealment or  fraud  is  proved  the 
debtor  may  be  imprisoned  until 
he  discloses  all  his  property. 

ATTACHMENTS.  The  cred- 
itor must  give  bond  and  security 
for  costs  and  damages,  and  must 
file  affidavits.  An  attachment  is 
issued  against  the  property  of  a 
debtor  who  is  non-resident  or  a 
foreign  corporation,  who  has  left 
the  State  or  conceals  himself  to  avoid  summons,  or  has  removed  or  is 
about  to  dispose  of  his  property  to  defraud  his  creditors.  Personal 
service  of  summons  or  publication  within  thirty  days  after  obtaining 
order  for  attachment  is  required.  Publication  must  be  continued  four 
weeks.    Justices  of  the  peace  limited  to  fxc. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded;  may  only  be  for 
property  to  value  of  $300.  Foreclosure  by  seizure  and  sale  after 
twenty  days*  public  notice. 

DEEDS  must  have  one  or  more  witnesses.  Acknowledgments 
within  the  State  are  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public 
or  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record.  In  other  States,  before  a  clerk 
of  court  of  record  or  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  North  Carolina. 
In  foreign  countries,  before  a  mayor  or  chief  magistrate  of  a  city,  or 
before  a  United  States  consular  officer.  Wife  joins  husband  to  bar 
dower  and  must  make  her  acknowledgment  separate  and  apart. 

DIVORCE.  Only  for  impotency  or  adultery  car*  absolute  divorce  be 
obtained.  Partial  divorce  is  granted  for  cruelty,  desertion  or  drunk- 
enness. 

EXEMPTIONS.  A  homestead  to  value  of  Jr. 000,  ami  personal 
property  worth  $500.  No  exemption  is  good  agaiu.-t  taxes,  purchase- 
money  or  mechanics*  liens. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman's  separate  property  is 
not  liable  for  her  husband's  debts.  She  may  devise  and  bequeath, 
but  must  have  husband's  consent  to  convey.  Unless  she  be  a  free 
trader,  she  can  make  no  contract  other  than  for  personal  or  family 
necessities  or  for  payment  of  ante-nuptial  debts,  without  the  consent 
of  her  husband.  She  becomes  a  free  trader,  the  husband  assenting, 
by  filing  her  intention.  Common  law  dower  and  one  year's  subsist- 
ence out  of  husband's  personal  property. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN  holds  building  and  lot.  Notice  in  thirty  days; 
suit  in  ninety  days.  Alien  for  making  or  mending  may  be  bad  on 
movables.  Farm  laborers  or  persons  making  advances  for  raising 
crop  may  have  a  lien, 

WILLS  require  two  witnesses,  not  beneficiaries.  If  an  unwit- 
nessed will  be  ottered  for  probate  it  must  be  satisfactorily  provsd  by 
three  witnesses  to  be  wholly  in  testator's  handwriting. 

OHIO. 

ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences,  except  wages  to  amount 
of  $100  and  individual  taxes,  are  allowed.  Assignment  is  tiled  in  ten 
days,  and  schedule  in  thirty.  Creditors  must  bring  in  their  claims 
within  six  months.  First  dividends  in  eight  months.  Debtor  is 
always  liable. 

ATTACHMENTS  arc  issued  when  defendant  is  a  non-resident,  or 
a  foreign  corporation,  has  absconded  or  has  removed  or  concealed 
his  property,  or  (a  .my  manner  placed  it  or  attempted  to  place  it  bc- 
^  ontf  reach  todefraasl  btectesUtoe*.  Plaintiff prlving  bond  with  turrty 
to  cover  damages,  and  making  affuU%  it  ol  tr.u.tl.  the  defendant  will 


4^ 


■I 


be  arrested.  Garnishee  except  for 
unmatured  notes.  Jurisdiction  of 
justices  of  the  peace,  $100;  concur- 
rent jurisdiction,  $300. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES 
must  be  recorded ;  good  for  only 
twelve  months  unless  renewed  by 
again  recording  within  thirty 
days  before  the  expiration  of  the 
yeiir.  Same  for  each  succeeding 
year. 

DEEDS mustbe  acknowledged 
in  presence  of  two  witnesses, 
before  some  officer  in  the  State 
who  is  authorized  to  take  depositions.  In  other  States  or  countries, 
deeds  may  be  executed  and  acknowledged  in  accordance  with  the 
local  laws.    Wife  joins  husband  in  a  deed,  and  is  questioned  apart. 

DIVORCE  is  granted  for  unfaithfulness,  bigamy,  incapacity, 
cruelty,  drunkenness,  deception,  three  years*  neglect  and  abandon- 
ment, or  imprisonment  in  a  penitentiary.  Alimony  may  be  granted  ; 
and  if  the  decree  is  obtained  on  account  of  the  husband's  ill  conduct, 
the  wife  has  her  separate  property  and  her  maiden  name  restored. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead  is  exempt  to  value  of  $1,000;  if  ap- 
praised to  a  higher  value  a  partition  is  made,  or  an  appropriate  rental 
is  charged.  Clothing  and  necessary  furniture  are  exempted;  tools 
and  farming  implements  to  value  $100;  $50  worth  of  provisions  and 
three  months'  wages  ;  one  horse  or  yoke  of  cattle,  harness  and  wagon  ; 
one  cow,  two  hogs, six  sheep,  and  sixty  days'  provender,  or  instead,  $65 
in  household  property.  A  professional  man's  books,  $100.  When  res- 
ident debtor,  being  head  of  a  family,  has  no  homestead,  he  may  retain 
personal  property  to  value  of  $500,  besides  other  exempted  property. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman  is  not 
liable  for  her  husband's  debts;  beyond  a  three  years'  lease,  or  a  con- 
tract for  the  improvement  of  her  real  estate,  she  cannot  sell  or  en- 
cumber it  without  the  consent  of  her  husband.  If  a  married  woman 
engages  in  trade,  her  separate  property  is  liable  for  the  debts  she 
may  then  contract,  and  she  may  sue  and  be  sued  the  same  as  if  sin- 
gle. A  deserted  wife  must  procure  an  order  from  court,  by  which 
she  shall  have  all  property  rights  as  a  feme  sole.  Dower  in  all  real 
estate  owned  by  husband  during  coverture. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Within  four  months  after  the  perform- 
ance of  labor  or  furnishing  ot  material,  a  detailed  statement  of  tne 
claim  must  be  sworn  to  and  recorded,  to  procure  a  mechanics'  lien. 
The  lien  holds  a  building  and  the  ground  on  which  it  stands,  or  a 
bridge  or  any  kind  of  water  craft.  A  lien  is  good  for  on*-  year,  or 
until  the  lawsuit  begun  within  the  year  is  finally  settled. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one  years  for  men,  eighteen  for 
women.  Two  witnesses.  Unless  the  will  had  been  made  at  least 
one  year  before  the  death  of  testator,  a  bequest  for  religious,  be- 
nevolent, educational  or  charitable  purpose  would  be  void  against 
the  claims  of  children. 

OKLAHOMA. 

The  laws  of  Oklahoma  were  compiled  from  the  statutes  of  Ne- 
braska, Indiana,  Illinois  and  the  Dakotas.  The  code  of  civil  pro- 
cedure is  borrowed  entire  from  that  of  Nebraska.  Jurisdiction  of 
justices,  $100. 

OREGON. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  A  general  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  all 
creditors  must  be  without  preferences.    It  dissolves  all  attachments 

on  vrhich  judgments  have  been 
rendered.  Creditors  must  receive 
notice  to  present  their  claims,  or 
their  objections  to  claim.  Debts 
to  become  due  will  be  taken  into 
account,  as  well  as  those  already 
due.  Payments  are  Pro  rata. 
The  debtor  is  still  liable.  No 
insolvent  law,  but  an  imprisoned 
debtor  is  discharged  after  ten 
days  by  complying  with  pre- 
scribed conditions.  He  cannot 
be  again  arrested  for  the  same 
debt. 


ATTACHMENTS.  Defendant  being  a  non  resident  or  s  foreign  cor- 
poration, or  where  the  action  is  on  a  contract  for  the  payment  of 
money  which  was  not  secured  by  mortgage  or  otherwise,  or  if  so  se- 
cured, where  such  security  has  been  vitiated  by  defendant,  an  attach- 
ment may  be  issued.  The  plaintiff  gives  bond  in  double  amount. 
Where  the  debt  was  fraudulently  contracted,  or  property  has  been 
removed  with  intent  to  defraud,  or  where  person.:  property  is  un- 
justly withheld,  or  the  defendant  is  a  non-resident,  he  maybe  ar 
rested.    Limit  of  justices  of  the  peace,  $250.  , 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGE  must  be  recorded  at  once,  and  is  good 
for  only  one  year,  unless  renewed  by  mortgagee  making  and  record- 
ing affidavit  within  the  thirty  days  before  the  end  of  the  year  that  the 
debt  is  still  due.    Renewal  each  year  in  the  same  way. 

DEEDS  must  have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgment  may  be  taken 
before  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  this  State  or  before  any  duly 
authorized  officer  in  any  State  or  Territory,  providing  that  the  legal 
status  of  the  officer  taking  the  acknowledgment  and  the  compliance 
of  the  deed  with  the  laws  of  such  State  or  Territory  are  properly  cer- 
tified to  under  seal  by  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  in  the  county  or 
district  where  such  officer  has  performed  such  service.  Married 
women  examined  separately. 

DIVORCE.  Plaintiff  must  have  been  a  resident  for  one  year  before 
bringing  suit.  Grounds  are  impotency,  adultery,  two  years'  drunken- 
ness, three  years*  abandonment, cruelty,  conviction  of  felony.  Plain- 
tiff gaining  the  suit  has  a  right  to  one-third  of  the  real  estate  belonging 
to  defendant;  and  if  a  successful  plaintiff  be  the  wife,  she  may  have  a 
maintenance  awarded  her. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Musical  instruments,  books  and  pictures,  $75; 
household  effects,  $300;  clothing,  $100,  and  clothing  to  each  member 
of  the  family,  $50;  team,  tools,  instruments,  library  or  whatever  is 
needed  in  the  trade  or  profession  of  debtor,  $400;  ten  sheep,  two  cows, 
five  hogs,  three  months*  provisions  and  six  months' provender.  No 
exemption  is  good  against  a  claim  for  purchase-money.  No  home- 
stead. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  her  property  free 
from  the  control  or  debts  of  her  husband.  She  may  make  contracts, 
buy  and  sell,  and  give  notes,  and  her  own  property  wid  be  liable. 
The  husband  joins  in  her  conveyances.  She  may  make  a  will,  but  it 
must  not  interfere  with  her  husband's  rights  of  curtesy. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claims  must  be  filed  within  three  months. 
Suit  begun  within  one  year.  Sub-contractors  and  workmen,  to  obtain 
a  lien,  must  serve  written  notice  on  the  owner  before  payments  be- 
come due.  Payments  to  contractors  before  they  are  due  are  no 
offset  against  lien  of  sub  -  contractors  and  workmen. 

WILLS.  Age,  twenty-one  to  dispose  of  real  estate,  eighteen  for 
personal  property.  Two  witnesses.  Children  unprovided  for  in  a 
will  share  as  if  the  parent  had  died  intestate. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  must  be  without  preferences.  Sometimes  a 
debtor  prefers  a  creditor  by  confessing  judgment,  or  making  a  specific 
assignment  of  certain  property. 
No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  where 
debtor  removes,  conceals  or  dis- 
poses of  his  property,  or  is  about 
to  do  so,  to  defraud  his  creditors,- 
or  has  fraudulently  contracted 
the  debt.  Also  when  debtor  is  a 
non-resident.  On  proof  of  fraud 
a  defendant  maybe  arrested, and 
he  will  be  imprisoned  unless  he 
pays  or  gives  security.  Justices 
of  the  peace  limited  to  $300. 

CHATTEL      MORTGAGES    ^^^sesssEssstsssssssBssstseseB9 
cannot  be  for  less  than  $500,  and  must  be  recorded.     Must  be  renewed 
within  thirty  days  of  expiration  of  the  year, and  the  same  for  each 


===» 


it 


*■ 


520 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


*3r" 


k 


succeeding  year,  to  maintain  mortgagee's  right.  Thirty  day*'  notice, 
or  four  weeks'  publication  before  sale  by  public  auction. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  may  be  taken  by  the  mayor  of  a  city 
or  incorporated  town,  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  commissioner  for 
this  State,  or  by  tMJ  officer  appointed  by  the  laws  of  the  Stale  where 
taken,  providing  such  officer  be  certified  to  under  seal  by  the  clerk  of 
a  court  of   record.     Wife  joins  to  bar  dower;  examination  separate. 

DIVORCE.  Plaintiff  must  have  been  a  resident  of  the  State  for  one 
ve;ir  next  preceding  the  application.  Grounds:  deception  or  force  in 
procuring  the  marriage,  impotency,  adultery,  bigamy,  cruelty  and  two 
years'  abandonment,  and  two  years'  sentence  to  imprisonment.  Di- 
vorce will  not  be  granted  on  the  ground  of  adultery  if  proved  to  have 
been  condoned.  Even  after  a  divorce,  defendant  is  not  allowed  to 
marry  a  co-respondent.  A  wife  may  obtain  partial  divorce  and  ali- 
mony for  ill-treatment. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Clothing,  books,  sewing-machine  and  $300  worth 
of  other  property.     Right  may  be  waived.     No  homestead. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman  is  held 
as  her  separate  estate,  but  is  chargeable  for  family  necessaries  ordered 
by  her.  A  wife  cannot  make  a  contract  or  conveyance  without  her 
husband  joining  her.  By  obtaining  leave  from  the  court  she  may 
have  the  benefit  of  her  own  earnings.  She  may  make  a  will,  saving 
the  husband's  right  by  curtesy.  She  may  deposit  money  in  bank  and 
write  checks  against  it  in  her  own  name.  Dower,  one-third  of  all 
real  estate  owned  by  husband  during  coverture. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN  takes  precedence  of  every  other  lien  or  en- 
cumbrance. Claims  must  be  filed  within  six  months,  and  liens  hold 
good  for  five  years.  There  may  also  be  a  lien  held  for  wages  up  to 
the  amount  of  $200  by  the  employes  on  any  manufactory,  mine  or 
similar  establishment. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one  years.  Two  witnesses  are 
required,  but  they  need  not  attach  their  signatures.  A  husband  can- 
not serve  as  witness  to  wife's  will. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

ASSIGNMENTS  without  preferences  allowed.  No  provision  for 
the  discharge  of  the  debtor. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  when 
debtor  is  a  non-resident  or  a  for- 
eign corporation,  lias  absconded 
or  fraudulently  contracted  the 
debt,  or  retains  property  and  re- 
fuses to  pay.  Garnishment  for 
personal  property  of  debtor  in 
other  people's  hands.  Jurisdic- 
tion of  justices  of  the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL      MORTGAGES 

must  be  recorded,  or  the  inortga- 
"^^M  HbssP^  S     gee  must  take  possession.     Hore- 

^^■■^■■^^^  H     closure  by  seizure  and  sale. 

■■■■■■■ nmuinniuimJ  DEEDS  require  a  seal.  Ac- 
knowledgments may  be  wiken  by  a  senator,  judge,  justice  of  the 
peace,  notary  public  or  town  clerk.  In  other  States,  by  the  author- 
ized  officers  in  such  States,  or  by  commissioner  of  deeds  for  Rhode 
Island.  The  wife  joins  in  deed  to  release  dower;  only  the  husband 
need  make  the  acknowledgment. 

DIVORCE  is  granted  for  impotency,  adultery,  cruelty,  drunken- 
ness, neglect  to  support,  live  vears'  abandonment,  conviction  of  mur- 
der or  arson,  presumption  of  death  from  long  absence,  or  for  defect 
in  marriage  rendering  it  void.  Divorces  may  only  be  decreed  bv  Su- 
preme Court.  Alimony  may  be  ordered,  and  restoration  of  wife's  sep- 
ititr   property. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Furniture  and  supplies  for  family,  $300;  tools, 
$aopj  library,  $300;  wages, $10;  clothing;  one  cow  and  oue  hog;  debts 
secured  bv  negotiable  paper.      No  homestead. 

MARRIED    WOMEN.  A  married  woman'*  p-operty  is   held   by 
for  her  separate  use  free   from    her   husband's   debts.     She 


cannot  make  contracts  or  do  business.  She  may  make  a  will  subject 
to  husband's  right  by  curtesv. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claim  must  be  tiled  and  -nit  begun  within 
four  months. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty-one  yean  for  disposal  of  real 
estate;  eighteen  for  personal  property.     Two  witnesses. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  assignment  maybe  made, and  one  or  more 
agents  appointed  by  the  creditors  to  act  with  the 
Creditors  who  do  not  take  part 
in  the  proceedings,  or  accept  div- 
idends, retain  their  claims  against 
the  debtor.  An  imprisoned  debt- 
or may  be  discharged  on  making 
an  assignment  of  all  his  prop- 
erty. 

ATTACHMENTS  are  issued 
where  debtor  is  a  non-resident  or 
a  foreign  corporation,  or  has  ab- 
sconded or  concealed  himself,  or 
has  removed  or  is  about  to  re- 
move his  property,  or  has  se- 
creted or  disposed  of  ar  assigned 
his    property,  or   is    about  to  do 

so.  with  fraudulent  intent.  Garnishment  in  aid.  Jurisdiction  of 
trial  justices,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  within  sixty  days. 
Foreclosure  by  seizure  and  sale. 

DEEDS  must  be  under  seal,  and  have  two  witnesses,  and  be 
recorded  within  thirty-three  days  in  county  where  the  land  lies.  In- 
side  the  State,  acknowledgments  are  made  only  before  notaries 
public  and  trial  justices.  In  other  States,  before  commissioners  of 
deeds  fortius  State.    Wife  joins  to  bar  dower.    Separate  examination. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $1,000;  this  right  cannot  he  waived. 
Furniture,  wagons,  live  stock  and  tools,  to  value  of  $500.  Homestead 
exemption  cannot  hold  against  an  execution  for  the  purchase-money, 
a  lien  for  improvements  or  for  taxes.  Any  person  not  the  head  of  a 
family  may  have  one-third  of  his  annual  earnings  exempted. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman  cannot 
be  seized  for  her  husband's  debts.  A  married  woman  can  bequeath, 
devise  and  encumber  her  separate  property.  She  can  buy  in  her  own 
name  and  have  conveyances  made  to  her,  and  make  contracts,  the 
same  as  if  she  were  single.  A  gift  from  husband  to  wife  is  not  good 
against  a  creditor's  claim.     Dower  rights. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Account  must  be  filed  in  ninety  days  and 
suit  begun  in  six  months.  The  owner,  by  giving  timely  notice  that  he 
will  not  be  responsible  for  the  contractor's  debts,  may  avoid  the  iin- 
position  of  a  lien  by  sub-contractors  and  journeymen. 

WILLS.  Three  witnesses. 

TENNESSEE. 

ASSIGNMENTS  with  preferences  allowed.    The  debtor  is  not  dis- 
charged from  bis  liabilities.     No  insolvent  law. 
ATTACHMENTS   are   issued 

when  debtor  is  a  non  resident,  or 
is  about  to  remove  h!:n.self  or  his 
property  from  the  State,  or  con- 
ceals himself  or  his  property,  or 
absconds,  or  has  fraudulently 
disposed  of  his  property,  or  dies 
out  of  the  State.  Garnishee  pro- 
It  reach  debts  due  the  de- 
fendant, and  that  are  to  become 
due,  as  well  as  property  of  de- 
fendant in  other  people's  hands. 
No  imprisonment  for  debt.  Juris- 
diction of  justices,  I500, 


-^ 


■^ 


— . 9 


~A 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


S21 


CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  registered.  Foreclosure  by 
proceedings  in  court  unless  the  instrument  contains  power  of  sale. 

DEEDS  require  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  within  the 
State  are  made  before  judge  or  clerk  of  a  County  Court  or  a  notary 
public.  In  other  States,  before  any  court  of  record  or  clerk  thereof, 
notary  public  or  commissioner  of  deeds  for  this  State.  .Wife  need  not 
join  in  deeds  conveying  in  fee  simple,  but  must  ipin  in  trust  deed. 
Separate  examination. 


DIVORCE.  The  applicant  must  have  been  a  resftent  of  the  State 
for  two  years  next  preceding  the  petition.  Grounds:  physical  inca- 
pacity at  time  of  marriage,  bigamy,  adultery,  two  years'  abandon- 
ment, conviction  of  crime,  imprisonment  in  penitentiary,  drunkenness, 
ante-nuptial  immorality  of  wife,  attempt  of  either  party  upon  the  life 
of  the  other.  Limited  divorce  may  be  granted  for  cruelty,  d«pertion 
or  failure  to  provide. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Only  the  head  of  a  family  can  have  the  benefit  of 
exemptions;  $1,000  homestead  and  a  variety  of  personal  property 
designated  by  statute,  prominent  items  being  horses,  mules,  oxen, 
cows,  calves,  wagon,  tools,  lumber,  grain,  provisions,  beds,  bedding, 
furniture  and  $30  wages. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  has  her  separate  prop- 
erty free  from  the  husband's  control  and  from  liability  for  his  debts. 
She  may  encumber,  convey  or  devise  her  separate  property  without 
being  joined  by  her  husband  in  the  deed.  Widow  has  dower  in  one- 
third  of  husband's  real  estate,  and  a  child's  share  in  his  personalty. 
The  husband  dying  intestate,  leaving  no  heirs,  the  wife  inherits  all  his 
property. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN  lies  on  buildings  and  fixed  machinery,  and 
the  ground  on  which  they  are  erected;  also  on  water  craft.  Land- 
lords have  lien  on  crops,  growing  and  garnered,  for  advances  of  sup- 
plies and  clothing,  and  for  their  rent. 

WILLS.  Two  witnesses.  If  for  only  personal  property,  witnesses 
need  not  subscribe  their  names.  The  handwriting  of  an  unattested 
will  maybe  proved  by  three  witnesses.  Nuncupative  wills  have  no 
force  for  amounts  over  $250. 

TEXAS. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  insolvent  debtor  making  an  assignment  must 
have  it  recorded,  accompanied  by  a  sworn  inventory  of  debts,  assets, 

creditors,  collaterals  held  by  them 
and  all  evidences  of  debts  to  or 
against  debtor,  with  complete 
statement  of  his  estate,  with  val- 
ues. The  assignment  may  be 
made  for  the  benefit  of  assenting 
creditors  only;  and  accepting  a 
fro  rata  will  be  equivalent  to 
discharge  of  debtor  from  liabil- 
ity. A  creditor  believing  debtor 
has  concealed  his  property  may 
have  him  summoned  and  exam- 
ined under  oath.  Any  fraudulent 
action  on  part  of  debtor  is  felony. 

ATTACHMENTS.  The  plaintiff  making  affidavit  and  giving  bond 
in  double  amount,  an  attachment  is  issued  where  defendant  is  a 
non-resident  or  a  foreign  corporation,  is  about  to  remove  from  the 
State,  or  secretes  himself  to  avoid  summons,  conceals  his  property  or 
is  about  to  conceal  it,  or  is  about  to  remove  it  from  the  State,  or  from 
the  county,  has  disposed  of  his  property,  or  is  about  to  dispose  of  it, 
is  about  turning  his  property  into  money,  so  that  it  cannot  be  reached, 
or  has  obtained  property  by  deception.  Intent  to  defraud  is  surmised 
in  any  of  the  allegations.    Limit  of  justices  of  the  peace,  $200. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded,  or  the  property  must 
change  hands  at  once.  Foreclosed  by  suit;  sheriff's  sale  sixty  days' 
notice. 


DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  anywhere  within  the  United  States  are 
made  before  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  having  a  seal,  a  notary 
public  or  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  this  State.  Where  a  deed  is 
not  acknowledged  it  must  be  proved  by  two  witnesses.  Married 
women,  separate  examination, 

DIVORCE.  Applicant  must  be  really  an  inhabitant  of  the  State  and 
a  resident  of  the  county  for  six  mouths  previous  to  filing  petition; 
grounds,  adultery,  three  years'  desertion,  unendurable  cruelty. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Two  hundred  acres  of  land  with  improvements  in 
the  country,  or  city  property  to  value  at  time  of  being  designated  as 
homestead!  (regardless  of  the  value  of  after  improvements)  of  $5,000. 
Furniture,  farming  implements,  tools,  books,  five  cows  and  calves, 
two  yoke  of  cattle,  two  horses  and  wagon,  a  carriage  or  buggy, 
twenty  hogs,  twenty  sheep,  provisions,  provender  and  many  other 
articles.  The  exemption  of  the  homestead  is  not  good  against  taxes, 
purchase-money  or  mechanics'  lien  ;  but  in  this  last  case  the  contract 
must  have  been  signed  by  both  husband  and  wife.  On  the  death  of  a 
husband,  the  widow  and  children  may  have  one  year's  support  out  of 
the  estate,  and  if  the  property  be  not  in  such  shape  as  to  be  exempted  by 
law,  enough  may  be  sold  to  raise  an  allowance  for  homestead  to  value 
of  $5,000  and  other  property  $500.  Any  person  not  the  head  of  a  fam- 
ily may  have  exempted  clothing,  books,  horse,  bridle  and  saddle. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  owned  by  husband  or  wife 
before  marriage,  and  what  either  may  acquire  afterwards,  by  gift, 
devise  or  descent,  is  community  property.  The  husband  controls  the 
common  property  and  the  wife's  separate  estate.  The  common  prop- 
erty is  liable  for  the  debts  of  either,  and  the  husband  may  dispose  of 
it.  At  the  death  of  either  the  survivor  takes  one-half  and  the  children 
the  other  half  of  the  common  property.  The  husband  joins  wife  in 
conveyance  of  her  separate  property.  She  joins  him  in  conveyance 
of  homestead.  A  married  woman  cannot  do  business  in  her  own 
name,  but  she  may  become  security  for  her  husband  by  mortgaging 
her  separate  estate. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS  must  be  on  a  written  contract  and  recorded 
within  six  months.  Sub -contractors  and  journeymen  may  furnish  the 
owner  with  their  accounts,  and  he  must  retain  the  amount  of  their 
claims.     Landlords  have  lien  for  rent  and  for  supplies  advanced. 

WILLS.  Age,  twenty-one  years.  Two  witnesses.  Only  written 
wills  can  devise  real  estate. 


UTAH. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Common  law. 

ATTACHMENTS.  Plaintiff  holding  no  security  gives  bond  and 
takes  out  an  attachment  where  there  is  an  appearance  of  the  debtor's 
probable  failure  to  pay  the  debt. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  No  statutes.  Mortgagee  must  take 
immediate  possession. 

DEEDS  must  have  one  witness.  Acknowledgments  before  notary 
public,  justice  of  the  peace,  mayor  of  a  city  or  judge  or  clerk  of  court 
of  record.    A  married  woman  conveys  the  same  as  if  single. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $1,000;  personal  property  to  head 
of  the  family,  $700,  and  to  each  member  $250.  Not  good  against  pur- 
chase-money, mechanics'  lien  or  a  mortgage. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman's  separate  property  is 
held,  managed,  controlled  and  disposed  of  by  herself.  A  wife  may 
carry  on  business,  sue  and  be  sued,  give  notes  and  make  contracts  the 
same  as  if  single. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claim  must  be  filed  within  three  months; 
suit  brought  within  one  year.  Sub-contractors  and  journeyman  must 
serve  the  owner  with  timely  written  notice. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age, eighteen  years.  Two  witnesses.  Married 
women  make  wills  the  same  as  if  single. 


SfTY 


<8 A 


V 


522 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


VERMONT. 

ASSIGNMENTS  tnuxt  be  without  preferences.  Insolvent  law  by 
which  involuntary  proceedings  may  be  entered  by  one  creditor  having 

claim  to  $250.  If  assets  pay  thirty 
per  cent  of  debts,  or  if  majority 
of  creditors  consent,  the  debtor 
is  discharged. 

ATTACHMENTS  on  mesne 
process.  Trustee  process  for 
property  in  hands  of  third  per- 
sons. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES. 
All  property,  except  fixed  ma- 
chinery, must  be  taken  into  the 
possession  of  the  mortgagee. 
Foreclosed  by  bill  in  equity. 
Court  orders  sale. 

DEEDS  must  be  under  seal 
and  h:tve  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  are  made  before  a  mas- 
ter in  chancery,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public.  No  separate 
examination  for  married  women. 

DIVORCE  is  granted  for  adultery,  cruelty,  three  years' abandon- 
ment, three  years*  imprisonment  in  penitentiary  or  seven  years*  ab- 
sence without  being  heard  of.  The  wife  may  obtain  divorce  where 
the  husband,  being  able,  fails  to  support. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $500;  growing  crop,  clothing,  furni- 
ture, sewing-machine,  tools,  one  cow,  ten  sheep,  one  hog,  three  hives 
of  bees,  poultry,  one  yoke  of  oxen  or  two  horses,  fuel,  provisions  and 
provender;  also  the  instruments  and  library  of  a  professional  man, 
$200. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman  is  held 
separate,  and  is  not  liabit  for  her  husband's  debts.  In  conveyance  of 
the  wife's  real  estate,  the  husband  must  join  in  deed.  A  married 
woman  may  make  a  will.  Widow  has  dower  in  one-third  the  real 
estate  of  which  the  husband  died  seized. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  On  buildings  suit  must  be  brought  within 
three  months;  on  vessels  in  eight  months. 
WILLS.  Three  witnesses. 

VIRGINIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  may  be  made  with  preferences.  The  debtor  is 
still  liable.     No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS  arc  issued 
against  anon-resident  debtor  or 
a  defendant  who  is  removing  or 
about  to  remove  his  property  out 
of  the  State  pendente  litet  or  a 
tenant  removing  his  property  be- 
fore the  rent  becomes  due*  or  a 
debtor  taking  his  property  out  of 
the  State  before  a  debt  is  due. 
Garnishment  will  reach  debts  due 
the  defendant.  Plaintiff  must 
give  bond  and  file  affidavit.  Also, 
an  arrest  will  be  made  on  plain- 
tiff's affidavit  that  he  believes  de- 
fendant is  about  to  abscond. 
The  defendant  will  then  have  to  give  a  bail-bond  or  be  imprisoned. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  are  made  before  a  notary,  justice,  com- 
missioner in  chancery,  or  before  the  judge  or  clerk  of  any  county  or 
corporation  court.  In  other  States,  before  any  court  or  clerk  of  a 
court,  or  justice,  or  notary,  or  commissioner  in  chancery,  or  commis- 
sioner of  deeds  for  Virginia.  Record  must  be  made  within  sixty  days. 
Wife  joins  to  bar  dower.  Separate  examination.  The  acknowledg- 
ment of  a  married  woman  must  be  made  before  two  justices  of  the 
peace,  or  before  an  officer  having  a  seal. 


DIVORCE.  Grounds:  impotency,  adultery, sentence  to  penitentiary, 
guilt  of  cither  of  infamous  crime  before  marriage,  the  other  being  ig- 
norant, notorious  immorality  of  wife  before  marriage,  five  years* 
abandonment.  Partial  divorce  for  cruelty  or  desertion.  Alimony  and 
maintenance  of  children  are  decreed,  and  the  care  of  the  children  is 
given  to  either  parly  at  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

EXEMPTIONS.  The  head  of  a  family  who  is  a  householder  has  a 
homestead  exemption  to  value  of  $2,000,  which  may  be  in  real  or  per- 
sonal property,  both  or  either.  Also  clothing,  sewing-machine,  fur- 
niture and  animals  ;  books,  $100;  tools, $100.  The  value  of  the  exemp- 
tions outside  of  the  homestead  is  varied  according  to  the  number  in 
family,  and  ranges  from  $50  to  S500. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  holds  the  property  owned 
by  her  previous  to  marriage,  and  what  she  may  afterwards  acquire,  as 
sole  trader,  free  from  the  control  of  her  husband,  and  from  liability 
for  his  debts.  She  may  make  a  will  subject  to  husband's  rights  by 
curtesy.    Common  law  dower. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claim  must  be  filed  within  thirty  days; 
suit  brought  within  six  months.  Sub-contractors  and  journeymen 
must  notify  owner  within  ten  days. 

WILLS.  Age,  over  twenty- one  to  dispose  of  realty  ;  eighteen,  per- 
sonalty.   Two  witnesses. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS  are  made  by  deed,  acknowledged  and  recorded 
as  are  all  such  instruments.  If  real  estate  is  assigned,  the  wife  must 
join  in  the  deed.  There  being  no 
insolvent  law,  an  assignment 
does  not  cancel  the  liability  of 
the  debtor.  A  defendant  under 
arrest  for  debt,  on  making  a  con- 
veyance of  his  property,  will  be 
discharged  from  such  arrest. 

ATTACHMENTS.  The  cred- 
itor first  making  affidavit,  attach- 
ments are  issued,  where  debtor 
is  a  non-resident,  or  is  about 
leaving  the  State,  or  conceals 
himself  to  avoid  summons,  is  re- 
moving his  property  out  of  the 
State,  or  is  in  any  manner  trying  to  put  it  out  of  reach  to  defraud  his 
creditors.  Bond  and  security  being  furnished  by  creditor,  the  sheriff 
takes  complete  possession  of  the  attached  property.  Garnishment  «■- 
third  parties.  No  imprisonment  for  debt.  Rut  defendant  may  be 
arrested  if  about  removing  himself  or  his  property  with  intent  to 
defraud. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES.  Common  law.     Form,  deed  of  trust. 

DEEDS.  Acknowledgments  are  made  before  a  notary  public,  re- 
corder, or  judge  or  clerk  of  any  court  of  record  la  United  States,  or 
before  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  West  Virginia.  A  married  woman 
must  be  examined  separate  and  apart  from  her  husband. 

DIVORCE  is  granted  for  mental  or  physical  defect  at  time  of  mar- 
riage, unfaithfulness,  three  years'  abandonment,  sentence  to  peni- 
tentiary, conviction  of  crime  before  marriage,  or  notorious  immorality 
of  cither  before  marriage,  the  other  party  being  ignorant.  Partial 
divorce  may  be  obtained  for  cruelty  or  desertion.  Alimony  and  cus- 
tody of  children  is  decreed  by  the  court. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead,  $1,000,  where  the  property  has  been 
granted  or  devised  for  the  purpose,  to  the  head  of  a  family,  or  where 
he  has  devoted  such  property  to  that  purpose  by  having  it  so  recorded. 
Also  personal  property  to  value  of  $200.     Tools  to  mechanic,  $50. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  of  a  married  woman,  however 
acquired,  except  from  the  husband,  is  held  for  her  sole  and  separate 
use.     Husband  must  join  in  conveyances  of  real  estate.     Dower. 

MECHANCS'  LIENS.  Must  file  claim  within  thirty  daysand  bring 
*ni;  w.ihin  six  months. 

WILLS.  Testator's  age,  twenty -one  years.     Two  witn 


A 


^^=^ 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


523 


WASHINGTON. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Unless  fraud  or  preference  is  evident,  the  insolv- 
ent law  allows  the  discharge  of  debtor  whose  assets  equal  thirty-three 
per  cent  of  debts.     Wages  to  amount  of  $100  are  preferred  claims. 

ATTACHMENTS  issue  where  debtor  is  non-resident  or  a  foreign 
corporation,  absconds,  removes  his  property  or  attempts  to  place  it 
out  of  reach  of  his  creditors.  Plaintiff  gives  bond.  Jurisdiction  of 
justices  of  the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGE  must  be  accompanied  by  the  affidavit 
of  both  parties  that  it  is  bona  fide ^  and  made  with  no  fraudulent  de- 
sign.  When  for  exempted  property,  wife  must  join.  A  chattel  mort- 
gage must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded  the  same  as  a  deed  of  con- 
veyance. 

DEEDS  must  have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  arc  taken  by 
notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace,  judge  or  clerk  of  court  of  record, 
mayor  of  a  city  or  register  of  deeds.  In  any  other  State  or  Territory, 
according  to  the  laws  of  such  State  or  Territory.  For  conveyance  of 
separate  real  estate  of  a  wife,  she  must  be  joined  in  the  deed  by  her 
husband,  and  she  must  be  questioned  apart  from  him.  No  dower  or 
curtesy  rights. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Homestead  (must  be  actually  occupied)  to  the 
value  of  $1,000;  clothing,  books,  bedding  and  household  goods,  to 
value  of  $1,500;  one  small  boat,  to  value  of  $50;  two  cows,  five  hogs, 
bees,  poultry,  fuel  and  provisions.  To  a  farmer,  two  horses,  or  two 
yoke  of  oxen,  and  farming  implements  to  value  of  $200.  To  profes- 
sional man,  library  worth  $500,  office  furniture  and  fuel.  To  lighter- 
man, his  boats,  to  value  of  $250.    To  drayman,  his  team. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  The  property  owned  before  marriage  by 
husband  or  wife,  and  all  acquired  afterwards  by  gift,  devise  or  descent, 
to  either,  is  separate  property.  All  otherwise  acquired  is  common 
property,  subject  to  control  of  the  husban,d.  He  also  controls  the 
separate  property  of  the  wife,  but  cannot  sell  or  convey  it  without  her 
joining  in  the  deed.  To  save  the  separate  property  of  the  wife  from 
attachment  for  husband's  debts,  there  must  be  an  inventory  of  it  on 
record. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Notice  must  be  filed  within  sixty  days,  and 
suit  begun  in  four  months.  Every  kind  of  structure,  and  the  land 
thereunder,  is  covered  by  lien.  There  may  also  be  a  lien  on  logs, 
timber  and  lumber  for  work;  and  by  the  owner  of  land  where  such 
timber  is  cut.  Farm  laborers  have  lien  on  crops,  but  where  crop  is 
raised  on  shares,  the  landlord's  portion  cannot  be  touched. 

WILLS.  Age,  twenty-one  for  men,  eighteen  for  women.  Two  wit- 
messes. 

WISCONSIN. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  An  insolvent  law,  whereby  debtor  may  file  peti- 
tion, list  of  assets  and  liabilities  with  his  affidavit,  and  make  an  assign- 
ment for  the  benefit  of  all  credit- 
«  ors.  After  publication  a  jury 
trial  may  be  exacted  by  the  cred- 
itors. If  the  decision  is  in  favor 
of  the  debtor,  the  assignment  is 
decreed,  and  debtor  is  discharged 
from  all  his  debts.  Proof  of 
fraudulent  practice  on  part  of 
debtor  would  void  the  discharge. 
ATTACHMENTS  issue  when 
the  debt  is  over  fifty  dollars  in 
amount,  on  affidavit  being  made 
and  bond  given  that  the  defend- 
ant has  gone  away  or  concealed 
himself,  is  a  non-resident  or  for- 
eign corporation,  or  is  about  removing  his  property.  On  affidavit  and 
bond  of  creditor,  defendant  may  be  arrested  if  he  is  about  to  leave 
trie  State,  or  conceals  property.    Garnishment  in  aid. 


CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded,  or  possession  of 
property  pass  into  hands  of  mortgagee.  Foreclosure  by  seizure  and 
sale. 

DEEDS  must  have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  are  made 
before  notaries  public,  justices  of  the  peace,  judges  and  clerks  of 
courts,  commissioners  of  deeds  ;  and  in  other  States,  according  to  the 
laws  of  such  States.  A  married  woman  must  join  in  a  deed  to  bar 
dower. 

DIVORCE.  Unless  the  parties  had  been  married  and  since  remained 
in  the  State,  the  applicant  must  have  been  for  one  year  a  resident  be- 
fore filing  petition.  Absolute  divorce  is  granted  for  impotency,  adul- 
tery, one  year's  abandonment,  five  years'  separation,  three  years' 
sentence  to  penitentiary,  cruelty  and  drunkenness.  Partial  divorce 
for  desertion,  cruelty,  drunkenness  or  failure  to  provide.  The  court 
may  decree  alimony,  and  the  wife  regain  her  separate  property. 

EXEMPTIONS.  Forty  acres  in  the  country,  or  one-quarter  of  ai 
acre  in  town,  with  the  dwelling  thereon.  Clothing,  household  furni- 
ture, $200;  books,  two  cows,  ten  hogs,  ten  sheep,  one  horse  and  yoke 
of  cattle,  or  a  pair  of  horses  and  mules,  farming  tools,  one  year's  pro- 
visions and  provender.  To  a  mechanic,  tools,  $200;  professional  man, 
his  library,  $200  ;  a  publisher  or  printer,  his  outfit  to  $1,500.  To  any 
head  of  a  family,  sixty  days*  earnings.  No  exemption  good  against 
a  mechanic's  lien  or  claim  for  purchase-money. 

MARRIED  WOMEN.  A  married  woman  has  all  property  rights 
the  same  as  if  single.  She  may  buy  and  sell,  lend  and  borrow,  make 
conveyances,  and  have  real  estate  conveyed  to  her,  and  all  such  busi- 
ness may  be  transacted  between  her  and  her  husband  as  between 
strangers.  She  may  sue  alone,  but  in  being  sued  she  must  be  joined 
to  husband.  Dower,  life  interest  in  one-third  of  all  husband's  realty 
held  during  the  marriage.     Husband  has  wife's  realty  for  life. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.  Must  file  petition  in  six  months  and  bring 
suit  in  one  year.  Sub -contractors  and  journeymen  must  notify  owner 
within  thirty  days  of  the  furnishing  of  material  or  labor. 

WILLS.  Two  witnesses. 

WYOMING. 

ASSIGNMENTS.  Must  be  without  preferences,  without  reserv- 
ations  for  benefit  of  assignor  and  without  provisions  forcing  creditor 
into  a  compromise  or  release  of  his  claims.     No  insolvent  law. 

ATTACHMENTS.  Plaintiff  must  make  affidavit  and  give  security 
before  an  attachment  is  issued.  A  non-resident  or  absconding  debtor, 
or  one  who  conceals  his  property  to  avoid  payment,  Is  liable  to  the 
process.    Jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace,  $100. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  must  be  recorded  or  the  property  must 
pass  into  possession  of  mortgagee.  Sale  without  consent  of  mort- 
gaged property  by  the  mortgageor  is  a  felony  and  maybe  punished 
by  imprisonment  in  the  penitentiary  for  a  term  less  than  ten  years. 

DEEDS  must  have  two  witnesses.  Acknowledgments  may  be 
taken  before  justices  of  the  peace,  notaries  public,  judges  and  clerks  of 
courts  of  record,  registers  of  deeds  and  mayors  of  cities.  In  the 
States  and  other  Territories,  before  commissioners  of  deeds  for 
Wyoming  or  before  officers  authorized  by  the  laws  of  such  States  or 
Territories.  Married  women  join  in  conveying  common  property. 
Separate  property  they  convey  alone. 

EXEMPTIONS.  House  and  lot  in  town  or  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres  of  land  in  the  country,  either  to  value  of  $1,500.  Tools,  team 
and  stock  in  trade  of  mechanic,  miner  or  other  person,  $300.  Benefit 
of  exemption  can  only  be  claimed  by  a  bona  fide  resident  householder. 

A  MARRIED  WOMAN  may  carry  on  business,  make  contracts, 
keep  her  own  earnings,  hold  property,  real  or  personal,  receive  the 
rents  in  her  own  name,  sue  and  be  sued,  make  a  will,  free  from  any 
control  or  interference  of  her  husband,  the  same  as  if  she  were  single. 
Her  property  is  not  liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband.  Women  in 
this  Territory  have  the  right  to  vote  and  hold  office. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.  Claim  must  be  filed  within  sixty  days,  and 
suit  begun  within  one  year. 

WILLS.  Xo  statutes.    Common  law. 


i^ 


"Ff 


524 


CAUSES    OF    SUCCESS    AND    FAILURE. 


*HILE  it  is  impossible,  in  a  world  made 
up  of  widely  differing  individuals,  to 
formulate  a  set  of  rules  by  which  each 
could  be  shown  the  surest  and  swiftest 
way  to  secure  success  in  life,  still  it  is  possible 
to  call  attention  to  certain  qualities  of  mind 
and  character  whose  possession  has  come  to 
be  universally  looked  upon  as  essential  to  those 
who  may  aspire  to  struggle  into  the  front  rank 
of  the  world's  workers.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it 
would  be  as  difficult  to  define  the  common 
expression  "success  in  life"  as  it  would  be  to 
lay  down  a  royal  road  which  leads  to  it.  Given 
a  hundred  definitions,  from  as  many  men,  each 
treating  the  subject  from  his  own  standpoint, 
and  no  two  of  them  would  be  found  alike;  and 
the  opinion  of  each  of  these,  as  time  passed 
along  with  its  inevitable  ups  and  downs,  would 
be  found  to  vary  considerably.  Flushed  with 
recent  success,  the  speculator  to-day  would 
see  in  the  possession  of  millions  and  in  the 
control  of  vast  interests  the  only  proper  goal 
for  a  man  of  his  great  genius ;  tamed  a  few 
days  later  by  unexpected  reverses,  and  he  sees 
in  some  conservative  enterprise  the  fittest 
sphere  of  his  future  usefulness.  Perhaps,  then, 
without  attempting  the  impossible,  in  a  defi- 
nition of  success  in  life  which  will  fit  all  who 
are  seeking  it,  it  will  do  to  look  upon  it  as  the 


accomplishment  of  the  laudable  life-purpose  of 
a  man  of  natural  or  cultivated  parts,  who  has 
found  an  object  in  life  worth  living  and  working 
for,  and  has  worked  honestly  and  perseveringly 
to  attain  it.  As  a  rule,  the  larger  the  endow- 
ment of  those  faculties  which  go  to  build  up 
success  in  life,  the  higher  the  aim  which  accom- 
panies them;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
man  is  the  most  cultivable  of  all  God's  crea- 
tures, and  that  by  careful  and  intelligent  study 
of  the  qualities  which  have  enabled  others  to 
shine,  one  may  acquire  them  and  employ  them 
in  building  up  similar  accomplishments.  This 
being  so,  it  does  not  lie  in  the  power  of  the 
young  man  who  feels  that  he  possesses  only  a 
moderate  share  of  intelligence,  force  and  abil- 
ity, to  decide,  on  this  account,  that  he  is  not 
called  upon  to  make  fight  for  one  of  the  front 
places  in  the  life  of  his  generation.  The  most 
brilliant  lives  have  often  been  those  of  men  of 
ordinary  gifts,  who,  exerting  to  the  utmost  such 
power  as  has  been  given  them,  have  accom- 
plished more  than  hundreds  of  men  who  were 
much  more  bountifully  supplied  with  mental 
qualifications.  If  any  man  look  among  the 
circle  of  his  acquaintances  he  will  be  surprised 
to  see  how  few  have  made  the  voyage  of  life 
successfully,  and  sorrow  cannot  but  arise  when 
he  considers  the  impotent  conclusions  to  which 


u 


CAUSES    OF    SUCCESS    AND    FAILURE. 


525 


*^|5— 


young  men  of  brilliant  parts  frequently  come. 
Every  day  witnesses  the  triumph  of  patient  and 
studious  mediocrity,  and  men  of  great  intellect 
are  constantly  being  forced  to  acknowledge, 
with  surprise,  the  success  of  persons  whose 
abilities,  in  comparison  with  their  own,  have 
been  deemed  inconsiderable.  These  men 
know  precisely  the  scope  of  their  faculties,  and 
never  wander  beyond  them.  They  wait  pa- 
tiently for  opportunities  which  are  of  the  kind 
they  can  improve,  and  they  never  let  one  pass 
unimproved.  Being  unnoticed,  they  excite  so 
much  the  less  opposition,  and  at  last  they  sur- 
prise the  world  by  the  attainment  of  an  object 
which  others  deemed  as  far  away  from  their 
ambition  as  it  seemed  beyond  their  reach.  . 

How  to  Avoid  Failure. 

It  is  a  common  thing,  with  both  the  brilliant  and  the 
mediocre,  when  the  reward  of  their  exertions  and  the  restilt 
of  their  plans  seem  unsatisfactory,  to  blame  the  ever-ready 
scapegoat,  bad  luck,  as  the  cause  of  the  untoward  outcome. 
,  One  of  the  most  healthful  and  profitable  exercises  which  a 
young  man  who  has  just  experienced  failure  of  any  kind  can 
perform,  will  be  to  analyze  the  whole  transaction  with  merci- 
less candor,  finding  out  just  what  proportion  of  the  disaster 
is  due  to  his  own  fault  and  what  is  due  to  fortuitous  circum- 
stances, and  then  make  a  cold-blooded  comparison.  If  this 
were  more  generally  done  than  it  is,  there  would  be  far  fewer 
believers  in,  or  rather  blamers  of,  luck  as  a  business  marplot 
than  are  at  present  to  be  found.  To  come  down  to  the  facts 
in  the  case,  without  going  so  far  as  to  dispute  the  existence 
of  such  a  thing  as  chance,  in  almost  all  cases  of  failure  the 
cause  is  to  be  found  in  the  man,  and  the  reason  it  is  not  found 
there  is  because  that  is  the  last  place  in  which  the  man  hunts 
for  it.  "  Untoward  accidents,"  "fate,"  "destiny,"  "ill- 
fortune,"  "evil  star,"  "chance,"  "luck,"  or  some  other 
synonym  of  the  scapegoat,  suggests  itself  to  the  victim  of  ill- 
success,  and  he  consoles  himself  with  charging  upon  it  his 
failure.     He  has  the  poets  on  his  side,  too.     Does  not  Shak- 

spere  say  : 

"  There's  a  divinity  that  shapes  our  ends, 
Rough-hew  them  how  we  will." 
And  Byron : 

"  Men  are  the  sport  of  circumstances,  when 
The  circumstances  seem  the  sport  of  men." 
And,  after  all  has  been  said,  it  were  better,  perhaps,  that 
the  young  business  man  place  some  little,  very  little,  credence 
in  luck's  existence,  just  enough,  in  fact,  to  cause  him  to  so 
organize  upon  solid  and  substantial  foundation  each  of  his 
enterprises,  and  to  so  honestly  and  perseveringly  conduct 
them,  that  the  smallest  possible  loop-hole  will  be  left  for  ill- 
luck  to  make  its  appearance. 


Choosing  an  Occupation 

Is  seldom  an  easy  matter.  In  some  few  cases,  a  young 
man  feels  the  possession  of  such  an  unmistakable  bias  to 
some  peculiar  profession  that  neither  he  nor  his  friends  have 
any  hesitancy  in  deciding  upon  his  future.  In  most  cases, 
however,  there  is  no  particular  preference,  and  a  wise  decis- 
ion is  not  reached  before  many  considerations  have  been 
carefully  weighed.  In  far  too  many  cases  wrong  considera- 
tions are  given  attention,  and  a  decision  is  reached  whose 
ultimate  result  is  a  life  failure  which,  had  the  profession  been 
selected  with  greater  wisdom,  would  not  have  happened.  A 
socially  ambitious  father  and  mother  check  their  young  son's 
honest  ambition  to  become  a  mechanic,  send  him  to  college, 
and  make  a  briefless  barrister  out  of  the  material  which  could 
have  been  moulded  into  an  honest  and  efficient  artisan. 
Many  a  boy  whose  soul  yearned  for  the  higher  walks  of 
intellectual  culture,  to  share  in  which  he  had  been  endowed, 
has  been  doomed  by  injudicious  parents,  who  despised 
colleges,  to  dull  life  at  a  dry-goods  counter  or  counting- 
room  desk.  Parents  are  not  by  any  means  infallible  judges 
upon  this  point,  and  every  young  man  about  to  start  out  in 
search  of  success  in  life  should  study  himself  carefully  in 
order  to  discover  his  aptitudes.  The  natural  bent  may  be 
hard  to  find,  but  the  discovery  will  well  repay  the  search. 
Historical  biography  teems  with  the  lives  of  men  whose 
peculiar  aptitude  was  early  displayed  to  the  advantage  of 
themselves  and  the  world.  Napoleon,  a  school  boy  at 
Brienne,  led  the  mimic  armies  of  his  youthful  associates ; 
Nelson  had  conceived  the  idea  of  future  greatness  as  a  sailor 
before  he  entered  the  navy ;  Pascal  contributed  to  the  mathe- 
matical literature  of  his  age  before  he  was  seventeen;  Pope 
acknowledged  that 

"  While  yet  a  child  and  still  a  fool  of  fame, 
I  lisped  in  numbers,  for  the  numbers  came;" 

Dryden  illustrated  the  growth  of  natural  aptitude  when  he 

wrote : 

"  What  the  child  admired 
The  youth  endeavored,  and  the  man  acquired  ; " 

Michael  Angelo  stayed  away  from  school  to  draw  pictures ; 
Murillo  covered  his  text-books  with  them ;  West,  at  seven, 
plundered  the  cat's  tail  of  hair  with  which  to  make  pencils; 
Calhoun,  a  student,  held  his  own  in  debate  with  the  college 
president — and  so  on,  until  the  examples  of  the  theory  of 
natural  aptitude  become  too  numerous  for  recapitulation. 

Taking  for  granted  that  one  has  discovered,  or  believes 
that  he  has  discovered,  his  bent,  he  must  beware  of  the  danger 
which  lies  in  fickleness  of  purpose,  which  may,  shortly  after 
the  weariness  of  work  begins  to  be  felt,  lead  him  to  suppose 
that  he  has  chosen  unwisely,  and  that  some  other  field  of  use- 
fulness would  be  more  suitable  to  his  temper  and  parts.  It 
is  the  practical  repetition  of  the  old  story  of  the  traveller  in 
the  express  train  sighing  for  the  quiet  pleasure  of  the  farmer, 
whose  broad  fields  are  flying  past,  while  the  farmer  looks 
longingly  at  the  train  as  it  dashes  by,  and  dreams  of  the  enjoy- 
able excitements  of  a  life  of  endless  bustle,  stir  and  energy. 
Whatever   the   calling,    there  will   be   toil  and    trial  for  its 


^ 


a «b_ 


526 


CAUSES    OF    SUCCESS    AND    FAILURE. 


follower,  and  these  come  from  him  rather  than  from  the  occu- 
pation, which  might  be  changed  a  dozen  times  in  the  vain 
hope  of  escaping  from  them.  Having  deliberately  selected  a 
profession,  stick  to  it  The  longer  you  remain  in  it,  the  more 
expert  you  become  and  the  easier  becomes  the  work  and  the 
larger  the  pay.  It  is  only  the  early  days  which  bring  weari- 
ness and  pain.  These  conquered  by  perseverance,  the  rest 
is  easy,  and  the  success  in  conquering  the  first  pleadings  of 
the  siren  fickleness  of  purpose,  who  is  of  closer  kin  to  laziness 
than  one  might  think,  lays  the  corner-stone  of  success  in  life. 

Excelsior ! 

Having  chosen  his  occupation,  the  young  man  of  proper 
ambition  will  not  be  long  in  selecting  for  himself  an  honorable 
position  in  it,  to  be  filled  as  soon  as  he  has  shown  himself 
worthy  and  able.  What  men  have  accomplished  shows  that 
hardly  any  ambitious  longing  can  be  considered  as  unwise 
on  the  part  of  those  who  are  willing  to  undertake  all  work 
and  suffer  all  want  in  the  struggle. 

The  extremest  poverty  has  been  no  obstacle  ia  the  way  of 
men  devoted  to  the  duty  of  self-culture.  Professor  Alexander 
Murray,  the  linguist,  learned  to  write  by  scribbling  his  letters 
on  an  old  wool-card  with  the  end  of  a  burnt  heather-stem. 
The  only  book  which  his  father,  who  was  a  poor  shepherd, 
possessed,  was  a  penny  Shorter  Catechism ;  but  that,  being 
thought  too  valuable  for  common  use,  was  carefully  preserved 
in  a  cupboard  for  the  Sunday  catechizings.  Professor  Moor, 
when  a  young  man,  being  too  poor  to  purchase  Newton's 
"  Principia,"  borrowed  the  book,  and  copied  the  whole  of  it 
with  his  own  hand.  Many  poor  students,  while  laboring 
daily  for  their  living,  have  only  been  able  to  snatch  an  atom 
of  knowledge  here  and  there  at  intervals,  as  birds  do  their 
food  in  winter  time  when  the  fields  are  covered  with  snow. 
They  have  struggled  on,  and  faith  and  hope  have  come  to 
them.  A  well  known  author  and  publisher,  William  Cham- 
bers, of  Edinburgh,  speaking  before  an  assemblage  of  young 
men  in  that  city,  thus  briefly  described  to  them  his  humble 
beginnings  for  their  encouragement:  "I  stand  before  you," 
he  said,  "  a  self-educated  man.  My  education  is  that  which 
is  supplied  at  the  humble  parish-schools  of  Scotland;  and  it 
was  only  when  I  went  to  Edinburgh,  a  poor  boy,  that  I 
devoted  my  evenings,  after  the  labors  of  the  day,  to  the 
cultivation  of  that  intellect  which  the  Almighty  has  given  me. 
From  seven  or  eight  in  the  morning  till  nine  or  ten  at  night 
was  I  at  my  business  as  a  bookseller's  apprentice,  and  it 
was  only  during  hours  after  these,  stolen  from  sleep,  that  I 
could  devote  myself  to  study.  I  did  not  read  novels;  my 
attention  was  devoted  to  physical  science  and  other  useful 
matters.  I  also  taught  myself  French.  I  look  back  to  those 
times  with  great  pleasure,  and  am  almost  sorry  I  have  not  to 
go  through  the  same  experience  again ;  for  I  reaped  more 
pleasure  when  I  had  not  a  sixpence  in  my  pocket,  studying  in 
a  garret  in  Edinburgh,  than  I  now  find  when  sitting  amid  all 
the  elegancies  and  comforts  of  a  parlor." 

William  Cobbett  learned  English  grammar  when  he  was  a 
private  soldier  on  the  pay  of  sixpence  a  day. 


These  are  men  who  have  selected  an  aim  in  life  and  have 
attained  it  through  sticking  to  it.  Concentration  of  purpose 
carried  them  through.  The  "Admirable  Crichtons "  are 
scarce  geniuses,  and  no  young  man  need  be  ashamed,  in 
these  days  of  special  accomplishment,  of  having  decided  to 
follow  a  single  pursuit  in  life — to  become  a  man  of  one  idea — 
provided  it  is  a  good  one.  Almost  all  the  great  men  in  war, 
literature,  science,  diplomacy,  business,  the  professions,  have 
been  men  of  "one  idea,"  not  because  they  were  incapable  of 
harboring  more  than  one,  but  because,  having  selected  some 
one  object  as  worthy  of  attainment,  they  gave  themselves  up 
to  it  solely.  If  was  often  long  of  coming,  but  it  came  at  last. 
Adam  Smith  gave  ten  years  to  his  "Wealth  of  Nations;" 
Edward  Gibbon,  twenty  to  the  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire;"  Bishop  Butler,  twenty  to  his  famous 
"Analogy;"  Kant,  fifty  years  to  his  metaphysical  re- 
searches ;  Dr.  Johnson,  seven  years  to  his  Dictionary.  These 
men  sought  one  prize  and  gained  it.  As  many  years  have 
been  spent  by  thousands  of  men  of  equal  ability,  who  sought 
each  a  number  of  prizes  and  gained  none. 


A  Sound  Body 


Is  another  of  the  essentials  of  success  in  life  which  are  largely 
attainable  by  those  who  lack  their  possession.  Mental  as 
well  as  physical  accomplishment  depends  largely  upon  the 
condition  of  the  worker's  digestion,  and  the  thorough  aeration 
of  his  blood.  This  can  only  be  obtained  with  healthy  exercise, 
which  can  only  be  taken  by  those  whose  muscles  and  nerves 
and  wind  are  in  good  condition.  "  Walk  twelve  miles  before 
speaking  and  you'll  never  break  down,"  says  Sidney  Smith 
to  an  English  Parliamentary  debater.  A  strong  intellect 
cannot  well  work  with  a  weak  body  as  its  case.  Energy 
without  talent  will  accomplish  more  than  talent  without 
energy.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  woodman's  axe  avails  noth- 
ing until  the  sinewy  arm  throws  it,  stroke  upon  stroke,  against 
the  monarchs  of  the  forest.  Take  the  great  men  of  the 
century,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  they  combined  intellectual 
force  with  physical  vigor.  In  England,  Brougham,  Lynd- 
hurst,  Peel,  Bright,  Gladstone,  Palmerston;  in  America. 
Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun,  Grant,  Sherman,  Sheridan,  Lin- 
coln— all  these  were  men  capable  of  strong  muscular  exertion 
and  of  standing  a  prolonged  physical  as  well  as  mental  strain. 
It  is  told  of  Lord  Brougham  that  he  once  worked  six  days  on 
a  stretch  without  sleep,  slept  from  Saturday  night  to  Monday 
morning,  and  began  work  again  thoroughly  refreshed.  These 
men  are  the  conservers  as  well  as  the  possessors  of  physical 
force,  and  the  young  man.  who  seeks  to  retain  the  "sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body  "  will  remember  that  it  is  not  so  much 
in  the  cultivation  of  additional  body  strength  as  in  the 
economy  of  what  he  already  possesses  that  the  art  of  physical 
culture  is  best  applied.  The  idea  used  to  be  that  mus- 
cularity and  rowdyism  were  natural  associates,  but  people 
found  out  that  it  is  possible  for  a  young  man  to  be  a  good 
rower,  or  boxer  even,  and  still  be  a  worthy  Christian  and 
admirable  member  of  society,  and  even  that  it  was  difficult 
for  him  to  be  these  unless  with  the  employment  of  manly 


_M 


9 


~A 


CAUSES    OF    SUCCESS    AND    FAILURE. 


527 


exercises  he  brought  his  physical  condition  up  to  the  healthy 
standard.  This  is  merely  a  recurrence  to  the  old  belief  of  the 
Greeks,  who  reverenced  the  muscular  body  as  one  of  the 
noble  parts  of  man,  and  made  gymnastics  and  calisthenics  a 
regular  school  exercise.  Without  good  health  and  a  sound 
body,  moderate  success  in  life  may  be  painfully  possible; 
with  it  a  place  in  the  front  rank  may  be  attained  with  far 
greater  ease  than  otherwise. 

Self-Reliance. 

Among  all  the  mental  qualifications  which  help  on  to 
success  in  life,  there  is  none  which  is  of  more  importance 
than  self-reliance.  If  you  want  a  thing  well  done,  do  it 
yourself,  says  the  old  saw,  and  heace  comes  it  that  those  who 
rely  most  upon  themselves  for  the  accomplishment  of  any 
aim  are  the  ones  who  do  the  best  work.  "  Heaven  helps 
those  who  help  themelves  "  is  a  well-tried  maxim,  embody- 
ing in  small  compass  the  results  of  vast  human  experience. 
The  spirit  of  self-help  is  the  root  of  all  genuine  growth  in 
the  individual;  and,  exhibited  in  the  lives  of  many,  it  consti- 
tutes the  true  sourco  of  national  vigor  and  strength.  Help 
from  without  is  often  enfeebling  in  its  effects,  but  help  from 
within  invariably  invigorates.  Whatever  is  done  for  men  or 
classes,  to  a  certain  extent  takes  away  the  stimulus  and  neces- 
sity of  doing  for  themselves;  and  where  men  are  subjected 
to  over-guidance  and  over-government,  the  inevitable  tendency 
is  to  render  them  comparatively  helpless. 

It  is  energetic  individualism  which  produces  the  most 
powerful  effect  upon  the  life  and  actions  of  others,  and  really 
constitutes  the  best  practical  education.  The  determination 
to  be  one's  own  helper  is  the  secret  of  this  individual  develop- 
ment and  strength.  No  greater  misfortune  could  befall  an 
ambitious  and  able  young  man  than  a  legacy.  A  story  is  told 
of  a  critic  who,  after  reviewing  the  promising  work  of  a  young 
artist,  praised  it,  but  added  :  "  It  is  a  pity  that  he  can  never 
make  a  great  painter."  "  And  why  not?"  rejoined  his  com- 
panion. "Because  he  has  ten  thousand  pounds  a  year,"  was 
the  sententious  response.  When  John  C.  Calhoun  was  ridi- 
culed by  his  fellow-students  at  Yale  for  his  intense  application 
to  study,  he  raised  a  louder  laugh  against  himself  by  replying, 
"  I  am  forced  to  make  the  most  of  my  time  that  I  may  acquit 
myself  creditably  when  in  Congress,"  and  then,  when  the 
laugh  was  over,  adding,  "  I  assure  you,  if  I  were  not  satisfied 
of  my  ability  to  reach  Congress  in  three  years,  I  would  at 
once  leave  college."  Here  was  self-reliance  and  self-help. 
Calhoun  knew  the  difficulties  that  lay  between  him  and  the 
goal  of  his  ambition,  and,  while  the  other  students  were 
laughing  at  him,  he  was  helping  himself  to  overcome  them. 
'*  The  man  who  dares  to  think  for  himself  and  act  independ- 
ently, does  a  service  to  his  race, "  says  one  of  the  brightest 
modern  thinkers,  and  daily  experience  shows  that  it  is  ener- 
getic individualism  which  produces  the  most  powerful  effects 
upon  the  life  and  action  of  others,  and  really  constitutes  the 
best  practical  education.  Schools,  academies  and  colleges 
give  out  the  merest  beginnings  of  culture  in  comparison  with 
It     Far  more  influential  is  the  life-education  daily  given  in 


our  homes,  in  the  streets,  behind  counters,  in  workshops, 
at  the  loom  and  the  plough,  in  counting-houses  and  manu- 
factories, and  in  the  busy  haunts  of  men.  This  is  that 
finishing  instruction  as  members  of  society  which  Schiller 
designated  "the  education  of  the  human  race,"  consisting  in 
action,  conduct,  self-culture,  self-control — all  that  tends  to 
discipline  a  man  truly,  and  fit  him  for  the  proper  performance 
of  the  duties  and  business  of  life — a  kind  of  education  not  to 
be  learned  from  bouks,  or  acquired  by  any  amount  of  mere 
literary  training.  With  his  usual  weight  of  words,  Bacon 
observes  that  "studies  teach  not  their  own  use;  but  that  is  a 
wisdom  without  them  and  above  them  won  by  observation  " — 
a  remark  that  holds  true  of  actual  life  as  well  as  of  the  culti- 
vation of  the  intellect  itself.  For  all  experience  serves  to  illus- 
trate and  enforce  the  lesson  that  a  man  perfects  himself  by 
work  more  than  by  reading — that  it  is  life  rather  than  litera- 
ture, action  rather  than  study,  and  character  rather  than 
biography,  which  tend  perpetually  to  renovate  mankind. 

Attention  to  Detail 

Is  a  matter  which  constitutes  much  more  than  half  of  the  battle 
in  many  spheres  of  usefulness,  and,  the  more  intellectual 
the  task,  the  greater  the  necessity,  very  frequently,  of  careful 
and  constant  devotion  to  the  little  things  which  help  to  form 
it.  Sedulous  attention  and  painstaking  industry  always  mark 
the  true  worker.  The  greatest  men  are  not  those  who  "de- 
spise the  day  of  small  things,"  but  those  who  improve  them 
the  most  carefully.  Michael  Angelo  was  one  day  explaining 
to  a  visitor  at  his  studio  what  he  had  been  doing  at  a  statue 
since  his  previous  visit.  "I  have  retouched  this  part — 
polished  that — softened  this  feature — brought  out  that  mus- 
cle— given  some  expression  to  this  lip,  and  more  energy  to 
that  limb."  "But  these  are  trifles,"  remarked  the  visitor. 
"  It  may  be  so,"  replied  the  sculptor,  "but  recollect  that 
trifles  make  perfection,  and  perfection  is  no  trifle."  So  it  was 
said  of  Nicolas  Poussin,  the  painter,  that  the  rule  of  his  con- 
duct was,  that  "whatever  was  worth  doing  at  all  was  worth 
doing  well;"  and  when  asked,  late  in  life,  by  his  friend 
Vigneul  de  Marville,  by  what  means  he  had  gained  so  high  a 
reputation  among  the  painters  of  Italy,  Poussin  emphatically 
answereu,  "  Because  I  have  neglected  nothing."  On  the  first 
publication  of  Wellington's  dispatches,  one  of  his  friends 
said  to  him,  on  reading  the  records  of  his  Indian  campaigns  : 
"  It  seems  to  me,  Duke,  that  your  chief  business  in  India  was 
to  procure  rice  and  bullocks."  "And  so  it  was."  replied 
Wellington,  "for,  if  I  had  rice  and  bullocks,  I  had  men;  and 
if  I  had  men,  I  knew  I  could  beat  the  enemy."  All  men  who 
have  accomplished  success  in  life  have  been  conspicuous  for 
minute  attention  to  details  as  well  as  for  general  scope  and 
vigor.  The  great  Napoleon  was  a  wonderful  example  of  this. 
His  correspondence  shows  him  arranging  for  supplies  of 
saddles,  directing  where  cattle  could  be  purchased,  advising 
the  procurement  of  shoes  for  the  infantry,  and  making  sugges- 
tions as  to  various  minor  details,  and  complaining  because  of 
discovered  carelessness  in  the  reports  upon  matters  of  detail 
supplied  by  others.     Lord  Brougham,  alluding  to  this  quality, 


A 


5*8 


CAUSES  OF  SUCCESS  AND  FAILURE. 


7 


said:  "The  captain  who  conveyed  Napoleon  to  Elba  ex- 
pressed to  me  his  astonishment  at  his  precise  and,  as  it  were, 
familiar  knowledge  of  all  the  minute  details  connected  with 
the  ship." 

In  the  face  of  these  examples,  no  one  should  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  datails  are  beneath  one's  notice,  or  that  one  is 
less  brilliant  in  the  great  things  of  life  because  he  pays  atten- 
tion to  the  little  things.  Of  General  Thomas  it  is  said  that 
he  was  careful  in  all  the  details  of  a  battle,  but,  once  in  the 
fight,  was  as  "furious and  impetuous  as  Jackson."  Attention 
to  details  makes  a  business  man,  or  any  other  kind  of  man, 
"sure  that  he  is  right,"  and  then,  of  course,  it  only  remains 
for  him  to  "  go  ahead." 

Perseverance 

Is  the  ever  ready  and  kindly  ally  of  those  who  are  seeking 
success  and  feel  that  they  do  not  possess  the  ability  to  attain 
it  so  quickly  as  others.  The  greatest  results  in  life  are  usually 
attained  by  simple  means  and  the  exercise  of  ordinary  quali- 
ties. The  road  of  human  welfare  lies  along  the  old  highway 
of  steadfast  well-doing;  and  they  who  are  the  most  per- 
sistent, and  work  in  the  truest  spirit,  will  usually  be  the  most 
successful.  Buffon's  definition  of  genius,  "It  is  patience," 
may  be  exaggerated,  but  it  hardly  seems  so  when  the  accom- 
plishments of  patience  are  considered.  Fortune  has  often 
been  blamed  for  her  blindness  ;  but  Fortune  is  not  so  blind  as 
men  are.  Those  who  look  into  practical  life  will  find  that 
Fortune  is  usually  on  the  side  of  the  industrious,  as  the  winds 
and  waves  are  on  the  side  of  the  best  navigators.  In  the  pur- 
suit of  even  the  highest  branches  of  human  inquiry,  the  com- 
moner qualities  are  found  the  most  useful — such  as  common 
sense,  attention,  application  and  perseverance.  Genius  may 
not  be  necessary,  though  even  genius  of  the  highest  sort  does 
not  disdain  the  use  of  these  ordinary  qualities.  The  very 
greatest  men  have  been  among  the  least  believers  in  the 
power  of  genius,  and  as  worldly-wise  and  persevering  as 
successful  men  of  the  commoner  sort. 

The  extraordinary  results  effected  by  dint  of  sheer  industry 
and  perseverance  have  led  many  distinguished  men  to  doubt 
whether  the  gift  of  genius  be  so  exceptional  an  endowment  as 
it  is  usually  supposed  to  be.  Thus  Voltaire  held  that  it  is 
only  a  very  slight  line  of  separation  that  divides  the  man  of 
genius  from  the  man  of  ordinary  mould.  Bcccaria  was  even 
of  opinion  that  all  men  might  be  poets  and  orators,  and  Rey- 
nolds that  they  might  be  painters  and  sculptors.  If  this  were 
really  »o,  that  stolid  Englishman  might  not  have  been  so  very 
far  wrong,  after  all,  who,  on  Canova's  death,  inquired  of  his 
brother  whether  it  was  "his  intention  to  carry  on  the 
business!"  Locke,  Helvetius  and  Diderot  believed  that  all 
men  have  an  equal  aptitude  for  genius,  and  that  what  some 
are  able  to  effect,  under  the  laws  which  regulate  the  opera- 
tions of  the  intellect,  must  also  be  within  the  reaah  of  others 
who,  under  like  circumstances,  apply  themselves  to  like  pur- 
suits. But,  while  admitting  to  the  fullest  extent  the  wonder- 
ful achievements  of  labor,  and  recognizing  the  fact  that  men  of 
the  most  distinguished  genius  have  invariably  been  found  the 


most  indefatigable  workers,  it  must  nevertheless  be  sufficiently 
obvious  that,  without  the  original  endowment  of  heart  and 
brain,  n*  amount  of  labor,  however  well  applied,  could  have 
produced  a  Shakspere,  a  Newton,  a  Beethoven  or  a  Michael 
Angelo. 

The  world's  history  is  full  of  the  triumphs  of  those  »ho 
have  had  to  fight  from  beginning  to  end  for  recognition. 
Carey,  the  great  missionary,  began  life  as  a  shoemaker ;  the 
chemist  Vanquelin  was  the  son  of  a  peasant;  Richard  Cob- 
den  was  the  son  of  a  small  farmer ;  Cook,  the  navigator,  and 
Burns,  the  poet,  were  day-laborers;  Ben  Jonson  was  a  brick- 
layer; David  Livingstone,  the  traveller-missionary,  was  a 
weaver;  Sturgeon,  the  electrician,  and  Bloomfield,  the  poet, 
were  shoemakers ;  Andrew  Johnson,  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  a  tailor.  At  the  plow,  on  the  bench,  or  at 
the  loom,  these  men  dreamed  of  their  future  greatness,  and 
persevered  in  their  endeavors  to  accomplish  it,  and  did  so  at 
last.  Literature  has  provided  several  examples  of  single- 
handed  triumph  over  difficulties  by  the  persevering.  Lord 
Brougham,  working  for  over  sixty  years  at  law,  literature, 
politics  and  science,  and  achieving  distinction  in  all,  was 
advised  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith  to  confine  himself  to  only  the 
transaction  of  so  much  business  as  three  strong  men  could 
get  through. 

Another  hard-working  man  of  the  same  class  was  Lord 
Lytton.  Few  writers  did  more,  orachieved  higher  distinction 
in  various  walks — as  a  novelist,  poet,  dramatist,  historian, 
essayist,  orator  and  politician.  He  worked  his  way  step  by 
step,  disdainful  of  ease,  and  animated  throughout  by  the 
ardent  desire  to  excel.  On  the  score  of  mere  industry  there 
are  few  living  English  writers  who  have  written  so  much,  and 
none  that  have  produced  so  much  of  high  quality.  Like 
Byron,  his  first  effort  was  poetical  ("  Weeds  and  Wild  Flow- 
ers") and  a  failure.  His  second  was  a  novel  ("  Falkland  "), 
and  it  proved  a  failure  too.  A  man  of  weaker  nerve  would 
have  dropped  authorship;  but  Bulwer  had  pluck  and  per- 
severance; and  he  worked  on,  determined  to  succeed.  He 
was  incessantly  industrious,  read  extensively,  and  from  failure 
went  courageously  onward  to  success.  "  Pelham  "  followed 
"Falkland"  within  a  year,  and  the  remainder  of  Lord 
Lytton's  life  was  a  succession  of  triumphs. 

The  late  Premier  of  England,  Lord  Beaconsfield,  affords  a 
similar  instance  of  the  power  of  industry  and  application  in 
working  out  an  eminent  public  career.  His  first  achieve- 
ments were,  like  Bulwer's,  in  literature ;  and  he  reached 
success  only  through  a  succession  of  failures.  His  "Won- 
drous Tale  of  Alroy "  and  "Revolutionary  Epic"  were 
laughed  at.  and  regarded  as  indications  of  literary  lunacy. 
But  he  worked  on  in  other  directions,  and  his  "  Coningsby," 
"Sybil"  and  "Tancred"  proved  the  sterling  stuff  of  which 
he  was  made.  As  an  orator,  too,  his  first  appearance  in  the 
House  of  Commons  was  a  failure.  It  was  spoken  of  at 
"more  screaming  than  an  Adelphi  farce."  Though  com- 
posed in  a  grand  and  ambitious  strain,  every  sentence  was 
hailed  with  "loud  laughter."  "  Hamlet  "  played  as  a  com- 
edy were  nothing  to   it.     Bat  he  concluded  with  a  sentence 


V 


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CAUSES    OF    SUCCESS    AND    FAILURE. 


529 


£ 


which  embodied  a  prophecy.  Writhing  under  the  laughter 
with  which  his  studied  eloquence  had  been  received,  he  ex- 
claimed, "  I  have  begun  several  times  many  things,  and  have 
succeeded  in  them  at  last.  I  will  sit  down  now,  but  the  time 
will  come  when  you  will  hear  me."  The  time  did  come; 
and  how  Disraeli  succeeded  in  at  length  commanding  the 
attention  of  the  first  assembly  of  gentlemen  in  the  world 
affords  a  striking  illustration  of  what  energy  and  determina- 
tion will  do ;  for  Disraeli  earned  his  position  by  dint  of 
patient  Industry.  He  did  not,  as  many  young  men  do,  hav- 
ing once  failed,  retire  dejected,  to  mope  and  whine  in  a  corner, 
but  diligently  set  himself  to  work.  He  carefully  unlearned' 
his  faults,  studied  the  character  of.  his  audience,  practiced 
sedulously  the  art  of  speech,  and  industriously  filled  his  mind 
with  the  elements  of  parliamentary  knowledge.  He  worked 
patiently  for  success ;  and  it  came,  but  slowly ;  then  the 
House  laughed  with  him  instead  of  at  him.  The  recollection 
of  his  early  failure  was  effaced,  and  by  general  consent  he 
was  at  length  admitted  to  be  one  of  the  most  finished  and 
effective  of  parliamentary  speakers,  and  finally  became  the 
favored  Frime  Minister  of  Queen  Victoria. 

Decision  of  Character 

Is  one  of  the  greatest  of  God's  gifts  to  man,  and,  as  every 
man  has  the  germ  of  this  quality,  it  can  be  cultivated  to  great 
advantage.  It  outstrips  even  talent  and  genius  in  the  race  for 
success  in  life.  Thousands  and  thousands  of  brilliant  men 
have  failed  for  the  want  of  courage,  faith  and  decision,  perish- 
ing in  the  sight  of  less  gifted  but  more  adventurous  competi- 
tors. As  Sidney  Smith  says,  "  We  must  not  stand  shivering 
on  the  brink  and  thinking  of  the  cold  and  the  danger,  but 
jump  in  and  scramble  through  as  well  as  we  can." 
The  old  poem  says  : 

"  He  either  fears  his  fate  too  much. 
Or  his  deserts  are  small, 
That  dares  not  put  it  to  the  touch, 
To  gain  or  lose  it  all." 

Decision  of  character  enables  one  to  do  the  right  thing  at 
the  right  time.     Every  one  knows  that 

"  There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men 
Which,  taken  at  the  flood,  leads  on  to  fortune;" 

but  not  every  one  has  the  ability  to  tell  the  time  of  flood,  and 
many,  after  telling  it,  have  lost  its  advantages  through  lack 
of  nerve  to  embark  upon  it  before  the  ebb  came,  and  the 
opportunity  was  lost.  In  the  smoke  and  din  of  battle,  it  was 
the  genius  of  Napoleon  which  enabled  him  to  see  where  one 
or  two  bold  and  rapid  movements  would  secure  the  advantage ; 
but  it  was  his  decision  of  character  which  enabled  him  to 
profit  to  the  full  by  the  discovery.  To  be  decisive  on  im- 
portant occasions,  one  must  keep  cool.  The  Duke  of 
Wellington's  calmness  never  forsook  him,  even  in  the  most 
trying  emergencies.  At  sea,  one  terrible  night,  the  captain 
of  the  vessel  rushed  to  the  Duke,  who  was  preparing  for  bed, 
and  announced  that  the  vessel  would  soon  sink.  "Then  I 
shall  not  take  off  my  boots,"  the  imperturbable  hero  of  Water- 


loo responded  as  he  paused  in  his  preparations  for  sleep. 
There  is  need  for  this  coolness  of  manner  and  decision  of 
action  in  all  lines  of  business.  The  surgeon,  brought  face  to 
face  with  a  sudden  complication  in  the  case  beneath  his  knife ; 
the  lawyer,  surprised  by  the  springing  of  the  trap  which  his 
wily  opponent  had  prepared  for  him  ;  the  merchant,  apprised 
of  a  turn  in  his  enterprises  that  threatens  immediate  disaster — 
all  are  called  upon  to  exercise  this  quality,  and  in  thousands 
of  cases  the  dullest  man  in  a  company  has  obtained  the  prize 
simply  because  he  grasped  it  while  others  were  revolving  in 
their  minds  what  they  had  better  do  in  order  to  secure  it. 

Other  Causes  of  Success  and  Failure. 

Attention,  application,  accuracy,  method,  punctuality  and 
dispatch  are  the  principal  qualities  required  for  the  efficient 
conduct  of  business  of  any  sort.  These,  at  first  sight,  may 
appear  to  be  small  matters;  and  yet  they  are  of  essential  im- 
portance to  human  happiness,  well-being  and  usefulness. 
They  are  little  things,  it  is  true;  but  human  life  is  made  up 
of  comparative  trifles.  It  is  the  repetition  of  little  acts  which 
constitutes  not  only  the  sum  of  human  character,  but  which 
determines  the  character  of  nations;  and  where  men  or 
nations  have  broken  down,  it  will  almost  invariably  be  found 
that  neglect  of  little  things  was  the  rock  on  which  they  split. 
Every  human  being  has  duties  to  be  performed,  and,  there- 
fore, has  need  of  cultivating  the  capacity  for  doing  them — 
whether  the  sphere  of  action  be  the  management  of  a  house- 
hold, the  conduct  of  a  trade  or  profession,  or  the  government 
of  a  nation. 

It  is  the  result  of  every-day  experience  that  steady  attention 
to  matters  of  detail  lies  at  the  root  of  human  progress ;  and 
that  diligence,  above  all,  is  the  mother  of  good  luck. 
Accuracy  is  also  of  much  importance,  and  an  invariable  mark 
of  good  training  in  a  man — accuracy  in  observation,  accuracy 
in  speech,  accuracy  in  the  transaction  of  affairs.  What  is 
done  in  business  must  be  well  done;  for  it  is  better  to  accom- 
plish perfectly  a  small  amount  of  work  than  to  half-do  ten 
times  as  much.  A  wise  man  used  to  say,  "  Stay  a  little,  that 
we  may  make  an  end  the  sooner." 

Too  little  attention,  however,  is  paid  to  this  highly  impor- 
tant quality  of  accuracy.  As  a  man  eminent  in  practical 
science  lately  observed  to  us,  "  It  is  astonishing  how  few 
people  I  have  met  with  in  the  course  of  my  experience  who 
can  define  a  fact  accurately."  Yet  in  business  affairs,  it  is 
the  manner  in  which  even  small  matters  are  transacted  that 
often  decides  men  for  or  against  you.  With  virtue,  capacity 
and  good  conduct  in  other  respects,  the  person  who  is  hab- 
itually inaccurate  cannot  be  trusted  ;  his  work  has  to  be  gone 
over  again ;  and  he  thus  causes  an  infinity  of  annoyance, 
vexation  and  trouble. 

Method  is  essential,  and  enables  a  larger  amount  of  work 
to  be  accomplished  satisfactorily.  "Method,"  said  the 
Rev.  Richard  Cecil,  "is  like  packing  things  in  a  box  ;  a  good 
packer  will  get  in  half  as  much  again  as  a  bad  one."  Cecil's 
dispatch  of  business  was  extraordinary,  his  maxim  being, 
"The  shortest  way  to  do  many  things  is  to  do  only  one  thing 


^J 


35 


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53° 


CAUSES  OF  SUCCESS  AND  FAILURE. 


at  once ;"  and  he  acver  left  a  thing  undone  with  a  view  of 
recurring  to  it  at  a  period  of  more  leisure. 

A  French  Minister,  who  was  alike  remarkable  for  his 
dispatch  of  business  and  his  constant  attendance  at  places  of 
amusement,  being  asked  how  he  contrived  to  combine  both 
objects,  replied,  "  Simply  by  never  postponing  till  to-morrow 
what  should  be  done  to-day."  Lord  Brougham  has  said  that 
a  certain  English  statesman  reversed  the  process,  and  that  his 
maxim  was  never  to  transact  to-day  what  could  be  postponed 
till  to-morrow.  Unhappily,  such  is  the  practice  of  many 
besides  that  Minister,  already  almost  forgotten  ;  the  practice 
is  that  of  the  indolent  and  the  unsuccessful.  Such  men, 
too,  are  apt  to  rely  upon  agents,  who  are  not  always  to 
be  relied  upon.  Important  affairs  must  be  attended  to  in 
person.  "If  you  wantyour  business  done,"  says  the  proverb, 
"go  and  do  it;  it  you  don't  want  it  done,  send  some  one 
else." 

An  indolent  country  gentleman  had  a  freehold  estate  pro- 
ducing about  five  hundred  a  year.  Becoming  involved  in 
debt,  he  sold  half  the  estate,  and  let  the  remainder  to  an  in- 
dustrious farmer  for  twenty  years.  About  the  end  of.  the 
term  the  farmer  called  to  pay  his  rent,  and  asked  the  owner 
whether  he  would  sell  the  farm.  "  Will  you  buy  it  ?  "  asked 
the  owner  surprised.  "  Yes,  if  we  can  agree  about  the  price." 
"  That  is  exceedingly  strange,"  observed  the  gentleman ; 
"  pray,  tell  me  how  it  happens  that,  while  I  could  not  live 
upon  twice  as  much  land  for  which  I  paid  no  rent,  you  are 
regularly  paying  me  two  hundred  a  year  for  your  farm,  and 
are  able,  in  a  few  years,  to  purchase  it  ?  "  "  The  reason  is 
plain,"  was  the  reply;  "you  sat  still  and  said  Go;  I  got  up 
and  said  Come:  you  lay  in  your  bed  and  enjoyed  your  estate; 
I  rose  in  the  morning  and  minded  my  business." 

Men  of  business  are  accustomed  to  quote  the  maxim  that 
time  is  money  ;  but  it  is  more :  the  proper  improvement  of  it 
is  self-culture,  self-improvement  and  growth  of  character. 
An  hour  wasted  daily  on  trifles  or  in  indolence  would,  if 
devoted  to  self-improvement,  make  an  ignorant  man  wise  in  a 
few  years,  and,  employed  in  good  works,  would  make  his  life 
fruitful  and  death  a  harvest  of  worthy  deeds.  Fifteen  minutes 
a  day  devoted  to  self-improvement  will  be  felt  at  the  end  of 
the  year.  Good  thoughts  and  carefully  gathered  experience 
take  up  no  room,  and  may  be  carried  about  as  our  com- 
panions everywhere,  without  cost  or  encumbrance.  An 
economical  use  of  time  is  the  true  mode  of  securing  leisure  ; 
it  enables  us  to  get  through  business  and  carry  it  forward, 
instead  of  being  driven  by  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the  mis- 
calculation of  time  involves  us  in  perpetual  hurry,  confusion 
and  difficulties ;  and  life  becomes  a  mere  shuffle  of  expedients, 
usually  followed  by  disaster.  Nelson  once  said,  "I  owe  all 
my  success  in  life  to  having  been  always  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
before  my  time." 


Some  take  no  thought  of  the  value  of  money  until  they  Lave 
come  to  an  end  of  it,  and  many  do  the  same  with  their  time. 
The  hours  are  allowed  to  flow  by  unemployed,  and  then, 
when  life  is  fast  waning,  they  bethink  themselves  of  the  duty 
of  making  a  wiser  use  of  it.  But  the  habit  of  listlessness 
and  idleness  may  already  have  become  confirmed,  and  they 
are  unable  to  break  the  bonds  with  which  they  have  permitted 
themselves  to  become  bound.  Lost  wealth  may  be  replaced 
by  industry,  lost  knowledge  by  study,  lost  health  by  temper- 
ance or  medicine,  but  lost  time  is  gone  forever. 

A  proper  consideration  of  the  value  of  time  will  also  inspire 
habits  of  punctuality.  "Punctuality,"  said  Louis  XIV.,  "it 
the  politeness  of  kings."  It  is  also  the  duty  of  gentlemen, 
and  the  necessity  of  men  of  business.  Nothing  begets  con- 
fidence in  a  man  sooner  than  the  practice  of  this  virtue,  and 
nothing  shakes  confidence  sooner  than  the  want  of  it. 
He  who  holds  to  his  appointment  and  does  not  keep  you 
waiting  for  him,  shows  that  he  has  regard  for  your  time  as 
well  as  for  his  own.  Thus,  punctuality  is  one  of  the  modes  by 
which  we  testify  our  personal  respect  for  those  whom  we  are 
called  upon  to  meet  in  the  business  of  life.  It  is  also  con- 
scientiousness, in  a  measure;  for  an  appointment  is  a  con- 
tract, express  or  implied,  and  he  who  does  not  keep  it  breaks 
faith,  as  well  as  dishonestly  uses  other  people's  time,  and 
thus  inevitably  loses  character.  We  naturally  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  person  who  is  careless  about  time  is  care- 
less about  business,  and  that  he  is  not  the  one  to  be  trusted 
with  the  transaction  of  matters  of  importance.  When  Wash- 
ington's secretary  excused  himself  for  the  lateness  of  his 
attendance,  and  laid  the  blame  upon  his  watch,  his  master 
quietly  said,  "  Then  you  must  get  another  watch  or  I  another 
secretary." 

Napoleon  was  a  thorough  man  of  business.  Though  he  had 
an  immense  love  for  details,  he  had  also  a  vivid  power  of 
imagination,  which  enabled  him  to  look  along  extended  lines 
of  action,  and  deal  with  those  details  on  a  large  scale  with 
judgment  and  rapidity.  He  possessed  such  knowledge  of 
character  as  enabled  him  to  select,  almost  unerringly,  the  best 
agents  for  the  execution  of  his  designs.  But  he  trusted  as 
little  as  possible  to  agents  in  matters  of  great  moment,  on 
which  important  results  depended. 

Like  Napoleon,  the  Duke  of  Wellington  was  a  first-rate 
man  of  business ;  and  it  is  not  perhaps  saying  too  much  to 
aver  that  it  was  in  no  small  degree  because  of  his  possession 
of  a  business  faculty  amounting  to  genius  that  the  Duke  never 
lost  a  battle.  His  magnificent  business  qualities  were  every- 
where felt;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  by  the  care  with 
which  he  provided  for  every  contingency,  and  the  personal 
attention  which  he  gave  to  every  detail,  he  laid  the  foundations 
of  his  great  success. 


YL 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


V 


531 


-'HE  science  of  Phrenology  is  based  on  the 
S  theory  that  the  faculties  of  the  mind  are 
shown  on  the  surface  of  the  human  skull. 
It  points  out  those  connections  and  rela- 
tions which  exist  between  the 
conditions  and  developments 
of  the  brain  and  the  mani- 
festations of  the  mind,  dis- 
covering each  from  an  obser- 
vation of  the  other. 


*0$o« 


THE  ORIGIN 


E?HI^ENOLOGY. 


Franz  Joseph  Gall,  born   at  Tie- 
fenbrunn,  in  Baden,  March  9,  1758) 

was  the  first  to  mark  the  separate  functions  of  the  human 
mind  and  trace  the  location  of  the  respective  organs  in  the 
human  brain.  After  studying  the  natural  sciences  at  Strasburg, 
he  graduated  as  a  physician  at  Vienna  in  1785,  practicing  there 
for  many  years.  As  a  boy  he  had  observed  that  among  his 
schoolmates  good  memories  were  invariably  indicated  by  large 


eyes,  and  from  this  he  conceived  the  idea  that  individual  char- 
acteristics could  be  determined  by  external  signs.  The  result 
of  long-continued  observation  in  schools,  prisons,  lunatic  asy- 
lums and  other  places  was  the  conviction  that  the  brain,  and 
not  the  heart,  was  the  seat  of  all  mental  manifestations.  After 
twenty  years  of  study  he  decided 
the  location  of  some  twenty  distinct 
mental  organs  and  satisfied  himself 
that  their  degree  of  activity  could  be 
determined  from  the  shape  of  the 
skull.  In  1791  he  published  "Medi- 
cal and  Philosophical  Researches 
on  Nature  and  Art,"  and  in  1796 
he  began  lecturing  in  Vienna  on  his 
novel  theories,  creating  a  marked 
sensation.  In  1802  his  lectures 
were  prohibited  by  the  Austrian 
government  as  dangerous  to  religion, 
but  in  company  with  Johann  Gaspar 
Spurzheim,  he  made  considerable 
headway  in  Central  and  Northern 
Europe.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled,  "  The  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Nervous  System 
and  of  the  Brain." 


MEASUREMENT  OF  THE  HEAD. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  size  of  the  head,  and  of  the  brain,  the  differ- 
ent portions  of  which  are  called  organs,  and  classified  according  to  their  par- 


YL 


.M 


-a  V 


V 


S3' 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


J 


ticular  functions,  constitute*  the  principal  phrenological  condition  by  which 
character  is  determined.  Most  great  men  have  had  great  heads.  Webster's 
head  measured  a  little  more  than  24  inches,  and  Clay's  considerably  over  23. 
Napoleon's  reached  nearly  24.  Hamilton's  hat  passed  over  the  ears  of  a 
man  whose  head  measured  23^.  Burke's  head  was  very  large ;  so  was 
Jefferson's,  while  Franklin's  hat  passed  over  the  ears  of  a  24-inch  head. 
Small  and  average  heads  often  astonish  us  by  their  brilliancy  and  learning, 
and  perhaps  eloquence,  yet  fail  in  that  commanding  greatness  which  im- 
presses and  sways. 

The  general  rule  laid  down  for  head-measurement  of  adults  is  as  follows  : 
The  smallest  size  compatible  with  fair  talents,  20^  ;  moderate,  20^  to 
ai#  ;  average,  21  %  to  22  ;  full,  22  to  22^  ;  large,  22^  to  33^  ;  very  large, 
above  23)^.  Female  heads  J£  to  %  below  these  averages;  but  as  some 
heads  are  round,  others  long,  some  low  and  others  high,  these  measure- 
ments cannot  be  depended  upon  to  carry  any 
accurate  idea  of  the  actual  quantity  of  brain. 

In  judging  of  the  manifestations  of 
the  mind,  the  activity  of  the  brain  is 
a  consideration  quite  as  important  as 
its  size.      While  size  gives 
power    or    momentum    of 
intellect  and  feeling,  activi- 
ty imparts  quickness, 
intensity,  willingness 
and  even    a    restless 
desire   to   act,  which 
go     far    to     produce 
efficiency     of    mind, 
with     accompanying 
effort     and       action. 
Under  the   heads  of 
size,  given  below,  the 
effects  of  the  different 
degrees    of    activity 
are  presented. 

Very  Large.  One 
having  a  very  large 
head,    with     activity 
average      or      fu/i, 
on  great  occasions,  or 
when  his  powers  are 
thoroughly      roused, 
will  be  truly  great, but 
ordinarily     will    sel- 
dom manifest  any  remarkable 
Amount  of  mind  or  feeling,  and 
perhaps  pass  through  life  with 
the  credit  of  being  a  person 
of  good  natural  abilities  and  judgment, 
yet  nothing  more.  With  activity  great,  ^ 

strength,  and  the  intellectual  organs  the  same,  will 
be  a  natural  genius,  endowed  with  very  superior 
powers  of  mind  and  vigor  of  intellect ;  and  even 
though  deprived  of  the  advantages  of  education,  his  natural  talents  will  sur- 
mount all  obstacles.  With  activity  very  great,  and  the  organs  of  practical 
intellect  and  of  the  propelling  powers  large  or  very  large,  wltl  possess  the  first 
order  of  natural  abilities,  manifest  a  clearness  and  force  of  intellect  that  will 
astonish  the  world,  and  a  power  of  feeling  that  will  carry  all  before  him,  and, 
with  proper  cultivation,  enable  him  to  become  a  bright  star  in  the  firmament 
of  intellectual  greatness  ;  his  mental  enjoyments  will  be  most  exquisite,  and 
his  sufferings  equally  excruciating. 

Large.  One  having  a  large-sized  brain,  with  activity  average,  will 
Possess  considerable  energy  of  intellect  and  feeling,  yet  seldom  manifest  it 
unless  it  is  brought  out  by  some  powerful  stimulus.  With  activity  /it//,  will 
be  endowed  with  an  uncommon  amount  of  the  mental  power,  and  be  capable 
of  doing  a  great  deal,  yet  require  considerable  to  awaken  him  to  that  vigor- 
.mi  effort  of  mind  of  which  he  is  capable.  If  the  perceptive  faculties  are 
strong  or  very  strong,  and  his  natural  powers  put  in  vigorous  requisition,  ho 


will  manifest  a  vigor  and  energy  of  intellect  and  feeling  quite  above  1 
rity.  With  activity  great  or  very  great,  will  exercise  a  comma: 
ence  over  those  minds  with  which  he  comes  in  contact ;  when  he  enjoys,  will 
enjoy  intensely,  and  when  he  suffers,  suffer  equally  so ;  be  susceptible  of 
strong  excitement,  and  with  the  organs  of  the  propelling  powers  and  of 
practical  intellect  large  or  very  large,  will  possess  all  the  mental  capabilities 
for  conducting  a  large  business,  for  rising  to  eminence,  if  not  to  pre- 
eminence, and  discover  great  force  of  character  and  power  of  intellect  and 
feeling.  With  activi'.y  moderate,  when  powerfully  excited,  will  evince  con- 
siderable energy  of  intellect  and  feeling,  yet  be  too  indolent  and  too  **"ff*«*» 
to  do  much  ;  lack  clearness  and  force  of  idea  and  intensity  of  feeling;  un- 
less literally  driven  to  it,  will  not  be  likely  to  be  much  or  do  much,  and  yet 
actually  possess  more  vigor  of  mind  and  energy  of  feeling  than  he  will  mani- 
fest.    With  activity  sma//,  will  border  on  idiocy. 

Full.  One  having  a  full-sized  brain,  with  activity  great  or  very  great, 
with  the  organs  of  practical  intellect  and  of  the 
propelling  powers  large  or  very  large,  although 
he  will  not  possess  greatness  of  intel- 
lect, nor  a  deep,  strong  mind,  will  be 
very  clever ;  have  consider- 
able talent,  and  that  so  dis- 
tributed that  it  will  show  to 
be  more  than  it  really  is; 
is  capable  of  being 
a  good  scholar,  doing 
a  fine  business,  and 
with  advantages  and 
application,  of  dis- 
tinguishing himself 
somewhat,  yet  he  is 
inadequate  to  a  great 
undertaking,  can  not 
sway  an  extensive  in- 
fluence, nor  be  really 
great.  With  activi- 
ty fu//  or  average, 
will  do  only  tolera- 
bly well,  and  mani- 
fest only  a  common 
share  of  talents.  With 
activity  moderate  or 
sma//,  will  neither 
be  nor  do  much 
worthy  of  notice. 
Average.  One  hav- 
ing an  average-sized  brain, 
with  activity  only  average, 
will  discover  only  an  ordinary 
amount  of  intellect ;  be  inade- 
quate to  an  important  undertaking, 
yet,  in  a  small  sphere,  or  one  that 
requires  only  a  mechanical  1  nKJM 
of  business,  may  do  well.  With  activity 
great  or  very  great,  and  the  organs  of  the 
propelling  powers  and  of  practical  intellect 
large  or  very  large,  is  capable  of  doing  a  fair  business  and  may  pass  for  a 
man  of  some  talent.  With  moderate  or  sma//  activity,  will  hardly  hare 
common  sense. 

Moderate.  One  with  a  head  of  only  moderate  size,  combined  with 
great  or  very  great  activity,  and  the  organs  of  the  propelling  powers  and 
of  practical  intellect,  large,  will  possess  a  tolerable  share  of  intellect.  With 
others  to  plan  for  and  direct  him,  will  execute  to  advantage,  yet  be  un- 
able to  do« much  alone.  Will  have  a  very  active  mind,  and  he  quick  of 
perception,  yet,  after  all,  lack  momentum  both  of  mind  and  character. 
With  activity  only  average  ox  fair,  will  have  but  a  moderate  atmemmt  of 
intellect.     With  activity  moderate  or  sma//,  will  be  an  idiot. 

Small  or  Very  Small.  One  with  a  very  small  head,  no  matter  what 
may  be  the  activity  of  his  mind,  will  be  incapable  of  Intellectual  effort, 
of  comprehending  even  easy  subjects,  or  of  experiencing  much  pain  or 
pleasure  ;  in  short,  will  be  a  natural  foot 


K 


THE    STUDY    OF    CHARACTER. 


A 


533 


r 


j=v  tzp«*tl. 


WHAT  WILL  THE 


IIjLENESS. 


DISSIPATION. 


BOY  BECOME? 


^HE  illustrations  on  this  page  are  intended  to 
show  the  effects'  of  training  and  circumstances 
and  different  modes  of  life  upon  the  human 
countenance.  Although  the  inheritance  at  birth 
of  a  sound  constitution,  well-balanced  mental 
organization  and  favorable  temperament  are  most  impor- 
tant factors  in  shaping  character,  yet  the  possessor  of  all 
these  natural  endowments  may  so  pursue  the  path  of  life 
that  the  close  will  find  him  a  miserable  wretch,  to  go 
from  beggary  and  vice  to  an  unhonored  grave.  On  the 
contrary,  education  and  moral  training  can  atone  for  the 
lack  of  natural  advantages,  and  make  of  a  less  favored 
child  a  useful  and  honored  citizen.  The  human  face  has 
in  it  something  expressive  of  that  which  enters  into 
and  constitutes  the  character  of  a  man,  and  on  it  are 
written,  by  an  unseen  hand,  but  in  indelible  lines  which 
all  may  read,  the  records  of  life's  history. 

Who  can  divine,  on  looking  at  the  head  and  face  of  the 
child  represented  above,  what  that  young  intelligence  will 
become  in  the  future  of  his  life  ?  Look  at  the  eye,  nose 
and  mouth  of  the  boy  at  school,  and  you  will  not  fail  to 
perceive,  from  the  very  contour  of  the  countenance,  that 
his  destiny  depends  on  the  influences  by  which  he  may  be 
surrounded. 

In  the  one  instance  you  see  him  choosing  his  profes- 
sion and  contemplating  a  settlement  in  life,  wedding 
himself  to  a  virtuous,  loving  and  devoted  woman,  and  in 
course  of  time  becoming  surrounded  by  a  loving  family  ; 
in  the  other  you  see  the  man  emerging  from  the  scenes  of 
brutal  intoxication  to  plunge  into  deeper,  darker  vices, 
until  life  becomes  a  burden,  and  he  goes  down  to  the 
grave  unlamentcd  and  unwept.  How  different  this  from 
the  career  of  the  man  whose  happiest  days  are  spent  in 
the  bosom  of  his  loving  family,  and  who  grows  old  amid 
the  most  genial  influences,  honored,  revered,  beloved; 
who  goes  down  to  his  last  resting-place  amid  the  prayers 
and  tears  of  those  he  loved,  cheered  by  the  hope  of  a 
happy  reunion  in  a  world  where  life  is  perfect  and  joy 
complete. 


INDUSTRY  AND  STUDY. 


HONORABLE  SUCCESS. 


HONORED  AGE. 


y 

rib   ■  «■ 


A 


t 


K 


534 


THE    STUDY    OF    CHARACTER. 


-c«>-x— --<—>-> 


PHRENOLOGISTS  do  not  claim  that  the  system  in 
which  they  believe  is  perfect,  but  that  they  have 
demonstrated  the  following  facts  beyond  question: 
That  the  brain  is  the  organ  through  which  the  mind 
manifests  itself,  and  that   each  faculty  of  the  mind 

has  a  separate   and   distinct   organ   in   the   brain;    that  the 

organs  relating  to   each  other  are  grouped  together  in  the 

brain  ;  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the  power  of  the  brain 

may   be   estimated  by   its   size ;    that  the  manifestations  of 

brain    are    affected    by    the 

bodily  conditions  ;  that  every 

faculty  of  the  mind  is  devised 

for  a  good  purpose,  and  that 

every  faculty  may  be  enlarged 

and  cultivated  by  exercise,  or 

may  be  lessened  by  neglect. 

While  differences  of  opinion 

may    exist    as    to    the   right 

which  Phrenology  has  to  be 

considered  one  of  the  exact 

sciences,  all  mankind  tacitly 

acknowledges    the   fact    that 

the  face  is  a  reliable  reflex  of 


FIG.  I.   THE  GRAPES  OF  INTELLIGENCE. 


taneously  formed  by  the  shape  of  the  head,   the  nose,   the 
chin  and  the  lips. 

In  the  next  illustrations  are  contrasted  a  pair  of  faces  whose 
features  and  expression  exemplify  boldly  the  theory  of 
physiognomy.  Figure  2,  with  its  straight,  darting,  frank 
eye,  its  intellectual  Grecian  nose,  forehead  which  bears  the 
stamp  of  strong  perceptive  faculty,  firm  closed  lips  and  res- 
olute chin,  at  once  impresses  the  beholder  with  the  presence 
of  a  person  of  strong  and  clearly  defined  characteristics,  which 

have  been  improved  by  culti- 
vation. Figure  3,  on  the  other 
hand,  bears  all  the  evidences 
of  vulgarity  and  ignorance, 
untempered  by  culture's 
softening  influences.  The 
smoothly  rounded  and  re- 
treating brow,  the  small  and 
sunken  eye,  the  coarse,  mis- 
shapen nose,  thick  and  sen- 
suous lips,  and  weak,  reced- 
ing chin,  indicate  at  a  glance 
a  nature  which  is  strong  only 
in   vulgar    and    vicious    pro- 


file mind  and  character.  Upon  meeting  a  stranger  we  instinct- 
ively scan  his  face  to  learn  whether  we  will  like  or  dislike 
him.  Our  judgment  is  instantaneous,  the  impression  being 
favorable  or  unfavorable.  To  what  instinct  or  fact  do  we 
ascribe  this?  We  of  course  judge  by  the  expression  of  the 
face — in  other  words,  by  the  physiognomy.  This  unfailing 
index  tells  whether  he  is  intellectual 
or  dull,  kind  or  brutish,  strong  or 
weak  of  mind. 

Beyond  and  outside  of  all  physical 
characteristics,  it  is  claimed  that  the 
mental  peculiarities  of  the  individual 
can  be  seen  and  known  in  the  tone 
of  the  voice,  the  rapidity  of  speech, 
the  sprightliness  of  motion,  the  grasp 
of  the  hand,  etc. 

The  five  faces  given  above,  in 
Figure  1,  illustrate  the  various  grades 
of  intelligence. 

The  face  at  the  left  is  easily  recog- 
nized as  one  of  intellectual  vigor. 
The  one  to  the  right,  with  its  thick  lips  and  retreating  chin 
and  forehead,  bears  all  the  evidence  of  intellectual  feeble- 
ness. The  intervening  faces  represent  the  gradations  from 
a  high  to  a  low  state  of  intelligence,  and  our  opinion  as 
to  the  relative   intellectuality  of  these    five  facet   is  instan- 


fig.  3. 


pensities,  and  lacking  almost  entirely  the  intellectual  and 
moral  power  to  restrain  them. 

lEIllM£llAMlSl§I 

One  of  the  arguments  frequently  used  against  the  claim  that 
mental  ability  can  be  determined  by 
the  size  of  the  brain  is  the  fact  that 
men  with  small  heads  often  accom- 
plish more  than  those  who  have  heads 
and  bodies  of  much  greater  size. 

The  reply  of  phrenologists  to  this 
is  that  there  are  four  temperaments, 
viz. :  the  Lymphatic,  the  Sanguine, 
the  Bilious  and  the  Nervous;  and 
that  every  person  possesses  more  or 
less  of  these  in  his  physical  consti- 
tution. 

The  Lymphatic. 
The   Lymphatic   temperament    is  no. ». 

indicated  by  the  predominance  of  stomach,  which  makes 
roundness  of  form,  softness  of  flesh,  a  weak  pulse  and  a 
languid  condition  of  the  system.  With  such  the  hair  is  light, 
complexion  pale,  eyes  blue  and  dull. 


i* 


THE    STUDY    OF    CHARACTER. 


535 


The  Sanguine. 

The  Sanguine  temperament  largely  depends  upon  a  pre- 
ponderance of  the  arterial  system.  He  who  possesses  it  will 
have  light  hair  and  blue  eyes,  will  be 
fairly  rounded  in  muscle,  will  be  ardent, 
active  and  enthusiastic. 

The  Bilious. 
With  the  Bilious  temperament  the  liver 
is  taken  as  the  basis.  This  is  indicated  by 
black  eyes  and  hair,  a  dark  and  tawny  skin, 
solid  and  spare  flesh,  angular  form,  great 
energy  and  activity,  and,  if  coupled  with 
superior  mental  development,  large  power. 

The  Nervous. 

The  Nervous  temperament  rests  upon 
a  preponderance  of  the  nervous  system. 
Those  possessing  it  are  known  by  their 
delicacy  of  health,  thin  and  angular  fea- 
sts tures,  light,  thin  hair,  rapid 
e  movements  and  mental  ac- 
tivity. 

COMBINATION  OF 
TEMPERAMENTS. 
Fortunately  these  temper- 
aments are  generally  found 
blended  more  or  less  with 
each  other,  and  out  of  the 
combination  phrenologists 
designate  another  class  of 
temperaments  called  the 
Motive,  the  Vital  and  the 
Mental. 


The  Motive. 

The  Motive  temperament,  cor- 
responding to  the  Bilious,  has  a 
strong,  bony  system,  an  abund- 
ance of  muscle,  dark,  wiry  hair, 
dark  eyes,  rough,  prominent  fea- 
tures, dark  complexion  and  great 
executive  force.  The  Motive 
temperament,  in  its  influence  on  \ 
mental  manifestation,  is  favorable 
to  dignity,  sternness,  determi- 
nation, power  of  will  and  desire 
to  govern  and  control  others. 
It  gives  slowness  of  passion, 
desire  for  heavy  labor  or  large 
business,  and  a  liability  to  mias- 
matic diseases. 

The  Vital. 

The    Vital    temperament    is 
evinced  by  large  lungs,  a  power-    i 
ful  circulatory  system,  and  large 


digestive  and  assimilating  organs,  abundance  of  blood  aad 
animal  spirits.  The  form  is  plump  and  limbs  rounded  and 
tapering,  the  complexion  light  or  florid,  with  an  inclination 
to  take  on  flesh  as  age  advances.  This 
temperament  is  a  combination  of  the 
Sanguine  and  the  Lymphatic,  as  set  forth 
by  Combe  and  other  writers ;  but  as  the 
digestive  and  assimilating  organs,  which 
constitute  the  Lymphatic  temperament, 
together  with  the  respiratory  and  circu- 
latory systems,  which  constitute  the  San- 
guine temperament,  are  really  vital  organs, 
their  combination  into  one,  under  the  name 
of  Vital  temperament,  is  both  convenient 
and  philosophical. 

The  Mental. 

The  Mental  temperament  depends  on 
the  development  of  the  brain  and  nervous 
system,  and  is  indicated  by  'c^mxja* 
mental  activity,  light  frame, 
thin  skin,  fine  hair,  delicate 
features,  and  large  brain  as 
compared  with  the  body. 
It  imparts  sensitiveness  and 
vivacity  to  the  mind,  a  dis- 
position to  think,  study,  or  •'] 
follow  some  light  and  deli- 
cate buwess. 

The  structures  which,  in 
excess  or  great  predomi- 
nance, determine  these  tem- 
peraments,   exist    in    each 


individual.  In  one  person  one 
temperament  may  predominate; 
in  the  next,  another.  '  They  can 
be  modified  by  proper  training. 
When  combined,  they  give  har- 
mony of  character  and  excellent 
health. 

The  Brain. 

There  are  still  other  condi- 
tions upon  which  the  phrenolo- 
gist rests  his  case,  without  which 
he  admits  the  mental  power  of 
the  individual  cannot  be  deter- 
mined. It  is  claimed,  for  in- 
stance, that  a  loose  and  flabby 
flesh  reveals  a  soft  and  spongy 
brain,  and  that  a  close-knit 
frame  and  firm  flesh  show  in- 
tellectual power.  Then,  again, 
the  state  of  the  health  must  be 
taken  into  consideration.  In 
perfect  health  the  brain  is  strong. 


"K 


536 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER 


SN'^V 


-»-+*- i&fi 


*33E=3>    COMPARATIVE*  PHYSIOGNOMY.   -tH 


Ira 


FACIAL    RESEMBLANCES    BETWEEN    MEN    AND    ANIMALS. 


^^ 

CN^t^* 

^§mS1 

ib^>^ 

^iltilF 

#1 

jKiiiiW 

<*\  '**  JS 

M A.I    "litf 

i^^  —           I  —  Liwl 

..if^jffl 

Jf% 

K 

GOOSE. 

GOOSBY. 

;  AN  is  distinguish  ■ 
'  ed  from  the  lower 

animals    by    his 

reasoning  powers 
-vfr*~  and  spiritual  sen- 
timents. The  more  these  are 
developed  and  refined,  the 
greater  his  superiority  over  the 
rest  of  creation.  But  there  are 
many  things  which  man  has  in 
common  with  the  inferior  crea- 
tures. Both  have  the  senses  of 
sight,  hearing,  taste,  smell  and 
touch;  in  both  has  been  im- 
planted love  of  life  and  the  in- 
stinct of  self-preservation.  Affection  and  anger,  cau- 
tion, sccretiveness,  acquisitiveness,  combativeness  and 
destructiveness.in  great  or  small  degree,  are  manifested 
in  animals  as  in  men.  The  fox  is  known  for  his 
cunning.  It  does  not  surprise  us,  therefore,  when  we 
see  in  the  face  of  a  wily,  crafty  man,  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  wiliest  of  animals.  In  the  illustrations 
the  artist  has  depicted  some  striking  resemblances, 
showing  how  those  qualities  and  instincts  which  man 
has  in  common  with  the  lower  animals  are  often 
plainly  stamped  on  the  human  face. 

"  What  a  goose !  "  is  an  expression  we  often  hear, 
and  no  one  will  doubt  that  the  young  man  depicted 
in  the  first  of  the  comparative  illustrations  is  just  the 
kind  that  will  be  easily  "  plucked  "  if  he  go  "  gab- 
bling" about. 


%«zm&A 

^i^ii^jl^ 

^Jv    ~3| 

89BII 

Sjtf-5N)_            s® 

•If 

lb* 

FOX. 

POXY. 

The  lion  is  noted  for  his  strength  and  consciousness  of  power 
He  is  ferocious  and  bloodthirsty,  but  also  capable  of  generosity 
and  magnanimity.  Disdaining  cunning  devices,  he  leaps  upon 
his  prey  with  terrible  and  resistless  impetuosity.  These  charac- 
teristics are  apparent  in  the  face  of  his  human  counterpart,  in 
which,  though  gentleness  and  amiability  may  be  lacking,  there 
are  certainly  depicted  nobility  and  consciousness  of  power. 
Such  a  man,  though  he  may  crush  the  strong,  will  spare  the 
weak  and  defenseless,  and,  though  he  may  take  counsel  of  his 
sagacity,  will  never  descend  to  low  cunning. 

When  we  call  one  "  a  great  bear,"  we  hardly  mean  to  pay 
him  a  compliment.  It  may  be  inferred  that  he  is  somewhat 
rough,  coarse  and  uncouth — hardly  a  gentleman — but  he  may 
have  his  good  qualities  and  be  a  useful  member  of  society. 
One  may  be  bearish  and  yet  not  unbearable.  The  ancients 
seem  to  have  had  considerable  respect  for  the  bear,  at  least  in 

the  feminine  gender,  for  we 
have  from  the  Latin  the  not 
uncommon  name  of  Ursula, 
meaning  a  she-bear. 

We  have  all  seen  people 
that  may  with  great  propriety 
be  called  *'  hoggish,"  though  a 
resemblance  as  strong  as  that 
depicted  in  the  illustration  is 
but  seldom  met  with.  The 
characteristics  of  the  hog  are 
selfishness,  filthiness,  acquisi- 
tiveness, and,  in  a  low  sense, 
mquisitiveness.  The  hoggish 
man  is  greedy,  makes  a  god  of 


-*p 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


537 


his  belly,  and,  however  well  supplied  his  table  may  be,  he  has 
only  enough  for  himself.  Selfishness,  however,  is  natural  and 
inherited  by  most  men,  while  kindness  and  generosity  are  more 


often  the  result  of  culture. 
Were  children  not  taught  to 
be  generous,  to  divide,  there 
would  be  far  more  selfishness 
in  the  world  than  there  is. 

We  read  in  one  of  Shak- 
spere's  comedies  of  a  certain 
character  who  loudly  lamented 
that  no  reporter  was  present  to 
write  him  down  an  ass.*  In 
our  day  the  reporter  is  gen- 
erally at  hand,  and  men  who 
"make  donkeys  of  them- 
selves" are  often  "written 
down"  in    that    way   without 

even  being  consulted  in  the  matter.  There  is  little  harm 
done,  of  course,  for  if  left  alone  they  are  sure  to  make  the 
record  themselves.  Mulisliness  or  obstinacy  lias  ruined  many 
a  man,  and  where  there  is  little  culture  and  much  ignorance, 
we  may  look  for  conceit,  prejudice  and  stupidity. 

The  dog  will  take  on  something  of  the  spirit  of  his  master, 
will  even  come  to  slightly  resemble  him  by  constant  associa- 
tion. Hogarth  was  always  painted  with  his  dog,  and  it  has 
been  said  that  ultimately  he  came  to  resemble  the  animal, 
although  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  latter,  by  remain- 
ing almost  constantly  in  the  presence  of  his  master  and  en- 
deavoring in  a  doggish  way  to  understand  his  thoughts, 
words  and  expressions,  had  really  come,  in  a  limited  manner, 
to  resemble  the  great  humorous  artist.  We  cannot  believe  that 
the  man  was  lost  in  the  dog,  but  it  is  not  entirely  unreason- 
able to  suppose  that  the  dog  had  taken  on  something  of  the 
man. 

The  ancient  physiognomists  laid  great  stress  upon  the  real  or 
*  "  O,  that  he  were  here  to  write  me  down  an  ass  !  " — Much  Ado  About 


\J^Z 

WmS^Sk 

<mm 

^^SjP' 

tyj 

fyjpf 

HOG. 

HOGGISH. 

fancied  resemblances  existing  between  men  and  animals,  but 
their  speculations  are  of  no  real  value.  Modern  writings  on  the 
subject  are  also  mainly  fanciful,  and  calculated  to  amuse  rather 
than  to  instruct.  We  shall  claim  no  more  for  this  chapter,  but 
shall  be  satisfied  if  the  reader  has  been  pleasantly  enter- 
tained, the  organ  of  mirthfulness  developed,  and  the  upward 
curving  lines  at  the  corner  of  the  mouth  improved.  How- 
ever, while  admitting  that  Comparative  Physiognomy  is  still 
in  a  rudimentary  state,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  there  must 
be  some  foundation  in  truth  for  the  common  belief  that 
animal  resemblances  may  be  traced  among  men  and  women, 
and  that  they  have  some  value,  little  or  great,  as  signs  of 
character. 

A  COMPARISON. 

As  the  face  of  a  watch  presents  to  the  eye  signs  of  the 
movements  going  on  within,  and  ceases  to  tell  the  hour  when- 
ever those  movements  cease,  so  the  "  human  face  divine  " 
is  an  index  of  internal  emotions  and  loses  all  power  to 
change  its  expression  as  soon  as  the  vital  powers  are  with- 
drawn. Behind  the  face  of 
the  watch  is  the  machinery  — 
which  is  the  watch.  Behind 
the  human  countenance  are  the 
complicated  apparatuses  of 
bones,  muscles  and  nerves, 
which  form  the  human  ma- 
chinery ;  and  behind  this 
human  machinery  there  is 
what  the  watch  has  not  —  the 
soul,  the  mind — the  controlling 
intelligence  which  precedes 
the  living  organism  to  which 
it  gives  rational  activity. 


/ 


Nothing. 


"  The  active  and  plastic  principle  is  the  soul — the  true  man — 
of  which  the  body  is  but  the  external  expression  and  instru- 
ment." 


1^ 


K~ 


538 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


Y}OW  TO  I^BAD  (sHAI^AGTEI^ 


*<■"=!» 


A  SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  VARIOUS  ORGANS  OF  THE  BRAIN. 


<%m> 


1  is  only  by  a  careful  study  of  all  the  organs  in  combination 
that  one  may  come  to  understand  the  various  mental  char- 
acteristics as  shown  by  Phrenology.  The  accompanying 
diagrams  give  the  exact  location  of  the  organs,  and  through 
*§S"  the  kindness  of  Messrs.  Fowler  &  Wells  we  are  enabled  to 
give  on  the  following  pages  a  brief  description  of  them,  accom- 
panied by  an  explanation 
ot  their  influence  on  the 
character  as  determined 
by  their  size. 

L*  Amativeness. 
Reciprocal  attachment 
and  love  of  the  sexes. 
Very  large,  experiences 
a  power  and  activity  of 
sexual  love  almost  un- 
controllable. Large,  is 
an  ardent  admirer  and 
tender  lover  of  the  other 
sex ;  feels  strong  sexual 
impulses,  desire  to  marry, 
etc.  Full,  feels  much 
love  and  tenderness  for 
the  opposite  sex ;  yet, 
with  activity  great,  has 
excitability  rather  than 
power.  Average,  loves 
the  other  sex,  and  enjoys 
their  society  well.  Mod- 
erate, is  rather  deficient 
in  sexual  love,  attentions 
to  the  opposite  sex,  etc 
Small,  feels  little  sexual 
or  connubial  love,  or 
desire  to  marry.  Very 
small,  seldom  or  never 
experiences  this  feeling. 

2.  Philoprogeni- 

tiveness. 
Parental     attachment ; 
love   of  one's   offspring. 

Very  large,  is  passionately  fond  of  all  children;  a  general 
favorite  with  them ;  idolizes  his  own  children ;  is  liable  to  over- 
indulge them.  Large,  feels  strong,  tender  parental  love;  is 
devotedly  attached,  and  very  kind  to  his  own  if  not  all  children. 


Full,  is  tender,  but  not  indulgent ;  fond  of  his  own  children, 
yet  not  partial  to  others.  Average,  loves  his  own  children, 
yet  not  fondly ;  dislikes  those  of  others.  Moderate,  loves  his 
own  children  some,  yet  bears  little  from  them.  Small,  feels 
little  interest  in  even  his  own  children.  Very  small,  has  no 
parental  love ;  hates  all  children. 

3.  Adhesiveness. 
Friendship;  social  feel- 
ing ;  love  of  society.  Very 
large,  loves  friends  with 
indescribable  tenderness 
and  strength  of  feeling; 
will  sacrifice  almost  every- 
thing upon  the  altar  of 
friendship.  Large,  is 
eminently  social ;  an  ar- 
dent, sincere  friend ;  en- 
joys friendly  society  ex- 
tremely ;  forms  strong  if 
not  hasty  attachments. 
Full,  is  highly  social, 
yet  not  remarkably  warm- 
hearted. Average,  is 
quite  friendly,  yet  will 
not  sacrifice  much  for 
friends.  Moderate,  loves 
friends  some,  yet  self 
more ;  quits  friends  often. 
Small,  is  unsocial,  cold- 
hearted;  likes  and  is  liked 
by  few  or  none.  Very 
small,  is  a  stranger  to 
friendly  social  feeling. 


VIC.  4-     THB  PHRENOLOGICAL  ORGANS  SYMBOLICALLY  ILLUSTRATED. 


The  above  chart  shows  the  location  of  the  phrenological  organs,  and  in  the  field  ol 
each  organ  iis  character  is  symbolically  tlluitr.ted.  Thus  Firmness  is  indicated  by  the 
stability  of  the  pyramid  and  the  obstinacy  oi  the  mule,  or  the  man  who  is  contending 
with  him ;  Veneration,  by  the  attitude  of  prayer,  and  the  courtesy  of  the  boy  toward 
old  age  ;  Benevolence ,  by  the  Good  Samaritan ;  Cautiousness ,  by  the  frightened  hen  that 
fears  detriment  to  her  chicks;  Secretiveness,  by  the  lox  :  Acquisitiveness,  by  the  miser, 
etc.  These  symbols  arc  intended  to  make  vivid  the  impression  and  thus  help  the  memory. 


A.  Conjugality. 

Monogamy,  union  for 
life,  first  love,  the  pairing 
instinct.  Very  large,  se- 
lects some  one  of  the  op- 
posite sex  as  the  sole 
object  of„love;  concen- 
trates the  whole  soul  on 
the  single  one  beloved,  magnifying  excellences  and  overlooking 
faults;  longs  to  be  always  with  that  one;  is  exclusive,  and  requires 
a  like  cxclusiveness;  is  true  and  faithful  in  wedlock,  if  married 
in  spirit.      Large,    seeks  one,  and  but  one,  sexual  mate,  and 


< « — •• 


*  The  numbers  refer  to  Fig.  5. 


-- ^l 


.? 


V 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


rr 


539 


feels  perfectly  satisfied  in  the  society  of  that  one.  Full,  can  love 
cordially,  yet  is  capable  of  changing  the  object.  Average, 
is  disposed  to  love  but  one  for  life,  yet,  with  secretiveness  and 
approbativeness  large,  and  conscientiousness  only  full,  is  capa- 
ble of  coquetry.  Moderate,  is  somewhat  disposed  to  love 
only  one,  yet  allows  stronger  faculties  to  interrupt  that  love. 
Small,  has  but  little  conjugal  love  and  seeks  the  promiscuous 
society  and  affection  of  the  opposite  sex,  rather  than  a  single 
partner  for  life.     Very  small,  manifests  none  of  this  faculty. 

4.  Inhabitiveness. 
Love  of  home  as  such ;  attachment  to  the  place  where  one 
has  lived;  unwillingness  to  change  it;  patriotism.  Very  large, 
regards  home  as  the  dearest,  sweetest  spot  on  earth;  feels 
homesick  when  away;  dislikes  changing  residences;  is  pre- 
eminently patriotic ;  thinks  of  his  native  place  with  intense  in- 
terest. Large,  soon  becomes  strongly  attached  to  the  place  in 
which  he  lives;  loves  home  and  country  dearly;  leaves  them 
reluctantly;  is  unhappy  without  a  home  of  his  own.  Pull, 
loves  home  well,  yet  does  not  grieve  much  on  leaving  it. 
Average,  forms  some,  though  not  strong,  local  attachments. 
Moderate,  has  some,  but  not  great,  regard  for  home  as  such. 
Small  or  very  small,  makes  any  place  home. 

6.  Concentrativeness. 
Unity  and  continuity  of  thought  and  feeling ;  power  of  eDOre 
and  concentrated  application  to  one  thing.  Very  large,  places 
his  mind  upon  subjects  slowly ;  cannot  leave  them  unfinished, 
nor  attend  to  more  than  one  thing  at  once ;  is  very  tedious;  has 
great  application,  yet  lacks  intensity  and  point.  Large,  is 
able  and  inclined  to  apply  his  mind  to  one,  and  but  one,  subject 
for  the  time  being,  till  it  is  finished ;  changes  his  mental  opera- 
tions with  difficulty;  is  often  prolix.  Full,  is  disposed  to 
attend  to  but  one  thing  at  once,  yet  can  turn  rapidly  from  thing 
to  thing;  is  neither  disconnected  nor  prolix.  Average,  pos- 
sesses this  power  to  some,  though  to  no  great,  extent.  Moder- 
ate, loves  and  indulges  variety  and  change  of  thought,  feeling, 
occupation,  etc.;  is  not  confused  by  them  ;  rather  lacks  applica- 
tion ;  has  intensity,  but  not  unity,  of  the  mental  action.  Small, 
craves  novelty  and  variety ;  has  little  application ;  thinks  and 
feels  intensely,  yet  not  long  on  anything ;  jumps  rapidly  from 
premise  to  conclusion  ;  fails  to  connect  and  carry  out  his  ideas. 
Very  small,  is  satisfied  only  with  constant  succession. 

E.  Vitativeness. 
Love  of  existence  as  such ;  dread  of  annihilation.  Very 
large,  however  wretched,  shrinks  from  and  shudders  at  the 
thought  of  dying  and  being  dead  ;  feels  that  he  cannot  give  up 
existence.  Large,  loves  and  clings  tenaciously  to  existence 
for  its  own  sake ;  craves  immortality  and  dreads  annihilation, 
even  though  miserable.  Full,  desires  life,  but  not  eagerly, 
from  love  of  it  and  of  pleasure.  Average,  is  attached  to  life 
and  fears  death,  yet  not  a  great  deal.  Moderate,  loves  life, 
yet  is  not  very  anxious  about  living.  Small  or  very  small, 
heeds  not  life  or  death,  existence  or  annihilation. 


6.  Combativeness. 


k 


Feeling  of  resistance,  defence,  opposition,  boldness,  willing- 
ness to  encounter,  courage,  resentment,  spirit.    Very  large,  is 


powerful  in  opposition,  prone  to  dispute,  attack,  etc.;  contrary ; 
has  violent  temper,  governs  it  with  difficulty.  Large,  is  res- 
olute and  courageous,  spirited  and  efficient  as  an  opponent, 
quick  and  intrepid  in  resistance,  loves  debate,  boldly  meets,  if 
he  does  not  court,  opposition.  Full,  seldom  either  courts  or 
shrinks  from  opposition ;  when  roused,  is  quite  energetic ;  may 
be  quick-tempered,  yet  is  not  contentious.  Average,  is  pacific, 
but  when  driven  to  it,  defends  his  rights  boldly.  Moderate, 
avoids  collision;  is  rather  pacific  and  inefficient.  Small,  has 
feeble  resistance,  temper,  force,  etc.;  is  cowardly.  Very 
small,  withstands  nothing;  is  chicken-hearted,  an  arrant 
coward. 

T.  Destructiveness. 
Executiveness,  indignation,  force,  severity,  sternness;  a 
destroying,  pain-causing  disposition.  Very  large,  when  pro- 
voked, is  vindictive,  cruel,  disposed  to  hurt,  take  revenge,  etc.; 
bitter  and  implacable  as  an  enemy ;  very  forcible.  Large,  when 
excited,  feels  deep-toned  indignation  ;  is  forcible,  and  disposed 
to  subdue  or  destroy  the  cause  of  his  displeasure.  Full,  can, 
but  is  loth  to,  cause  or  witness  pain  or  death ;  has  sufficient 
severity,  yet  requires  considerable  to  call  it  out.  Average,  has 
not  really  deficient,  yet  none  too  much.indignation.  Moderate, 
is  mild,  not  severe  or  destructive  enough ;  when  angry,  lacks 
power;  can  hardly  cause  or  witness  pain  or  death.  Small, 
would  hardly  hurt  one  if  he  could,  or  could  if  he  would; 
has  so  feeble  anger  that  it  is  derided  more  than  feared. 
Very  small,  is  unable  to  cause,  witness  or  endure  pain  or 
death. 

8.  Alimeutiveness. 

Appetite  for  sustenance ;  cause  of  hunger.  Very  large, 
sets  too  much  by  the  indulgence  of  his  palate ;  eats  with  the 
keenest  appetite;  perhaps  "  makes  *  god  of  his  belly."  Large, 
has  an  excellent  appetite,  a  hearty  relish  for  food,  drink,  etc. ; 
enjoys  them  much;  is  a  good  liver;  not  dainty.  Full,  has 
a  good  appetite,  yet  can  govern  it ;  is  not  greedy.  Average, 
enjoys  food  well,  but  not  very  well;  hence  is  particular. 
Moderate,  has  not  a  good,  nor  very  poor,  but  rather  poor, 
appetite.  Small  or  very  small,  is  dainty,  mincing,  particu- 
lar about  food  •  eats  with  little  relish. 

9.  Acquisitiveness. 

Love  of  acquiring  and  possessuig  property  as  such ;  desire  to 
save,  lay  up,  etc. ;  innate  feeling  of  mine  and  thine,  of  a  right 
to  possess  and  dispose  of  things.  Very  large,  makes  money 
his  idol ;  grudges  it ;  is  tempted  to  get  it  dishonestly ;  penurious, 
sordid,  covetous,  etc.  Large,  hns  a  strong  desire  to  acquire 
property  ;  is  frugal,  saving  of  money,  close  and  particular  in  his 
dealings,  devoted  to  money-making,  trading,  etc.;  generally 
gets  the  value  of  his  money.  Full,  values  property,  both  for 
itself  and  what  it  procures,  yet  is  not  penurious;  is  industrious 
and  saving,  yet  supplies  his  wants.  Average,  loves  money, 
but  not  greatly  ;  can  make  it,  but  spends  freely.  Moderate, 
finds  it  more  difficult  to  keep  than  to  make  money ;  desires  it 
more  to  supply  wants  than  to  lay  up ;  is  hardly  saving  enough. 
Small,  will  spend  money  injudiciously ;  lays  up  little ;  disre- 
gards the  prices  of  things.  Very  small,  cannot  be  taught  the 
value  or  use  of  money. 


^ 


54* 


"7[ 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


10.  Secretiveness. 

Desire  and  ability  to  secrete,  conceal,  etc.  Very  large, 
seldom  appears  what  he  is,  or  says  what  he  means ;  often  equiv- 
ocates and  deceives;  is  mysterious,  dark,  cunning,  artful,  given 
to  double-dealing,  eye-service,  etc.  Large,  seldom  discloses 
his  plans,  opinions,  etc. ;  is  hard  to  be  found  out ;  reserved ; 
non-committal.  Full,  can  keep  to  himself  what  he  wishes  to, 
yet  is  not  cunning.  Average,  is  not  artful  nor  very  frank ;  is 
generally  open ;  can  conceal.  Moderate,  is  quite  candid  and 
open-hearted;  loves  truth;  dislikes  concealment,  underhand 
measures,  etc. ;  seldom  employs  them.  Small,  speaks  out 
just  what  he  thinks;  acts  as  he  feels;  does  not  wish  to  learn  or 
tell  the  secrets  of  others,  yet  freely  tells  his  own ;  is  too  plain- 
spoken  and  candid.     Very  small,  has  a  transparent  heart. 

11.  Cautiousness. 

Carefulness;  provision  against  danger.  Very  large,  hesi- 
tates  too  much ;  suffers  greatly  from  groundless  fears ;  is  timid, 
easily  frightened,  etc.  Large,  is  always  watchful;  on  the  look- 
out; careful,  anxious,  solicitous;  provident  against  real  and 
imaginary  danger,  etc.  Full,  has  prudence  and  forethought, 
yet  not  too  much.  Average,  has  some  caution,  yet  hardly 
enough  for  success.  Moderate,  is  rather  imprudent,  hence 
unlucky ;  liable  to  misfortunes  caused  by  carelessness ;  plans 
too  imperfectly  for  action.  Small,  acts  impromptu  ;  disregards 
consequences ;  fears  nothing ;  is  imprudent,  luckless,  often  in 
hot  water.  Very  small,  is  destitute  of  fear  and  forethought. 
12.  Approbativeness. 

Sense  of  honor ;  regard  for  character ;  ambition ;  love  of 
popularity,  fame,  distinction,  etc.  Very  large,  regards  his 
honor  and  character  as  the  apple  of  his  eye ;  is  even  morbidly 
sensitive  to  praise  and  censure;  over-fond  of  show,  fashion, 
praise,  style,  etc.;  extremely  polite,  ceremonious,  etc.  Large, 
sets  everything  by  character,  honor,  etc.;  is  keenly  alive  to  the 
frowns  and  smiles  of  public  opinion,  praise,  etc.;  tries  to  show 
off  to  good  advantage ;  is  affable,  ambitious,  apt  to  praise  himself. 
Full,  desires  and  seeks  popularity  and  feels  censure,  yet  will 
neither  deny  nor  trouble  himself  to  secure  or  avoid  cither. 
Average,  enjoys  approbation,  yet  will  not  sicnfice  much  to 
obtain  it.  Moderate,  feels  reproacli  some,  yet  is  little  affected 
by  popularity  or  unpopularity  ;  may  gather  the  flowers  of  applause 
that  are  strewed  in  his  path,  yet  will  not  deviate  from  it  to  col- 
lect them.  Small,  cares  little  for  popular  frowns  or  favors ;  feels 
little  shame;  disregards  and  despises  fashions  etiquette,  etc.;  is 
not  polite.     Very  small,  cares  nothing  for  p  >pular  favor. 

13.  Self-Esteem. 
Self-respect ;  high-toned,  manly  feeling;  innate  love  of  per- 
sonal liberty,  independence,  etc. ;  pride  of  character.  Very 
large,  has  unbounded  self-confidence;  endures  no  restraint ; 
takes  no  advice;  is  rather  haughty,  imperious,  etc.  Large,  is 
high-minded,  independent,  self-confident,  dignified,  his  own 
master;  aspires  to  be  and  do  something  worthy  of  himself; 
assumes  responsibilities  ;  does  few  little  things.  Full,  has  much 
self-respect;  pride  of  character;  independence.  Average, 
respects  himself,  yet  is  not  haughty.  Moderate,  has  some  self- 
respect  and  manly  feeling,  yet  too  little  to  give  ease,  dignity, 


weight  of  character,  etc. ;  is  too  trifling.  Small,  lets  himself 
down ;  says  and  does  trifling  things ;  associates  with  inferiors; 
is  not  looked  up  to ;  lacks  independence.  Very  small,  is  ser- 
vile, low-minded,  destitute  of  self-respect. 
14.  Firmness. 
Decision,  stability,  fixedness  of  character,  etc.  Very  large, 
is  wilful,  and  so  tenacious  and  unchangeable  of  opinion,  pur- 
pose, etc.,  that  he  seldom  gives  up  anything.  Large,  may  be 
fully  relied  on;  is  set  in  his  own  way  ;  hard  to  be  convinced  or 
changed  at  all ;  holds  on  long  and  hard.  Full,  has  persever- 
ance enough  for  ordinary  occasions,  yet  too  little  for  great 
enterprises;  is  neither  fickle  nor  stubborn.  Average,  has  some 
decision,  yet  too  little  for  general  success.  Moderate,  gives  over 
too  soon ;  changes  too  often  and  too  easily  ;  thus  fails  to  effect 
what  greater  firmness  would  do.  Small  or  very  small,  lacks 
perseverance ;  is  too  changeable  to  be  relied  upon. 

15.  Conscientiousness. 

Innate  feeling  of  du  ty,  accountability,  justice,  right,  etc.;  moral 
principle;  love  of  truth.  Very  large,  is  scrupulously  exact  in 
matters  of  right ;  perfecdy  honest  in  motive  ;  always  condemn- 
ing self  and  repenting;  makes  duty  everything,  expediency 
nothing.  Large,  is  honest ;  faithful ;  upright  at  heart ;  moral 
in  feeling ;  grateful ;  penitent ;  means  well ;  consults  duty 
before  expediency ;  loves,  and  means  to  speak,  the  truth ;  cannot 
tolerate  wrong.  Full,  strives  to  do  right,  yet  sometimes  yields 
to  temptation ;  resists  besetting  sins,  but  may  be  overcome,  and 
then  feels  remorse.  Average,  has  right  intentions,  but  their 
influence  is  limited.  Moderate,  has  considerable  regard  for 
duty  in  feeling,  but  less  in  practice;  justifies  himself;  is  not  very 
penitent,  grateful  or  forgiving;  often  temporizes  with  principle; 
sometimes  lets  interest  rule  duty.  Small,  has  few  conscientious 
scruples;  little  regard  for  moral  principle,  justice,  duty,  etc 
Very  small,  does  not  feel  the  claims  of  duty  or  justice. 

16.  Hope. 

Anticipation ;  expectation  of  future  happiness,  success,  etc. 
Very  large,  has  unbounded  hopes;  builds  castles  in  the  air. 
Large,  expects,  attempts  and  promises  a  great  deal ;  is  gener- 
ally sanguine,  cheerful,  etc.;  rises  above  present  troubles; 
though  disappointed,  hopes  on  still ;  views  the  brightest  side  of 
prospects.  Full,  is  quite  sanguine,  yet  realizes  about  what  he 
expects.  Average,  h.is  some,  but  reasonable,  hopes;  is  seldom 
elated.  Moderate,  expects  and  attempts  too  little ;  succeeds 
beyond  his  hopes ;  is  prone  to  despond ;  looks  on  the  darker  side. 
Small,  is  low-spirited;  easily  discouraged;  fears  the  worst; 
sees  many  lions  in  his  way;  magnifies  evils;  lacks  enterprise. 
Very  small,  expects  nothing  good;  has  no  hope  of  the  future. 

17.  Spirituality. 
Belief  in  the  supernatural ;  credulity.  Very  large,  is 
very  superstitious  ;  regards  most  things  with  wonder.  Large, 
believes  and  delights  in  the  supernatural,  in  dreams,  ghosts,  etc.; 
thinks  many  natural  things  supernatural.  Full,  is  open'  to 
conviction  ;  rather  credulous ;  believes  in  divine  providences, 
forcwarnings,  the  wonderful,  etc.  Average,  believes  some, 
but  not  much,  in  wonders,  forewarnings,  etc.  Moderate,  be- 
lieves but  little  that  cannot   be  accounted  for  yet  is  open  to 


/ 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


541 


conviction;  is  incredulous,  but  listens  to  evidence.  Small, 
is  convinced  only  with  difficulty ;  believes  nothing  till  he  sees 
facts,  or  why  and  wherefore,  not  even  revelation  farther  than  a 
reason  is  rendered ;  is  prone  to  reject  new  things  without  exam- 
ination. Very  small,  believes  little  else  than  his  senses. 
18.  Veneration. 
The  feeling  of  worship  for  a  Supreme  Being ;  respect  for 
religion  and  things  sacred,  and  for  superiors.  Very  large, 
is  eminent,  if  not  pre-eminent,  for  piety,  heart-felt  devotion, 
religious  fervor,  seriousness,  love  of  divine  things,  etc.  Large, 
loves  to  adore  and  worship  God,  especially  through  his  works ; 
treats  equals  with  respect  and  superiors  with  deference.  Full, 
is  capable  of  much  religious  fervor  and  devotion,  yet  is  not 
habitually  serious ;  generally  treats  his  fellow-men  civilly. 
Average,  may  feel  religious  worship,  yet  little  respect  for  men. 
Moderate,  disregards  religious  creeds,  forms  of  worship,  etc. ; 
places  religion  in  other  things ;  is  not  serious  nor  respectful. 
Small,  feels  little  religious  worship,  reverence,  respect,  etc. 
Very  small,  seldom  if  ever  adores  God. 

19.  Benevolence. 
Desire  to  see  and  make  sentient  beings  happy ;  kindness. 
Very  large,  does  all  the  good  in  his  power ;  gladly  sacrifices 
self  upon  the  altar  of  pure  benevolence ;  scatters  happiness 
wherever  he  goes;  is  one  of  the  kindest-hearted  of  persons. 
Large,  is  kind,  obliging;  glad  to  serve  others,  even  to  his 
injury ;  feels  lively  sympathy  for  distress ;  does  good  to  all. 
Full,  has  a  fair  share  of  sympathetic  feeling,  and  some,  though 
not  great,  willingness  to  sacrifice  for  others.  Average,  has 
kinr\  fellow-feeling  without  much  active  benevolence.  Moder- 
ate, has  some  benevolent  feeling,  yet  too  little  to  prompt  to 
much  self-denial ;  does  good  only  when  he  can  without  cost. 
Small,  feels  little  kindness  or  sympathy  ;  is  almost  deaf  to  the 
cries  of  distress ;  hard-hearted,  selfish,  etc.  Very  small,  is 
destitute  of  all  humanity  and  sympathy. 

20.  Constructiveness. 
Mechanical  dexterity  and  ingenuity ;  desire  and  ability  to  use 
tools,  build,  invent,  employ  machinery,  etc.  Very  large,  is  a 
mechanic  of  the  first  order ;  a  true  genius.  Large,  shows  great 
natural  dexterity  in  using  tools,  executing  mechanical  opera- 
tions, working  machinery,  etc.;  loves  them.  Full,  has  fair 
mechanical  ingenuity,  yet  no  great  natural  talent  or  desire  to 
make  things;  with  practice  will  do  well ;  without  it,  little. 
Average,  has  some,  yet  not  great,  relish  for  and  tact  in  using 
tools.  Moderate,  with  much  practice,  may  use  tools  quite 
well,  yet  dislikes  mechanical  operations ;  owes  more  to  art  than 
nature.  Small,  hates,  and  is  awkward  and  bungling  in,  using 
tools,  etc.     Very  small,  has  no  mechanical  skill  or  desire. 

21.  Ideality. 
Imagination ;  taste ;  fancy ;  love  of  perfection ;  poetry,  polite 
literature,  oratory,  the  beautiful  in  nature  and  art,  etc.  Very 
large,  often  gives  rein  to  his  erratic  imagination;  experiences 
revellings  of  fancy,  ecstasy,  rapture  of  feeling,  enthusiasm. 
Large,  has  a  lively  imagination ;  great  love  of  poetry,  elo- 
quence, fiction,  good  style,  the  beauties  of  nature  and  art. 
Full,  has  refinement  of  feeling,  expression,  etc.,  without  sickly 


delicacy;  some  love  of  poetry,  yet  not  a  vivid  imagination. 
Average,  has  some  taste,  though  not  enough  to  influence  him 
much.  Moderate,  has  some,  but  not  much  imagination ;  is 
rather  plain  in  expression,  manners,  feeling,  etc. ;  dislikes 
poetry,  finery,  etc.  Small,  or  very  small,  lacks  taste,  niceness, 
refinement,  delicacy  of  feeling,  etc. 

,    B.  Sublimity. 

Conception  of  grandeur;  sublime  emotions  excited  by  con- 
templating the  vast,  magnificent  or  splendid  in  nature  or  art. 
Very  large,  is  a  passionate  admirer  of  the  wild  and  romantic; 
feels  the  sublimest  emotions  while  contemplating  the  grand  or 
awful  in  nature.  Large,  admires  and  enjoys  scenery,  a 
vast  prospect,  etc.,  exceedingly ;  hence,  enjoys  travelling.  Full, 
enjoys  magnificent  scenes  well,  yet  not  remarkably  so.  Aver- 
age, sometimes,  but  not  to  a  great  degree,  experiences  this 
feeling.  Moderate,  has  some,  though  not  at  all  vivid,  emo- 
tions of  this  kind.  Small  or  very  small,  discovers  little  to 
awaken  this  feeling. 

22.  Imitation. 

Disposition  and  ability  to  take  pattern,  imitate.  Very  large, 
can  mimic,  act  out  and  copy  almost  anything ;  describe,  relate 
anecdotes,  etc.,  to  the  very  life;  has  a  theatrical  taste  and  talent; 
seldom  speaks  without  gesturing.  Large,  has  a  great  propen- 
sity and  ability  to  copy,  take  pattern  from  others,  do  what  he 
sees  done,  etc. ;  needs  but  one  showing ;  gesticulates  much ; 
describes  and  acts  out  well.  Full,  with  effort,  copies  some,  but 
not  well ;  cannot  mimic.  Average,  copies  some,  yet  too  little 
to  deserve  or  excite  notice.  Moderate,  cannot  mimic  at  all; 
can  copy,  draw,  take  pattern,  etc.,  only  with  difficulty ;  describes, 
relates  anecdotes,  etc.,  poorly.  Small,  dislikes  and  fails  to  copy, 
draw,  do  after  others,  etc.  Very  small,  has  little  ability  to 
imitate  or  copy  anything. 

23.  Mirthfulness. 
Intuitive  perception  of  the  absurd  and  ridiculous ;  a  joking, 
fun-making,  ridiculing  disposition  and  ability.  Very  large,  is 
quick  and  apt  at  turning  everything  into  ridicule,  throws  off 
constant  sallies  of  wit ;  is  too  facetious,  jocose,  etc.  Large, 
has  a  quick,  keen  perception  of  the  ludicrous ;  makes  a  great 
amount  of  fun ;  too  much  for  his  own  good ;  is  quick  at  repartee ; 
smiles  often;  laughs  heartily  at  jokes.  Full,  has  much  mirth- 
ful feeling;  makes  and  relishes  jokes  wall.  Average,  perceives 
jokes,  and  relishes  fun,  but  cannot  make  much.  Moderate, 
has  some  witty  ideas,  yet  lacks  quickness  in  conceiving,  and  tact 
in  expressing  them;  is  generally  quite  sober.  Small,  makes 
little  fun;  is  slow  to  perceive,  and  still  slower  to  turn  jokes; 
seldom  laughs ;  thinks  it  wrong  to  do  so.  Very  small,  has 
few  if  any  witty  ideas  or  conceptions. 

24.  Individuality. 
Observing  and  individualizing  power  and  desire ;  curiosity  to 
see  and  know ;  disposition  to  specify,  personify.  Very  large, 
has  an  insatiable  desire  to  see  and  know  everything ;  extraor- 
dinary observing  powers ;  is  eager  to  witness  every  passing  event- 
Large,  has  a  great  desire  to  know,  investigate,  examine,  ex- 
perience, etc. ;  is  a  great  observer  of  men  and  things ;  quick  of 
perception ;  sees  what  is  transpiring,  what  should  be  done,  etc. 


V- 


V 


542 


. 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


Full,  has  fair  observing  powers,  and  desire  to  see  things. 
Average,  has  some,  yet  no  great,  curiosity  and  desire  to  see 
things.  Moderate,  is  rather  deficient,  yet  not  palpably  so,  in 
observing  power  and  desire ;  not  sufficiently  specific.  Small, 
Is  slow  to  see  things ;  attends  little  to  particulars.  Very  small, 
sees  scarcely  anything;  regards  things  in  the  gross. 

25.  Form. 
Cognizance  and  recollection  of  shape  or  configuration.  Very 
large,  never  forgets  the  countenance,  form,  etc.,  of  persons  and 
things  seen  ;  easily  learns  to  read  and  spell  correctly  ;  reads  and 
sees  things  at  a  great  distance ;  has  excellent  eyesight.  Large, 
notices,  and  for  a  long  time  remembers,  the  faces,  countenances, 
forms,  looks,  etc.,  of  persons,  beasts,  things,  etc.,  once  seen ; 
knows  by  sight  many  whom  he  may  be  unable  to  name.  Full, 
recognizes  persons,  countenances,  etc.,  well.  Average,  recol- 
lects forms,  faces,  etc.,  quite  well,  but  not  very  well.  Moder- 
ate, must  see  persons  several  times  before  he  can  recollect 
them  ;  sometimes  doubts  whether  he  has  seen  certain  persons. 
Small  or  very  small,  has 
a  miserable  memory  of  per- 
sons, looks,  shapes,  etc. ; 
fails  to  recognize  even  those 
he  sees  often. 

26.  Size. 
Cognizance  and  knowl- 
edge of  relative  magnitude, 
bulk,  etc.  Very  large, 
detects  disproportion,  and 
judges  of  size,  with  won- 
derful accuracy,  by  intui- 
tion, and  as  well  without 
as  with  instruments ;  cannot 
endure  inaccuracy.  Large, 
has  an  excellent  eye  for 
measuring  proportion,  size, 
height,  angles,  perpendic- 
ulars, etc. ;  quickly  detects  disproportions  in  them.  Full, 
can  measure  ordinary  and  familiar  distances  well,  yet  shows  no 
remarkable  natural  talent  in  it.  Average,  measures  bulk  with 
tolerable,  though  not  great,  accuracy.  Moderate,  is  rather  de- 
ficient in  measuring  by  the  eye  ;  with  practice,  may  do  tolerably 
well  in  short,  but  fails  in  long,  distances.  Small,  judges  of 
relative  size,  etc.,  very  inaccurately.  Very  small,  can  hardly 
distinguish  mountains  from  molehills. 

27.  Weight. 
Intuitive  perception  and  application  of  the  principles  of  spe- 
cific gravity,  projectile  forces,  momentum,  balancing,  resistance. 
Very  large,  has  this  power  to  a  wonderful  extent.  Large,  can 
walk  on  a  high  or  narrow  place ;  hold  a  steady  hand,  throw  a 
stone  or  ball,  and  shoot,  straight ;  ride  a  fractious  horse,  etc., 
very  well.  Full,  keeps  his  centre  of  gravity  well,  but  ventures 
little.  Average,  balances  himself  tolerably  well  in  ordinary 
cases,  yet  has  no  great  natural  talent  in  this  respect.  Moderate, 
maintains  his  centre  of  gravity,  etc.,  rather  poorly.  Small  or 
very  small,  is  unlike  one  with  Weight  large. 


FIG.  5.     THE  PHRENOLOGICAL  ORGANS,  AS  NUMBERED  AND  DESCRIBED. 


28.  Color. 
Perception  and  recollection  of  colors,  hues,  tints,  etc.  Very 
large,  resembles  one  with  Color  large,  but  excels  him.  Large, 
has  taste  and  talent  for  comparing,  arranging,  mingling,  apply- 
ing and  recollecting  colors ;  is  delighted  with  paintings.  Full, 
with  practice,  compares  and  judges  of  colors  well ;  without  it- 
does  not  excel.  Average,  can  discern  and  recollect  colors,  yet 
seldom  notices  them.  Moderate,  aided  by  practice,  can  discern 
and  compare  colors,  yet  owes  less  to  nature  than  art ;  seldom 
notices  colors  unless  obliged  to,  and  then  soon  forgets  them. 
Small,  seldom  observes  the  color  of  one's  hair,  eyes,  dress,  etc.; 
cannot  describe  persons  by  what  they  wear,  or  compare  colors 
apart;  hardly  distinguishes  primary  colors  by  candlelight  Very 
small,  can  tell  white  from  black,  but  do  little  more. 
29.  Order. 
System ;  physical  arrangement ;  a  place  for  things.  Very 
large,  is  very  precise  and  particular  to  have  every  little  thing 
in  its  place  ;  literally  tormented  by  disorder ;  is  fastidious.  Large, 

has  a  place  for  things,  and 
things  in  their  places;  can 
find,  even  in  the  dark, 
what  he  alone  uses ;  is  sys- 
tematic ;  annoyed  by  dis- 
order. Full,  likes  order; 
takes  much  pains  to  keep 
things  arranged.  Average, 
appreciates  order,  yet  not 
enough  to  keep  it.  Mod- 
erate, likes  but  does  not 
keep  order;  allows  con- 
fusion. Small  or  very 
small,  is  nearly  destitute 
of  order. 

30.  Calculation. 
Intuitive   perception    of 


the  relations  of  numbers; 
ability  to  reckon  figures  in  the  head;  numerical  computation. 
Very  large,  has  an  intuitive  faculty  of  reckoning  even  compli- 
cated sums  of  figures  in  his  head  ;  delights  in  it.  Large,  can 
add,  subtract,  divide,  etc.,  in  his  head,  with  facility  and  correct- 
ness ;  become  a  rapid,  correct  accountant ;  delights  and  excels  in 
arithmetic.  Full,  aided  by  rules  and  practice  may  excel  in 
reckoning  figures,  and  do  well  in  his  head,  but  not  without 
them.  Average,  by  practice  and  rules  may  reckon  figures 
quite  well.  Moderate,  does  sums  in  his  head  rather 
slowly  and  inaccurately.  Small,  is  dull  and  incorrect  in  add- 
ing, dividing,  etc.;  dislikes  it.     Very  small,  can  hardly  count 

31.  Locality. 
Cognizance  and  recollection  of  relative  position,  looks  and 
geography  of  places,  etc. ;  desire  to  travel,  see  the  world,  etc. 
Very  large,  never  forgets  the  looks,  location  or  geography  of 
any  place,  or  even  thing,  he  has  ever  seen ;  is  even  passion- 
ately fond  of  travelling,  scenery,  geography,  etc  Large,  rec- 
ollects distinctly  the  looks  of  places  where  he  saw  things,  etc.; 
seldom  loses  himself,  even  in  the  dark  ;   has  a  strong  desire  to 


/ 


V- 


Iv 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHARACTER. 


543 


>& 


travel,  see  places,  etc.  Full,  remembers  places  well,  yet  is  lia- 
ble to  lose  himself  in  a  city  or  forest ;  ordinarily  shows  no  defi- 
ciency; seldom  loses  himself.  Average,  has  a  fair,  though  not 
excellent,  recollection  of  places.  Moderate,  recollects  places 
rather  poorly ;  sometimes  gets  lost.  Small  or  very  small,  sel- 
dom observes  where  he  goes,  or  finds  his  way  back. 

32.  Eventuality. 
Recollection  of  'actions,  phenomena,  occurrences,  what  has 
taken  place,  circumstantial  and  historical  facts.  Very  large, 
never  forgets  any  occurrence,  even  though  it  is  trifling ;  has  a 
craving  thirst  for  information  and  experiment ;  literally  devours 
books,  newspapers,  etc ;  commands  an  astonishing  amount  of 
information.  Large,  has  a  clear  and  retentive  memory  of  his- 
torical facts,  general  news,  what  he  has  seen,  heard,  read,  etc., 
even  in  detail.  Full,  recollects  leading  events,  and  interesting 
particulars,  and  has  a  good  memory  of  occurrences,  yet  forgets 
less  important  details.  Average,  has  neither  a  good  nor  bad 
memory  of  occurrences,  etc.  Moderate,  recollects  generals, 
not  details;  is  rather  forgetful.  Small,  has  a  treacherous,  con- 
fused memory.  Very  small,  forgets  almost  everything. 
'  33.    Time. 

Cognizance  and  recollection  of  succession,  the  lapse  of  time, 
dates,  how  long  ago  things  occurred,  etc.  Very  large,  remem- 
bers with  wonderful  accuracy  the  time  of  occurrences;  is  punc- 
tual; tells  the  time  of  day,  etc.,  by  intuition.  Large,  tells  dates, 
appointments,  ages,  time  of  day,  etc.,  well.  Full,  recollects 
about,  but  not  precisely,  when  things  occurred.  Average, 
notices  and  remembers  dates,  times,  etc.,  some,  but  not  well. 
Moderate,  has  rather  a  poor  idea  of  dates,  the  time  •when,  etc. 
Small,  can  seldom  tell  when  things  took  place;  forgets  dates. 
Very  small,  is  liable  to  forget  even  his  age. 
34.    Tune. 

Tone;  sense  of  melody  and  musical  harmony;  ability  to  learn 
tunes  and  detect  chord  and  discord  by  ear ;  propensity  to  sing. 
Very  large,  learns  tunes  by  hearing  them  sung  once  or 
twice;  is  literally  enchanted  by  good  music;  shows  intuitive 
skill,  and  spends  much  time  in  making  it;  sings  from  the  heart, 
and  with  melting  pathos.  Large,  easily  catches  tunes ;  learns 
to  sing  and  play  on  instruments  by  rote  ;  delights  in  singing ; 
has  a  correct  musical  ear.  Full,  can  learn  tunes  by  ear  well, 
yet  needs  help  from  notes.  Average,  likes  music ;  with  prac- 
tice, may  perform  tolerably  well.  Moderate,  aided  by  notes 
and  practice,  may  sing,  yet  it  will  be  mechanically ;  lacks  that 
soul  and  feeling  which  reaches  the  heart.  Small,  learns  to 
sing  or  play  tunes  either  by  note  or  rote  with  great  difficulty ; 
sings  mechanically,  and  without  emotion  or  effect.  Very  small, 
Can  hardly  discern  one  tune  or  note  from  another. 

35.    Language. 

Power  of  expressing  ideas,  feelings,  etc.,  by  means  of  words; 
ability  to  talk.  Very  large,  has,  by  nature,  astonishing  com- 
mand of  words,  copiousness  and  eloquence  of  expression,  and 
verbal  memory ;  quotes  with  ease ;  is  an  incessant  talker ;  has 
too  many  words.  Large,  is  a  free,  easy,  ready,  fluent  talker  and 
speaker;  uses  good  language;  commits  easily;  seldom  hesi- 
tates for  words.      Full,  commands  a  fair  share  of  words,  yet 


uses  familiar  expressions  •  is  neither  fluent  northe  reverse ;  when 
excited,  expresses  himself  freely,  yet  not  copiously.  Average, 
can  communicate  his  ideas  tolerably  well,  yet  finds  some  diffi- 
culty ;  uses  common  words ;  can  write  better  than  speak.  Mod- 
erate, often  hesitates  for  words ;  employs  too  few ;  may  write 
well,  and  be  a  critical  linguist,  but  cannot  be  an  easy,  fluent 
speaker.  Small,  employs  few  words,  and  those  commonplace ; 
in  speaking,  hesitates  much ;  is  barren  in  expression ;  commits 
slowly.      Very  small,  can  hardly  remember  or  use  words. 

36.    Causality. 

Cognizance  of  the  relations  of  cause  and  effect ;  ability  to 
apply  them,  or  to  adapt  means  to  ends ;  power  of  reasoning, 
etc.  Very  large,  is  endowed  with  a  deep,  strong,  original, 
comprehensive  mind,  powerful  reasoning  faculties,  great  vigor 
and  energy  of  thought,  first-rate  judgment,  and  a  gigantic  intel- 
lect. Large,  plans  well;  can  think  clearly  and  closely;  is 
always  enquiring  into  the  why  and  the  wherefore,  the  causes  and 
explanation  of  things;  always  gives  and  requires  the  reason;  has 
by  nature  excellent  judgment,  good  ideas,  a  strong  mind,  etc. 
Full,  adapts  means  to  ends  well;  has  an  active  desire  to  ascer- 
tain causes,  yet  not  a  deep,  original,  cause-discovering  and  ap- 
plying mind.  Average,  has  some,  but  not  great,  ability  to  plan 
and  reason.  Moderate,  is  rather  slow  of  comprehension ;  defi- 
cient in  adapting  means  to  ends;  has  not  good  ideas  or  judg- 
ment. Small,  has  a  weak,  imbecile  mind;  cannot  contrive  or 
think.  Very  small,  little  idea  of  causation ;  is  a  natural  fool. 
37.  Comparison. 

Perception  of  analogies,  resemblances,  differences ;  ability  to 
compare,  illustrate,  criticise,  classify,  generalize,  etc.  Very 
large,  is  endowed  with  an  extraordinary  amount  of  critical 
acumen,  analytical,  comparing  and  illustrating  power.  Large, 
has  a  happy  talent  for  comparing,  illustrating,  criticising,  argu- 
ing from  similar  cases,  discriminating  between  what  is  and  is 
not  analogous  or  in  point,  classifying  phenomena,  and  thereby 
ascertaining  their  laws,  etc.  Full,  illustrates,  discriminates,  etc., 
well,  but  not  remarkably  so.  Average,  perceives  striking  anal- 
ogies ;  illustrates  tolerably  well.  Moderate,  may  discern 
obvious  similarities,  yet  overlooks  others.  Small  or  very 
small,  is  almost  destitute  of  this  power. 

C.  Human  Nature. 

Discernment  of  character  and  perception  of  motive.  Large 
or  very  large,  perceives,  as  if  by  intuition,  the  character  and 
motives  of  men  from  their  physiognomy,  conversation,  etc. ;  is 
suspicious,  and  seldom  deceived ;  naturally  understands  human 
nature.  Moderate  or  small,  seldom  suspects  others ;  is  easily 
imposed  upon,  learns  human  nature  slowly ;  does  not  know  well 
how  to  take  men. 

D.  Suavity. 

Ability  to  render  oneself  agreeable ;  pleasantness.  Large 
or  very  large,  readily  wins  confidence  and  affection,  even  of 
enemies ;  can  say  and  do  hard  things  without  creating  difficulty ; 
obtain  favors ;  get  along  well ;  so  say  and  do  things  that  they 
take.  Average  or  full,  neither  excels  nor  is  deficient  in  this 
respect.  Moderate  or  small,  is  deficient  in  the  power  de- 
scribed ;  says  pleasant  things  unpleasantly,  and  does  not  succeed 
in  winning  people's  good  graces. 


/ 


=SH 


544 


DICTIONARY    OK    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


r:R  niCTiDNnRYa 


«-.***: 


©ocr  ©ne  4)wti)«i>  ®!jausan&  SSmpariant  Kefmntee,  arrange*)  in  Alcljakikal  ©rbcr,  anb 
311ustrateb  roiiij  ©riginal  Diagrams  an  tljc  Hero  plan  of  ©bject-®«acljing. 


RUE  statistics  are  the  record  of  in- 
dustrial history.  He  who  cannot 
read  what  is  written  between  their 
lines,  or  interwoven  in  their  col- 
umns, may  rest  content  with  the 
narrative  of  wars  and  dynasties,  or  of  political 
changes,  and  may  imagine  that  he  knows  the 
true  history  of  events.  But  can  he  tell  how  the 
people  lived  and  moved — how  wars  and  dynas- 
ties have  been  sustained  ?  If  he  cannot,  let  him 
study  what  figures  can  teach  to  any  one  who 
knows  how  to  master  them — the  industrial  his- 
tory of  free  nations.  The  battle  is  not  to  the 
heaviest  battalions,  but  to  the  people  who  can 
sustain  the  battalions  longest.  It  is  the  com- 
missary-general who  wins,  for  without  him  the 
master  of  the  ordnance  would  be  powerless. 
In  the  battle  of  life  it  is  the  same,  if  there  were 
no  prophecy  of  the  future  in  the  statistics  of  the 
past  and  present  there  would  be  no  meaning  to 
the  computations,  and  the  disclosures  of  the 
census  would  be  without  value. 

It  is  not  the  province  of  the  HOME  LI- 
BRARY to  advance  new  theories  in  political 
economy,  or  to  discuss  theories  already  put 
forth,  but  it  has  been  the  endeavor  of  the  editor 


to  present  in  small  compass,  in  compact,  acces- 
sible and  attractive  form,  a  vast  amount  of  valu- 
able information,  gathered  from  the  most  reli- 
able sources.  The  wealth  and  resources  of 
States  and  Nations,  population,  religion,  com- 
merce, labor  and  capital,  and  all  important  sub- 
jects of  discussion,  are  treated  fully  in  their 
proper  place,  while  subjects  of  minor  import- 
ance, though  often  of  equal  interest,  have  not 
been  neglected.  In  short,  the  object  of  the  fol- 
lowing Dictionary  of  Facts  and  Figures  is  to 
afford  ready  reference  on  subjects  of  statistical 
interest. 

ACQUISITION  OF  TERRITORY.— The  increase  in  area  of 
the  United  States,  by  war  and  treaty,  is  shown  in  the  annexed 
table : 


Whin. 

How. 

Whence. 

What.       . 

Sq.  Miles. 

By  treaty... 
By  treaty. . . 
By  union. . . 
By  treaty.. . 

By  treaty . . . 
By  treaty... 

England.... 
England   . . . 

J  The  thirteen  origi-  \ 
\     nal  States  * ....  f 

Ii   0tt 

318,000 
308,051 

5"  .955 
45.S35 

■8,5   

■  846  X 

•MJ 

'853 

f Califom.a  &  New) 

1      Mexico* .J 

Gadsden  Purchase/7. 

M%/W 

a  K ■.[mulct!  cost  of  War  of  Independence,  $168,000,000, 
b  Purchased  for  115,000,000.     c  Cost  $3,000,000. 
d  Debt  of  Texas  on  admission  into  the  Union,  $7,500,000. 
e  Rstimated  co*t  of  the  Mexican  Wax,  415,000,000. 
/Cost  $10,000,000.    /  Cost  $7,000,000. 


^ 


K" 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


V 


545 


AGE. — A  man's  working  life  is  divided  into  four  decades  : 
20  to  30,  bronze  ;  30  to  40,  silver ;  40  to  50,  gold ;  50 to  60,  iron. 
Intellect  and  judgment  are  strongest  between  40  and  50.  (  The 
percentages  of  population  to  age  in  various  countries  are  shown 
thus: 


Country. 


United  States  . 

England 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Fr.ince  

Germany 

Italy 

Austria 

Greece   

Spain 

Brazil 

Belgium 

Holland 

Denmark 

Sweden 

Norway 


Percentage  of  Population. 

Under 

From 

20  Years. 

20  to  60 

5° 

45 

5 

46 

47 

7 

46 

45 

9 

46 

43 

n 

36 

52 

12 

43 

49 

8 

44 

49 

7       ' 

43 

50 

7 

48 

47 

5 

42 

52 

6 

46 

45 

9 

4° 

50 

10 

43 

49 

8 

42 

5° 

8 

43 

49 

8 

43 

48 

9 

Average  age 

of  all  living 

Years. 


24.9 
27.1 
=7-4 
28.6 
32.2 
28.0 
27.6 
27.7 
25-5 
27.3 
27.3 
29.7 
28.3 
28.4 
28.0 
28.0 


The  Americans  are  the  youngest,  the  French  the  oldest. 

AIR. — In  its  pure  state  air  is  composed  thus:  Nitrogen,  77  ; 
oxygen,  21 ;  other  components,  2;  total,  100. 

The  percentage  of  oxygen  varies  as  follows  :  Sea-shore,  21.00 ; 
confined  houses,  20.75;  mines,  20.50;  when  candles  go  out, 
18.50. 

The  percentage  of carbonic  acid  ranges  thus :  In  country.  .03 ; 
in  town,  .04 ;  in  hospitals,  .05  ;  in  fogs,  .07  ;  in  crowded  lanes, 
13;  in  theaters,  30. 

Each  adult  inhales  a  gallon  of  air  per  minute,  and  consumes 
daily  30  oz.  of  oxygen.  For  the  conversion  of  this  oxygen  a 
certain  amount  of  food  is  required — say  13  oz.  of  carbon  for  a 
male,  and  1  r  oz.  for  a  female,  equivalent  to  3  lbs.  bread  and  2]/z 
lbs.  respectively. 

ALCOHOL. — The  degrees  in  wines  and  liquors  are :  Beer, 
4.0;  porter,  4.5;  ale,  7.4;  cider,  8.6;  perry,  S. 8;  elder,  9.3; 
Moselle,  9.6;  Tokay,  10.2;  Rhine,  11.0;  Orange,  II. 2;  Bor- 
deaux, II. 5;  hock,  11. 6;  gooseberry,  11. 8;  champagne,  12.2; 
claret,  13.3;  Burgundy,  13.6;  Malaga,  17.3;  Lisbon,  18.5; 
Canary,  18.8;  sherry,  19.0;  Vermouth,  19.0 ;  Cape,  19.2; 
Malmsey,  19.7;  Marsala,  20.2;  Madeira,  21.0;  port,  23.2; 
curacoa,  27.0;  aniseed,  33.0;  Maraschino,  34.0 ;  Chartreuse, 
43.0;  gin,  51.6;  brandy,  53.4;  rum,  53.7;  Irish  whisky,  53.9 ; 
Scotch,  54.3. 

Spirits  are  said  to  be  "  proof"  when  they  contain  57  per  cent. 
The  maximum  amount  of  alcohol,  says  Parkes,  that  a  man  can 
take  daily  without  injury  to  his  health  is  that  contained  in  2  oz. 
brandy,  "^  pt.  of  sherry,  ]/2  pt.  of  claret,  or  I  pt.  of  beer. 

ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS.— A  table  of  the  comparative  con- 
sumption of  alcoholic  liquors  was  compiled  by  the  London 
Times  recently,  with  some  interesting  results.  The  av- 
erage yearly  consumption  per  head  is  given  in  liters  (a 
liter  is  a  little  less  than  a  quart)  : 

Spirits.  Wine.  Beer. 

Liters.  Liters.  Liters. 

Canada 3.08  0.29  8.51 

Norway 3.90  1.00  15.30 

United  States 4.79  2.64  31.30 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 5.37  2.09  143.92 


Austria-Hungary 5.76  22.40 

France 7.28  119.20 

Russia 8.08  Unknown. 

Sweden  8.14  0.36 

German  Zollverein 8.60  6.00 

Belgium 9.20  3.70 

Switzerland 15.30  55.00 

Netherlands. 9.87  2.57 

Denmark 18.90  1.00 


28.42 
21.10 
4.65 
11.00 
65.00 
169.20 
37-5o 
27.00 
33-33 


Belgium,  it  seems,  contains  the  greatest  number  of  beer- 
drinkers,  with  Great  Britain  second  in  this  list,  and  Germany, 
contrary  to  common  opinion,  only  third.  France  drinks  the 
most  wine,  and  Switzerland  comes  next,  while  the  amount  ac- 
credited to  the  United  States,  though  comparatively  small,  yet 
exceeds  that  of  Great  Britain.  Canada  is  the  most  moderate 
drinker  of  all. 

ANIMALS. 


Weight  Years 

(lbs).  of  Life. 

Rabbit 2  5 

Dog 10  12 

Sheep 70  12 

Pig 160  10 

Lion 500  40 


Weight 
(lbs}. 

Cow 750 

Ox 900 

Horse 1 ,000 

Camel 1,200 

Elephant 6,000 


Years 
of  Life. 
25 
25 
27 
40 
100 


AQUEDUCTS. — Among  modern  works  the  most  famous  are : 


Length. 

Miles. 

Croton  (New  York) 41 

Madrid 47 

Marseilles 51 

Glasgow 34 

Washington 16 


Million  gal's 

daily.  Cost. 

88  $  9,000,000 

40  11,500,000 

60  2,250,000 

50  7,775,ooo 

90  


Rome,  in  the  time  of  the  Caesars,  had  nine  aqueducts,  measur- 
ing 249  miles  in  the  aggregate,  and  with  a  daily  capacity  of 
320,000,000  gallons,  or  200  gallons  per  inhabitant.  The  great 
aqueduct  of  Peru,  built  by  the  Incas,  was  360  miles  long. 

ARMY. — Proportions. — According  to  Napoleon  the  propor- 
tions of  an  army  should  be  70  per  cent  infantry,  17  per  cent 
cavalry,  and  13  per  cent  between  artillery,  engineers  and  train. 

Death  rate. — In  active  service  the  death  rate  among  officers 
is  heavier  than  among  the  rank  and  file.  The  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington's army  roll  from   1811  to   1814  showed  the  following 

percentage  : 

Officers.  Men. 

Killed   14.5  10.2 

Wounded 81.0  49.0 

Died  of  Disease 13.0  38.0 

Able-bodied. — The  percentage  of  men  capable  of  bearing 
arms  in  various  countries  is  as  follows  :  England,  23 ;  Scotland, 
22;  Ireland,  22;  France,  27;  Airatria,  25;  Germany,  24; 
Italy,  25  ;  Belgium,  25 ;  Holland,  25 ;  Spain,  26 ;  Denmark, 
25;  Sweden,  25;  Norway,  24;  United  States,  23 ;  Greece,  23. 

See  diagram  Military  and  Naval  Strength,  page  335. 

ARTILLERY.— At  the  close  of  tbe  Franco-German  war  the 
Germans  took  from  the  French  7,234  pieces  of  cannon,  includ- 
ing 3,485  field  pieces  and  3,300  fortress  guns.  At  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  the  British  artillery  fired  9,467  rounds,  or  one  for 
every  Frenchman  killed.     See  Ordnance. 

AUTHORS. — Goldsmith  received  $300  for  the  "  Vicar  of 
Wakefield;"  Moore,  $15,500  for  "  Lalla  Rookh  ;  "  Victor 
Hugo,  $12,000  for  "Hernani;"  Chateaubriand,  $110,000  for 
his  works;  Lamartine,  $16,000  for  "Travels  in  Palestine;" 
Disraeli,  $50,000  for  "  Endymion ;  "  Anthony  Trollope,  $315,- 
000  for  forty-five  novels;  Lingard,  $21,500  for  his  "  History  of 
England." 


36 


■T 


Receipts  and  Expenditures  United  States  Government. 

For  the  fiscal  year  1891. 


K 


PUBLIC  DEBTS  OF  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES.  1391. 

UNIT  OF  SCALE  $  2.475.000. 


"ggr 


T 


FRANCE 

4,440,793,393 


1 


RUSSIA 
3,491,018,074 


GUEST  BRITAIN 
3,350,719,563 


AUSTRIA   HUN. 

2,866,339,539 


ITALY 

2,324,826,329 


Bolivia 
14,7ti3,e»7 


Ecuador 
13,738,480 


Switzerland 
10,S12,tf26 


Hawaii 

2302,235 


Nicaragua 
1,711,206 


STATE  DEBTS,  UNITED  STATES. 

UNIT  OF  SCALE  $51,675. 


Oregon $ 

Vermont 

West  Virginia.  . 

Idaho  

Iowa 

Nebraska 

Washington  .... 

Wyoming 

Rhode  Island. .  . 

Nevada 

Colorado 

North  Dakota  .  . 


2.337 
148,416 
184,511 
240,128 
245.435 
253.879 
300,000 
320,000 
422,984 
509.526 
599,851 
689,807 


Arizona 

South  Dakota. 
New  Mexico.  . 
Delaware 


757,158 
860,200 
870,961 

887,583 

New  Jersey 1,022,642 

Florida 1,032,500 

Kansas 1,119,791 

Illinois 1,184,907 

Kentucky 1,671,133 

Wisconsin 2,295,390 

Minnesota   2,239,482 


New  York $  2,308,229 

California 2,527,624 

New  Hampshire  2,691,019 

Maine 3,470,908 

Mississippi 3,503,008 

Connecticut  ....  3,740,200 

Pennsylvania  . .  .  4,090,792 

Texas 4,3i7,5i4 

Michigan 5,308,294 

South  Carolina.  6,566,849 

Ohio 7,135,805 


Massachusetts  . . 
North  Carolina. 
Maryland  . . .  .  ^ 

Indiana 

Arkansas 

Georgia 

Missouri 

Alabama 

Louisiana 

Tennessee 

D.  of  Columbia. 
Virginia 


I  7,267,349 

7,703,100 

8,434,368 

8,540,615 

8,671,782 

10,449,542 

11,759,832 

12,413,196 

16,008,585 

I7-49-.474 
19,781,050 
31,067,137 


MNE&1CT4  CO-.EKfiK  3  CHICAGO 


iM 


^ 


K 


548 


DICTIONARY   OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


1fl 


BALLOONS. — The  most  remarkable  ascents  on  record : 


Date. 

Aeronaut. 

Place  of  Ascent. 

Height. 
Yards. 

Distance. 

Miles. 

'783 

1836 

1859 

1863 

Holland 

2, GOO 
7.700 

12,000 

Paris 

500 
1,150 

Wise 

Wolverhampton 

During  the  siege  of  Paris — September,  1870,  to  February, 
1871 — there  were  64  balloons  sent  up,  containing  91  passengers, 
354  P'geons>  and  3,000,000  letters  (weighing  9  tons). 

Mr.  Glaisher  states  that  in  3,500  balloon  ascents  only  15 
deaths  have  occurred,  that  is,  about  four  per  thousand. 

BANKING. — The  capital  employed  in  banking  In  the  prin- 
cipal countries  is  as  follows  :  Great  Britain,  $4,020,000,000 ; 
United  States,  $2,655,000,000;  Germany,  $1,425,000,000; 
France,  $1,025,000,000;  Austria,  $830,000,000 ;  Russia,  $775,- 
000,000;  Italy,  $455,000,000;  Australia,  $425,000,000;  Can- 
ada, $175,000,000. 

On  Sept.  1,  1891,  there  were  3,577  national  hauls  in  the 
U.  S.,  with  a  capital  of  $660,108,261,  and  a  surplus  of 
$222,766,668.  The  dividends  for  one  year  aggregated  $50,- 
795,011  and  total  net  earnings  for  same  time,  $75,763,614. 

Since  1840  the  banking  of  the  world  has  increased  about 
eleven-fold,  that  is,  three  times  as  fast  as  commerce,  or  thirty 
times  faster  than  population. 

BAROMETER. — The  mean  height  of  barometer  varies  ac- 
cording to  latitude  as  follows : 


Dogm  of 

Latitude. 


Degree  of 
Latitude. 


Barometer. 

1°  =9-98 

ao  30.06  50 

30  30.11  60 

40  30.03  67 

It  varies  according  to  elevation  as  follows 
Feet  Mean 

.above  Sea.  Barometer, 
Sea  level ....  o  30.00 

Rome 151  39.76 

20-45 


Barometer. 

30-00 
39.81 
29.80 
39.67 


Feet  Mean 

above  Sea.  Barometer. 
Madrid....      1,995  27.73 

151  29.76  St.  Remy..      5,365  34.45 

Milan 430  39.45  St.  Gothard      6,808  33.07 

Moscow  ....        984  38.83  Mexico ....      7,471  22.52 

Geneva »,33i  28.54  Bogota....      8,731  31.43 

Munich i.765  ^7-95  Quito 9»54*  20.75 

Mr.  Glaisher's  barometer  in  his  various  balloon  ascents 
marked  as  follows  :  At  a  height  of  1  mile,  24.7  in. ;  2  miles, 
20.3  in. ;  3  miles,  16.7  in. ;  4  miles,  13.7  ;  5  miles,  1 1.3. 

BARRENNESS. — One  woman  in  20,  one  man  in  30 — about 
4  per  cent.  It  is  found  that  one  marriage  in  20  is  barren — 5 
per  cent.  Among  the  nobility  of  Great  Britain,  21  per  cent 
have  no  children,  owing  partly  to  intermarriage  of  cousins,  no 
less  than  4  j£  per  cent  being  married  to  cousins. 

BATTLES. — The  numbers  placed  hors-de-combat  are  not  rel- 
atively so  large  as  formerly,  as  the  table  below  will  show  : 

Men  Engaged.        Hors-de-combat.  Ratio. 


Thrasymene 

Cannae 

rckburn 
Agincourt... 

Crccy 

Marengo. . . . 
Austcrfitt 
Borodino  . .. 
Waterloo  ... 

Alma 

Sadowa 

Gravelotte . . 
Gettysburg  . , 


65,000 
146,000 
135 .000 

H/100 

117,000 
58,000 
170,000 
35:1,000 
145,000 
103,000 

403, of  a 
330,000 
140,000 


17,000 

»7 

52,000 

34 

38,000 

a 

11,400 

■8 

31,200 

»7 

13,000 

aa 

7  090 

»3 

3' 

51,000 

3l 

8,400 

33>ooo 

t 

15 

8,000 

5 

»7  per  cent. 


See  also  diagram,  page  335. 


BAYS. — Length  in  miles  (approximate) :  Hudson's,  about 
1,200;  Baffin's,  about  600 ;  Chesapeake,  about  250. 

BEER. — See  Alcoholic  Liquors.  See  also  diagram,  Beer 
Production. 

BEES  —  The  largest  bee-owner  in  the  world  is  said  to  be 
Mr.  Harbison,  of  California,  who  had  6,000  hives,  producing 
200,000  lbs.  honey  yearly,  worth  $40,000.  There  are  in  the 
United  States  70,000  bee-growers,  but  the  average  which  they 
get  from  their  hives  is  only  22  lbs.,  whereas  the  average  in 
England  is  50  lbs.,  and  some  hives  have  given  as  high  as  120 
lbs.  A  hive  consists  of  about  5,000  bees,  and  will  multiply 
ten-fold  in  five  years.  Bees  cat  20  lbs.  of  honey  in  making  a 
pound  of  wax. 

BELLS. — The  largest  bells  are  the  following,  and  their 
weight  is  given  in  tons:  Moscow,  202;  Burmah,  1 17;  Pekin, 
53;  Novgorod,  31  ;  Notre  Dame,  18;  Rouen,  18;  Olmutz, 
18;  Vienna,  18;  St.  Paul's,  16;  Westminster,  14;  Montreal, 
12;  Cologne,  II;  Oxford,  8;  St.  Peter's,  8. 

Bell-metal  should  have  77  parts  copper,  and  23  tin. 

BIBLE. — No  fewer  than  1,326  editions  of  the  Bible  were 
published  in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  it  was  translated  and  published  in  many 
languages  by  the  polyglot  press  of  Propaganda  Fide  at  Rome. 
In  the  nineteenih  century  the  English  and  American  societies 
have  printed,  in  the  Protestant  verMon,  124,000,000  copies  of 
the  Bible  or  of  the  New  Testament,  viz.  :  British,  74,000,000; 
American,  32,000,000;  other  societies,  15,000,000  copies. 

The  King  James  version  of  the  Bible  contains  3,566,480 
letters,  773,746  words,  31,173  verses,  1,189  chapters,  and  66 
books.  The  word  and  occurs  46,277  times.  The  word  Lord 
occurs  1,855  times.  The  word  Reverend  occurs  but  once, 
which  is  in  the  9th  verse  of  the  mth  Psalm.  The  middle 
verse  is  the  8th  verse  of  the  118th  Psalm.  The  21st  verse  of 
the  7th  chapter  of  Ezra  contains  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 
except  the  letter  J.  The  19th  chapter  of  II  Kings  and  the  37th 
chapter  of  Isaiah  are  alike.  The  longest  verse  is  the  9th  verse 
of  the  8th  chapter  of  Esther.  The  shortest  verse  is  the  35th 
verse  of  the  nth  chapter  of  St.  John.  There  are  no  words  or  ' 
names  of  more  than  six  syllables. 

BICYCLE.— The  bicycle  stands  fifth  as  regards  the  time 

taken  to  cover  a  mile.     The  following  table  gives  the  various 

ways  of  going  a  mile,  and  the  least  time  required  : 

Min.  Sec. 

locomotive 39  4-5 

Running  horse l  35  l-a 

Trotting  horae a  081-4 

Bicycle a  15 

Skating 3  la 

Tricycle 1 a  31  a-3 

BIROS. — A  hawk  tlies  150  miles  per  hour;  an  eider  duck, 
90  miles  ;  a  pigeon,  40  miles.     See  Carrier- Pigeons. 

BLIND.— The  numlx-r  of  blind  in  the  United  States  in  1880 
was  48,930,  or  at  the  rale  of  97  per  100,000  population.  The 
ratio  of  sexes  was  55  male  to  45  female. 

BLOOD.— The  human  heart  beats  74  times  a  minute,  sending 
each  time  10  lbs.  of  blood  through  the  veins  and  arteries.  The 
system  of  an  adult  averages  28  lbs.  of  blood.  The  elements  of 
human  blood  are  as  follows : 


Min.   Sec. 

Running  man 4     123-4 

Rowing 5    01 

Snow-shoes 5    39  3-4 

Walking *    a3 

Swimming "    4a  1-4 


k= 


DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS   AND   FIGURES. 


549 


Man.  Woman. 

Water 77-8  7?-« 

Albumen   °-2  6-4 

Color "4  '  "-| 

Saline,  etc "-9  *■* 


The  amount  of  iron  in  human  blood  and  that  of  some  animals 
is  as  follows  :  Man,  0.91  oz.  per  cwt. ;  ox,  I  oz.  j  pig,  1.06  oz. ; 
frog,  0.75  oz. 

BOOKS.— The  terms  folio,  quarto,  octavo,  etc.,  indicate  the 
number  of  leaves  into  which  a  sheet  of  paper  is  folded  in  mak- 
ing a  book,  and  the  number  of  pages  in  each  sheet  is  termed  a 
signature;  and  for  convenience  in  use  the  signatures  in  books 
are  numbered  by  figures  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  first  page  of 
the  signature.  A  folio  book  or  paper  is  made  of  sheets  folded 
in  2  leaves ;  a  quarto  (or  4to)  of  sheets  folded  into  4  leaves ;  an 
octavo,  8  leaves;  duodecimo  (l2mo),  12  leaves;  i8mo,  in  18 
leaves;  a  24mo,  in  24  leaves;  a.j2mo,  in  32  leaves,  etc. 

About  100  new  works  are  published  daily,  or  30,000  per 
annum,  without  taking  into  account  new  editions  of  old  books. 
The  annual  average  of  new  books  from  1878  to  1880  was  as 
follows:  Great  Britain,  5,771;  France,  7,000;  Germany,  14,- 
560 ;  United  States,  nearly  3,000.  The  number  for  the  United 
States  in  1883  had  risen  to  3,481,  and  in  1890  over  4,500 
new  works  were  issued. 

In  the  year  690  the  Duke  of  Northumberland  gave  800  acres 
of  land  for  one  volume  of  history.  Later  on  a  pious  farmer  sold 
two  loads  of  hay  on  Cornhill  for  a  copy  of  the  Epistle  of  Jude, 
an  epistle  containing  only  twenty-five  verses.  A  devout  countess 
of  this  same  age  gave  200  sheep  and  a  large  parcel  of  rich  furs 
for  a  volume  of  sermons.  In  the  year  1420,  when  London 
Bridge  was  building,  a  Latin  Bible  cost  $120,  which  was  more 
than  it  cost  to  build  two  arches  of  London  Bridge.  A  laboring 
man  only  earned  three  cents  a  day  in  that  time,  and  it  would 
have  taken  the  earnings  of  fifteen  years  for  him  to  have  bought  a 
Bible.  This  will  explain,  in  part,  how  it  was  that  Bibles  were 
chained  up  in  churches. 

A  good,  steady  reader  will  not  be  able  to  read  more  than 
thirty  pages  of  an  average  i2mo  book  in  an  hour.  Now  let  us 
suppose  the  case  of  such  a  reader ;  let  him  read  eight  hours  a 
day,  six  days  a  week,  all  the  year  round.  He  will  read  240 
pages  a  day,  1 ,440  pages  a  week,  making  an  average  of  three 
good-sized  volumes  of  480  pages  a  week,  or  150  volumes  per 
annum.  But  there  are  over  30,000  volumes  published  per 
annum,  so  that  the  publishers  get  ahead  of  this  reader  at  the 
rate  of  over  30,000  books  every  year.  In  the  course  of  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  this  diligent  reader,  if  he  never  fails  a  day,  is  never 
sick,  never  takes  a  vacation,  will  have  read  only  3,750  volumes. 
Of  course  this  illustration  is  exaggerated.  No  man  could  read 
at  this  rate  without  becoming  raving  mad  before  the  end  of  the 
first  year.  These  figures  serve  to  show  that  a  wise  man  must  be 
content  to  leave  a  great  deal  unread.  When  we  hear  men  de- 
scribed as  bookworms,  and  others  boasting  of  being  well  read, 
we  may  well  smile  as  we  think  how  little  the  worm  has  been 
able  to  accomplish,  and  how  much  the  well-read  man  has  left 
unread.  The  difficulty  which  this  great  wealth  of  literature  pre- 
sents can  only  be  wisely  met  in  one  way.     We  must  be  content 


to  read  only  a  little,  but  if  our  reading  is  not  to  degenerate  into 
the  merest  idleness,  we  must  be  careful  that  the  little  we  read  is 
worth  the  time  we  give  it.  A  man  who  will  read  and  master  a 
dozen  good  books  a  year,  will,  in  a  few  years,  be  a  well 
informed,  educated  man  ;  but  the  man  who  rushes  through  a 
great  number  of  books  for  mere  pastime  will  add  about  as  much 
to  his  mental  wealth  as  if  he  had  been  pouring  water  through  a 
sieve. 

BRAIN. — The  latest  classification  of  races,  according  to 
Bastian  and  other  experts,  shows  weight  of  brain,  in  ounces,  as 
follows:  Scotch,  50.0;  Germans, 49.6 ;  English, 49.5  ;  French, 
47.9;  Zulus,  47.5;  Chinese,  47.2;  Pawnees,  47.1;  Italians, 
46.9;  Hindoo,  45.1;  Gypsy,  44.8;  Bushmen,  44.6;  Esqui- 
maux, 43.9.  Compared  with  size  of  body,  the  brain  of  the 
Esquimaux  is  as  heavy  as  the  Scotchman's 

The  measurement  of  that  part  of  the  skull  which  holds  the 
brain  is  stated  in  cubic  inches  thus  :  Anglo-Saxon,  105 ;  Ger- 
man, 105  ;  Negro,  96 ;  Ancient  Egyptian,  93 ;  Hottentot,  58  ; 
Australian  native,  58. 

In  all  races  the  male  brain  is  about  10  per  cent  heavier  than 
the  female.     The  highest  class  of  apes  has  only  16  oz.  of  brain. 

A  man's  brain,  it  is  estimated,  consists  of  300,000,000  nerve 
cells,  of  which  over  3,000  are  disintegrated  and  destroyed  every 
minute.  Every  one,  therefore,  has  a  new  brain  once  in  sixty 
days.  But  excessive  labor,  or  the  lack  of  sleep,  prevents  the  re- 
pair of  the  tissues,  and  the  brain  gradually  wastes  away.  Diver- 
sity of  occupation,  by  calling  upon  different  portions  of  the  mind 
or  body,  successively  affords,  in  some  measure,  the  requisite  re- 
pose to  each.  But  in  this  age  of  overwork  there  is  no  safety  ex- 
cept in  that  perfect  rest  which  is  the  only  natural  restorative  of 
exhausted  power.  It  has  been  noticed  by  observant  physicians 
in  their  European  travels  that  the  German  people,  who,  as  a 
rule,  have  no  ambition  and  no  hope  to  rise  above  their  inherited 
station,  are  peculiarly  free  from  nervous  diseases ;  but  in  Amer- 
ica, where  the  struggle  for  advancement  is  sharp  and  incessant, 
and  there  is  nothing  that  will  stop  an  American  but  death,  the 
period  of  life  is  usually  shortened  five,  ten,  or  twenty  years  by 
the  effects  of  nervous  exhaustion. 

After  the  age  of  50  the  brain  loses  an  ounce  every  ten  years. 
Cuvier's  weighed  64,  Byron's  79,  and  Cromwell's  90  ounces, 
but  the  last  was  diseased.  Post-mortem  examinations  in  France 
give  an  average  of  55  to  60  ounces  for  the  brains  of  the  worst 
class  of  criminals. 

BRIDGES. — The  great  bridges  of  the  world  are  as  follows: 


Total 

Longest 

Location. 

Material. 

Character. 

Length. 
(Feet.) 

Span. 
(Feet.) 

Brooklyn,  N.Y 

Steel .... 

5,989 

•.595 

Poughkeepsie,  N.Y... 

Iron  .... 
Iron 

4,595 

250 

Iron 

2,220 

",057 

Steel 

Segmental  arch  . 

530 

Iron  .... 

1,245 

800 

Leavenworth,  Kas.... 

Iron  .... 

1,000 

34° 

New  Niagara,  N.  Y. . . 

Iron  .... 

1,229 

Britannia,  Menai  Strait. 

Iron  .... 

1.378 

459 

Victoria,  Montreal,  Can 

Iron  .... 

6,538 

889 

Fribourg,  Switzerland. 

Iron  .... 

Waterloo,  London,  Eng 

Stone  . . . 

Elliptical  arch  . . 

120 

K" 


UNITED  STATES  COMMERCE  WITH  LATIN  AMERICA. 

Value  of  One  Tears  Trade  In  Dollars. 


Exports. 


Porto  Rico,  Hayti, 
San  Domingo 


Paraguay) 
$2,005,G10 


Imports. 


21,0S3,OOO 


Guatamala,  Salvador. 
Honduras,  Nicaragua,  | 
Costa  Rica 


Bolivia,  Colombia,  Guiana 

Venezuela, 

Ecuador  and  Peru  $G3,SSO,000 


The  red  eok>r  shows 
the  trade  with  the 
United  State*  In  Ml 


35,495,000 


-^ 


_•. 


^=? 


— >~$THE    CENTRE    OF    POPULAT10N.*"<>— 

The  centre  of  population  is  defined  as  "the  point  at  which  equilibrium  would  be  reached  were  the  country  taken  as  a  plane 
surface  itself,  without  weight,  but  capable  of  .sustaining  weight,  and  loaded  with  its  inhabitants  in  number  and  position  as  they  are 
found  at  the  period  under  consideration,  each  individual  being  assumed  to  be  of  the  same  gravity  as  every  other,  and  consequently  to 
exert  pressure  on  the  pivotal  point  directly  proportioned  to  his  distance  therefrom."  In  brief,  it  is  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  country.    It  is  located  twenty  miles  east  of  Columbus,  Indiana. 

The  change  of  centre  of  population  each 
ten  years  in  the  United  States  is  shown  in  the 
following  table.  The  very  rapid  settlement  of 
the  Northwest  of  late  would  indicate  that  the 
line  will  move  considerably  northward  in  the 
next  ten  years. 


Centre  of  Population. 


Move  westward, 
Miles. 


miles  e.  of  Baltimore 

miles  w.  of  Baltimore 41J 

miles  n.-w.  by  w.  of  Washington....  3! 

miles  n.  of  Woodstock,  Va 50 

miles  s.-w.  of  Moorefield.W.Va....  39 

miles  s.  of  Clarksburg,  W.  Va 55 

miles  s.  of  Parkersburg,  W.  Va....  65 

miles  s.  of  Chillicothe,  O 81 

miles  e.-by-n.  of  Cincinnati,  0 42 

miles  w.-by-s.  of  Cincinnati,  0 58 

miles  e.  of  Columbus,  Ind 48 


■F 


552 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


"f 


The  Brooklyn  Bridge  cost  $  1 5,000,000,  having  taken  13  years 
in  construction,  during  which  20  lives  were  lost.  Width  85 
feet,  height  above  water  135  feet.  Weight  34,000  tons.  There 
are  3,200  tons  wire,  section  580  square  inches,  strength  75  tons 
per  square  inch.  Each  of  the  four  cables  has  5,000  wires  of  }£ 
inch.  There  are  two  towers,  274  feet  high,  and  1,600  feet  apart. 
The  central  way  is  15  feet  wide,  for  pedestrians;  each  of  the 
railway  lines  has  16  feet  width,  and  each  of  the  ways  for  wagons, 
horses,  etc.,  19  feet ;  in  all  85  feet. 

The  Forth  Bridge,  completed  1890,  cost  $12,750,000. 
Main  girder,  5,330  feet ;  total  length,  2,700  yards. 

BUILDINGS. — Capacity  of  the  largest  public  buildings  in  the 
world:  Coliseum,  Rome,  87,000;  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  54,000; 
Theater  of  Pompey,  Rome,  40,000;  Cathedral,  Milan,  37,000; 
St.  Paul's,  Rome,  32,000;  St.  Paul's,  London,  31,000;  St. 
Petronia,  Bologna,  26,000;  Cathedral,  Florence,  24,300;  Cathe- 
dral, Antwerp,  24,000;  St.  John  Lateran,  Rome,  23,000;  St. 
Sophia's,  Constantinople,  23,000;  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  21,500; 
Theater  of  Marcellus,  Rome,  20,000;  Cathedral,  Pisa,  13,000; 
St.  Stephen's,  Vienna,  12,400;  St.  Dominic's,  Bologna,  12,000; 
St.  Peter's,  Bologna,  11,400;  Cathedral,  Vienna,  11,000; 
Madison  Sq.  Garden,  New  York,  10,000;  Mormon  Tem- 
ple, Salt  Lake  City,  8,000;  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  7,500; 
Spurgeon's  Tabernacle,  London,  6,000;  Bolshoi  Theater, 
St.  Petersburg,  5,000;  Tabernacle  (Talmage's),  6,000; 
Music  Hall,  Cincinnati.  4,824;  La  Scala,  Milan,  3,600. 

CALENDAR.— 1.  Jewish,  383  days;  the  Jewish  year  5645 
began  on  September  20,  1884. 

2.  Julius  Caesar's,  365  days,  B.C.  46,  commenced  in  March. 

3.  Mahometan,  355  days,  A.D.  622;.  the  Mahometan  year 
1301  began  February  19,  1884. 

4.  Charles  IX.,  A.D.  1564,  commenced  January  1. 

5.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  A.D.  1582;  now  used  except  in 
Russia. 

6.  The  Russian  year  begins  on  January  13  of  our  calendar. 
The  Gregorian  calendar  was  adopted  in  England  in  1752,  before 
which  date  the  year  began  on  March  25,  vth'u'h  would  now  be 
April  5. 

The  festival  of  Easter,  commemorating  the  resurrection  of 
Christ,  used  to  be  observed  on  the  14th  day  of  the  moon,  1.  e., 
near  the  full  moon — the  same  as  the  Jewish  Passover.  But  the 
Council  of  Nice,  A.D.  325,  ordered  Easter  lo  be  celebrated  on 
the  Sunday  next  succeeding  the  full  moon,  that  comes  on  or 
next  after  the  vernal  equinox — March  21,  thus  making  Factor 
and  the  related  feast  and  fast  days  movable  holidays. 

CAMELS. — A  camel  has  twice  the  carrying  power  of  an  ox; 
with  an  ordinary  load  of  400  lbs.  he  can  travel  12  or  14  days 
without  water,  going  40  miles  a  day.  Camels  are  fit  to  work  at 
5  years  old,  but  their  strength  begins  to  decline  at  25,  although 
they  live  usually  till  40. 

CANALS. — The  great  canals  of  the  United  States  and  other 
countries  are  given  below,  with  length  in  miles  and  cost  of  con- 
struction : 

Miles. 

Suez  Egypt 

Burgundy ...  France 

North  Sea Holland  


91 

158 

M 


Cost. 

$85,000,000 
11,000,000 
10,150,000 


Bengal India 900 

Chesapeake  &  Ohio Maryland 191 

Delaware  &  Hudson N.  Y.  &  Pa 08 

^Michigan Illinois 103 

Erie New  York 363 

Wetland Canada 41 

Caledonian Scotland 60 

Central  Division Pennsylvania   173 

James  R.  &  Kanawha Virginia 147 

Ohio  &  Eric Ohio 307 

Miami Ohio 178 

Morris  &  Essex New  Jersey 101 

Wabash  &  Erie Indiana 469 


11,''  *~<,*r¥i 
I  j.  ....  ,.j 
'/.  "  ,  IOB 
B,6aj,ooo 
9,000,000 
7.-"v-»-*J 

U  "■'-"' 

5,  OO/JOO 

4,'>jO,'-.>> 
3,700/100 

_-.  "-.  '" 
3,000,000 


Age.  Ox.  Exhaled. 

Girl 

Boy 

Woman  . . . 

....10                  12 

The  Nicaragua  Canal  Co.  was  organized  in  1889,  with 
a  capital  of  $100,000,000.  Excavations  were  begun  at 
Grevtown  October  8,  1891.  The  total  length  of  the  pro- 
posed waterway  is  169-j  miles,  of  which  28?,  mil< 
be  canal  in  excavation.  The  minimum  depth  is  30  feet. 
Lakes  Nicaragua  and  Managua  will  furnish  the  high- 
level  water  supply.  The  outlet  on  the  Pacific  Coast  will 
be  at  Brito.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  Panama  Canal  is 
$130,000,000.  The  length  will  be  46  miles,  including  a 
tunnel  4  miles  in  length,  100  feet  wide  and  160  feet  high. 
When  completed  this  canal  will  save  about  10.000  miles 
of  voyage  between  Europe  and  the  Pacific. 

CARBONIC  ACID.— The  quantity  exhaled  in  24  hours: 

Age.  Or.  Exhaled. 
16  16 

38  17 

The  quantity  varies  according  to  exertion,  namely :  Sleeping, 
0.6  oz.  per  hour;  walking  2  miles  per  hour,  2.1 ;  walking  3 
miles  per  hour,  3.0 ;  riding,  4.0 ;  swimming,  4.4;  treadmill, 
5-5- 

CATTLE. — See  diagram. 

CARRIER-PIGEONS.  — In  1877  the  newspaper  Nationale 
of  Paris  had  ten  pigeons  which  carried  dispatches  daily  between 
Versailles  and  Paris  in  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes.  In  Au- 
gust, 1S89,  five  pigeons  rlew  from  Saint  Thomas,  Ont.,  to 
Kosllndale,  Mass.,  525  miles,  in  11  hours  and  25  minutes, 
ing  1,350  yards  a  minute. 
CHARCOAL. — To  make  a  ton  will  require  wood  as  follows: 
Oak, 4.4  tons;  chestnut,  4.5  ;  beech,  5. 1;  elm,  5.2;  birch,  5.9; 
pine,  6.0.  For  heating  power  12  lbs.  charcoal  are  equal  to  10 
lbs.  coal  or  13  lbs.  coke. 

CHECKS. — The  checks  paid  in  New  York  and  London  in 
one  month  aggregate  $6,350,000,000,  which  is  great!)  in  excess 
of  the  value  of  all  the  gold  and  silver  coin  in  existence. 

CHEMISTRY. — Below  are  given  the  common  names  of  vari- 
ous chemical  substances : 

Aqua  Fortis Nitric  Acid. 

Regis Nitro-Muriatic  Acid. 

■  '•  "■  'I Sulphate  of  Copper. 

Cream  «f  Tartar Kitartrale  Potassium. 

Calomel Chloride  of  Mercury. 

Chalk  Carbonate  Calcium. 

Carbonate  of  Potassa. 

Caustic  Potassa Hydrate  Potassium. 

Chloride  of  Gorm>  le. 

Chloride  of  Sodium. 

cen  Yitriol Sulphate  ol  Iron. 

a  Sublimate Bi  Chloride  oi  Mercury. 

nd Pure  Carbon. 

Dry  Alum Sulphate  Alluminum  and  Potassium. 

Sain Suiphate  of  Magnesia. 

Ethiops  Mineral Mack  Sulphide  of  Mercury. 

Galena Sulphide  of  Lead. 

C.laubcr's-Sall Sulphate  of  Sodium. 

Gluco*e Grape  Sugar. 

I  r    11    Pyrites Hi  -Sulphide  Iron. 

Jeweler's  Putty Oxide  of  Tin. 


/ 


_. 


-» S) 


<! k_ 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


553 


=^ 


King's  Yellow Sulphide  of  Arsenic. 

Laughing-Gas Protoxide  of  Nitrogen. 

Lime Oxide  of  Calcium. 

Lunar  Caustic Nitrate  of  Silver. 

Muriate  of  Lime Chloride  of  Calcium. 

Niter  of  Saltpeter Nitrate  of  Potash. 

Oil  of  Vitriol Sulphuric  Acid. 

Potash , Oxide  of  Potassium. 

Realgar Sulphide  of  Arsenic. 

Red  Lead Oxide  of  Lead. 

Rust  of  Iron Oxide  of  Iron. 

Salmontac Muriate  of  Ammonia, 

Slacked  Lime Hydrate  Calcium. 

Soda Oxide  of  Sodium. 

Spirits  of  Hartshorn. Ammonia. 

Sp:rit  of  Salt Hydro-Chloric  or  Muriatic  Acid. 

Stucco,  or  Plaster  of  Paris Sulphate  of  Lime. 

Sugar  of  Lead Acetate  of  Lead. 

Verdigris Basic  Acetate  of  Copper. 

Vermilion Sulphide  of  Mercury. 

Vinegar Acetic  Acid  (Diluted). 

Volatile  Alkali Ammonia. 

Wate. Oxide  of  Hydrogen. 

White  Precipitate Ammoniated  Mercury. 

White  Vitriol Sulphate  of  Zinc. 

CHILDBIRTH.— The  average  of  deaths  in  childbirth  for  20 
years  in  England  and  Wales  has  been  32  per  10,000  births— 
1  )4  Per  cent  of  all  mothers,  since  the  average  mother  has  five 
children. 

CHOLERA. — In  the  visitation  of  1866,  the  proportion  of 
deaths  per  10,000  inhabitants  in  the  principal  cities  of  Europe 
was  as  follows:  London,  18;  Dublin,  41 ;  Vienna,  51;  Mar- 
seilles, 64 ;  Paris,  66 ;  Berlin,  $3 ;  Naples,  89 ;  St.  Petersburg, 
98;  Madrid,  102;  Brussels,  184;  Palermo,  197;  Constantino- 
ple, 738. 

CHRISTIANITY. — See  diagram  Distribution  of  Christians. 

CLIMATE. — The  mean  annual  temperature  at  a  given  point 
in  each  of  the  forty-nine  States  and  Territories,  and  also  in 
Alaska,  is  shown  in  the  following  table  : 


Place  op  Observation. 


Mobile,  Ala 

Sitka,  Alaska 

Tucson,  Ar 

Little  Rock,  Ark 

San  Francisco,  Cal 

Denver,  Colo 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Fort  Randall,  S.  Dak 

Wilmington,  Del 

Washington,  D.  C 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Fort  Boise,  Id 

Springfield,  IH 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

Fort  Gibson,  Ind.  Ter 

Des  Moines,  la 

Leavenworth,  Kan 

Louisville,  Ky 

New  Orleans,  La 

Augusta,  Me 

Baltimore,  Md 

Boston,  Mass 

Detroit,  Mich 

St.  Paul,  Minn 


Mean 

annual 
temper- 
ature. 


66° 
46° 
690 
630 
55° 
48° 
5o° 
47° 
53° 
55° 
69° 
58° 
52° 
5o° 
5i° 
6o° 

< 

56° 
6g° 
45° 
54° 
48° 
47° 
42° 


Place  op  Observation. 


Jackson,  Miss 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Helena,  Mon 

Omaha,  Neb 

C'p  Winfield  Scott,  Nev. 

Concord,  N.  H 

Trenton,  N.J 

Santa  Fe.N.M 

Albany,  N.  Y 

Raleigh,  N.  C 

Columbus,  O 

Portland,  Ore 

Hanisburg,  Penn 

Providence,  R.  I 

Columbia,  S.  C 

Nashville,  Tenn 

Austin,  Tex 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

Montpelier,  Vt 

Richmond,  Va 

Steilacoom,  Wash 

Romney,  W.  Va 

Madison,  Wis 

Fort  Bridger,  Wyo 

Fort  Buford,  N.  Dak.. 


Mean 

annual 
temper- 
ature. 


K 

4°o 

4°o 
53° 
5Io 
<8o 

5°o 
53° 

53° 
54° 
48° 
62° 
58° 
670 
52° 
43° 
57° 

S'Z 
S£ 
K 

K 

4°° 


COAL. — See  diagram  Annual  Production  of  Coal. 

COFFEE. — The  production  in  one  year  is  :  Brazil,  333,000 
tons;  Java,  90,000;  Ceylon,  53,000;  West  Indies,  42,000; 
Africa,  36,000;  Manilla,  etc.,  35,000.      Total,  589,000  tons. 

The  average  annual  consumption  is  as  follows :  United  States, 
165,000  tons;  Germany,  uo,ooo;  Brazil,  62,000;  France, 
55,000;  Belgium  and  Holland,  50,000;  Austria,  40,000;  British 


Colonies,  38,000;  Russia,  20,000;  United  Kingdom,  15,000; 
Italy,  14,000. 

The  coffee  fields  of  Brazil  cover  2,000,000  acres,  with  800,- 
000,000  trees — that  is,  400  per  acre,  each  tree  averaging  almost 
I  lb.  per  annum.,  the  industry  employing  800,000  hands. 

COMMERCE.— The  following  table,  prepared  at  the  Bureau  of 
Statistics,  Washington,  exhibits  the  steady  increase  of  the  trade 
of  the  United  States  during  the  past  25  years.  Nearly  the 
whole  amount  of  merchandise  exported  is  of  home  growth 
or  manufacture,  that  of  foreign  origin  exported  in  1891 
not  exceeding  two  per  cent,  of  the  whole  amount.  It  is 
noticeable  that  for  the  first  seven  years  the  imports  exceed- 
ed the  exports,  but  that  during  the  past  18  years  the  bal- 
ance has  been  generally  in  favor  of  the  country.  These 
figures  represent  the  specie  values  of  merchandise  only. 


Year. 
1867.... 


1869. 
1870. 
1871. 
187a. 
1873- 
1874. 
1875. 
1876. 
.877. 
1878. 
1879- 


1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
188;. 
1886. 
1S87. 
1S8S. 
1889. 
1890. 
1891. 


Exports. 

$294,506,141 
281,952,899 
286,117,697 
392,771,768 
442,820,178 
444,"77.586 
522,476,922 
586,283,040 
513,442,7" 
540,384,671 
602,475,220 
694,865,766 
7IO,439.44' 
835,638,658 
9°2,377,346 
750,542,257 
823,839,402 
740,513,609 
472.189,755 

679.524.»3° 
716,183,211 

69S-954.S°7 

§« 

8^4,4So,Sio 


Imports. 

$395,761,096 
357.436.44o 
417,506,379 
435,958,4o8 
520,223,684 
626,595,077 
642,136,210 
567,406,342 
533,005,436 
460,741,190 
451, 323,12* 
437,o5',53» 
445,777,775 
667,954,746 
642,664,628 
724,639.574 
723, 180,914 
667,697,693 
577.527,329 
°35-436,i30 
692,319,768 
723,9S7,"t 
745- '3 '-652 
789,310,409. 
M  (.016,196 


Total. 

$690,267,237 

639,389,339 
703,624,1.76 
828,730,176 
963,043,862 
1,070,772,663 
1,164,616,132 
1,153,689,382 
1,046,448,147 
1,001,125,861 
1.053,798,346 
1,131,917,298 
1,156,217,216 
1,503,593,404 
>,545,o4i,974 
«,475, 181,831 
1,547,020,316 

X,408,2II,302 

1.314,060,066 
1 ,408,502,979 
1.419,911.621 

I.  )••  7-533.027 
1,647.1 

i.7-'"-3y7,°00 


CONSUMPTION.— Of  the  total  number  of  deaths  the  percent- 
age traceable  to  consumption  in  the  several  States  and  Territories 
is  as  follows:  Alabama,  9.6;  Arizona,  6.1 ;  Arkansas,  6.4 ;  Cali- 
fornia, 15.6;  Colorado,  8.2  ;  Connecticut,  15.  J ;  Dakota,  8.8; 
Delaware,  16.1 ;  District  of  Columbia,  18.9;  Florida,  8.3; 
Georgia,  7.9;  Idaho,  6.8;  Illinois,  10.3;  Indiana,  12.6;  Iowa, 
9.9;  Kansas,  7.3;  Kentucky,  15.7 ;  Louisiana,  10.4;  Maine, 
19.2;  Maryland,  14.0;  Massachusetts,  15.7 ;  Michigan,  13.2; 
Minnesota,  9.3 ;  Mississippi,  8.8;  Missouri,  9.8;  Montana,  5.6; 
Nebraska,  8.8;  Nevada,  6.3;  New  Hampshire,  5.6;  New 
Jersey,  8.9;  New  Mexico,  2.4;  New  York,  8. 1;  North  Caro- 
lina, 9.5:  Ohio,  13.8;  Oregon,  12.1 ;  Pennsylvania,  12.6; 
Rhode  Island,  14.6;  South  Carolina,  9.8;  Tennessee,  14.5; 
Texas,  6.5;  Utah,  2.8;  Vermont,  16.1;  Virginia,  12.2;  Wash- 
ington, 13.2;  West  Virginia,  13.0;  Wisconsin,  10.4;  Wyoming, 
2.6.     Average,  12.0. 

COPYING. — Seventy-two  words  make  I  folio,  or  sheet  of 
common  law;  9  words,  I  folio,  in  chancery. 

COTTON. — The  area  under  cotton  in  the  United  States  is  in- 
creasing very  rapidly : 

Year.  Bales.         Year.  Bales. 

1S86 6,550,215  1889 6,935,082 

1S87 6,513,624  1890 7.3'3.726 

1888 7,017.707  1891 8,655,51s 

See  diagram  World's  Yearly  Production  of  Cotton  and  To- 
bacco. 


K- 


=^L, 


4s 


<a ^ 


K~ 


# 


-*-THE  RELIGIONS  OF  THE  WORLDS 


(FROM   THE   VERY    LATEST   ESTIMATE!.) 


PARSEES,, 
1,000,000 


jews,  I 

7,700.00ol 


BRAHMINIOAL 

HINDOOS, 

140,000,000 


Mohammedans. 
142,400,000 


BUDDHISTS. 

547,600,000 


CHRISTIANa 
448,300,000 


PAGANS, 
267,000,000 


CHRISTIANS. 


Roman  Catholic,  203,368,000 


Prolcv 


Greok,  70,482,000 
Eaitern,  |__J  «,77O,0OC 


VL 


: 


-r 


1 

«"V* 

— •- 

-* 

-Sl^* 

61    V 

\ 

7 

0 

1 

•*  DISTRIBUTION*- 

Outer  Ring— Roman  Catholics. 

> 

OF                                                                 ^0,*^ 

^^^                    ad      "     — Protestants. 

christians'^ 

**^        3d      "     — Greek  Christians. 
FRANCE                          ^. 

>^.     Centre  — 

Throughout   the           / 

29,202,000                                    /4Hk.          -     »        „u  •  •• 

/      IpW        Eastern  Christians. 

World.               / 

\?\\                                                     A                         \ 
You                                                   .^                             \ 

/wfew  % 

\o\\                                                 X                                 \ 
\°\i                                                \                                    \ 

/  xf        / 

-    /     ejVr»,                /UNITED  / 
/        ia/ee          ^  /     STATES     / 

VP*" *"C         GREAT     \                                  \ 

/^                       \,BRITAIN'\                                  \ 

RUS 

\    89,398.000    \                                    \ 

IA-       \                    \  AUSTRIA     \ 

s 

\ HUNGARY \ 

nfe^^^          '?       /    50,890,000   / 

,7t\          «             \                           \      27,904,308        \ 
A    1                      A                       \                             \ 

1 

1   > 
65,549,000  .  1 

/  ^ 

h^^°°  ,,111^ 

■  ^0- 

:  .-I  t- 

SWEDEN-    1 

■  <<  i*. 

TUBKEY.        |     NORWAY 

SOUTH 

z 

'     roumaniaJ 

bulgaria,!   6,367,500    1 

AMERICA 

\                           \ 

2 

SERVIA,        T~»ii                             1-' 

I 26,784,000    \^-^W>\ 

1                    ^^CA 

\°    f  ll,628,O0OTa*^||^oK    f       ITALY      / 

H^X        *   /                       / —                       / 

I         S^^^^\ 

W>Nk       /                           /      29637,000         / 

^f^^^HP^ 

W        /          1 

f^*-**^                                                           >v                                 / 

W^  J0K&-/         *"j  # 

GERMANY 

a.  Africa.    \  j^S^ ,4r'3y                        ma 

^^^^  d.    India, 

Rom .  Cath .         yr  40P?"/ 

29,370,000                                                               J     Ceylon. 

i, 106,200.        >^r    >^           c?       j 

Prot.,  710,000.        /        <?    y 

03     :.      ^s» 

.«*          16,789,000             /Rom.  Cath., 

■^^                              ^^^r^    .  \                                                             /                   I,6oo,OO0. 

b.   Australia            \            Js          M)\< 

A,' 

"***                 ■             "           VU  ":         yA       \                                                                       '                 /                     PrOt.,    300,000. 

"0     «,          VA   \                                              / 

r\  \  0*  \>    \                               /        e-  Switzerland. 
1  *>rL   \V 'O  >     :\                           / 
*N               Ivl  '\\    ,iC\    \                         /         Rom.  Cath. ,1,190,000. 

and  Polynesia.  N. 
Rom.  Cath.,  434,000.            x^          M"'. 

S^ 

Prot.,  1,000,000.         >«JEi                   '■<3'4o 
c.   Archipelago,   Arabia           ^w 

OQo 

I  OH    \V.  ^>,>    \                 /                       Prot.,  1,724,000. 
1    01  n   1      w  Man  ^^      *•    China  and  Japan. 

and  Persia.                               ^>s_ 

I     O  >    v|            '    }jjjr                                  Rom.  Cath.,  800,000. 

Rom.  Cath.,  1,000,000.    Prot.,  89,000.                  ^'v"~—», 

i,                           -si^*5*^^^^              S1-  Luxemburg   Rom.  Cath.,  204,000. 

" 

k 

/ 

9 

4 

-^i — 

~a 

556 


^7 


DICTIONARY   OF    FACTS   AND    FIGURES 


CREMATION. — A  body  weighing  140  lbs.  produces  1 
lbs.  ashes;   time  for  burning,  55  minuuv-. 

CRISES. — The  most  remarkable  since  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century  have  been  as  follows : 


Bnglatut1  240  banks  luspen 

Manchester,  failures  2  million  pounds. 

Calcutta,  failures  15  million  pounds. 

United  States,  "  Wild  Cut  M  crisis;  all  banks  closed. 

Bunk  of  England  saved  by  Bank  of  France,     Severe    also  in 
France,  where  93  companies  failed  for  6  million  pounds. 
1844.     England.     State  loans  to  merchants.     Bank  of  England  re- 
formed. 

England,  failures  20  millions;  discount  13  per  cent. 

United  Mates,  7,200  houses  failed  for  $555,000,000. 

London,  Overend-Gurney  crisis;  failures  exceeded  100  million 
pounds. 

Black  Friday  in  New  York  (Wall  street),  September  24. 


1814. 
i8h. 
1831. 
>837- 
1899. 


1847. 

IlS: 


itto, 

CURRENCY — In  the  following  table,  the  difference  be- 
tween the  amount  of  money  in  the  country  and  the 
amount  in  circulation  represents  the  amount  in  the 
Treasury  : 


Year. 


i860... 

1S61... 

1862... 

1863... 

1864... 

1865... 

1866.. 

1867 . . . 

1868... 

1869  .. 

1870... 

1871... 

1872... 

1873-. • 

1874... 

1875... 

1876... 

1877... 

1878... 

.879... 

1880... 

1881... 


1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 


1890. 
1891. 


Amount  of  money 
in  United  States. 


S442, 

45*. 

358, 

674, 

705, 

77». 

754. 

728, 

716, 

7'5. 

722, 

74i, 

762, 

774. 

806, 

798, 

790, 

763, 

79'. 

1,051, 

1,205, 

1,406, 

1,480, 

1.643, 

1,705, 

1.817, 

i,s  6, 

1,900, 

3,062, 

2.075. 

2.144. 

a. '95. 


102,477 
005,767 

453.079 

867.283 
588,067 
129.755 
1*7.254 
200,612 
553.578 
351,180 
868,461 
812,174 
721,565 
445.6io 
024,781 

273.509 
683,284 

053.847 
253.576 
521.541 
929,197 
541.823 

53L7>9 
489,816 
454.189 
658,336 
559.694 
442.672 

955.949 
350,711 
226,159 
224.075 


Amount  in  circu- 
lation. 


*435 
448. 
334, 
595 
669 
7M 
673 
66i, 
68o, 
664. 
675, 
7"5. 
738. 
75'. 
776, 
754, 
727, 
722, 
729, 
818 
973, 
1,114, 
1,174, 
1.230 

1.243, 
1,392, 
1,252, 
'.317, 
1.372, 
1,380 
1.429, 
1.497, 


407.252 
405.767 
697.744 
394.038 
641,478 
702.995 
,488,244 
992,069 
103,661 
452,891 
212,794 
889,005 

309.549 
881,809 
083.031 

ioi,947 
609,388 
314.683 
132.634 
631.793 
382.228 
238,119 
290,419 
,305,696 
1  ■•,.  ,',.j 
568.615 
700.525 

539. '43 
170,870 
361,649 
251,270 
440.707 


Money 
per  capita 


» 14.06 
14.09 

10.96 
20.23 
20  7a 
22.16 
21.27 
20.11 
1938 
1895 
1873 
18.75 
18.70 
18.58 
18.83 
18  16 
17  52 
1646 
16.62 
21.52 
2404 

27  41 

28  20 
30.60 
31.06 
32  37 
31.50 
32  39 
34-39 
33.86 

34  24 
34  31 


Circulat'n 
per  capita. 


»i3-85 
1398 
»3 

84 
'7 
57 


S3  »7 


Aggregate  Issues  of  Paper  Money  In  War  Times. 
The  following  table  exhibits   the   amount   per  capita 
[glued  of  the  Continental  money,  the  French  asstgnetts, 
tin    Confederate  currency,  and  the  legal-tender  green- 
backs and  national  bank  notes  of  the  United  States : 

Amount  issued. 

Inental  money $359,546,825 

Igtiats 9,1 15,(100,000 

Confederate  currency  f\vt. t"5.i/>3 

Highest  amount  in 
circulation,  Jan.,  '66. 
Greenback!  and  national  bank  notes.         750,820,228 

CUSTOMS. — See  diagram,  Receipts  and  Expenditures 
I '.  s.  GcvtrnmeMt. 

DEBT. — See  diagram,  Public  /),■!>/.«. 

DEAF  MUTES —The  returns  for  the  United  States 
from  the  census  of  1890  show  the  number  of  deaf-mutes 
to  lu-  41,850,  or  675  per  million  of  population.  The  ratio 
rj  males  to  45   females. 

DEATH. — A  man  will  die  from  want  of  air  in  five  min- 
utes ;  lor  want  ol  sleep  in  ti-11  (tan  - :  lor  want  of  water  in 
a  week;  for  want  ot  food,  at  varying  intervals,  dependent 
on  various  circumstances.  <<*£• 


4— 


According  to  Prof.  Conrad,  the  proportion  of  deaths  to  classes 
is  as  given  below  . 


Stillborn.... 

0-  1  year  . . 

1-  5  years . 
5-15     "      • 

15-30  " 
20-30  ** 
30-60     u 


Affluent. 
38 
.      118 

:   3 

:   23 

247 


Middle. 

(Ted* 

S3 

340 

30J 

193 

*X> 

49 

5» 

34 

ai 

«3 

64 

»»4 

232 

'75 

156 

Over  60  years 343 

Total i.coo  1,000  1,000 

DIAMONDS. — The  six  largest  weigh,  respectively,  as  follows : 
Kohinoor,  103  carats;  Star  of  Brazil,  125  carats;  Regent  of 
France,  136  carats;  Austrian  Kaiser,  139  carats;  Russian  Czar, 
193  carats;  Rajah  of  Borneo,  367  carats.  The  value  of  the 
above  is  not  regulated  by  size,  nor  easy  to  estimate,  but  none  of 
them  is  worth  less  than  $500,000. 

DIGESTION. — The  time  required  for  digesting  various  kinds 
of  food  is : 


Hours. 
Mutton,  boiled 3 


Hours. 

Rice 1 

Eggs,  raw 1 

Apples s 

Trout,  boiled s 

Venison,  broiled 1 

Sago,  boiled i 

Milk      "      3 

Bread,  stale 2 

Milk,  raw 3 

Turkey,  boiled s 

Goose,  roast 3 

Lamb,  broiled a 

Potatoes,  baked 3 

Beans,  boiled 3 

Parsnips,  boiled a 

Oysters,  raw 3 

Eggs,  boiled 3 

DISEASEB.    The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  deaths 
in  the  United  States  from  the  returns  of  1S90.     While  it  is  don 
true  iliat  many  deaths  escape   the   notice   of  enumerators,  still  the 
data  reached  are  very  close  to  the  actual  facts. 


Min. 
o 
30 
3P 
3*> 
35 
45 


«5 

'$ 
30 
3° 
30 
30 
30 
55 


Beef,  roast 
Bread ,  fresh . . . 
Carrots,  boiled 
Turnips,     " 
Potatoes,   " 

Butter 

Cheese 

Oysters,  stewed 3 

Eggs,  hard 3 

Pork,  boiled 3 

Fowl,  roast 4 

Beef.fried 4 

Cabbage 4 

Wildfowl 4 

Pork,  roast 5 

Veal,  roast 5 


Min. 


'5 

■5 
30 
SO 
30 
3P 
3» 
30 
30 


3' 
3«> 
•  5 

3P 


Cause  of  Death. 


Whooping-cough 

Scarlet  fever 

Typhoid  fever 

Digestive  diseases  ..... 

Diphtheria 

Diarrhcca 

Nervous  diseases 

OiiiMimption 

Respiratory  affections. 
Various 


Total  . 


Number. 


14835 

«9.94> 

37.830 

4».435 

«7.oi9 

78.916 

107.735 

1 11,216 

137.560 

.,63...,. 


949>37> 


Per  Million 
Inhabitants. 


■37 
317 
443 
675 

1.256 
1.715 
1.770 
3.190 
5.766 


15.H8 


Rauo. 


1.56 
»°9 

«»3 
4  47 
495 
«-3« 
11  34 
11.70 
144' 
38.17 


100.00 


DRUNKENNESS.— Mulhall  estimates  the  number  of  years  of 
intemperance  required  to  produce  death  as  follows  : 

Liquor. 

Beer n 

Spirits 


CI.Ks 

Women 14 

Gentlemen 1; 

Working  class. 


Mixed. 


This  shows  that  the  working  class  can  stand  drink  longest, 
and  that  beer  is  the  least  deadly  form  of  intemperance. 

The  value  of  life,  drunk  and  sober,  as  to  expectancy  of  years, 

is  given  thus : 

Aga                                                                                                Drunk.  Sober. 

so 15  44 

30 >4  3* 

«      "  •» 

The  number  of  cases  of  insanity  traceable  to  drink  is  shown 
by  the  proportion  of  dipsomaniacs  to  all  insane,  as  follows: 
Italy,  12  per  cent;  France,  21  per  cent;  United  States,  26  per 
cent ;  Scotland,  2S  per  cent. 


s «~ 


DICTIONARY   OF    FACTS   AND    FIGURES. 


557 


A 


Date  of 

Place  of 

Birth. 

Birth. 

'739 

Warsaw. 

1837 

New  York. 

1842 

" 

1838 

China. 

1S63 

Mexico. 

1864 

New  York. 

DWARFS. — The  more  notable  human  mites  are  named  be- 
low : 

Height. 
Name.  (Inches.) 

Count  Borowlaski 39 

Tom  Thumb  (Chas.  S.  Stratum) 31 

Mrs.  Tom  Thumb 32 

Che-Mah 25 

Lucia  Zarate 20 

General  Mite 21 

EDUCATION.  —  See  diagram  Educational  Statistics.  The 
progress  of  education  since  1850  is  shown  in  the  following  table, 
showing  the  ratio  of  adults  able  to  write : 

1850. 

United  States 84 

England ( .; 

Scotland 83 

Ireland 55 

France 57 

Germany 86 

Russia 2 

Austria 34 

Italy 28 

Spain  and  Portugal 18 

Switzerland 80 

Belgium  and  Holland 62 

Scandinavia 82 

See  also  diagram  Educational  Statistics. 

ELEVATION  OF  CONTINENTS.— The  average  above  sea 
level  is:  Europe,  670  feet;  Asia,  1,140  feet;  North  America, 
1,150  feet;  South  America,  1,100  feet. 

EVICTIONS. — The  total  number  of  families  evicted  in  Ire- 
land for  33  years  is  482,000,  as  below : 


Years.  Evicted. 

1849-51 263,000 

1 852-60 1 10,000 

1861-70 47,000' 

1871-80 41,000 

1881—82 *....      21,000 


881. 

1889 

90 

92 

84 

9' 

88 

94 

f-7 

77 

78 

85 

94 

96 

11 

■5 

49 

55 

4t 

47 

34 

28 

88 

11 

86 

87 

97 

-admitted. 

Net 
Evictions. 

73,000 
28,000 

190.000 
82,000 

8,000 

39,000 

6,000 

35,000 

4,000 

17,000 

Total 482,000  119,000  363,000 

The  number  of  persons  actually  evicted  was  over  two  millions 
(say  70,000  per  annum),  about  35  per  cent  of  the  population. 

EXHIBITIONS.— 


Where  Held. 


London  

Pans 

London 

Paris 

Vienna 

Philadelphia 

Paris 

Sydney  

Melbourne 

Fisheries,  London.. 
Health,  London.... 
Inventions,  London. 
Colonial,  London..., 

Glasgow 

Parts , 


Year. 

Area, 

Acres. 

1851 

21 

1855 

nH 

1862 

'3'A 

1867 

37 

■873 

40 

1876 

60 

1878 

60 

■  879 

26 

1880 

1883 

9 

1S84. 

1885 

1886 

13 

1888 

1889 

7S'A 

Visitors. 


6,039,195 
5,162,330 
6,211,103 
8,805.969 
6,740,500 
10,164,489 
16,032,725 

1,117.536 
1,330,279 
2,703,051 

4,i53'39° 
3,760,581 

5,55o.745 

5.748,379 

28,149,353 


Days 
Open. 


Mi 
200 
171 
217 
186 
'59 
194 
210 
210 
M7 
151 
163 
164 
161 
185 


Receipts. 


$1,780,000 

644,100 

1,614,260 

2,103,675 

1,032,385 

3.813.724 

2,531,650 

200,000 

585,000 
892,545 
750,000 

1,025,000 
566,330 

8.300,000 


EXPENDITURES  U.  S.  Government.— See  diagram. 

FAIRS.— That  of  Nijni-Novgorod  is  the  greatest  in  the  world, 
the  value  of  goods  sold  being  as  follows:  1841,  $35,000,000; 
1857,  #60,000,000;  1876,  $140,000,000;  the  attendance  in  the 
last  named  year  including  150,000  merchants  from  all  parts  of 
the  world.  In  that  of  Leipsic  the  annual  average  of  sales  is 
$20,000,000,  comprising  20,000  tons  of  merchandise,  of  which 
two-fifths  is  books. 

FAMILIES. — Number  of  families  in  the  United  States 
(census  of  1890),  12,896,825  ;  average  number  to  a  square 


mile,  3.39.  Number  of  dwellings,  11,607,143;  average  to 
the  square  mile,  305.  Number  of  acres  to  a  family, 
188.74.  Number  of  persons  to  a  family,  5.08.  Number 
of  persons  to  a  dwelling,  5.67. 

FAMINES. — Walford  mentions  160  since  the  nth  cen- 
tury, namely:  England,  57;  Ireland,  34;  Scotland,  12; 
France,  10;  Germany,  n  ;  Italy,  etc.,  36. 

The  worst  in  modern  times  have  been  : 

Country.  Date.  No.  of  Victims. 

France 1870                    48.000 

Ireland 1847                1,029,000 

India 1866              1,450,000 

China 1878               9,500,000 

Deaths  from  hunger  and  want  were  recorded  as  fol- 
lows in  1879,  according  to  Mulhall :  Ireland,  3,789 ;  Eng- 
land, 312;  London,  101 ;  France,  260.  The  proportion 
per  1,000  deaths  was,  respectively,  37.6,  0.6,  1.2,  0.3.  \ 

FASTING. — In  1684,  four  rrfen  were  taken  alive  out  of  a 
mine  in  England,  after  24  days  without  food.  In  1880, 
Dr.  Tanner,  in  New  York,  lived  on  water  for  40  davs, 
losing  36  lbs.  in  weight. 

FARMS. — Number  of  farms  in  the  United  States  in 
1 8S0,  4,008,907  ;  in  1S70,  2,659,985  ;  in  1 860,  2,044.077  ;  in 
1850,  1,449,073.     Acreage  in  farms  in  1891,  68S,ooo,ooo. 

FLAX. — The  average  annual  production  is  as  follows : 
Russia,  330,000  tons;  Austria,  53,000 ;  Germany,  48,000; 
Belgium  and  Holland,  38,000;  France,  37,000;  United 
Kingdom,  25,000 ;  Italy,  23,000;  United  States,  42,000; 
Scandinavia,  4,000 — total,  600,000  tons. 

FOOD. — The  yearly  consumption  of  necessaries,  in 
pounds,  per  inhabitant: 


United  States 

United  Kingdom 

France 

Germany 

Russia  . 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Belgium  and  Holland. 

Denmark 

Sweden  and  Norway. 
Average 


Grain. 

Meat. 

Butter. 

392 

120 

16 

330 

105 

'3 

505 

74 

4 

585 

69 

8 

49° 

48 

3 

410 

64 

5 

420 

23 

1 

39° 

49 

0 

445 

69 

6 

475 

70 

»5 

34° 

65 

9 

445 

7° 

7 

Sugar. 

3 


7 
>4 
7 
5 
16 
3* 
17 


Luxuries  are  consumed  as  follows,  per  inhabitant : 


United  States 

United  Kingdom 

France  

Germany    

Russia 

Austria 

Italy-.   

Spain 

Belgium  and  Holland 

Denmark 

Sweden  and  Norway. 
Average   


Ounces. 


Coffee. 


"5 

C2 

83 

3 
35 
18 
4 
'75 


Tobacco. 


59 
23 
29 

11 

80 


84 
61 

29 
41 


Gallons. 


Wine. 


0.60 
0.44 
20.12 
2.70 
0.3S 
7.50 
17.60 
i3-5o 
0.80 
0.30 
0.20 
5.50 


Beer. 


7.20 
28.60 
5.10 
19.40 
0.80 
6.50 
0.70 
0.10 
22.20 
12.60 
5.40 
8.60 


Spirits: 


1.50 
1.05 
0.90 

'■33 
2.20 
0.80 
0.30 
0.20 
2.60 

4.30 
4.20 
1.10 


■*? 


^L 


lothodiat  Union  Coll      8.500 
Methodist  Primitive         3.837 


BGcn.  Synod 
Reformed  Presbyterian  4.(102 
Ind.  Methodists  5.000 


B 

H 


Swedenborglans  7.095 

Reformed  Ass.  Presb.  7.515 

Reformed  Episcopal     8.455 
7th  Day  Baptists  9.817 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC 
6JSQ.046 

Salvation  Army    8.663 


Kifornicd  l'resb. 

10.5741        j 

.VdviMltistS 

11.100  M 

Moravians 

11. 7M  |_ 

i  CaWinlat 

12.TH  1 

Free  Methodists 

- 

Cold.  Cumb.  Presb. 

i    M  1 

Con*.  Meth. 

13.750 

•7" 


■V 


V 


~7\ 


\£~. 


-#  Educational  Statistics  of  the  Suited  Stated  and  other  Ooun;trie&.#- 


~w^_ 


Percentage  of  school  population  in  daily  attendance. 
j  Percentage  of  school  population  enrolled  in  public  schools. 
Average  monthly  pay  of  female  teachers. 
Average  monthly  pay  of  male  teachjaa,. 


Percentage  of  school  popu- 


4 


$46.00 
25.00 
7y.oo 

39*°o 
45.00 
21.00 
30.00 
63.00 
38.00 
65.00 

33-00 
32.00 
30.00 
34.oo 
17.00 
34-00 
43.00 

35-00 

28.00 
43-00 
64.00 
42.00 
31.00 
26.00 

31.00 
56.00 
36.00 
2S.00 
33-oo 
62.00 
28.00 
40.00 
22.00 

37-00 

24.00 

36.00 

17.00 
27.00 
40.00 
29.00 

33-00 
73.00 


$  log  .00 
43.00 
86.00 
74-00 
87.00 
37-00 
39.00 
9S00 
48.00 
78.00 
40.00 
46.00 
3S.00 
37.00 
35-00 
41.00 
53-0O 

42.00 

52.00 
43.00 
95.00 
67.00 
41.00 
30.00 

4S.00 
69.00 
43-00 
33-oo 
36.00 
103.00 
2S.00 
40.00 
25.00 

46.00 

27.00 

35-0° 
17.00 

31.00 
4S.00 
32.00 

45.00 
72.00 


States 
and  Terri- 
tories. 


Massachusetts. 
N.  Hampshire. 

Arizona 

Connecticut.... 
Rhode  Island. . 

Vermont 

Pennsylvania.. 

Nevada  

Texas 

California 

Delaware 

Michigan 

Iowa 

Indiana 

Maine 

Ohio 

Illinois 

Idaho  

Kansas 

Missouri 

Utah...   

New  York 

Colorado 

New  Jersey. . .. 

Minnesota 

West  Virginia. 


Wisconsin 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Mississippi 

Dakotas 

Dist.  Columbia 

Tennessee 

Maryland , 

North  Carolina 

Florida 

Oregon , 

South  Carolina 

Georgia   

Kentucky 

Alabama 

Virginia 

Washington .. 

Louisiana 

New  Mexico.. 

Arkansas 

Wyoming 


—  to 


K 


5-15 

5-2* 
6-1S 
4-16 
5-i5 

5-20 

6-21 

6-18 
8-16 
5-17 

0-21 

5-20 

5-21 

6-21 

4-21 

6-21 
6-21 

5-21 
5-21 

5-20 
6-18 

5-21 

6-21 

5-18 

5-21 

6-21 

4-20 

4-21 

S-w 

5-2 ' 
7-30 

6-17 

6-21 
6-21 
6-21 
6-21 

4-20 

6-18 

6-1S 
6-20 
7-21 

5-2" 
5-21 

6-18 
5-20 

6-21 

6-21 


tries,  attending  elementary  schools. 


From    Reports   of    the    United   States 
Bureau  of  Education. 


School  age  under 
each  country. 


20     40     6b     80    "100 

1         I         I         I         I         I 


Japan, 

6-14 

Greece, 

5-12 

Portugal, 

6-13 

Argent.  Rep., 

6-i4 

Roumania, 

6-13 

Russia, 

6-14 


!«T 


\£~ 


560 


DICTIONARY    OF   FACTS   AND    FIGURES. 


These  food  statistics  are  by  Mulhall.  There  are  many  valu- 
able items  of  food  besides  these.  Grain  is  largely  supplemented 
by  potatoes  in  Ireland  and  Germany,  and  by  chestnuts  in  Italy; 
moreover,  this  column  does  not  include  rice,  the  consumption  of 
which  is  rapidly  increasing.  Meat  includes  fowl,  but  neither 
game  nor  fish,  nor  lard,  all  of  which  enter  largely  into  European 
food.  Cheese  is  another  important  item  not  included  above. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  fruit  and  vegetables. 

Relative  Value  of  Food  (Beef  par). 
Oysters,  22;  milk,  24;  lobsters,  50;  cream,  56;  codfish,  68; 
eg£si  72»  turbot,  84;  mutton,  87;  venison,  89;  veal,  92;  fowl, 
94;  herring,  100;  beef,  100;  duck,   104;  salmon,  108;   pork, 
116;  butter,  124;  cheese,  155. 

Percentage  of  Carbon  in  Food. 
Cabbage,  3;  beer,  4;  carrots,  5;  milk,  7;  parsnips,  8;  fish, 
9;  potatoes,  12;  eggs,  16;  beef,  27;   bread,  27;   cheese,  36; 
peas,  36;  rice,  38;  corn,  38;  biscuit,  42;  oatmeal,  42;  sugar, 
42;  flour,  46;  bacon,  54;  cocoa,  69;  butter,  79. 

Foot-tons  of  Energy  per  Ounce  of  Food. 
Cabbage,  16;  carrots,  20;  milk,  24;  ale,  30;  potatoes,  38; 
porter,  42;  beef,  55;  egg,  57;  ham,  65  ;  bread,  83;  egg  (yolk), 
127;  sugar,  130;  rice,  145;  flour,  148;  arrowroot,  151 ;  oat- 
meal, 152;  cheese,  168;  butter,  281. 

Loss  of  Meat  in  Cooking. 

*■    80    roast 

—  87  boiled 

—  ^94    boiled 

FOREIGN  POPULATION.— See  diagram,  Curiosities  of  the 
Census. 

FORESTS. —  The  forests  of  the  world  cover  1,501  mil- 
lions of  acres,  distributed  as  follows:  Russia,  4S5  millions; 
United  States,  476;  Canada,  174;  Brazil,  135;  Scandinavia, 
63;  Austria,  46;  Gran  Chaco,  37;  Germany,  33;  France, 
23;  Italy,  it;  Spain  and  Portugal,  S;  Algeria,  6;  United 
Kingdom,  2  ;  Belgium  and  Holland,  iV£.  These  figures 
are  from  an  estimate  made  in  1883.  Since  1848  the 
French  have  converted  9  million  acres  of  waste  land  into 
forests,  producing  nearly  $2  an  acre.  Paris  burns  the 
timher  of  50,000  acres  yearly.  Woodcutters  in  the 
United  States  fell  30,000  acres  daily,  or  9  million  acres 
per  annum.  In  1892,  the  forest  area  of  the  United  States, 
exclusive  of  Alaska  and  Indian  reservations,  was  481,764,- 
599  acres. 


100  B>s.  raw  beef        =   67  lbs.  roast 

100  lbs.   raw   fowl 

100    "      "                =1   74    "    boiled 

100     "          *' 

100     "  raw  mutton  =    75    "    roast 

100    "  raw  fish 

FREIGHT. — Capacity  of  a  ten-ton  freight  car : 

Lumber,  green 6,000  feet. 

Lumber,  dry 10,000  feet. 


Whisky  60  barrels 

Salt 70      " 

Lime 70      " 

Flour 00      " 

Eggs 13010160      " 

Flour 200  sacks. 

Cattle 18  to  20  head. 

Hogs I sotofjo       " 

Sheep 80  to  100      " 


Barley 3oobushels. 

Wheat 340  «• 

Apples 37o  •• 

Corn „  400  " 

Potatoes 430  " 

Oats 680  " 

Bran 1,000  " 


FRUIT. — The  degrees  of  sugar  in  various  fruits  are  :  Peach, 
1.6;  raspberry,  4.0;  strawberry,  5.7 ;  currant,  6.1;  gooseberry, 
7.2;  apple,  7.9;  mulberry,  9.2  ;  pear,  9.4;  cherry,  10.8;  grape, 
14.9. 

FUEL.— Pounds  of  water  evaporated  by  1  lb.  of  fuel  as  fol- 
lows: Straw,  1.9;  wood,  3.1 ;  peat,  3.8;  coke  or  charcoal, 
6.4;  coal,  7.9  j   petroleum,  14.6. 


GIANTS. — The  most  noted  of  ancient  and  modern  times  axe 
as  follows : 

Height, 
Name.  Place.  Feet. 

Goliath  Palestine 11.0 

Gaibara Rome 9.9 

John  Middleton England 9.3 

Frederick's  Swede Sweden 8.4 

Cujanus Finland 7.', 

Gilly Tyrol 8.1 

Patrick  Cotter Cork 8.7 

Chang  Gow Pckin 7.8 


Period. 
B.C.  1063. 
Claudius  Cxsar. 
A.D.  1578. 


1806. 

1880. 


Many  of  the  great  men  of  history  have  been  rather  small  in 
stature.  Napoleon  was  only  about  5  ft.  4  in.,  Washington  was 
5  ft.  y}4  in.  One  of  the  greatest  of  American  statesmen,  Alex- 
ander H.  Stephens,  never  exceeded  115  pounds  weight,  and  in 
his  old  age  his  weight  was  less  than  100  lbs. 

GOLD. — See  diagram,  Tie  World's  Yearly  Production  of  the 
Precious  Metals. 

GRAVITY,  SPECIFIC— A  gallon  of  water  or  wine  weighs 
10  lbs.,  and  this  i>  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  following  table : 


LIQUIDS. 

Water 100 

Sea  water 103 

Dead  Sea 124 

Alcohol    84 

Olive  oil 92 

Turpentine 99 

Wine 100 

Urine  101 

Cider 102 

Beer    102 

Woman's  milk 102 

Cow's  "    103 

Goat's         "    104 

Porter 104 


TINIER. 

Cork 24 

Poplar  38 

Fir 55 

Cedar 61 

Pear 66 

Walnut 67 

Cherry 72 

Maple 75 

a^1!:::::::::::::  I? 

Beech  85 

Mahogany 106 

Oak 117 

Ebony 133 

PRECIOUS   STONES. 


METALS. 

Zinc 719 

Cast  iron 721 

Ti". 7»» 

Bar  tron 779 

Steel 783 

Copper 869 

Brass    840 

Silver 1,051 

Lead 1,135 

M"fury 1,357 

Gold 1,9*6 

Platina 1,950 


Emerald 377.5  I  Diamond. 

Crystal 265.3  j  Topaz  ••• 


353-o 
401. 1 


Garnet 
Ruby.. 


4»8-3 


Indigo 77 

Gunpowder 93 

Butter 94 

Ice 117 

Clay x2o 

Coal 130 


'33 
■34 

■  83 


Peat  . .  . 
Opium  . 
Honey.. 
I  vory  ... 
Brick  . . . 
Sulphur 203 

Weight  in  Cubic  Feet 
Lbs.  per 


Cub.  Ft. 
30 


5> 

it 


Cork 

Cedar „ 

Beech 

Batter...   

Water    

Mahogany 66 

Ice     70 

(kik 70 

Clay 7S 

Coal 80 

GUANO.— The    Peruvian 


Porcelain 226 

Stone  25a 

Marble 270 

Granite    278 

Chalk .  179 

Glass   289 


Lb.,  r-" 
Cat  Ft. 


Brick 

Stone  1  to 

Granite  166 

Glass 17s 

Iron 470 

Copper Sao 

Silver 630 

Lead 680 

Gold 1,155 


Government  exported  from  the 
Chincha  Islands  between  1850  and  1880  more  than  twelve 
million  tons,  worth  #550,000,000. 

HAIR.— That  which  is  lightest  in  color  is  also  lightest  in 
weight.  Light  or  blonde  hair  is  generally  the  most  luxuriant, 
and  it  has  been  calculated  that  the  average  number  of  hairs  of 
this  color  on  an  average  person's  head  is  140,000;  while  the 
number  of  brown  hairs  is  1 10,000,  and  black  only  103.00a 

HEAT.— Ice  melts  at  32°  ;  temperature  01"  globe,  500;  blood 
heat,  980;  alcohol  boils,  174°;  water  boils,  2 1  a0;  lead  I 
594°  j  heat  of  common  fire,  1,140°;  brass  melts,  2,233°;  iron 
melts,  3479°- 


-M 


I? 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


56l 


HEIGHT  of  noted  cathedrals,  monuments,  buildings  etc.: 


Feet. 

Eiffel  Tower,  Paris 990 

Washington  Monument....  555 
Pyramid,  Cheops,  Egypt. .. .  543 

Cathedral,  Cologne 511 

"  Antwerp 476 

**  Strasburg 474 

Tower,  Utrecht 464 

Steeple,  St. Stephens, Vienna  460 
Pyramid,  Khafras,  Egypt...  456 
St.  Martin'sChurch,  Bavaria  456 
Chimney,      Port        Dundas, 

Glasgow 454 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 44S 

Notre  Dame,  Amiens 422 

Salisbury  Spire  England 406 

Cathedral,  Florence. 380 

M  Cremona 372 

"  Freiburg 367 

St.  Paul's,  London 365 

Cathedral,  Seville 360 

Pyramid,  sakkarah,  Egypt. .  356 

Cathedral.  Milan 35c 

Notre  Dame,  Munich 34S 

Invalides,  Paris 347 

Parliament  House,  London.  340 

Cathedral,  Magdeburg 337 

St.  Patrick's,  New  Vork 328 

St.  Mark's.  Venice 328 

Cathedral,  Bologna 321 

M         Norwich,  England  309 


Feet. 
"World"  Bldg.,  New  York  309 

Statue  of  Liberty,  N.  Y 305 

Cathedral,  Chichester,  Eng.  306 

"  Lincoln,  England  300 

Capitol,  Washington 300 

St.    James1    Cathedral,    To- 
ronto   316 

Trinity  Church,  New  York.  2S3 
Cathedral,  Mexico 280 

"  Montreal 280 

Brooklyn  Bridge 278 

Campanile  Tower,  Florence  276 
Masonic  Temple,  Chicago. .   205 

Column,  Delhi 260 

Cathedral,  Dantzic 250 

Porcelain  Tower,  Nankin. .  24S 
Custom-House,  St.  Louis...  240 
Canterbury  Tower,  England  235 

Notre  Dame,  Paris 232 

Chicago  Board  of  Trade. . . .  230 

St.  Patrick's,  Dublin 226 

Cathedral,  Glasgow 225 

Bunker  Hill  Monument 220 

Norte  Dame,  Montreal 220 

Cathedral,  Lima 220 

"  Rheims 220 

"  Garden  City,  L.I.  219 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  Pnila. .  210 
Washington,  Mon.,  Balto. .  210 
Vendome,  Mon.,  Paris 153 

HOLIDAYS.— The  legal  holidays  in  the  United  States  are  as 
follows : 

New  Year's  Day— Jan.  1.— In  all  States  and  Territories,  except  Arkan- 
sas, Delaware,  Georgia,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  New  Hamp- 
shire, North  Carolina,  South  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island. 

Anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  Nexv  Orleans— Jan.  8. — In  Louisiana. 

Lincoln's  Birthday — Feb.  12. — In  Louisiana. 

Washington' s  Birthday— Feb.  22— In  all  States  and  Territories  except 
Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Maine,  Mis- 
souri, North  Carolina,  Ohio,  Texas,  Oregon  and  Tennessee. 

Shrove  Tuesday — March  1— In  Louisiana,  and  cities  of  Mobile,  Montgom- 
ery and  Selma,  Ala. 

Anniversary  of  Texan  Independence — March  2 — In  Texas. 

Firemen's  Anniversary — March  4 — In  Louisiana. 

Good  Friday— April  15 — In  Florida,  Louisiana,  Minnesota  and  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Memorial  Day — April  26—  In  Georgia. 

Battle  of  San  Jacinto — April  21 — In  Texas. 

Decoration  Z>ay— May  30 — In  Colorado,  Maine,  Vermont,  Connecticut, 
Michigan,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania and  District  of  Columbia. 

Fourth  of  July-~~\n  all  States  and  Territories. 

General  Flee  ion  Day— Generally  on  Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in 
November— In  California,  Maine,  Missouri,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ore- 
gon, South  Carolina  and  Wisconsin. 

Thanksgiving  Day—  Usually  last  Thursday  in  November — and  Fast  days 
whenever  appointed  by  the  President— are  legal  holidays  in  all  States  and 
Territories. 

Christmas  Day — In  all  the  States  and  Territories. 

HOPS. — Average  annual  crop,  in  tons:  England,  26,000; 
Germany  19,000;  United  States,  19,000;  France,  4.500. 

HORSE-POWER. — One  horse-power  will  raise  10  tons  per 
minute  a  height  of  12  inches,  working  8  hours  a  day.  This  is 
about  5,000  foot-tons  daily,  or  12' times  a  man's  work. 

The  horse-power  of  Niagara  is  3^  million  nominal,  equal  to 
10  million  horses  effective. 

ICE. — Good  clear  ice  two  inches  thick  will  bear  men  to  walk 
on;  four  inches  thick  will  bear  horses  and  riders;  six  inches 
thick  will  bear  horses  and  teams  with  moderate  loads. 

ILLEGITIMACY. — The  percentage  of  illegitimate  births  for 
various  countries,  as  stated  by  Mulhall,  is  as  follows ;  Austria, 
12.9;  Denmark,  11.2;  Sweden,  10.2;  Scotland,  8.9;  Norway, 
8.05;  Germany,  8.04;  France,  7.02;  Belgium,  7.0;  United 
States,  7.0;  Italy,  6.8;  Spain  and  Portugal,  5.5;  Canada,  5.0; 
Switzerland,  4.6;  Holland,  3.5;  Russia,  3.1;  Ireland,  2.3; 
Greece,  1.6. 


ILLITERACY.— See  Education. 

IMMIGRATION.— The  arrivals  in  the  United  States  since  1820 
are  as  follows  in  even  thousands : 

iS6i 


° 2,403<°oo 

i-do 2,731,000 

1-9° 5,247,000 


1820-30 H3i°o°: 

1831-40 609,000 

1841-50 1,706,000 

1851-60 2,598,000 

The  grand  total  for  seventy  years  is  15,527,000.  Of 
the  arrivals  in  1S91  there  were:  Germans,  113,554;  Eng* 
lish,  53,600;  Scotch,  12,557;  Irish,  55,706;  Scandinavians, 
59,107;  Italians,  76,055  ;  Various,  188,740 — Total,  560,319. 

INDIANS. — In  1880  the  number  of  Indians  in  the  United 
States  was  as  follows  :  The  greater  part  were  gathered  in 
the  Indian  Territory  upon  reservations  assigned  them  by  the 
Government:  Choctaws,  16,000;  Cherokees,  17,000;  flfrusk- 
ogees,  13,000;  Seminoles,  2,500 ;  Chickasaws,  6,000;  Osages, 
4,000;  Peoria,  170;  Ottawas,  175;  Sacs  and  Foxes,  700 ;  Qua- 
paws,  236.  Of  the  Apaches  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  there 
are  14,349,  and  of  a  collection  of  tribes  in  Oregon,  about  837. 
There  is  also  a  small  remnant  of  the  Oneida  tribe  in  Wisconsin. 
The  annual  report  of  the  U.  S.  Indian  Commissioner  for  1890 
shows  a  total  Indian  population  in  the  United  States,  exclusive 
of  Alaska,  of  249,273,  all  of  whom,  except  about  18,000,  are 
under  control  of  the  Government. 


Indians  in  Canada. 


Population. 
16,000 
11,000 
75,4«> 


Average 

Property.        per  Head. 
,£1,968,000  £123 

363,000  33 


Locality. 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Manitoba,  etc 

INDIA    RUBBER. — This  is  mostly  obtained  from  the  Serin- 

gueros  of  the  Amazon,  who  sell  it  for  about   12  cents  a  pound 

to  the  merchants  of  Para,  but  its  value  on  reaching  England  or 

the  United  States  is  over  50  cents  a  pound.     The  number  of 

tons  imported  into  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  has  been 

as  follows : 

i860.  1870.  1880.  1887. 

United  States 1,610  4,316  T^3?  12,900 

Great  Britain 2,150  7»6o6  8,479  ",oOQ 

The  best  rubber  forests  in  Brazil  will  ultimately  be  exhausted, 
owing  to  the  reckless  mode  followed  by  the  Seringueros  or  tap- 
pers. The  ordinary  product  of  a  tapper's  work  is  from  10  to 
16  lbs.  daily.  There  are  120  india-rubber  manufacturers  in  the 
United  States,  employing  15,000  operatives,  who  produce  280,- 
000  tons  of  goods,  valued  at  #260,000,000,  per  annum. 

INDUSTRIES.— See  diagram,  The  World's  Industries. 

INSANITY.— It  is  estimated  that  the  number  of  insane  per- 
sons in  the  United  States  is  168,900;  in  Germany,  108,100; 
in  France,  93,900;  in  England,  81,600;  in  Russia,  8o,ooo; 
Italy,  44,100;  Austria,  35,000;  Ireland,  19,500;  Scandinavia, 
18,100;  Spain  and  Portugal,  13,000;  Scotland,  11,600;  Bel- 
gium and  Holland,  10,400;  Canada,  7,300 ;  Australia,  4,000; 
Switzerland,  3,100. 

Causes  of  Insanity. — Hereditary,  24  percent;  drink,  14  per 
cent;  business,  12  per  cent;  loss  of  friends,  II  percent;  sick- 
ness, 10  per  cent;  Various,  29  per  cent. 

The  above  result  is  the  medium  average  arrived  at  on  com- 
paring the  returns  for  the  United  States,  England,  France  and 
Denmark. 


/ 


37 


^ 


-#JF§E  WSRUS'S  l%8UmRlM  CSMEJIRSE*- 

Aggregate  Annual  Industries  of  the  World,  in  Millions  of  Dollars. 


THE  WORLD 


EUROPE 


51,910 
UNITED  STATES 


Total  54,355 


38,220 

UNITED  KINGDOM 
Cculti 


•>l'i>  >:•%»-    ,3,85° 


B>20O 


In  the  following  diagrams  are  shown  the  annual  imports  and  exports  per  inhabitant  of  the  principal  nations.  The 
figures  indicate  quarter  dollars.  The  quarter  dollar  lias  been  adopted  as  the  unit  so  as  to  bring  the  comparison  within  the  com- 
pass of  a  circle  of  360  degrees.  Example. — The  figures  representing  the  United  States  in  the  diagram  of  imports  will  be  found 
on  the  line  representing  the  54th  degree,  and  indicate  that  the  United  States  import  yearly  merchandise  to  the  value  of  54 
quarter  dollars,  or  $13.50,  for  every  inhabitant.  The  exports,  on  the  other  hand,  amount  to  $1425  per  inhabitant 
IMPORTS  EXPORTS 


• 


:£ 


_^£  Shipping,  Steam  Power,  Agriculture,  fettle,  and  War  Expenditure.  Ik^ 


SHIPPING.     Showing  carrying  power  in  millions  of  tons. 


/■/.    / 


Ll  n  ill 


2.7 J 


f/f,,,-. 

£■»__£ 


German 


French 


Nuruegian  Spanish  Italian  Russian  Swedish  Dutch 

STEAM  POWER.     In  millions  horsepower.     (Including  stationary  and  locomotive  engines.) 
14.4 


0.8 


0.8  0.7 

Germany  France  Russia  Austria         Belgium         Ttaly  Spam 

AGRICULTURE.     Annual  value  of  agricultural  and  pastoral  products  in  millions  of  dollars. 


/"  2-2 


1       2,120 


\^K~)<~)  0  ©  5  s 


TJ.  States  Russia  France  Germany  Austria        U.  Kingdom        Jtaly  Spain     Australia  Canada 

CATTLE.     Showing  the  number  in  millions. 


Germany 


16_, 
Australia 


ft* 


Spain 


Austria  France  United  Kingdom 

ARMY  AND  NAVY  EXPENDITURE.     Showing  the  cost  per  inhabitant  per  annum. 


! 


1,25 


$4.00 


$3.25 


"}  §  $2.50  >•  ,n^~> 


Germany 


$2,00  ~)  |7$^Q0~)  I    $1,75~>  |   $1.79    >  |  $1.76  >  ft  $1.60  > 


1.00 


Belgium 


"Portugal 


-H 


^, 


564 


DICTIONARY   OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


. 


INTERNAL  REVENUE.-See  diagram,  page  546. 
IRON. — Sec  diagram  Pig  Iron,  page    570. 
LABOR. — Dr.    Farr  estimates  the  value  of  an  agricultural 
laborer  to  the  commonwealth  as  follows  : 


Age. 
5- 


Value. 

$280 

10 585 

15 960 

20 1,170 

25 1,330 


Age. 

30.. 
35-- 
40.. 
45- 
50.. 


Value. 

•  »i,2os 

*  l>140 
.  1,060 
.  065 
.      840 


Age. 

55" 
60.. 
65" 
70.. 


Valu 


4»5 
330 


At  the  age  of  75  he  is  a  loss  of  $125,  and  the  loss  rise*  to 
$205  at  80.  This  is  only  true  of  agricultural  laborers,  since  in- 
tellectual workers  are  often  of  much  value  after  70  years  of  age, 
which  balances  the  account. 

LAKES. — The  length  and  width  of  the  principal  lakes  of  the 
world,  in  miles,  is  as  follows : 

Length.  Width. 


Superior 380. 

Baikal 3°°. 

Michigan 330. 

Great  Slave 300. 

Huron 250. 

Winnipeg 340. 

Erie 370. 

Athabasca 300. 

Ontario 180. 

Maracaybo 150. 


Length.  Width. 

Great  Bear 150 40 

Ladoga....- 135 75 

Champlain 133 12 

Nicaragua 120 40 

Lake  of  the  Woods.. .  70 25 

Geneva 50 10 

Constance 45 10 

Cayuga 36 4 

George 36 3 


LAND  GRANTS.— From  the  year  1787  till  1888,  the  United 
States  Government  ceded  192,000,000  acres  of  public  lands  to 
railways,  77,000,000  to  schools,  62,000,000  to  military,  and 
30,000,000  for  other  purposes,  besides  248,000  acres  in  sales  to 
settlers,  this  last  item  including  125,000,000  granted  in 
homestead  lots. 

LANGUAGES. —  The  English  language  is  spoken  by  100,- 
000,000  people;  French,  48,000,000;  German,  69,000,000; 
Italian,  30,000,000;  Spanish,  41,000,000;  Portuguese,  13,000,- 
000 ;  Russian,  67,000,000. 

LEPROSY. — There  are  131,600  lepers  in  India,  10,000 
in  Canton,  3,300  in  Mauritius,  3,000  in  Portugal,  1,800  in 
Hawaii,  1,770  in  Norway,  900  in  Crete,  600  in  Reunion, 
350  in  Greece,  120  in  Rio  Janeiro,  100  in  Sweden,  and 
13  in  Iceland.  A  recent  estimate  in  Russia  places  the 
number  at  about  6,000. 

LIFE. — American  life-average  for  professions  (Boston) :  Store- 
keepers, 41.8  years  ;  teamsters, 43.6  years.;  laborers, 44.6 years; 
seamen,  46.1  years;  mechanics,  47.3  years;  merchants,  48.4 
years;  lawyers,  52.6  years;  farmers,  64.2  years.  See  Expect- 
ancy Table. 

LONGEVITY. —  The  average  of  human  life  is  33  years.  One 
child  out  of  every  four  dies  before  the  age  of  7  years,  and  only 
one-half  of  the  world's  population  reach  the  age  of  17.  One 
out  of  10,000  reaches  too  years.  The  average  number  of 
births  per  day  is  about  120,000,  exceeding  the  deaths  by  about 
1^  per  minute.  There  have  been  many  alleged  cases  of  longevity 
in  all  ages,  but  only  a  few  are  authentic. 

MARRIAGE. — A  woman's  dances  of  marriage  at  various 
ages. — This  curiously  constructed  exhibit  by  Mr.  Finlayson,  a 
European  statistician,  is  drawn  up  from  the  registered  cases  of 
1,000  married  women,  taken  without  selection.  Of  the  1,000 
tabulated  there  were  married : 


/ 


Years  of  Age. 

Marriages. 

141015 
16  "  17 

4i 

18 

18  "  19 

1 

ao  "  21 

99  "  34 

4 

34"  25 
26  "   27 

2 

Years  of  Age. 

28  to  29 
30"  31 

y  "  33 

36"  37 
3«"  39 


Marriages. 

V         

101  

219         

%    ::::. 

102       

60       

METALS. — Few  people  have  any  idea  of  the  value  of  pre- 
cious metals  other  than  gold,  silver  and  copper,  which  are  com- 
monly supposed  to  be  the  most  precious  of  all.  There  are 
many  metals  more  valuable  and  infinitely  rarer.  The  following 
table  gives  the  names  and  prices  of  all  the  known  metals  of 
pecuniary  worth : 

Price  per 
Av.  pound. 

Vanadium $10,000  00 

Rubidium 9.070  00 

Zirconium 7,200  00 

Lithium   7,000  00 

Giucium 5,40090 

Calcium 4.500  00 

Strontium 4.200  05 

Terbium 4,080  00 

Vitrium 4,080  00 

Erbium 3,400  00 

Cerium 3,400  00 

Didymium 3,200  00 

Indium 3,200  00 

Ruthenium 2,400  00 

Rhodium 3,300  00 

Niobium 2,300  00 

Barium 1,800  00 

Palladium 1,400  00 

Osmium ',300  00 

Iridium 1,090  00 

Uranium 900  00 

Titanium 689  00 

Chromium 500  00 


Price  per 

Av.  pound. 

Gold 3  jo  00 

Molybdenum 33500 

Thallium 225  00 


Platinum 
Manganese  . 
Tungstein  . , 
Magnesium . 
Potassium.  . 
Aluminum*. 

Silver 

Cobalt  ..  ., 
Sodium  ... 
Nickel  ... 
Cadmium. . 
Bismuth  . . 
Mercury  ... 
Arsenic  .... 

Tin 

Copper...., 
Antimony  . , 
Zinc  .  ... 
Lead 

•   Keoent    proc*ns*«  are  reducing  c**t 

of  production  indefinite! v. 
As  Conductor!. 


150  00 

130  00 

115  00 

64  00 

64  00 

33  00 

30  00 

16  00 

8  00 

5  00 

4  00 

3    JO 

95 
So 
25 

16 
11 
08 


Heat.  Electricity. 

Gold 100  94 

Platinum   98  to 

Silver 97  74 

Copper 90  100 


Iron  ... 
Zinc  ... 
Tin.... 
Lead   . 


Heat.  Electricity. 
37  >* 

36  39 

30  15 

18  8 


Tenacity. 
A  wire,  0.84  of  a  line  in  diameter,   will  sustain  weights  as 
follows : 


Lead 28  lbs. 

Tin 35    " 

Zinc no    " 

Gold 150   " 


Silver   1S7IU. 

Platinum..    274    " 

Copper 30a   " 

Iron- 549    •* 


Fluid  Density. 


Zinc  . 
Iron  . 
Tin.. 


„„....- ..     6  48  I  Copper S.ss 

6.88    Silver 9.51 

.. 7.03  1  Lead '0.37 

MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  STRENGTH.— See  diagram,  page 
33°- 

MILK. — The  component  parts  of  milk  are  as  follows : 


Water. 

Fat. 
••S 

40 
1.1 
3-3 
4-> 

Caseine. 
3-4 

;■' 

>9 

4° 
4-5 

Sugg.r. 

2.8 
6.1 
5  9 
57 

Total. 

::::.::  $1 

::::.*:.'.' 0 

10O.O 

MONEY. — The  amounfof  money  in  circulation  in  the  princi- 
pal nations  of  the  world  is  as  follows,  paper  money  being  in- 
eluded  as  well  as  gold  and  silver:  France,  12,005,000,000; 
United  States,  $1,056,000,000;  India,  1960,000,000;  United 
Kingdom,  $925,000,000;  Russia,  $760,000,000;  Germany, 
$750,000,000;  Italy,  $525,000,000 ;  South  America,  $465,000,- 
000;  Austria,  $410,000,000;  Spain,  $265,000,000;  Japan, 
$255,000,000;  Belgium,  $210,000,000;  Holland,  $165,000,- 
000 ;  Australia,  $95,000,000.     The  amount  of  coin  in  circula- 


V 


DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


565 


V 


tion,  exclusive  of  copper,  is  as  follows  :  France,  81,505,000,000 ; 
India,  8900,000,000;  United  States,  $1,689,000,000;  United 
Kingdom,  $715,000,000;  Germany,  $540,000,000;  Italy, 
$225,000,000;  Spain,  $205,000,000;  Russia,  $170,000,000; 
Belgium,  $145,000,000;  South  America,  $140,000,000;  Japan, 
$125,000,000;  Austria,  $100,000,000;  Holland,  $85,000,000; 
Australia,  $70,000,000. 

MOUNTAINS. — Highest  and  most.noted  mountains  on  the 
globe. — North  America. — Northern  Coast  Mts.  :  Mt.  St. 
Elias,  18,283  ft-  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Range:  Mt. 
Whitney,  14,887;  Mt.  Rainier,  14,444;  Mt.  Shasta,  14,440; 
Mt.  Tyndall,  14,386;  Mt.  Dana,  13,277;  Mt.  Hood,  11,225. 
Rocky  Mountains :  Uncompahgre  Peak,  14,540 ;  Mt.  Har- 
vard, 14,384;  Gray's  Peak,  14,341;  Mt.  Lincoln,  14,297; 
Long's  Peak,  14,271  ;  Pike's  Peak,  14,149.  Mexican  Plateau; 
Orizaba,  17,897;  Popocatepetl,  17,784;  Iztaccihuatl,  15,700. 
Central  America. — Agua,  14,494;  Fuego,  12,790.  South 
America. — Andes  :  Illampu,  24,812;  Illimani,  24,155;  Acon- 
cagua, 23,421;  Tupaugati,  22,015;  Chimborazo,  21,424; 
Nevada  de  Sorata,  21,290;  Nevada  de  Cayambe,  19,535; 
Anlisana,  19*137;  Cotopaxi,  18,870;  Tunguaragua,  16,424, 
Pichincha,  15,924.  Europe.— Elburz  (Asiatic  boundary), 
18,572;  Blanc  (Alps),  15,784;  Rosa  (Alps),  15,223;  Matter- 
horn  (Alps),  14,039;  Finster-Aarhorn  (Alps),  14,039  ;  Jungfrau 
(Alps),  13,718;  Iseran,  13,270/  Mulhacen  (Spain),  11,654; 
Maladetta  (Spain),  11,426;  Mt.  Etna  (Sicily),  10,874;  Mt. 
Olympus  (Greece),  9,754;  St.  Bernard  (Switzerland),  8,000; 
Parnassus  (the  home  of  the  muses,  Greece),  6,000 ;  Vesuvius 
(volcano,  near  Naples),  3,900.  Asia. — Everest  (Himalayas, 
highest  in  the  world),  29,002;  Dapsang  (Karakorum  Mts.), 
28,278;  Kintchinjunga  (Himalayas),  28,156;  Dhawalagari 
(Himalayas),  26,826 ;  Nanda  Devi  (Himalayas),  25,661  ; 
highest  peak  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh  Mts.,  20,000;  Ararat  (Ar- 
menia), 17,200;  Fusiyama  (Japan)  14,177  ;  Mt.  Sinai  (Arabia), 
8,200.  Africa.— Killimanjaro  (Central  Africa),  20,000; 
Kenia  (do.),  18,000;  Teneriffe  (Canary  Islands),  12,182; 
highest  peak  of  the  Atlas  Mts.,  11,400;  highest  peak  of  the 
Mts.  of  Abyssinia;  10,000.  Islands. — Mauna  Loa  (Sandwich 
Islands),  14,000;  Ophir  (Sumatra),  13,842;  Owen  Stanley 
(Papua),  13,205;  Semero  (Java),  12,000;  Egmont  (New  Zea- 
land), 8,840;  highest  peak  of  the  Australian  Alps,  7,500; 
Kilanea  (Sandwich  Islands),  6,000";  Stromboli  (volcano  in  the 
Mediterranean),  3,000. 

The  greatest  height  attained  by  Humboldt  was  19,510  feet, 
in  the  Andes,  but  Mr.  Whymper,  in  1880,  ascended  Cotopaxi 
to  19,620  feet,  and  Chimborazo  to  20,545  feet. 

NAVIES. — See  diagram,  page  336;  also  Navy  Department. 

NAILS. — The  size  and  weight  of  nails  are  as  follows : 

Name.                  Length. 
10  penny 2^  inch 


Name.                Length, 
2  penny 1     inch 

4  "       *%  " 

5  "      -K" 


No.  in  lb. 

5S7 

353 

232 

167 

M» 

......  101 


Spikes . 


.4 

•4« 
•  4  . 


No.  in  lb. 

63 

■ 54 

34 

i 16 


6      "       . 

I  "  : 

NAVAL  ARMAMENT.— The  progress  of  "  iron-clad  science  " 
in  30  years  has  been : 

1861.     Richard  Catling  patented  his  gun,  firing  200  shots  a  min-' 
ute.    It  now  tires  400. 


No.  of  pub- 

Per 

lications. 

head. 

'9.557 

24.38 

14,802 

36.66 

775 

o.ot 

699 

3.92 

661 

30.63 

182 

0.01 

1862.  The  Merrimac  and  Monitor  in  American  civil  war  ;  first  battle  of 
iron-cUds. 

1873.  English  rifle  cannon  send  200  lbs.  shots,  9-ton  guns,  through  8-inch 
plate. 

1874.  Plates  of  10  inches  pierced  in  like  manner. 

1876.    Armstrong  100-ton  guns  broke  22-inch  Crcusot  steel  plates. 

1879.  Shot  from  9-inch  gun,  75  lbs.  powder,  unable  to  pierce  a  12-inch 
plate  of  iron  and  steel  alternate  layers. 

i860.    Result  of  Krupp's  experiments  : — 

Penetra-  Foot 

Goo,  Inch.        Shot.  Lbs.        tion.  Tons. 

Krupp    9>*i  348  18. 1  8,630 

British nJ4  812  17.9  12,260 

1889.  Krupp's  130-ton  12-mile  gun  fires  two  2,6colb.  shots  a  min- 
ute thwjugh  19-inch  armor. 

NICOTINE. — According  to  Orfila,  the  proportion  of  nicotine 
in  Havana  tobacco  is  2  per  cent ;  in  French,  6  per  cent,  and  in 
Virginia  tobacco,  7  per  cent.     That  in  Brazilian  is  still  higher. 

NEWSPAPERS.— The  population  of  the  world,  the  number 
of  newspapers  in  each  continent  in  1885,  and  the  number  of 
copies  per  annum  in  proportion  to  each  inhabitant,  are  shown 
below : 

Population. 

Europe 301,356,369 

North  America 76,033,776 

Asia 1,007,128,657 

South  America 29,988,509 

Australasia 3,070,850 

Africa 205,000,000 

The  number  of  newspapers  published  in  the  United  States  in 
1885  was  14,111,  of  which  1,273  were  daily. 

NICKNAMES  of  Natives  of  States  and  Territories.— Ala- 
bama, Lizards;  Arkansas,  Toothpicks;  California,  Gold-hunt 
ers;  Colorado,  Rovers;  Connecticut,  Wooden  Nutmegs;  Da 
kota,  Squatters;  Delaware,  Muskrats;  Florida,  Fly-up-the 
creeks ;  Georgia,  Buzzards ;  Idaho,  Fortune-seekers ;  Illinois, 
Suckers;  Indiana,  Hoosiers;  Iowa,  Hawkeyes;  Kansas,  Jay 
hawkers;  Kentucky,  Corn  Crackers;  Louisiana,  Creoles 
Maine,  Foxes;  Maryland,  Clam-Humpers ;  Massachusetts,  Van 
kees;  Michigan,  Wolverines ;  Minnesota,  Gophers ;  Mississippi 
Tadpoles;  Missouri,  Pukes;  Nebraska,  Bug- Eaters;  Nevada 
Sage  Hens;  New  Hampshire,  Granite  Boys;  New  Jersey, 
Blues,  or  Clam-Catchers ;  New  Mexico,  Spanish  Indians;  New 
York,  Knickerbockers;  North  Carolina,  Tarheels ;  Ohio,  Buck- 
eyes; Oregon,  Hard  Cases;  Pennsylvania,  Pennamites,  or 
Leather- Heads;  Rhode  Island,  Gunflints;  South  Carolina, 
Weazles;  Tennessee,  Whelps ;  Texas,  Beefheads;  Utah,  Polyg- 
amists;  Vermont,  Green  Mountain  Boys;  Virginia,  Beagles; 
Wisconsin,  Badgers. 

OCEANS. — The  Pacific  Ocean  covers  a  surface  of  about  80,- 
000,000  square  miles;  Atlantic, 40,000,000 ;  Indian, 20,000,000; 
Southern,  10,000,000;  Arctic,  5,000,000.  The  seas,  bays,  gulfs, 
etc.,  connected  with  each  ocean,  are  included.  Most  geogra- 
phers concede,  however,  that  the  exact  superficial  extent  of  the 
several  oceans  is  not  known  with  certainty,  nor  the  exact  pro- 
portion of  land  and  water. 

OPIUM. — The  shipments  from  India  for  twenty  years 
were  about  as  follows  :  1861-65,  4,305  tons  ;  1866-70, 4,870; 
1871-75  5.250;  1876-80  6,005 — value  nearly  $250,000,000. 
Theshipment  from  Bombay  in  1890  amounted  to  5,976  tons. 

A  paper  read  before  the  New  York  Medical  Society  at  Al- 
bany in  1885,  by  Dr.  F.  N.  Hammond,  presented  some  signifi- 
cant and  important  facts.  In  1840  about  20,000  pounds  of  opium 


=^ 


. 


THE  GRAIN  CROPS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

There  is  more  Indian  Com  vroAuceo.  than  any  other  grain,  most  ot  it  in  the  \Jniteo^j 
States.  Wh.eafbei.ivg more  geneTalVy  aiatriToutea,  the  proportionate  -yield  Va  6.\M62 
■rent  countries  is  giuen.  The  Soa\e \Jnit  tor  tne  Wheat  exni'oit  i.e  Z43.7.00  Xrasnj 
ele.That  lor  the  grain  ciries  is  1.399  ,'SOO. 


Switzerland 
Denmark 
Portugal    8,252,1 
Egypt     8.252,160 


2,475,648 
5,776,512 


• 


t 


X 


a 


■Estimate  d^viaYae  ol 
the  Gold  ana.  SiYuer 
produced  in.  the  \3ti\- 
ted States  duTing  42 
years. 


From  1849 
to  1855 
S385.350.000l 


1856 
to  I860 

$256,850.0001 


1861 

to  1865 

$258,775.0001 


1866 
to  1870 
$316,225.0001 


1871 

to  1875 

$339,010,912 


1376 

to  1880 

$415,962,880 


1881 
to  1890 

$861,675,000 


THE  WORLD'S 

PRODUCTION  OF  THE  PRECIOUS  METALS 
IN  ONE  YEAR. 

G61d    -     '  •'  '  (Dollirs)  Silver 


Alaska 
Oregon 

New  Mexico 

Dakota 
South  Dakota 
Arizona 


652,500 

762,500 
1,100,000 

'850,000 


560,870 

9,697 
96,969 


129,292 


1.110.000 


Idaho         ,  1,850,000 
Utah  680,000  / 


Washington 

Mm  viand 

Texas 

North  Carolina 

Georgia 

South  Carolina 

Alabama 

Tennessee 

Virginia 

Vermont 

Michigan 

Wyoming 


Nevada 


1,163,636 


Germany  \       1,230,000 


Austria 


*• 


V 


568 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


~A 


were  consumed  in  the  United  States  ;  in  1880,  533,450  pounds. 
In  1868  there  were  about  90,000  habitual  opium-eaters  in  the 
country ;  now  they  number  over  500,000.  More  women  than 
men  are  addicted  to  the  use  of  the  drug.  The  vice  is  one  so 
easily  contracted,  so  easily  practiced  in  private,  and  so  difficult 
of  detection  that  it  presents  peculiar  temptations  and  is  very  in- 
sidious. The  relief  from  pain  that  it  gives,  and  the  peculiar  ex- 
altation of  spirits,  easily  lead  the  victim  to  believe  that  the  use  of 
it  is  beneficial.  Opium  and  chloral  are  to-day  the  most  deadly 
foes  of  women.  Dr.  Hammond  is  the  better  qualified  to  speak 
on  this  subject  from  having  once  been  a  consumer  of  opium 
himself.  To  break  off  from  the  habit,  he  says,  the  opium-eater 
must  reduce  the  quantity  of  his  daily  dose,  using  at  the  same 
time  other  stimulants,  and  gradually  eliminate  the  deadly  drug 
entirely. 

OYSTERS. — Annual  production,  in  millions :  United  States, 
11,200;  Portugal,  600;  France,  380;  United  Kingdom,  300. 
Baltimore  packs  seven  million  bushels  yearly. 

PARTIES. — See  diagram,  page  333. 

PHYSICANS. — The  number  of  physicians  and  surgeons  in 
various  countries  is  as  follows,  according  to  Mulhall :  United 
States,  65,000;  England,  15,920;  Scotland,  3,455;  Ireland, 
3,560;  France,  10,743;  Germany,  32,000;  Russia,  13,475; 
Austria,  10,000;  Italy,  9,400;  Spain,  5,200 ;  Belgium,  2,893 ; 
Scandinavia,  1,120.  > 

PLAGUES. — Remarkable  plagues  of  modern  times  : 


The  Great  Powers  of  Europe. 


Place. 


Date. 

1656 Naples  380,000 

1665 London 68,800 

1720 Marseilles 39, 100 

1771 Moscow 87,800 

1778 Constantinople 170,000 

1 798 Cairo 88,000 

1812 Constantinople 144,000 

'834  Cairo    57,ooo 

1835  Alexandria 14,000 

1871 Buenos  Ayres 26,300 


Deaths.    Weeks. 
28 


u 

3» 
18 
»5 


Deaths 

per  Week. 

10,400 

2, 100 

1,100 

2,700 

9,500 

3.5oo 

11,100 

3,200 

900 

2,400 


POLITICAL  PARTIES.— See  diagram,  page  333. 

POPES. — The  various  nations  of  Europe  are  represented  in 
the  list  of  Popes  as  follows :  English,  1 ;  Dutch,  1 ;  Swiss,  1  ; 
Portuguese,  I;  African,  2;  Austrian,  2;  Spanish,  5;  German, 
6;  Syrian,  8;  Greek,  14;  French,  15;  Italian,  197. 

Eleven  Popes  reigned  over  20  years;  69,  from  10  to  20;  57, 
from  5  to  10 ;  and  the  reign  of  1 16  was  less  than  5  years. 

POPULATION.— See  diagrams.  Comparative  Density  of 
Population  and  Curiosities  of  the  Census  ;  also  full-page  tables 
under  head  "Statistics  of  Population,"  pages  581-584. 

Increaie  of  Population  in  United  States. 

Natural. 

1831-40 28.02 

1841-5° 26.19 

1851-60 o4.jo 

1861-70 ,5.38 

1871-80 al,7g 

The  increase  of  population  since  1830  (see  page  581)  has 
averaged  32  per  cent  every  10  years.  At  this  rate  there  will  bt 
88  millions  in  1900. 


Total 

ngration 

per  Cent 

9^63 

32.67 

35  87 
35.58 

11.38 

7-25 

22.63 

7.29 

30.07 

Eogboid. 

France . . 
Prussia. . 
Russia  . . 
Austria.. 
Italy.... 
Spain  . . . 


Totnl 


Thousands  Omitted. 


1380. 


2,360 
11,240 
600 
1,200 
2,300 
8,400 
7,500 


33.«> 


1480, 


3.7« 
ZSjOOO 

800 

2,100 

9,500 

•y,2'>J 

U  e 


4<>.7" 


1580. 


4,600 

l4,3<>o 
1,000 
4,3<>o 
•6,500 
10,400 
8,150 


5/. '5  ■ 


rfk. 


■avion 

1,400 
12,600 
14,000 

11,5*/ 
9,200 


73.032 


1780. 


9.56' 
25,100 
5.460 

20,200 
12,800 
9-9*° 


■Ms, 


H  •  •  « 
37,400 
4  ..--. 
■faflS 


285.134 


In  the  above,  England  now  stands  for  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  Prussia  for  the  German  Empire. 

POULTRY.— The  following  table  contains,  in  a  small  space, 
much  valuable  information  for  those  engaged  in  the  poultry 

business  : 


■nsii 


Brahmas,  light 

Brahmas,  dark 

Cochins,  black 

Cochins,  buff 

Cochins,  white 

Cochins,  partridge 

Common 

Dorkings   

Dominique*.  American 

Games,  black-breasted  red  . 

Hamburgs 

Houdans    

Leghorns,  black 

Leghorns,  brown 

Leghorns,  dominique , , 

Leghorns,  white 

Plymouth  Rocks 

Polish 

Spanish,  black 

Ducks,  common    

Ducks,  Aylesbury 

Ducks,  Cayuga 

Ducks,  Pekin 

Duks,  Rouen 

Geese,  common 

Geese,  African 

Geese,  Egyptian 

Geese,  Embden 

Geese,  Toulouse 

Turkeys,  common 

Turkeys,  black 

Turkeys,  bronze 

Turkeys,  buff 

Turkeys,  Narragansctts . . . . 


1  0. 


■1« 


II 

in 

5 

Hi 

7* 

a 

s. 

7 
3 

I 
6 


•C  2 
*  o 


7 

w 


3 
5 
4 
5 
3 

w 

IN 

.<   j 


3 


i! 

-5 


eg 

"T    3 

f  6 

8 
V 


$'  50 

1 50 
I  50 
I  50 
I  50 

1  so 

I  00 

1  25 

1  25 

1  00 

80 

1  25 

75 

75 

75 

75 

1  50 

1  00 

x  00 

75 

1  00 

90 
1  10 
1  10 
1  25 
1  75 
x  00 
■  75 
a  00 
z  20 
1  75 
a  00 
1  75 

■  n 


I  ■ 


»  90 

90 
90 
90 
90 
90 
75 
90 
90 
75 
75 
1  00 

75 
75 
75 
75 
90 

£ 

1  00 
1  00 
1  00 
s  00 
1  00 
1  50 
a  00 
t  50 
a  oo 
•  00 
1  50 

"  75 

a  00 

1  50 


n 


H   50 

I  50 
I  70 

I  20 

I  40 

lit 

1  ao 
1  70 

.E 

I  70 
a  00 
a  00 
a  oo 
a  00 
1  75 
J  70 
x  70 

e 

1  00 

i\ 

so 

30 
40 

so 
40 
50 

jo 

50 

SO 


A  Comparison. 
The  annual  supply  of  eggs  in  the  United  States  is  es- 
timated at  over  600,000,000  dozen,  and  at  the  low  price  of 
sixteen  cents  per  dozen,  represents  a  value  of  over  $96,- 
000,000 — about  the  value,  of  the  product  of  our  gold  and 
silver  mines. 

PRECIOUS  METALS.— See  diagram,  page  567. 

PULSE. — The  number  of  pulsations  per  minute  is  120  in 
infancy,  80  in  manhood,  60  in  old  age,  and  rather  more  in 
women  than  in  men. 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


569 


PYRAMIDS. — The  largest,  that  of  Cheops,  is  composed 
of  four  million  tons  of  stone,  and  occupied  100.000  men 
during  20  years,  equal  to  an  outlay  of  $200,000,000.  It 
would  now  cost  $20,000,000  at  a  contract  price  of  36  cents 
per  cubic  foot. 

QUININE. — Annual  production  :  Peru,  8,900,000  lbs. ; 
India,  2,200,000  lbs.;  Java,  110,000  lbs.;  Jamaica,  21,000 
lbs,  Total  11,231,000  lbs.of  bark,  yielding  236,000  lbs.  of 
quinine. 

RABBITS. — One  pair  of  rabbits  can  become  multiplied 
in  four  years  into  1,250,000.  They  were  introduced  into 
Australia  a  few  years  ago,  and  now  that  colony  ships 
25,000,000  rabbit-skins  yearly  to  England. 

RAILWAYS.— [See  diagram.]  There  are  constant  addi- 
tions to  the  railroads  of  the  United  States,  and  the  num- 
ber of  miles,  on  Jan.  1,  1891,  had  increased  to  167,741, 
owned  by  1,797  campanies  having  a  gross  income  of 
$1,051,877,632  and  employing  749,301  men.  The  rest  of 
America  has  36,187  miles;  Europe  136,859;  Asia  19,277; 
Africa  5,365;  Australia  11,136;  total  for  the  world  376,- 
56S- 

Railway  Signal  Code. 
One  whistle  signifies  "  down  brakes."  Two  whistles  signify 
"  off  brakes."  Three  whistles  signify  "backup."  Continued 
whistles  signify  "danger."  Rapid  short  whistles  "a  cattle 
alarm."  A  sweeping  parting  of  the  hands  on  the  level  with  the 
eyes,  signifies  "go  ahead."  Downward  motion  of  the  hands 
with  extended  arms,  signifies  "  stop."  Beckoning  motion  of  one 
hand,  signifies  "back."  Red  flag  waved  up  the  track,  signifies 
"  danger."  Red  flag  stuck  up  by  the  roadside,  signifies  "  danger 
ahead."  Red  flag  carried  on  a  locomotive,  signifies  "an  engine 
following."  Red  flag  hoisted  at  a  station,  is  a  signal  to  "  stop." 
Lanterns  at  night  raised  and  lowered  vertically,  is  a  signal  "  to 
start."  Lanterns  swung  at  right  angles  across  the  track,  means 
"  stop."     Lanterns  swung  in  a  circle,  signifies  "  back  the  train." 

RECEIPTS  and  expenditures  U.  S.  Government. — See  dia- 
gram, page  546. 

RAINFALL. — The  average  annual  rainfall,  as  ascertained  by 
observations  at  different  points  throughout  the  Union,  is  as  fol- 
lows: 


Inches. 

Baltimore 41 

Baton  Rouge,  La 60 

Boston 44 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 33 

Burlington,  Vt 34 

Brunswick,  Me •■ 44 

Charleston,  S.C 43 

Cleveland,  Ohio '. . . . .  37 

Cincinnati   44 

Dalles,  Or ai 

Detroit,  Mich 30 

Fort  Bliss,  Tex 9 

Fort  Bridger,  Utah 6 

Fort  Brown,  Tex 33 

Fort  Colville,  Wash 9 

Fort  Craig,  N.  Mex x  1 

Fort  Defiance,  Ariz 14 

Fort  Garland,  Col 6 

Fort  Gibson,  Indian  Ter 36 

Fort  Hoskins,  Or 66 

Fort  Kearney,  Neb 25 


Inches. 

Huntsville,  Ala e4 

KeyWest.Fla 36 

Macinac,  Mich  . 


23 

Marietta,  Ohio 42 

Meadow  Valley,  Cal 57 

Memphis,  Tenn 45 

Milwaukee,  Wis 30 

Muscatine,  Iowa 42 

Mt.  Vernon  Arsenal,  Ala 66 

Natchez,  Miss c, 

Neah  Bay,  Wash 123 

Newark,  N.  J 44 

New  Bedford,  Mass 41 

New  Haven,  Conn 44 

New  Orleans,  La 5X 

New  York 43 

PennYan.N.Y 28 

Peoria,  111 35 

Philadelphia 44 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 37 

Providence,  R.  I 41 


Fort  Laramie,  Wy 15 

Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan 31 

Fort  Marcy,  N.  Mex 16 

Fort  Massachusetts,  Col 17 

Fort  Myers,  Fla 56 

Fort  Randall,  Dak 16 

Fort  Smith,  Ark 40 

Fort  Snetling,  Minn 25 

Fort  Towson,  Indian  Ter 57 

Fort  Vancouver,  Wash.  Ter 38 

Fortress  Monroe 47 

Gaston,  N.  C 43 

Hanover,  N.  H 40 


Richmond,  Ind 43 

Sacramento,  Cal 15 

Salt  Lake,  Utah 23 

San  Francisco,  Cal 21 

San  Diego,  Cal 9 

Savannah,  Ga 48 

Sitka,  Alaska 83 

Springdalc,  Ky -48 

St.  Louis,  Mo 42 

Washington,  Ark 54 

Washington,  D.  C 37 

White  Sulphur  Springs,  Va 37 


RELIGION. — [See  diagrams.]  The  estimated  number  of 
religious  denominations  among  English-speaking  communities 
throughout  the  world  is  as  follows:  Episcopalians,  21,100,000; 
Methodists  of  all  descriptions,  15,800,000;  Roman  Catholics, 
14,340,000;  Presbyterians  of  all  descriptions,  10,500,000;  Bap- 
tists of  all  descriptions,  8,160,000 ;  Congregationalists,  6,000,000; 
Unitarians,  1,000,000;  Free  Thought,  1,100,000;  minor  relig- 
ious sects,  2,000,000;  of  no  particular  religion,  20,000,000. 
Total  English-speaking  population,  100,000,000. 

RICE. — Production :  India,  16,800,000  tons ;  Japan,  3,450,000; 
Java,  2,740,000;  Manilla,  1,800,000;  Italy,  710,000;  Ceylon, 
480,000;   United  States,  90,000;  Spain,  80,000. 

RIVERS. — Length  of  principal  rivers:  North  America. — 
Missouri  to  the  sea  (longest  in  the  world),  4,200;  Missouri  to 
the  Mississippi,  2,800;  Mississippi  proper,  2,800;  Mackenzie, 
2,300;  St.  Lawrence,  2,200  ;  Nelson  and  Saskatchewan,  f,ooo; 
Rio  Grande,  1,800;  Yukon,  1,600;  Arkansas,  1,514;  Ohio  (in- 
cluding the  Alleghany),  1,275;  Columbia,  1,200;  Red  River, 
1,200;  Colorado,  1,100;  Platte,  800;  Brazos  (Colorado  of 
Texas),  650.  South  America. — Amazon,  3,600 ;  Rio  de  la 
Plata  (Parana  included),  2,250;  Orinoco,  1,500;  St.  Francisco, 
1 ,500 ;  Tocantius  and  Uraguay,  1,250;  Magdalena,  900. 
Europe. — Volga,  2,000;  Danube,  1,800;  Don,  Dneiper,  1,000; 
Rhine,  880;  Petchora,  Elbe,  737;  Dwina,  700;  Vistula,  691  ; 
Loire,  599  ;  Tagus,  550 ;  Dneister,  Guadiana,  500 ;  Oder,  Douro, 
Rhone,  Po,  Seine,  450.  Asia. — Yenisei,  3,400 ;  Yang-tse- 
Kiang,  3,320;  Lena,  Obi,  Hoang-Ho,  2,700;  Amoor,  2,650; 
Indus,  1,850;  Mekong,  1,800;  Euphrates,  1,750;  Ganges, 
Brahmapootra,  1,600;  Irrawaddy,  1,200;  Tigris,  1,150  Ural, 
1,000.  Africa. — Nile,  3,895;  Niger,  3.000  ;  Zambesi,  1 ,800 ; 
Congo  (or  Livingstone),  estimated,  1,600;  Senegal,  Orange, 
1,000.    Australia. — Murray,  1,700. 

ROMAN   CATHOLIC    CHURCH.— Pope  Leo  XIII  is  the 

258th  Pontiff.  The  full  number  of  the  Sacred  College  is  63, 
namely:  Cardinal  Bishops,  5;  Cardinal  Priests,  47;  Cardi- 
nal Deacons,  11.  At  present  there  are  63  Cardinals.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Hierarchy,  according  to  official  returns 
published  at  Rome  recently  consisted  of  11  Patriarchs, 
and  1,153  Archbishops  and  Bishops.  Including  12  coadjutor  or 
auxiliary  bishops,  the  number  of  Roman  Catholic  archbishops 
and  bishops  now  holding  office  in  the  British  Empire  is  134. 
The  numbers  of  the  clergy  are  approximate  only. 

RYE.— The  annual  rye  crop  of  the  world  is  worth  over 
{1,100,000,000,  and  feeds  180,000,000  of  people.  Russia  pro- 
duces annually  680,000,000  bushels;  Germany,  240,000,000; 
Austria,  130,000,000;  France,  80,000,000;  Italy  and  Spain, 
68,000,000;  Scandinavia,  40,000,000,  and  the  United  States, 


A*> 


9  > 


PRODUCTION  OF  PIG  IRON  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

From  Statistics  of  American  Iron  and  Steel  Association. 
IN  TONS  OF  2.000  LBS.  189I.  SCALE  UNIT  500. 

The  condition  of  the  Iron  industry  is  looked  upon  by  many  as 
a  more  certain  indication  of  the  Country's  prosperity,  than  may 
be  gathered  from  any  other  source.  In  the  smaller  diagram,  the 
figures  for  the  United  States  are  for  1891 ;  those  for  other  coun- 
tries are  from  returns  varying  from  1888  to  1891— in  all  cases 
the  latest  data  obtainable. 


■ 

■ 

3 


Colorado 

20,a»0 


Massachusetts 
10,069 


I   California 
1,760 


Maryland 


West  Virginia 


188306 


Tennessee 


838,747 


OHIO 


9218 


Oregon 

10.111 


Ulisonrl 


PRODUCTION  OF  COAL  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  TONS. 

Sc.-a.le  unit,  16,600. 


] 


Oregon 
Texas 
Arkansas 
Montana 
New  Mexico 


64,359 
128,216 
279,584 
363,301 
486,983 


"52,832 
Virginia         868,603 


Alabama                       3,::78,484 



OHIO 

9.976.787 


ILLINOIS 
12.104,272 


30.007  1 
67,431  I 





PENNSYLVANIA 

81,719,059 


Iowa 


4,061,704 


ONE  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION  OF  COAL  IN  THE  WORLD.    1891. 

Scale  unit,  63,000. 


GERMANY 

84,900,000 


UNITED  STATES 

140,730,288  short  tons, 

OR 

125.652,056  tons 
of  2,240  pounds. 


-St 


7 


K" 


572 


DICTIONARY   OK    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


-/ 


31,000,000,  while  the  products  of  other  countries  swells  the 
grand  total  to  1 ,408,000,000  bushels. 

SEAS. — Length  in  miles  (approximate) :  Mediterranean, 
2,000;  Caribbean,  1,800;  China,  1,700;  Red,  1,400;  Japan, 
1,000;  Black,  932;  Caspian,  640;  Baltic,  600;  Okhotsk,  600; 
White,  450 ;  Aral,  250. 

SERFS. — Russia:  There  were  47,932,000  serfs  in  Russia  in 

1 861,  as  follows :  Crown  serfs,  22,851,000 ;  appanage,  3,326,000 ; 

held   by   nobles,  21,755,000.     The  cost  of  redemption  was  as 

follows,  in  round  numbers  : 

Mortgages  remitted $1 52, 000,000 

Government  scrip 101,000,000 

Paid  by  serfs 52,000,000 

Balance  due 20,000,000 


Total $325,000,000 

The  indemnity  to  the  nobles  was  $15  per  serf.     The  lands  are 

mortgaged  to  the  State  till  191 2.     The  lands  ceded  to  Crown 

serfs  are  mortgaged  only  till  1901.     The  item  of  "  mortgages 

remitted  "  is  the  amount  due  by  nobles  to  the  Imperial  Bank  and 

canceled. 

Austrian  Servitude  (1840). 

Value. 

Labor  (two  days  per  week) $175,000,000 

Tithe  of  crops,  etc 60,000,000 

Male  tribute,  timber 7,000,000 

Female  tribute,  spun  wool 9,000,000 

Fowl,  eggs,  butter , ,, 5,000,000 

Total $256,000,000 

There  v\.re  7,000,000  serfs,  whose  tribute  averaged  more  than 
S35  per  head,  which  was,  in  fact,  the  rent  of  their  farms.  Some 
Bohemian  nobles  had  as  many  as  10,000  serfs.  The  redemption 
was  effected  by  giving  the  nobles  5  per  cent  Government  scrip, 
and  land  then  rose  50  per  cent  in  value. 

German  Serfs. 

In   1848  the   State  took  60,000,000  acres  from  the  nobles, 

leaving  them  still  25,000,000  acres,  and  gave  the  former  among 

the  serfs.     Indemnity  as  follows : 

1.  Government  scrip,  $900  for  each  serf  family,  to  nobleman, 
a.  Land  tax,  $15  per  annum,  transferred  to  peasant. 
3.  Interest,  $35  per  annum  for  47  years,  to  be  paid  by  peasant  to  the  State 
being  4  per  cent  on  cost  of  redemption. 

SHEEP. — The  number  of  sheep  in  various  countries  is  as 
follows  (in  round  millions) :  River  Plate,  76 ,  Australia,  66 ; 
United  States,  49;  Russia,  48;  United  Kingdom,  28;  Spain  and 
Portugal,  25;  Germany,  25;  France,  23;  Austria,  21;  Cape 
Colony,  11;  Algeria,  9;  Italy,  7  ;  Roumania,  etc.,  6;  Scandi- 
navia, 5 ;  Canada,  3^  ;  Belgium  and  Holland,  I  %  ;  the  total 
number  being  about  395,000,000. 

SHIPPING. — [See  diagram,  page  563].  Tonnage  of  entries 
at  principal  ports : 

Thousands  Omit  ltd. 


London 8,210 

New  York 7,506 

Liverpool 7,320 

Marseilles 3,260 

Antwerp a, 720 

Hamburg 2,315 

Havre   9,260 

Glasgow 2,170 


Dublin 2,120 

Belfast 2,030 

Hull a,oio 

Genoa 1,640 

Boston 1,560 

Baltimore 1,365 

Philadelphia 1,260 


SHOEMAKERS'  MEASURE.— 

Small  sitss. — No.  1.  4  l-8th  in. 

No.  a.  4  1 -8th  In.  +  x-3d  —  4  it-24th  in. 
No.  3.  4  :-8th  in.  +  i-3d  +  i-3d  -  4  to-»4th  in. 
Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 


Largs  sivs. — 

No.  1.  8  1 1 -24th  in. 

No.  2.  8  n-24lh  in.  -r  l-3d  «-  8  xo-34th  in. 
No.  3.  8  11-241I1  in.  4.  i-3d  -r  l-3d  ™  9  l-*th  in. 
No.  4.  8  11-24U1  in.  -r  i-3d  -f  1-3CI  +  x-3d  ■■  8  u-24th  in. 
Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

SICKNESS.— The  ratio  of  sickness  rises  and  falls  regularly 
with  death-rate  in  all  countries,  as  shown  by  Dr.  Farr  and  Mr. 
Edmonds  at  the  London  Congress  of  1 860,  when  the  following 
rule  was  established: 

Of  1 ,000  persons,  aged  30,  it  is  probable  10  will  die  in  the 
year,  in  which  case  there  will  be  20  of  that  age  sick  throughout 
the  year,  and  10  invalids. 

Of  1,000  persons,  aged  75,  it  is  probable  that  100  will  die  in 
the  year,  in  which  case  the  sick  and  invalids  of  that  age  will  be 
300  throughout  the  year. 

For  every  100  deaths  let  there  be  hospital  beds  for  200  sick, 
and  infirmaries  for  IOO  invalids. 

SILK. — Production  of  raw  silk: 

lbs.  Silk. 
China ai,ooo«3 

Japan 4,400,000 
taly 6,600,000 

India  and  Persia 2,000/100 

France 1 .200,000 

Turkey,  Spain,  etc 2,800,000 


Total 38,000/100 

SILVER. — Production  in  500  years : 

Tons. 

Mexico 78,600 

Peru, etc 72,000 

United  States 11,600 

Germany 8,470 

Austria 7,930 

Russia 3,200 

Various 11 ,200 


20.500,000 

33,000,000 
7.500,000 
6,000,000 

12,500,000 

$152,000/100 


Millions  Dollars. 
3.040 
».77o 

44S 

325 

JOS 

120 

430 

7. 435 


Ratio. 
40.7 

6.0 

4-4 
4-» 


Total 193,000 

See  also  diagram,  page  567. 

SLAVERY. — The  number  of  slaves  emancipated  in  thr  liril- 
isk  Colonies  in  1834  was  780,993,  the  indemnity  agprcgatirg,  in 
round  figures,  $100,000,000.  In  Brazil,  in  1F70,  their,  were 
1,510,800  slaves,  15  per  cent  of  the  entire  population.  These 
were  held  by  41,000  owners,  averaging  57  to  each  owner.  In 
1882  the  number  of  slaves  was  1.300,000,  and  in  1S89 
slavery  was  abolished. 

Slavery  la  the  United  States. 

Year.  A'umber.       Year.  Number. 

ijroo. 697,900    1830 2,009,030 

1800 893,040    1840 2,487,500 

1810 1,191,400    1850 3,204,300 

1820 1,338,100    i860 3.979.700 

Slaves  of  Antiquity. 

Some  of  the  wealthy  Romans  had  as  many  as  10,000  slaves. 
The  minimum  price  fixed  by  law  was  $80,  but  after  great  vic- 
tories they  could  sometimes  be  bought  for  a  few  shillings  on  the 
field  of  battle.  The  day's  wages  of  a  Roman  gardener  were 
about  16  cents,  and  his  value  about  $300,  while  a  blacksmith 
was  valued  at  about  $700,  a  cook  at  $2,000,  an  actress  at  £4,000, 
and  a  physician  at  $5,500. 

SMALL-POX.— In  the  epidemic  of  18S1  in  England  the  re- 
turns showed  4,47s  dcatlis   per  million  inhabitants — 9S    ■ 
iuli  1  to  4,380  unraccinated,  or  in  the  proportion  of  44  to  I.    In 
ilemic  at  Leipsic  in   iS7l,the  death-rate  was  12,700  per 
million,  70  per  cent  of  whom  were  unvaccinated.     These  figures 


V  - 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


rr 


573 


are  by  Dr.  Mulhall.  In  Boston  the  proportion  was  15  to  50, 
and  in  Philadelphia,  1 7  to  64. 

During  the  Franco-German  -war  the  Germans  lost  only  263 
men  from  this  disease,  the  French  23,499,  the  former  having 
been  re-vaccinated  in  barracks.  In  the  war  in  Paraguay,  the 
Brazilians  lost  43,000  men  from  malignant  or  black  small-pox, 
that  is,  35  per  cent  of  their  army,  nine  cases  in  ten  proving  fatal. 

STARCH. — The  percentage  of  starch  in  common  grains  is  as 
follows,  according  to  Prof.  Yeomans :  Rice  flour,  84  to  85 ;  In- 
dian meal,  77  to  80;  oatmeal,  70  to  80;  wheat  flour,  39  to 
77;  barley  flour,  67  to  70;  rye  flour,  50  to  61;  buckwheat, 
52;  peas  and  beans,  42  to  43;  potatoes  (75  per  cent  water), 
l3tolS- 

STEAM  POWER.— See  diagram,  page  563. 

STEEL. — The  number  of  tons  made  for  the  years  named  is  as 
follows:  United  States  (1890),  4,277,071  ;  Great  Britain 
(1889),  3,669,960;  Germany  (1889),  2,046,147;  France 
(18S9),  529,021;  Belgium  (1889),  248,641;  Austria-Hun- 
gary (1889),  398,156;  Russia  (1887),  222,025;  Sweden 
(iSSS),  114,537;  Spain  (1888),  28,645;  Italy  (1887), 
73,262;  other  countries  (1889),  30,000.     Total,  11,637,465. 


Extension, 

Inches. 

1.40 

2.00 


Tensile  Test  of  Steel. 

BAR  8   INCHES  LONG. 


Sq.  Inch  Strain,  Tons  Extension, 

Section,  per  Sq.  Inch.  Inches. 

1. coco              J3-93  .01 

.9799              16.96  .10 

.9331              23.43  -40 

.8741              27-23  1. 00 

Elastic  Limit.... 17.40  tons. 

Maximum  Strain 28.35    " 

Breaking  Load 25 .05     " 


Sq.  Inch    Strain,  Tons 


Section. 
.8325 
.7088 
■5541 


per  Sq.  Inch. 
28.35 
27.32 
25-05 


I  Cohesion 45.21  tons. 
Extension 27^  per  cent. 
Contraction 4454       " 


Taking   the  strength    of   Swedish   iron    at    100,  the  tensile 

strength  of  steel  compares  thus : 

Swedish  iron 100  I  Cannon  steel 173 

Boiler  steel 118  |  Spring  steel 202 

STRENGTH.— Comparative  scale : 

Ordinary  man ico  I  Famese  Hercules 362 

Byron's  Gladiator 173  |  Horse 750 

Tensile  and  Transverse  Strength. 
A  crushing  force  of  1,000  per  square  inch  on  a  bar  I  inch 
square,   and    12   inches   long,    gives    the   following   ratios    of 
strength : 

Transverse. 


Tensile.    Transverse. 

Stone 100  10 

Glass 123  10 


Tensile. 

Cast  iron 158 

Timber 1,900 


S5 


SUGAR.T-Prociuction,  thousands  of  tons. 

♦Russia 240 

Java 190 

Manilla 180 

Brazil 150 

•Holland,  etc 115 


♦Germany 606 

Cuba 520 

♦Austria 460 

♦France 390 

British  colonies..  340 
*  Beet  sugar. 


French  colonies.      105 
United  States ...       90 

Egypt,  etc 285 

All  beet 1,811 

All  cane 1,860 


The  above  detailed  statement  is  for  1SS0.  In  1890  the 
world  produced  about  5,360,000  tons ;  of  which  the 
United  States  produced  136,503  tons  of  cane  sugar, 
25,000  tons  of  maple  sugar,  and  2,800  tons  of  beet 
sugar. 


SUICIDES.— According  to  religion  : 


United  Kingdom. 

Prussia. 

Bavaria 

Austro- Hungary . 
Switzerland 


PER    MILLION  PERSONS. 

Protestant.  Catholic. 

63  17 

170  52 

19S  69 

140  90 

262  81 


General  Ratio. 

104, 
202 


Legoyt  says  the  Jews  have  even  a  lower  ratio  of  suicide  than 
Catholics. 

TARIFF. — Import  duties,  general  average: 


Ratio  to 
Imports. 
per  Cent. 

United  Kingdom 5^ 

France 6# 

Germany 6 

Russia j8 

Austria , 5 

Italy 11 

Spain 24 

Portugal 26 

Holland 1 


Ratio  to 
Imports. 
per  Cent. 

Belgium 1 54 

Denmark 9 

Sweden  and  Norway 12 

Europe 7^ 

United  States 33^ 

Canada 15 

Australia 13 

Brazil 44 

Argentine  Republic 37 


See  also  diagram,  page  546. 

TEA. — Production  in  millions  of  pounds:  China,  290; 
Japan,  35;  India,  90;  Java,  7  ;  Paraguay,  10.  Total,  432.  Con- 
sumption: Great  Britain,  167;  United  States,  81  ;  Australia,  14; 
Russia,  37;  Various,  114.     Total,  403. 

TELEGRAPH.— The  United  States  have  715,591  miles  oi 
telegraph  lines;  Russia,  69,000;  France,  59,000;  Germany, 
58,500;  Austria-Hungary,  31,000;  the  United  Kingdom,  27,000. 

TELEPHONES.— See  diagram,  Railroads,  page  578. 

TEMPERATURE. — The  temperature  of  the  sea  varies  as  fol- 


lows: 

Fathoms. 
o 
100 
200 
300 
500 

Height, 
Feet. 

3.724 
6,740 
9,029 


Equator. 
77-9 
55-6 
46.6 
42.2 
38.9 


Fathoms. 
800 
1,000 
1,200 
1,500 
2,700 

Mountains  (Humboldt). 


38  N. 
70.0 

63-5 
60.6 
60.0 
46.7 


Equator. 

37- 1 

36.9 

36.7 
36.1 
34-7 


38  N. 
38.t 
37-9 

36.7 

35-* 


Depression  of 

Thermometer. 

14.07 

23-3' 
30.07 


Height, 
Feet. 
10,790 
'5,744 
19,286 


Depression  of 
Thermometer. 

34-7* 
49.62 
57-38 


1234, 
1420. 
1468. 
1658. 
1766, 


Frost. 

traffic  with  carts. 


Mediterranean  frozen : 
Bosphoms  frozen. 
Wine  at  Antwerp  sold  in  blocks. 
Swedish  artillery  crossed  the  Sound. 
Snow  knee-deep  at  Naples. 
1789.  Fahrenheit  thermometer  marked  230  below  zero  at  Frankfort,  and  360 

at  Basle. 
1809.  Moscow,   480  below   zero,  greatest   cold     recorded   there :    mercury 

frozen. 
1829.  Jakoutsk,  Siberia,  730  below  zero  on  25th  January  :  greatest  cold  on 

any  record. 
1846.  December  marked  250  below  zero  at  Pontarlier  :  lowest  ever  marked 

in  France. 
1855.  Fires  on  Serpentine,  Hyde  Park. 

1864.  January,  Fahrenheit  stood  at  zero  in  Turin  :  greatest  cold  recorded  in 
Italy. 

Captain  Parry,  in  his  Arctic  explorations,  suffered  for  some 
time  51  degrees  below  zero.  Frost  is  diminishing  in  Canada 
with  the  increase  of  population,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  Hud- 
son's Bay  was  closed,  from  l828-'37,  184  days  per  annum,  and 
from  l87l-'8o  only  179  days  per  annum. 

Summer  Heat  in  Various  Countries. 

The  following  figures  show  the  extreme  summer  heat  in  the  various  coun- 
tries of  the  world : 

Bengal  and  the  African  desert,  1500  Fahrenheit ;  Senegal  and  Guada- 
loupe,  1300;  Persia,  1250:  Calcutta  and  Central  America,  120;  Afghanistan 
ana  the  Arabian  desert,  no° :  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Utah,  1050 ;  Greece, 
1040;  Arabia,  1030;  Montreal,  1030;  New  York,ioa°;  Spain,  India, China, 


VL 


9 «^ 


'K 


5* 


The  World's  Yearly  Production  of  Gotton  and  Tobacco. 


(From  Latest  Governmental  Reports.) 


TOBACCO. 

States  not  named. 

Washington.     - 

Oregon, 

Florida,      -      - ,    - 

South  Carolina,  - 

Louisiana, 

Nebraska, 

Minnesota, 

California, 

Michigan 

Vermont, 

New  Hampshire,    - 

New   Jersey, 

Kansas,      - 

Texas,    ... 

Georgia,     - 

Mississippi.   - 

Iowa,  • 

Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

Illinois, 

West  Virginia,  - 

Massachusetts, 

New  York,  - 

Wisconsin, 

Missouri, 

Connecticut,  J 

Indiana,  - 


NO.   OV 
ACRES. 


£  ° — -~ 


-*•§•-  HEIEIK.  F>lsiOIDI!JG/riON.-l^- 


Number  of  barrels  brewed  hi  U.  S., 
year  ending  May  i,  1891, 

30,021,079 

31  gallons  to  the  barrel. 


1891. 

Number  of  Barrels  in  Various  Countries,  1889. 


Great  Britain, 
33,870,967 


United  States 
25.119.853 


Austria, 


9.354.839 

u.  ° 
e 

1 r— J 

RussiaJ  2,967, 


Germany, 
2g.032.258 


742 


Holland,  [        1 
1,064,516  J ( 

Denmark,  fT""Tj 

967.741  U    J I 

Sweden, 
645,161 

Switzerland,! 


7  <i    "     ~- 


IV 


. 


576 


DICTIONARY    OF   FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


and  Jamaica,  ioo°  ;  Siena  Leone,  94";  France,  Denmark,  St.  Petersburg, 
Shanghai,  the  Burman  Empire  Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
900;  Great  Briuin,  Siam,  and  Peru,  850;  Portugal,  Pckin,  and  Natal,  8o°; 
Siberia,  77°;  Australia  and  Scotland,  75°;  Italy,  Venezuela,  and  Madeira, 
730;  Prussia  and  New  Zealand,  700;  Switzerland  and  Hungary,  66°;  Bava- 
ria, Sweden,  Tasmania,  and  Moscow,  65°;  Patagonia  and  the  Falkland 
Isles,  55°;  Iceland,  45°;  Nova  Zcmbla,  34°. 

THERMOMETER.— 

Reaumur.  Centigrade.  Fahrenheit  . 

Freezing  point o  o  3a 

Vine  cultivation 8  10  50 

Cotton  cultivation 16  20 

Temperature  of  Brazil 24  3°  87 

Hatching  eggs 33  40  104 

40  50  132 

48  60  I40 

56  TO  I58 

64  SO  I76 

72  CO  194 

Waterboils 80  xoo  aia 

TOBACCO.— See  diagram,  page  574. 

TUG-BOATS. — One  tug  on  the  Mississippi  can  take,  in  six 
days,  from  St.  Louis  to  New  Orleans,  barges  carrying  10,000 
tons  of  grain,  which  would  require  70  railway  trains  of  fifteen 
cars  each.  Tugs  in  the  Suez  Canal  tow  a  vessel  from  sea  to  sea 
in  44  hours. 

VELOCITY. — The  average  velocity  of  various  bodies  is  here 

given  : 

Per  hour.  Per  sec. 

A  man  walks 3  miles,  or  4  feet. 

A  horse  trots 7      '*  or  10    " 

A  horse  runs 20      "  or  29     " 

Steamboats  move ■       18      "  or  ao     " 

Sailing  vessels  move •       10      "  or  24    *' 

Slow  rivers  flow -        3      "  or  4     ** 

Rapid  rivers  flow 7      "  or  10     '* 

A  moderate  wind  blows 7      "  or  xo    " 

A  storm  moves 36     '  or  53    " 

A  hurricane  moves 80      "  or  117     " 

A  rifle  ball  moves 963      "  or  1,466    " 

Sound  moves 743     "  or  1,142    " 

Light  moves 192,000  miles  per  second. 

Electricity  moves 288,000     "  "  " 

Velocity  of  a  Bullet. 

Grains,  Velocity, 

Powder.  Feet  per  second. 

Smooth-bores no  1 ,500 

Rifle 60  963 

WAGES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING— From  the  report  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  on  the  state  of  labor  in  Europe,  derived 
from  facts  reported  by  the  United  States  Consuls  cor- 
rected to  1S92.  the  following  tables  are  gleaned  : 

Comparative  Rates  of  Weekly    Wages    Paid    in    Europe   and  in 
the  United  States. 


France. 

Ger- 
many. 

Italy. 

Great 
Britain. 

Unitbd  States. 

New 
Yorlc. 

Chicago. 

i 

5-55 

5-45 
4.85 
4.00 
6.00 

5Ma 
,3'«5 

4.90 

t 

3.50 

3'1S 
3.82 

3.60 
3-97 

4.00 
2.87 

2.92 

331o 
3.60 

♦••a 

3" 
3.58 
3.65 

t 

3.90 
3-94 
3.90 
3-45 
3-95 

4.18 
3.50 
a. 60 
4.60 
4-35 
3.90 
3.90 
4-3' 

3.60 

6.50-  6.60 
7.04-  8.1a 
6.50-  7.83 
7.58-  0.03 
7.70-8.48 

7  33"  8. »5 
3.40-  4>as 
4.50-  5.00 
7.1;-  8.16 
7.(18-1.!.  1  t 
7.13-  8.46 
7-5»-  7-75 
7-35 
5.00-  7.30 
6.00-  7.30 

IO-I4 
I2-|8 
12-15 
9-I3 

9-I2 

•.*„ 

9-     la 
9-    ao 
9-    ">H 
7"    '5 

7%-" 

Cabinet-makers .... 
Carpenters  and  Join- 

Laborers ,  Porters ,  etc 

^2 

IO-iO 

10-15 
12-18 
8-1 3 
12-18 
10-18 
10-14 

sK-9 

9"     »5 

5.50 
4.70 
4-75 
5.10 

4-4" 

Printers 

la-    18 

9-    18 
6-    18 

9-     la 

Comparative  Retail  Pricea  of  the  Necessaries  of  Life. 


Beef,  Roast.... lb. 
Corned..  .lb. 

Beans qt 

Bread lb 

butter lb 

Coal ton. 

Codfish lb. 

Coffee lb. 

Eggs doz 

Flour lb 

Lard lb 

Milk qt 

Mutton lb 

Oatmeal lb 

Pork,  fresh ...  lb 

"    salted lb. 

"     Bacon. .  .lb. 

"  Sausage. lb. 
Potatoes.. ..bushel 


Rice  . 
Soap . . 
Sugar. 
Tea... 


.lb. 
..lb. 
..lb. 
..lb. 


it 


Cents 
aa 

'3 

so 

3-7 

73 

I4-25 


21 
4 
uH 

8 
'7 
'7 
ao 
■9 
5° 

9 


75 


Cents 


at 
$11.00 

9 

3' 

•  i 


(1. 15 

6 

4 

in 


SI 


Cents. 
22 

18-20 

*9-3» 
fa.65-f4.10 
6-  8 
28-50 
14-30 
JK-4X 
12-18 

t* 

16-17 

372-474" 
10-16 
10-16 
12-16 
18 
68-fa.co 

la- 9 

5X-l° 
4     88 


Umttbu  States. 


New  York.     Chicago. 


Cents. 
ia-16 
8-12 
7-10 
4-4H 

»3-»S-25 
6-7 
30-30 
25-30 
3-  4 
10-1  a 
8-10 
0-10 

8-10 
8-10 
8-10 
8-10 
fl-40-ff  .60 
8-10 
6-7 
8-10 
50-60 


Cents. 
8-iaX 
4-  7 
5-9  , 

£'H 
10  m 

?  »  7 

16-40 

10-94 

"H-47. 

6-IO 

3-« 

S->«« 
4"  5 
4-  5 
6-ia 
7-" 
6-10 
60-80 
5-10 
3-8 
7-.0 
25-fi.oo 


WAR. — The  cost  of  recent  wars,  according  to  figures  furnished 
by  the  London  Peace  Society,  is  as  follows  : 

Crimean  war £340,000,000 

Itiili.-tn  war  of  1859 60,000,000 

American  civil  war — North 940,000,000 

"            "      " — South 460,000,000 

Schleswig-Holstein  war 7,000,000 

Austrian  and  Prussian  war,  1&66 66,000,000 

Expeditions  to  Mexico,  Morocco,  Paraguay,  etc.,  (say  only)  40,000,000 

Franco-Prussian  war 500,000,000 

Russian  and  Turkish  war,  1877 a  10,000,000 

Zulu  and  Afghan  wars,  1879 30,000,000 

,£2,653,000,000 

This  would  allow  £10  for  every  man,  woman  and  child  on  the 

habitable  globe.     It  would  make  two   railways  all  round  the 

world  at  $250,000  per  mile  each. 

Summary  of  Loaaea  from  War  in   Twenty-Five    Yeara  (iSjs-*).) 

Killed  in  battle,  or  died 
of  wounds  and  disease. 

Crimean  war 

Italian  war,  1859 

Waiwf.Schleswig-Holstein 

American  civil  war — the  North 

"  M      "  —the  South 

War  between  Prussia,  Austria  and  Italy,  in  :866. ... 
Expeditions    to  Mexico,  Cochin    China,   Morocco, 

Paraguay,  etc 

Franco-German  war  of  1870-71 — France 

"  *'  "  "      " — Germany 

•Russian  and  Turkish  war  of  1877 

Zulu  and  Afghan  wars,  1879 


Total. 


.■.1;-,  ■•»■ 


Length  and  Coat  of  American  Wara. 

Wars.  Length. 

War  of  the  revolution 7  years— 1775-1782 

Indian  war  in  Ohio  territory 179° 

Warwith  the  Barbary  States 1803-1804 

1811 


Cost. 

■i.r>i 


Tecumseh  Indian  war.. 


War  with  Great  Briuin 

Algcrine  war 

First  Seminole  war 

Black  Hawk  war 

Second  Seminole  war 

1  war a 

Mormon  war 

Civil  war 4 


3  years— 1811-181$ 
1815 
1817 
183a 

5j6-iM 

■856 

J<l     IMS 


66,000,000 


•About  thirty  thousand  skeletons  of  Russian  and  Turkish  soldiers  wee 
shipped  to  England  in  1881,  as  manure,  in  the  form  .fboaes  or  bone  dust. 


/ 


°  -- 


"71 


DICTIONARY    OF    FACTS    AND    FIGURES. 


577 


Quota  of  Troops  Furnished  b> 
ing  the 

the  States 
Civil  War. 

and    Territories    Dur- 

WAR  EXPENDITURE.— See  diagrams,  pages  546,  563. 

States  and  Territories. 

Troops 

furnished. 

Si  gJi 

in 

Number 
of  men 
drafied. 

225 

Slfl'5 

«  o3 

»-    O    Q. 

£-2 

WATER. — One  cubic  foot  ==  62^  lbs.,  or  6^  gallons.  One 
cubic  foot  sea  water  =  64  lbs.,  or  6^  gallons.  One  gallon  of 
water  =10  lbs.,  or  277  cubic  inches.  One  inch  of  rainfall  equals 
14,500,000  gallons  per  square  mile.  Eight  cubic  feet  of  snow 
will  produce  one  cubic  foot  of  water.     Current  requires  a  mini- 

375.131 

914,164 

1,098,088 

19,079 

301 ,062 

54,137 

3>53IJ 

93-441 

7,916 

13,922 
12,711 

103,807 
362,686 
203 ,924 

I2.0 

12.2 

.3.6 

4-3 
B.3 

.6 

mum  fall  of  one-tenth  inch  per  mile. 

WATER-POWER.— Niagara  =  ten    million   cubic    feet    per 

45.184 
63.57^ 

106,412 

minute,  say  three  million  horse-power  nominal,  or  nine  million 

In  the  United  Slates  there  are  51,000  water-wheels,  with  iyi 
million  horse-power  aggregate. 

fa .859,1 32 

143,304 

733 
5,083 
7.1=2 

776,829 

9.1 

WEALTH    OF    NATIONS.— The   wealth    of    the    principal 

nations  of  the  world  is  thus  given  by   Mulhall.     The  figures 

156,240 

represent  millions  sterling  : 

United  States    

United  Kingdom... 

France  

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Holland 

Belgium 

Sweden    

Canada  

Mexico 

Australia 

Portugal 

Denmark 

Argentine  Republic. 

Switzerland 

Norway 

Greece 

Total   


Land 

and 

Forest. 


1,150 

1,880 

1,930 

-,42° 

1,940 

[,590 

905 

740 

220 

270 

444 

230 

125 

192 

170 

216 

122 
HO 

173 


16,939 


378 

235 
212 

231 
345 
205 
5" 
57 
33 
3° 
42 
35 
32 
66 
11 
3" 
54 


Rail- 
ways. 


1,190 

770 

494 

467 

3°9 

255 

108 

79 

27 

61 

26 

73 


33 
6 


Public 
Works. 


527 
547 
59° 
442 
224 
i88 

131 
60 
125 

41 
32 
30 

12 

28 
15 
II 

6 
30 
13 

7 


2,780 
2,280 


1,470 
880 
770 
656 


140 
62 


240 
108 
80 
44 
72 
70 
24 
44 


Furni- 
ture. 


",385 

1,140 

945 

735 

44o 

385 

328 

170 

58 

7° 

31 

70 

120 

54 

40 

22 

36 

35 


6,098 


Merchan- 
dise. 


"55 

165 

155 
60 
64 
48 
22 
61 
58 
14 

i3 

20 

52 

7 


Bullion. 


'57 
M3 
301 
108 
34 
20 
45 
41 
17 
29 
4 


Shipping. 


2S3 


7'3 
1,255 
518 
280 
104 
132 
65 
77 
326 
105 
35 
41 
67 
'4 
21 
16 


Total. 


9,495 

8,720 

8,c6o 

6,323 

4.343 

3.613 

2,35t 

",59S 

987 

806 

&95 

650 

63b 

590 

371 

366 

332 

324 

282 

211 


WEIGHT  AND  STATURE  OF  MAN.— 


Age. 


'3 

■5 
■7 

10 


50 
60 

70 
80 


Mean  weight 103.66 


Feet. 


..64 

2.60 

3.04 

3-44 

4.00 

4.36 

4.72 

5.07 

5.36 

5-44 

5.49 

5-52 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 


Lbs. 


7.06 
25.01 
3'-38 
38.80 
49-95 
59-77 
75.8i 

110.56 
127.59 
132.46 
140.38 
140.42 
139.96 
136.07 
131.27 
127-54 
127.54 


Feet. 


1.62 
2.56 
3.00 
3.38 
3-92 
4.26 
4.60 
4.92 
5.10 
5-13. 
5.16 
5.18 
5.18 
5-04 
4-97 
4-97 
4-94 
4-94 


Lbs. 


6.42 

23-53 
28.67 
35-29 
47.10 

56-57 
72.65 
89.04 
104.34 
112..  55 
"5-3° 
119.82 
121. 81 
123.86 
119.76 
113.60 
108.80 
108.81 

93-73 


The  average  weight  of  a  male  infant  at  birth,  it  will  be  seen, 
is  a  little  over  7  lbs. ;  of  a  female  infant,  a  little  less  than  6j£ 

•This  gives  colored  troops  enlisted  in  the  States  in  rebellion  ;  besides 
this,  there  were  92,576  colored  troops,  included  (with  the  white  soldiers)  in 
the  quotas  of  the  several  states  ;  the  second  column  gives  the  aggregate  of 
colored,  but  many  enlisted  South  were  credited  to  the  Northern  states. 


lbs.  Children  lose  weight  during  the  first  three  days  after  birth ; 
at  the  age  of  a  week  they  sensibly  increase,  and  at  the  end  of 
one  year  they  triple  their  weight. 

WHEAT. — See  diagram,  Yearly  Wheat  Crop,  page  566. 

WIND. — Velocity  and  pressure: 


Feet  per 

Miles 

Pressure — lbs. 

Feet  per 

Miles 

Pressure — lbs 

Second. 

per  hour. 

per  sq.  fool. 

Second. 

per  hour. 

per  >q.  foot. 
.6      lbs. 

5 

3» 

1    oz. 

80 

54 

JO 

7 

4    oz. 

90 

61 

20'X  " 

20 

14 

1    lb. 

100 

63 

25      " 

30 

20 

2^    lbs. 

no 

11 

3°tf  " 

40 

27 

4        " 

120 

36      " 

50 

34 

iM.    " 

130 

88 

42J*" 

60 

4J 

9 

140 

95 

40      ". 

70 

48 

121/    " 

»5° 

102 

56      " 

lj£= 


WINE. — See  Alcoholic  Liquors. 

WOMEN  WORKERS.—  In  the  U  nited  States  there  are  said 
to  be  women  workers  as  follows :  Artists,  2,061 ;  authors,  320; 
barbers,  2,902 ;  commercial  travelers,  272 ;  dressmakers,  millin- 
ers, etc.,  281,928;  journalists,  288;  lawyers,  75;  musicians,  13,- 
l8l ;  physicians,  2,432 ;  preachers,  1 65 ;  printers,  3,456 ;  tailors 
52,098;  teachers,  154,375;  telegraphers,  1,131. 

fThis  is  the  aggregate  of  troops  furnished  for  all  periods  of  servic< 
from  three  months  to  three  years'  time.     Reduced  to  a  uniform  three  years' 
standard,  the  whole  number  of  troops  enlisted  amounted  to  2,320,272, 


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£ 


Difference  between  Old  and  New  Standards  at  Points  which  have  been  Established  Standards  under  the  Old 

System.  (/.  faster.  S.  slower.) 
Compared  with  Eastern  Time:  Albany,  N.  Y.,  5  minutes  f.;  Baltimore,  Md.,  6  m.  ».;  Bath,  Me.,  90  m.  f.;  Boston,  Mass.,  16  m.  f.;  Charlea- 
SJ'i  j  '  *?  m'  s':  Detroit,  Mich.,  33  m.  s.;  Hamilton,  Ont.,  ig  m.  s.;  Montreal,  Que.,  6  m.  f.:  New  London,  Conn.,  13  m.  f.:  New  York  City,  4  m.  t: 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1  m.  «.;  Port  Hope,  Can.,  14  m.  s.;  Port  Huron.  Mich.,  30  m.  s.:  Portland.  Me.,  10  m.  f  ;  Providence  R.  I.,  14  m.  f.;  Richmond, 
Va.,  10  m.  s..  Savannah,  Ga.,  94  m.  ».!  Toronto,  Can.,  17  m.  s.;  Washington,  D.  C,  8  m.  s.  Camparrd  trith  Central  Time:  Atchison,  Kan.,  94 
"V'i  •*ilanla.G»-.  "  m-  f-:  Chicago,  111.,  9  m.  f.;  Cincinnati  O.,  99  m.  f  ■  Columhits.O.,  98m.f.:  Detroit.  Mich..  98  m.  f.;  Dubuque,  U.jm.i.;  Han- 
nibal, Mo.,  1  m.  s.;  Houston,  Tex.,  34  m.  s.;  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  16  m.  f:  Jefferson  City,  Mo.,  9  m.  a.;  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  19  m.  s.:  Loui*\illr,  K.\..  hi 
F'  sit  Macon'  &*■•  ?9  nt.  f.:  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  13  m.  s.;  Mobile,  Ala.,  8  m.  f.;  Nashville,  Tenn.,  13  m.  f.:  New  Orleans,  La.,  exactly  the  same.  Oma- 
ha, Neb.,  as  m.  s.;  Port  Huron,  Mich.,  30  m.  f.;  St.  Louia,  Mo.,  1  m.  s  :  St.  Paul.  Minn  ,  ia  m.  s.;  Savannah,  Ga.,  16  m.  (.:  Selma,  Ala.,  u  m.  f 
City,  la.,  36  m.  s.;  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  10  m.  C;  Vicksburg.  Miss.,  3  m.  s.:  Winona,  Minn  .  7  ni  <  Vomparrd  trith  Mountain  Time:  Denver, 
Col,,  exactly  the  same:   I-aramie,  W.  T„  6  m.  s  ;  Sail  Lake  City,  U.T..  98  m.  s.     Compared 


land,  Or.,  10  in.  s.;  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  to  at',  s 


,  98  m.  s.     Cotnparrd  trith   IWific  Time:  Kalama,  Wash.  T.,  to  m.  s.; 
Intereohtnial   Time,  touching  1  niy  HihUx.  St.  JoM  lad  OMaWa,  al  onutird. 


Port- 


580 


K 


GROWTH    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


581 


.& 


HSTATIST1GS  OF  POPULATIONS 

A  TABULAR  STATEMENT  OF  THE 

COMPARATIVE  GROWTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

SHOWING  THEIR   RANK  ACCORDING    TO    POPULATION  AT   EACH   CENSUS 

FROM  1790  TO  1890. 


States  and 
Territories. 

1790 

1800 

1810 

1820 

1830 

1840 

1860 

1860 

1870 

1880 

1890 

3,929,214 

5^08,483 

7,°3°,SS' 

9,633,822 

I  2,866,020 

"7,069,453 

23,191,876 

3' ,443,321 

38,558.37' 

5o,'5S,7S3 

62,622,250 

19 

127,901 

'5 

309,527 

12 

59°,7S6 

12 

77 ',623 

>3 

964,201 

16 

4" 
26 

-t 
1' 

25 
35 
34 
13 

12 

44 

I 

11 

■■•) 

s 

2  1 

»3 

20 

7 

•3 

2h 
18 

5 
43 

3* 
40 
3' 
'7 
37 

'4 
45 
3 

996,992 

9,658 
484,471 
560,247 
39,S64 

537-454 
125,015 
131-700 
187,74s 
1,184,109 

<  4,999 

2,539,89' 

1,680,637 

1,104,020 

264,399 

1,321,011 
726,915 
626.915 
780,894 

1,457,351 

1,184,059 
439,706 
827,922 

1,721,295 
20,595 

122,993 

42.491 
318,300 
906,096 

91,874 

4,382,759 

1,071,361 

7,091 

2,665,260 

'7 
11 
25 
-'1 
8  5 

2S 
3* 
36 
34 
13 

4" 

t 

IO 

20 

8 
22 
27 
23 

7 

9 
2<: 
18 

5 
43 

30 
43 
3i 
>9 

41 

1 
'5 
40 

3 

1,262,505 

40,440 

802,525 

864,694 

194,327 

622,700 
146,608 
1(7,624 
2°9,493 
1,542,180 

32,610 

3,077»87' 

1,978,301 

1,624,615 

996,096 

1,648,690 
939,946 
648,936 

934,943 
1,783,085 

1,636,937 
780.773 

1,131,597 
2,168,380 

39,159 

452,402 
62,266 

346,991 

1,131,116 

119,565 

5,082,871 

i,399,75o 

68,084 

3,198,062 

8 

24 

22 

3" 

29 
42 
39 

32 
12 

45 
3 
8 
IO 
'9 

11 
2= 
30 
27 
6 

9 

20 

21 

5 

44 

16 

49 

•M 
43 

1 

16 
41 

4? 

38 
2 

35 
28 
87 

>3 

7 

36 
■5 

2I 

'4 

17 

1,513.017 
DOySao 

1.128,179 

1,208.130 

412,198 

746,258 
168,493 
230,392 
391,422 
1,837,353 

84,385 
3,826,351 
2,192,404 
1,911,896 
1,427,096 

1,758,635 
1,118,587 

26 

■4,255 

2* 

30,3SS 

-.- 

97,574 

21, 
»9 

209,897 
92,597 

25 

21, 
38 

-4 
3- 
35 
3' 

1 1 

435,450 
379,994 
34,277 

460,147 
112,216 
75,oSo 
140,424 
1 ,057,286 

S 

it) 

237.946 
59,096 

8 

'7 
19 

251,002 
64,273 
'4,093 

9 

■9 

22 

261,042 
72,047 
24,023 

25 

275.  "4? 
72,749 
33,039 

16 

-4 
2^ 

.•n 
IO 

207675, 
76,748 
39,S34 
34.730 

516,823 

20 
26 

28 

27 

9 

309,978 
78,085 
43,7'2 
54,477 

69 ',392 

21 
jo 
33 
3' 
9 

370,792 
9' .532 
5',°S7 
87,445 

906,1% 

<3 

82,54s 

12 

i62,6So 

1  [ 

252,433 

11 

340,985 

-'1 
21 

I2,2S2 
24,520 

24 

55,l°2 
147,'78 

2n 

'3 

157,445 
343,03' 

'4 
10 

29 

476,183 

685,866 

43,"2 

1 1 
7 
1 

851,470 
988,416 
192,214 

4 

6 

2D 

33 

9 
'7 
22 

'9 
7 

16 
30 
M 
8 

',7",95' 
1.350,428 

674-9'3 
107,206 

1,155,684 
708,002 
628,279 
687,049 

1,231,066 

749,"3 
172,023 

791,305 
1,182,012 

31 

5,64' 

M 

73^77 

9 

220,955 

7 

18 

14 
8 

5 
'5 

406,511 
76,556 
228,705 
380,546 
472,040 

4.762 

t 

17 
12 
10 

7 

27 

564,135 
152,923 
298.269 
407,350 
523,159 

8,765 

t 
19 

12 
11 
B 

27 

687,917 
-—  ?39 

399,455 
447,040 
610,408 

31,639 

6 
'9 
13 
15 

8 

-3 

779,828 
552,4" 
501,793 
470,019 

737,699 
212,267 

S 
18 
16 

'7 
6 

so 

36 

IJ 

13 

982,405 
517,762 
583,169 
583,034 
994,5M 

97,654 

6,077 

606,526 

682,044 

11 
6 
4 

96,540 
319.728 
378,787 

'4 
7 
5 

i5i,7'9 
341,548 
422,845 

1,042,390 
2.238,943 

2,093.889 
1,301,821 
1,289,660 
2,579,184 
132,159 

1,058,910 
45,761 

376.530 
1,444-933 

153,593 

6,997,853 

i,6i7,947 

182.719 

3,672,316 

61,834 

313,717 

5,258,014 
345,5o6 

1,151,149 
328,808 

1,767,518 

2,235.523 

207,905 

332,422 

1,645,990 

349,39° 

762,794 

1,686,880 

60,705 

Massachusetts  .... 

2<> 

8,850 

so 
»3 

40,352 
20,845 

21 
»3 

75,448 
66,557 

22 
21 

136,621 
I40,455 

'7 
16 

375,651 
383,702 

» 
41 
-7 
21 

34 

1 
12 
42 

3 

28,841 

6,857 

326,073 

672,035 

93,5i6 

3,880,735 
992,622 

2,419 
2,339,5" 

New  Hampshire.. 

1  a 
9 

141,885 
184,139 

11 
10 

183,858 
211,149 

1  •-■ 

K9 

214,460 

245,562 

15 
'3 

244,022 
277,426 

iS 
'4 

269,328 
320,823 

22 

IS 

284.574 
•  373,3o6 

2  2 
19 

3-' 

to 

317.976 
489,555 
6i,547 

3,097,394 
869,039 

North  Carolina 

5 

3 

340,120 
393,751 

3 

4 

589,051 
478,103 

2 

4 

959 -°49 
555-50O 

1 
4 

1,372,111 
638,829 

I 

5 

1,918,608 
737,987 

1 
7 

2,428,921 
753,419 

Ohio 

18 

45,365 

■3 

230,760 

5 

581,295 

4 

937,903 

3 

1,519,467 

3 

1 ,980, 329 

Pennsylvania 

South  Carolina 

2 
7 

434.373 
68,825 

249i°73 

2 

6 

602,365 
69,122 
345,591 

3 

■7 
8 

810,091 

76.931 

4'5,H5 

3 
20 

S 

1,047,507 
83.015 
502,741 

2 

23 
9 

1,348,233 
97,199 
581,185 

2 

■■'4 
II 

1,724.033 
108,830 

594,398 

34 
2 

28 

M 

13.294 

2,311,786 

147,545 

668,507 

3« 

a 

3 

42 

10 

'3 
37 

2  3 

5 
40 
'5 

52,465 

2,906,215 

174,620 

703,708 

2.418 

1.109,801 

604,2:5 

40.273 

315.098 

1,596,318 

11,594 
775,881 

3« 

2 

32 
22 
45 

9 
'9 
39 

3° 
10 

42 
27 
15 

47 

90,923 

3,521,951 

217,353 
705,606 

7,091 

1,258,520 

818,579 

86,786 

33o,55i 

1,225,163 

23,955 

442,014 

1,054,670 

9,118 

37 
2 

33 

21 
40 

19 

II 

39 

52 

'4 

42 

47 

174,768 

4,282,891 

276,531 

995,577 

68,083 

1,542,359 

1,591,749 

143,963 

332,286 

1,512,565 

75,"6 

618,457 

1,315,497 

20,789 

17 

35,691 

15 

105,602 

10 

261,727 

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422,771 

7 

681,904 

5 

829,210 

5 

2? 
35 

»3 

4 

1,002,717 

212,592 

11,380 

314,120 

1,421,661 

Utah 

Vermont 

12 

1 

85.425 
747,610 

13 

1 

■54.465 
880,200 

'5 
1 

217,895 
974,6oo 

,6 

2 

235,966 
1,065,116 

'7 
3 

280,652 
1,211,405 

21 
4 

291,948 
1,239,797 

West  Virginia.... 

30 

30,945 

24 

305,391 

Note.— The  figures  in  the  first  column  under  each  year  show  the  rank  of  the  respective  States  and  Territories  according  to  population. 


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582                                                                      POPULATION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

r 

r 

1 

POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1890,  COMPARED  WITH   1880  AND  1870,  BY  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES,  SHOWING  THE  INCREASE 
BY  NUMBER  AND  PERCENTAGES  FROM  1880  TO  1890,  FROM  1870  TO  1880,  AND  FROM  1860  TO  1870. 

STATES  AND   TERRITORIES. 

POPILATION. 

INCREASE    PROM    1880 
TO  1»90. 

INCREASE    FROM    1870 
TO    18W. 

increase  from  1860 
to  : 

1390. 

1880. 

1870. 

Number. 

Percent- 
age. 

Number. 

Percent- 
age. 

Number. 

Percent- 
age. 

The  United  States 

North  Atlautic  divis'n 

62,622,250 

50,155,783 

38,558,371 

12,466,467 

24.86 

11,597,412 

30.08 

7,115,050    i       22.63 

17*01*45 

14*07*97 

12.L><Jh.7:il 

3*m 

19.95 

77         17.98 

1404*88 

1609 

876,580 

888*99 

8*88*48 

845,606 

746,268 

5,997353 

1,111.'.'.;.: 

5,368,014 

8,857,920 

648,988 

1.7-;."- . 
376*31 
6*3,706 

6*83,871 

i.i:;i,uo 

4,282,8.11 
7.  .'.17,107 

81 

1*67*51 
817,858 

4*83,788 

908/108 

B*31*51 

...ill. 

19460 
US 

08.975 

'ju.v-j 
818*17 
976438 

1*60,788 

1.87 
■  :,i 
0  01 

21  M 
19.84 

18.00 
27  71 
88.77 

1,735 

700.112 
336*80 
7*0*40 

1.7. 

9  01 
053 

16  88 
15.97 

21  88 
21.111 

29  79 

615,736 
188*07 

033 

.   .- 
4  90 

1-     .s 
34  47 

18  n 
12  94 

M  ■ 
21.19 

9  11 

New  Hampshire . 

South  Atlantic  divis'n 

168,498 

l,04J.:.'.«i 

380*99 

1*50*80 

763.794 

1,617*47 

1.151.1 1'.i 

l.s;;:.:; . . 

891*33 

■  J.27'J 

11I1.IKJH 

384, 948 

177/.-'! 
I,jl2,5«."> 

618,467 
1*99,750 

1,543480 

17*84411 

135*16 

131,700 
1,896408 

mfiu 
iflnjm 

70.3.006 

i.iM.iuy 
18738 

18*81411 

21,885 

11)7.117 

11.1.11'. 
144*87 
818497 

11  88 

11.49 

29  71 
8.48 

13  11 
48  84 

38  78 

164*48 

178*48 

888*88 

81,748 

4*83.000 

17  27 
34  87 

I 

80.88 

41.10 

43  54 
83.76 

12.799 
88*45 
88*88 

(         70359 

1*81 
198*88 

8*84496 

11  41 

i:;  88 

4  44 

798 
0.37 
13  00 

88  7o 

(J  7.1 

District  of  Columbia 

South  Carolina 

Northern  Central  div'u 

8*79*10 

8,198,404 

06*51 

li  <  1 

1401,886 
1*11*98 
8*79481 
183,713 
890*08 
1,0.".- 
1*81 

848 

1*78*01 

8.077.S71 

1*86*87 

1*16,497 

1*94*16 

2.11.8,380 

98*30 
898*90 

k*S0 

1  jua 

1*91 

1.1- 

. .  im 
1494*90 

1,781 

1          H.1M 

314408 

1       145 

4:11.000 

11  88 
10  83 
24  33 

17  88 
88  68 

211  SO 

889*87 

1*0*88 

4I7.iis.> 

'        1211996 
88**88 

19.99 
17  71 
21.18 

88  ■ 

77  .:.7 
88  (V. 
35  97 

8*0*8* 
887*88 
884*48 
878,788 
8*7*88 
519.107 
68**88 

9344 

94.153 
89748* 

1398 
M  II 

is   8* 

..-,  9i 
165  61 
76  91 

181  II 

886  46 

188  '.'1 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Iowa 

Uiisouri 

1 

Nebraska  

i 

...*» 

KC — 

• 

•5 

e" 

1 

rr 


POPULATION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


583 


STATES   AND 

POPULATION. 

INCREASE  FROM   1886 
TO   1890. 

INCREASE  FROM  1870 
TO   1880. 

increase  from  1860 
to  1870. 

XKBBXTOB1SS. 

1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

Number. 

Percent- 
age. 

Number. 

Percent- 
age. 

Number. 

Percent- 
age. 

Southern  Central  div. 

lo.972,M'3 

8.<J19,:;71 

0,434,410 

2,053,522 

23.02 

2,484,961 

065,752 

11  54 

1358,035 
1,767.518 
1,513,017 
1,289,600 
1,118,887 
2,238,828 
61384 
1438479 

3,027.613 

1348,990 

1,51  2 :.::,:  > 
1,202,506 
1431,897 

939,946 
1,591,749 

1,321,011 
1,258,520 
990,992 
827,922 
726,915 
818.579 

209,945 
225458 
280,612 

158,003 
178,041 
648,774 

01.8S4 
325,654 

1,259,916 

E  -■: 

14.00 
19  M 
18.96 
19.81 

40.44 

827,679 
288,889 
265,513 
S08,fi78 

213,031 

773. 170 

24.81 
22.55 
26.03 
30.08 
29.31 
94.43 

165 ,3W 

US. 719 
32,791 
36,617 
18,913 

214,364 

13  40 

803,526 

1. 767,697 

481,471 
990,510 

40.58 

71.27 

318,054 
777,187 

65.65 
78.46 

49,021 
371.534 

11  26 

Western  division.. .   . 

60.02 

183,159 

CO  .705 
418,198 
158,598 

59,620 

207,905 

45,761 

84,385 

319,390 

313,767 

1,208,130 

89,189 

20.789 

194,327 

119,565 

•  40,440 

148,968 

62,266 

32,610 

75,116 

174,768 

864,694 

20,595 
9,118 

39,804 

91,874 
9,658 

86,786 

42.491 

14.999 

I 
23.955 

90.923 

560,247 

•      93,000 

39,916 

217,871 

34.028 

19,180 

63.942 

018,866 

51,775 

271,274 

138,999 

343,436 

237.49 
192.01 
112.12     j 

28.40 

47.43 

44.42 
o20  51 
158.77 
885.18 

79  53 

39.72 

18,664 

11,071 
164,468 

27,691 
30,782 
57,177 
19,775 
17,611 
51.161 
83345 
304,447 

90.14 

128  00 

387.47 

30.14 

318.72 

65.88 

46.54 

117  41 

213.57 

92.22 

54.34 

20595 

9,118 

5,587 

nl,642 

9,658 

46^13 

35,634 

14,999 

12,361 

38,458 

180,253 

Utah    

106  62 

73  SO 

47  44 

a  Decrease. 


RECAPITULATION    BY    GROUPS. 


POPULATION. 

INCREASE  FROM  1880 
TO   1890. 

INCREASE  FROM  1870 
TO   1880. 

INCREASE  FROM  1860 
TO  1870. 

GEOORAP1IICAL 

i 

DIVISIONS. 

1890. 

1880. 

1870, 

Number. 

Percent-* 
age.     j 

Number. 

Percent- 
age. 

Number. 

Percent- 
age. 

The  United  States 

62,622,250 

80455,788 

38,5.58.371 

12,466,467 

24.86 

11,597,412 

80.08 

7,115,050 

22.63 

North  Atlantic  division 

17,401  ,5 1.5 

14,507,407 

12,298,730 

2394,138 

19.95 

2.20S  ,077 

17.96 

1,704,462 

16.09 

South  Atlantic  division 

8,857,920 

7,597.197 

5.S.53.610 

1,260.723 

16.59 

1,743587 

29.79 

488^07 

9.11 

Northern  Central  div. . 

22.302  279 

17,301.111 

12.981.111 

4,998,168 

28.78 

l.:;\3,000 

33.76. 

3384395 

42  70 

Southern  Central  div. . 

10,972,893 

8.919371 

6,434,410 

2,053522 

23.02 

2,484,961 

38.62 

665,752 

11.54 

Western  division 

3.027,013 

1,767,697 

990,510 

1,259,916 

71.27 

777487 

78.46 

371,534 

60.02 

The   above   figures    are    exclusive    of    Indians,   of    the   population    of    Alaska,   and  of   Whites   on    Indian 
reservations. 


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584    "                                                                   THE     GREAT    CITIES    OF    THE    WORLD. 

i 

GREAT  CITIES  OF  THE  WORLD  HAVING  120,000  INHABITANTS. 

Population  According  to  the  Latest  Official  Censuses. 

Cities. 

Census 
Year. 

Population. 

Cities. 

Census 
Year. 

Population. 

im 

1886 
UN 

est. 
1S90 
1890 

INK) 

18M 

1890 
1890 
1888 
18*0 
18»1 
MM 
1885 
1891 
1891 
18M 
18B1 
18M 
180] 
est. 
1891 
1890 
1887 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1891 
1890 
1890 
1899 
1890 

un 

1891 

1884 
1882 
1891 
1885 
est. 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1891 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1889 
1890 
1 -hi 
1890 
1890 
18(0 
1891 
1887 
1887 
1890 
1890 

1891 

1891 
1891 

1890 

4.231,431 
(344 

1,710.715 

1,600,000 

1  ..'.79,244 

l.:a; 

l.:* '4,548 

1,096,576 

1,044,894 

0  .V..296 

873365 

853,945 

840,130 

804,470 

75.'i.li,'.i 

565.714 

546.986 

580,872 

517,951 

506.884 

505348 

500,000 

488.999 

476.271 

472.22* 

469.317 

460357 

449,950 

446,507 

443,426 

435,151 

4*9.171 

498,917 

417.539 

tujsu 

401.930 
392,730 
386,400 
978448 
889409 
887,808 
857399 
355:000       ■ 

mm 

848317 

885,174 
IJUB 
824.21:; 
323.' 

MS 
(11387 
304.000 
997,990 
296.809 
281 378 
979,791 
976365 
(79390 
272,481 
2711.143 
267,416 
961346 
261 .2fil 
255396 
254.709 
254,457 

est. 
UN 

1890 
1888 
18(0 

ISM 
1861 
1891 
1871 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1881 
1891 
est. 
18(0 
I860 

wo 

UN 
UN 

est. 
1891 

1891 

1891 
1890 

un 

1SK6 
1891 
1885 

UN 
1891 

1890 
UN 

1891 
1890 

1887 
UN 

1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 

UN 

1890 
1890 
1891 

UN 

UN 

1890 

1890 
UN 
1890 

250300 
246.154 
242397 
241396 
940369 
2*8.473 
236412 
299,796 
MM 
293.420 
221,805 
221366 
221,141 
216.650 
216361 
215.779 
211364 
210300 
209.186 
206.485 
205369 
204.106 
202325 
200300 
199391 
198361 
198.186 
193380 
191458 
190397 

11-7310 

510 

166345 

-  110 
1*1378 
1-1320 
181310 
179- 
175381 
171.416 

' 
170.216 
165.499 
164.788 
163367 
161328 
161305 
160331 
160300 
160300 

. 

158.019 
155  ,M0 

147317 
143. 

MUN 
Ml 

139399 
169316 

-  !27 

121365 

Paris  

Berlin             

Bristol .  England 

Detroit 

Madrid                

Delta! :.... 

Lille 

Milan                              

Rochester,  D.  8 

■ 

•Municipal   census  of  1890.    The  statistics  of  population  of  largest  cities  of  the  earth  have  been  taken  mainly  from   the 
Almnniu'h  de  GotDt  f«»r  1899,                                                                                                                                                                                    ,       , 

NOT*.— The  population  Ol  Chinese  cities  other  than  Canton,  Peking  and  Shanghai  Is  omitted,  because  repori                      g  it  are 
utterlv  untrustworthy.    There  nre  forty  or  more  Chinese  cities  WDOee  inhabitants  are  numbered  by  runmr  at  from  20".  ■ 
each,  but  no  official  censuses  have  ever  been  taken,  and  setting  aside  coi                     1  of  the  Oriental  tendency  to  exaggvrat 
Is  reason  in  believe  that  the  estimates  of  population  in  many  Instances  DOT    -              rictt  of  country  bearing  the  sane  names  a* 
thoBeof  the  cities,  Instead  of  definite  municipalities. 

/                                                                                   _      ......       .          .  \ 

I 

•5 

1 

- 

> 

K~ 


~A 


POPULATION    OK    THE    CITIES    AND    STATE*    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


POPULHTION     OF    THE 

CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


OF    8,000    HND    OiZER. 


Together  -with  Population  of  all  tlie  States  and  Territories^ 
According  to  iSgo   Census. 


Alabama. 

Birmingham 26,241 

Mobile 81*28 

Montgomery 21,790 

Total  for  1880 1,262.505 

Total  for  1890 1,808473 

Arizona. 

Total  for  1880 I'M  Hi 

Total  for  1890 59,091 

Arkansas. 

Fort  Smith 11,391 

Hot  Springs 8,073 

Little  Rock 83486 

Pine  Bluff 9*62 

Total  for  1880 802*25 

Total  for  1890 1025.885 

California. 

Um  Angeles 60*84 

Sacramento 96*79 

Sun  Diego 16.153 

San  Francisao 387*90 

San  Jose ■ 18*37 

Santa  Rosa 14*79 

Total  for  1880 864*94 

Total  for  1890 1.204.002 

Colorado. 

Denver 1*8*70 

Leadville  11,158 

Pueblo 88,128 

Total  for  1880 184*37 

Total  for  1880 410,975 

Connecticut. 

Bridgeport 48*86 

Danburv 19*85 

Greenwich 10.120 

Hartfl  rd 88,182 

Manchester 8,217 

Meriden 31*89 

Middletown 9,012 

New  Britain 19.010 

New  Haven 81,451 

New  London 18,760 

Norwalk 17,789 

Norwich  18,183 

Stamford '. 15*85 

Vernon 8.807 

Waterbury 38*81 

Windham  10.025 

Total  for  1860 633,700 

Total  for  1890 745.861 

Delaware. 

Wilmington Cl.t::" 

Total  for  1880 146*08 

Total  for  1S90 167,871 

District  of  Columbia. 
Washington 229,796 


Florida. 

Jacksonville 17.100 

Key  West 18*68 

PensacOla 11,761 

Total  for  1880 269483 

Total  for  1890 880481! 

Georgia. 

Athens v  8.627 

Atlanta 65,515 

Augusta 33,150 

Brunswick 8,403 

Columbus 1 8*60 

Macon 38*98 

Savan  nah 41,762 

Total  for  1880 1 ,542 ,186 

Total  for  1890 1*34*66 

Idaho. 

Total  for  1880 32.610 

Total  for  1890 84,229 

Illinois. 

Alton 10,184 

Aurora 19*84 

Belleville 16*06 

Bloomington 22,242 

Cairo 10.044 

Chicago 1*98,576 

Danville 11.528 

Decatur  16,841 

East  St.  Louis 15.156 

Elgin 17439 

Freeport 10.159 

Galesburg 15.212 

Jacksonville 13*57 

Joliet 27,407 

Moline 11*96 

Ottawa 9,971 

Peoria 40,758 

Quincv 31.478 

Rockford... 28-589 

Roek  Island 13,596 

Springfield 24.852 

Streator 11.111 

Total  for  1880 3*77*71 

Total  for  1890 3,818,536 

Indiana. 

Ander»on 10,799 

Elkhart 11*70 

Evansville 50,674 

Fort  Wayne 86*49 

Indianapolis 107,445 

Jeffersonville 11,271 

Kokomo 8,224 

Lafayette  16,407 

Logansport 13,798 

Madison 8*98 

M  arion 8,734 

Michigan  City 10.704 

Muncie 11*88 

New  Albany 31,000 

North  Township 9,574 

Richmond 16*49 


South  Bend 

Terre  Haute 80*87 

Vincennes  8*18 

Total  for  1880 1,978*01 

Total  for  1880 3J 

Iowa. 

Burlington 32*88 

Cedar  Rapids 17*87 

Clinton 13*38 

Council  Bluffs ; .  .31*88 

Davenport 

Des  Moines 50.067 

Dubuque 30,358 

Keokuk 14,075 

Marshalltown  9*08 

Muscatine  11.432 

Ottum  wa 13,996 

Sioux  City 37,862 

Total  for  1880 U 

Total  for  1890 1,906,729 

Kansas. 

Arkansas 8*54 

Atchison 14*39 

Fort  Scott 11.887 

Hutchinson 8*78 

Kansas  City 88470 

Lawrence 9,975 

Leavenworth 21.018 

Topeka 81*09 

Wichita 88486 

Total  for  1880 886*86 

Total  for  1890 1,423,485 

Kentucky. 

Covington 37*75 

Henderson 8*30 

Lexington 31*66 

Louisville ...161*06 

Newport 94*88 

Owensborough 9.818 

Padncah 13.024 

Total  for  1880 1*48*80 

Total  for  1890 1*55,436 

Louisiana. 

Baton  Rouge 10*97 

New  Orleans 241.995 

Shreveport 11.482 

Total  for  1880 ! 

Total  for  1890 1,116*28 

Maine. 

Auburn 11.228 

Augusta t 10*91 

Bangor 19.090 

Bath 8.718 

Biddaford 14.418 

I.cwiston 21,668 

Port  land 36.608 

Rockland 8487 

Total  for  1880 648,336 

Total  for  1890 600,201 


Massachusetts. 

Adams 9.213 

Amesbury 9,798 

Beverly 10*91 

Boston. 4-ls.i  17 

Brocton 97*84 

Brooklinc 12.1118 

Cambridge 70*98 

(  helsea 37*08 

Chicopee 14*60 

Clinton 10,424 

Everett 11*68 

Fall  River 74*88 

Fitchlmrg 39*37 

Fram  ingham 9,239 

Gardner 8.424 

Gloucester 

Haverhill 27.412 

Holvoke 85*87 

Hyde  Park 10.193 

Law  rence 44*64 

Lowell 77*86 

Lvnn    55.727 

Maiden  28*81 

Marblehead 8*09 

Marlborough 18*86 

Medford 11.079 

Melrose 8319 

Milford 8,780 

Natick 9.11s 

New  Bedford 40,733 

Newburyport 13*47 

Ncwlon 94*78 

North  Adams W*74 

Northampton 14*81 1 

Peabody 10,168 

Pittsfield 17*81 

Quincy 16,738 

Salem 30.801 

Somerville 40,152 

Spencer 8.747 

Springfield 44.179 

Taunton 25.448 

Waltham 18,707 

Westfleld 9*05 

Weymouth 10,866 

Woburn 18489 

Worcester 84*66 

Total  for  1880 1,788*86 

Total  for  1890 2*33,407 

Maryland. 

Baltimore 434.151 

Cumberland 10,030 

Hagerstown . .  11,698 

Frederick 9.621 

Total  for  1880 9?4,943 

Total  for  1890 1*40,431 

Michigan. 

Adrian 8*88 

Alpena 11*98 

Ann  Arbor 

Battle  Creek 13,090 

Bay  City 97*38 

Detroit 205,669 


h 


^J 


t 


39 


-«.t. 


y 


POPULATION    OK    THE    CITIES    AND    STATES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


r 


Flint 

la 64447 

U.1W 

30,778 

K  ularaaxoo 

ig 12380 

Manistee 12,799 

Marquette 8JB96 

tli  nominee 10306 

Muskegon 22368 

Fort  Huron 

Saginaw 16,109 

tt'usl  Bay  City 12310 

Total  for  1880 i 

Total  tor  1890 3,088,7«1 

Minnesota. 

Dulutb   83,798 

Minneapolis 164,738 

Mankato BVBOS 

41    Paul 188056 

Stillwater 11388 

u  Inona  18308 

Total  for  1880 780,778 

Total  tor  1890 L800317 

Mississippi. 

Meridian 16,889 

burg 18388 

Total  for  1880 1481387 

Total  for  1890 1,284,887 

Missouri. 

Hannibal I33M 

.loplln 9,909 

is  City 182416 

Moberly 8*8 

a 12,894 

Springfield 91349 

8)   Joseph 62311 

St.  Louie   

Total  for  1880 2468380 

Total  for  1890 2,677 ,0S0 

Montana. 

Butte  City 10,701 

.i 18,884 

Total  for  1889 89,159 

Total  for  1890 181,768 

Nebraska. 

Beatrice '...  18,931 

Hastlnga 18,798 

I. D 55,491 

iskaCity 11.472 

Omaha 189336 

Plattsmoutb 8,408 

8.  "malm 8,071 

Total  lor  1X80 452,402 

Total  for  1890 1,056,793 

Nevada. 

Total  for  1880 62,266 

Total  for  1890 44327 

New  Hampshire. 

>rd 17,004 

Dover 12.7911 

Manchester 44426 

Nashua 19,311 

Portsmouth 9,897 

Total  for  1880 846,991 

Total  for  1890 875327 

New  Jersey. 

Atlantic  City 1.1.0S8 

Bayonne 18,896 

BrMgcton II. IT! 

ngton B488 

Camden 88374 

Elizabeth 87370 

Harrison 

Hoboken  

Jersey  City 

Mlllvllle... 

Newark 181,  >18 

New  Brunswick 18,458 

are 18374 

Passaic 18387 

Paterson 7WM 

Perth  Amboy 8,476 


Philllpeburg 

1L9S0 

Trenton  

!  for  1880 1,181418 

Total  tor  1890 1.441.(117 

New  York. 

Albany 9LMS 

A  msterdam 17364 

Auburn 

Blnghainton 86398 

Brookhaven 13379 

Brooklyn 804377 

Buffalo 254467 

Coboea  23481 

i  lornlng 8J568 

Dunkirk '.Mir.' 

Blmlra 2*,l7u 

Flushing 18488 

GloversviHe 18,788 

Hempstead. 

Hornellsvllle  10348 

Hudson 10/127 

Huntington 8,217 

[slip 8,747 

Itliaca 11367 

Jamaica I488B 

Jamestown 15,991 

Kingston 21481 

Lausiugburg 10388 

Lockport 10,003 

Long  Island  City 30,3% 

Mlddletowu UJM8 

org 23,263 

New  Brighton 16400 

Newton 

New  York 1,513,501 

North  Hempstead  8,126 

Ogdensburg 11367 

Oswego   SljBM 

Oyster  Bay 13,788 

l'ccksklll 10,026 

I'oughkecpste 32,888 

Rochester 138,327 

Home 14,980 

Saratoga  Springs 18434 

Schenectady 19357 

South  Hamilton 8488 

Syracuse 88387 

Troy 60,605 

Dtlca 44,001 

Watertown 14,788 

Weal  Troy 13341 

Yonkers 8L847 

Total  for  1880 8,082371 

Total  for  1890 5,981,934 

New  Mexico. 

Total  for  1880 

Total  for  1890 144302 

North  Carolina. 

Asheville 10488 

Charlotte 11,568 

Raleigh  12,798 

Wilmington 20,008 

tfU  for  1880 1388,760 

Total  for  1890 1317340 

Ohio. 

Akron.. 27,702 

Ashtabula B£M 

re 8301 

Canton 

Chlllloothe 11369 

Cincinnati 380308 

Cleveland 

I  'oluuihus 90,398 

Dayton 58308 

Delaware  *302 

Fast  Liverpool 103*7 

Flndlay 

llanilltou 

[ronton  10331 



Lancaster 639? 

Mansfield 

Marietta  

Marlon 6308 

Massillon 10361 

Newark  14389 

Pto.ua 9309 


Portsmouth 

kv 183W 

Sprluglield 

Btoubenvllle 

Tillin 

Toledo 

Xenia 8448 

Youngstown 88488 

[He 21,117 

Total  for  1880 8488302 

Total  for  1890 B30SJ1I 

Oregon. 

East  Portland 10481 

Portland 

Total  for  1880 174,788 

Total  for  1890 

Pennsylvania. 

Allegheny  City 104307 

Allentown 

Altooua 

Beaver  Palls 8,781 

Bradford 10478 

ltraddock 8338 

Butler 8,718 

adale 10336 

le 8331 

Chambersburgb 8306 

Chester 20,167 

Columbia 10.599 

Danville 9373 

Dunmore 8342 

1 14488 

Erie...: S9399 

Harrisburg 40,164 

Haselton 1L8M 

Johnstown U438 

Lancaster 

Lebanon 14,784 

McKeesport 20,711 

Mahanov  City U3M 

Meadville 8302 

Mt.  Carmel 8343 

Nimticoke 10337 

N.w  Castle 11, ">M 

Norristown 12,768 

Oil  City 10343 

Philadelphia 1344380 

Phoenirvllle 8308 

mth 9341 

Pittsburgh 

Plttaton 10395 

Pottatown 13301 

Pottsvillo M.1.4 

Ilea, Hug 68386 

Seranton 83.450 

Shamokln 14339 

Shenandoah 13,961 

.■south   Ur'hlehem 10386 

on 9330 

Tttusvllle 8310 

Wllkesbarre 87351 

Willlamsport 27,107 

York 30348 

Total  for  1880 4388381 

Total  forlSKO 5348374 

Rhode  Island. 

Newport 19.499 

Pawtucket 27302 

Providence  182348 

Woonsookel 20,758 

Total  for  1880 276381 

Total  for  1880 345348 

South  Carolina. 

Charleston 64389 

ville 8388 

Columbia 

886377 

Total  for  1898 1447481 

North  Dakota. 

80309 

Total  tor  1890 I 

South  Dakota. 

1  ■  : 

88368 

Total  for  1890 


Tenneaaee. 

Chattanooga 28409 

Jackson 

Knoxville 

Memphis 

Nash  vl]  le 76309 

C larksville 8361 

Total  for  lvo 1.. 

Total  for  1890 1.763.723 

Texa*. 

Austin  15324 

Dallas 88440 

Denniaoa 

Fort  Worth 

•on 

Houston  27.411 

Laredo 

Paris 

Waco 

San  Antonio 8*3»I 

Total  for  1880 1. 

Total  for  1890. 2339330 

Utah. 

Ogden 14319 

salt  Lake  City 45326 

Total  tor  1880 143363 

Total  tor  1880 306498 

Vermont. 

Burl  I  ngton II 369 

Rutland 11,787 

Total  for  1880 889386 

Total  tor  1890 332305 

Virginia. 

Danville 10385 

Alexandria  14.318 

I.vnchburg 

Manchester 9339 

Norfolk 86484 

Petersburg 88317 

Portsmouth 

Richmond 80388 

Roanoke 16.120 

Total  for  1880 1. 

Total  tor  1880 1348311 

Washington. 

Seattle 43314 

Spokane  Falls 18367 

Tacoma 88368 

Total  for  1880 75416 

Total  for  1880 849316 

West  Virginia. 

Huntington 10383 

I'arkersburg 8389 

Wheeling 85389 

Total  for  1880 

Total  tor  1880. 700,448 

Wisconsin. 

Appleton 1L89& 

Ashland •■ 

Chippewa  Fall* 8390 

Eau  Claire 

Fonddu  Lac 

GreenBay 8379 

Janesvllle 19S 

tee *'JM 

Madison **■?! 

Marinette 

Milwaukee 

Oshkosh 9338; 

21322 

Sheboygan 1*341 

Superior 1*399 

Watertown HR 

Wanaan —MS 

Total  tor  1880 1315497 

Total  for  L969 138*78*7 

Wyoming. 

11399 

total  for  is* 20.7*8 

Total  tor  1890 «9Jte» 


a! 


\ 


Till'.    COPYRIGHT    LAW. 


585 


•     j* 


^^rsfTHE  COPYRIGHT  LAW. 


** 


^tff 


•    .:!.i    • 


*"..«nH|i"4 


3)i tactions  fot  Sccutittgi  Qopijzicffits  under  t/lc  tcoiscd  £lct>  of  Qongtcso. 

1592. 


1.  A  printed  copy  of  the  title  (besides  the  two  copies  to  be 
deposited  after  publication)  of  the  book,  map,  chart,  dra- 
matic or  musical  composition,  engraving,  cut,  print,  or 
photograph,  or  a  description  of  the  painting,  drawing, 
chromo,  statue,  statuary,  or  model  or  design  for  a  work  of 
the  fine  arts,  for  which  copyright  is  desired,  must  be  sent 
by  mail  or  otherwise,  prepaid,  addressed  "Librarian  of 
Congress,  Washington,  D.  C."  This  must  be  done  before 
publication  of  the  book  or  other  article. 

The  printed  title  required  may  be  a  copy  of  the  title  page 
of  such  publications  as  have  title  pages.  In  other  cases, 
the  title  must  be  printed  expressly  for  copyright  entry,  with 
name  of  claimant  of  copyright.  The  style  of  type  is  im- 
material, and  the  print  of  a  type-writer  will  be  accepted. 
But  a  separate  title  is  required  for  each  entry,  and  each  title 
must  be  printed  on  paper  as  large  as  commercial  note.  The 
title  of  a. periodical  must  include  the  date  and  number. 

2.  The  legal  fee  for  recording  each  copyright  claim  is  50 
cents,  and  for  a  copy  of  this  record  (or  certificate  of  copy- 
right) an  additional  fee  of  50  cents  is  required.  The 
record  fee  from  aliens  and  non-residents  is  $1. 

3.  On  or  before  the  day  of  publication  of  each  book  or 
other  article,  two  complete  copies  of  the  best  edition 
issued  must  be  sent,  to  perfect  the  copyright,  with  the 
address  "Librarian  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C." 
The  postage  must  be  prepaid,  or  else  the  publication  in- 
closed in  parcels  covered  by  printed  Penalty  Labels,  fur- 
nished by  the  Librarian.  In  the  case  of  a  book,  photo- 
graph, chromo  or  lithograph,  the  two  copies  deposited 
shall  be  printed  from  type  set  in  the  U.  S.,  or  from  plates 
made  therefrom,  or  from  negatives  or  drawings  on  stone 
made  in  the  U.  S.,  or  from   transfers  made  therefrom. 

4.  No  copyright  is  valid  unless  notice  is  given  by  inserting 
in  every  copy  published,  on  the  title  page  or  the  page  fol- 
lowing, if  it  be  a  book  ;  or,  if  a  map,  chart,  musical  com- 
position, print,  cut,  engraving,  photograph,  painting,  draw- 
ing, chromo,  statue,  statuary,  or  model  or  design  intended 
to  be  perfected  as  a  work  of  the  fine  arts,  by  inscribing  upon 
some  portion  thereof,  or  on  the  substance  on  which  the 
same  is  mounted,  the  following  words,  viz:  "  Entered  ac- 
cording to  act  of  Congress,   in  the  year ,   by ,  in  the 

office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,"  or,  at 
the  option  of  the  person  entering  the  copyright,  the  words  : 
"  Copyright^  18 — ,  by ." 

The  law  imposes  a  penalty  of  $100  upon  any  person 
who  has  not  obtained  copyright  who  shall  insert  the  notice 
"  Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,''  or  "  Copyright,"  etc., 
or  words  of  the  same  import,  in  or  upon  any  book  or  other 
article. 

5.  Any  author  may  reserve  the  right  to  translate  or  dra- 
matize his  own  work.  In  this  case,  notice  should  be  given 
by  printing  the  words  "%A'igh/  of  translation  reserved,"  or 
"All rights  reserved,"  below  the  notice  of  copyright  entry, 
and  notifying  the  Librarian  of  Congress  of  such  reservation, 
to  be  entered  upon  the  record. 

Since  the  phrase  all  rights  reserved  refers  exclusively  to 
the  author's  right  to  dramatize  or  to  translate,  it  has  no 


VL 


bearing  upon  any  publications  except  original  works,  and 
will  not  be  entered  upon  the  record  in  other  cases. 

6.  The  original  term  of  copyright  runs  for  twenty-eight 
years.  Within  six  months  before  the  end  of  that  time,  the 
author  or  designer,  or  his  widow  or  children,  may  secure  a 
renewal  for  the  further  term  of  fourteen  years,  making 
forty-two  years  in  all.  Applications  for  renewal  must  be 
accompanied  by  explicit  statement  of  ownership,  in  the  case 
of  the  author,  or  of  relationship,  in  the  case  of  his  heirs, 
and  must  state  definitely  the  date  and  place  of  entry  of  the 
original  copyright.  Advertisement  of  renewal  is  to  be  made 
within  two  months  of  date  of  renewal  certificate,  in  some 
newspaper,  for  four  weeks. 

7.  The  time  within  which  any  work  entered  for  copyright 
may  be  issued  from  the  press  is  not  limited  by  law,  but 
the  courts  hold  that  it  should  take  place  within  a  reason- 
able time.  A  copyright  mav  be  secured  for  a  projected  as 
well  as  for  a  finished  work.  The  law  provides  for  no«;r«/, 
or  notice  of  interference — only  for  actual  entry  of  title. 

8.  A  copyright  is  assignable  in  law  by  any  instrument  of 
writing,  but  such  assignment  must  be  recorded  in  the  office 
of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  within  sixty  days  from  its  date. 
The  fee  for  this  record  and  certificate  is  one  dollar,  and  for 
a  certified  copy  of  any  record  of  assignment  one  dollar. 

1).  A  copy  of  the  record  (or  duplicate  certificate)  of  any 
copyright  entry  will  be  furnished,  under  seal,  at  the  rate  of 
fifty  cents  each. 

10.  In  the  case  of  books  published  in  more  than  one 
volume,  or  of  periodicals  published  in  numbers,  or  of  en- 
gravings, photographs,  or  other  articles  published  with 
variations,  a  copyright  is  to  be  entered  for  each  volume  or 
part  of  a  book,  or  number  of  a  periodical,  or  variety,  as  to 
style,  title,  or  inscription,  of  any  other  article.  But  a  book 
published  serially  in  a  periodical,  under  the  same  general 
title,  requires  only  one  entry.  To  complete  the  copyright  on 
such  a  work,  two  copies  of  each  serial  part,  as  well  as  of  the 
complete  work  (if  published  separately),  must  be  deposited. 

11.  To  secure  a  copyright  for  a  painting,  statue,  or  model 
or  design  intended  to  be  perfected  as  a  work  of  the  fine  arts, 
so  as  to  prevent  infringement  by  copying,  engraving,  or 
vending  such  design,  a  definite  description  must  accompany 
the  application  for  copyright,  and  a  photograph  of  the  same, 
at  least  as  large  as  "cabinet  size.''  should  be  mailed  to  the 
Librarian  of  Congress  not  later  than  the  day  of  publica- 
tion of  the  work  or  design. 

12.  Copyrights  cannot  be  granted  upon  trade-marks,  nor 
upon  mere  names  of  companies  or  articles,  nor  upon  prints 
or  labels  intended  to  be  used  with  any  article  of  manufact- 
ure. If  protection  for  such  names  or  labels  is  desired, 
application  must  be  made  to  the  Patent  Office,  where  they 
are  registered  at  a  fee  of  $6  for  labels  and $25  for  trade-marks. 

13.  These  provisions  apply  to  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  British   Empire,  France,  Belgium,  Switzerland. 

14.  Every  applicant  for  a  copyright  should  state  distinctly 
the  full  name  and  residence  of  the  claimant,  and  whether 
the  right  is  claimed  as  author,  designer,  or  proprietor.  No 
affidavit  or  formal  application  is  required. 


71 


K 


586 


DURATION    AND    EXPECTATION    OF    LIFE. 


-V 


TABLES   OF  DURATION  AND   EXPECTATION    OF   LIFE. 


Constructed  by  Dr.  Fakk,  F.  It.  S. 


13 

'4 


■S 

16 


•  ') 


22 
■3 


2; 


JO 

3' 

3* 
33 
34 


U 
36 


PERSONS   ALIVE   AT    BEGIN- 
NING  OF  YEAR. 


I  ,!■  0,000 

Sso,507 
796,8*7 
708.SS9 
75o.>33 


736318 

726,919 
7'».'5' 
713,591 

707.'34 


702,509 

'-.MM 

694344 

001,413 

688,031 


684,563 
680,894 
676,037 
672,620 
667,900 


662,750 
657.'67 
65 ',499 
645.75' 
639.93" 


634.045 
628,005 

033,050 
616,021 
609,900 


5».74| 

428,026 
400,505 
3S6.290 

377.077 


370  J5S 
365,3*5 
361 ,37* 

358,062 
355.32S 


353.03> 
35  ".04s 

340.27* 
347.6o6 

345.969 


344.290 
342.509 
340,581 
338,469 
336,149 


333.608 
.W.S44 
32S.043 
325.207 
322,339 


3'9^)22 

316,516 
313.562 
310,581 
307.572 


603,724 
597,493 

578459 


57' .90S 

565,460 


30I.534 
301 ,,(/-, 
298,366 
29S.232 
292/161 


2SS.S50 
2S5,5<> 


4S«.255 
4<2,48l 
396.322 

3S2.299 

373,056 


366,460 

361.594 

357.770 
354.530 
35'.  806 


319478 
347.433 
345,572 
343,807 
342,062 


340,273 
338,385 
336,356 
334,'5' 
331,75' 


329,142 
326,323 
323.456 
320,544 
3'7,592 


314,603 
3".579 

3oS,524 
305,440 

302J2S 


2S3.14.I 

279,864 


ill 

in 


'S.456 
'3,3'5 


9.S99 
7,7<« 
6,559 
5.458 
4,625 


4,02s 
3,637 
3.43' 
3.3S2 
3.46S 


3,669 

3,957 
4,317 
4,720 
5, '50 


S.748 
5,820 
5.SS6 


.5.950 
6/09 
6,065 
6,121 
6,176 


6,231 
6,287 
6,343 
6404 
6,466 


$8 


1-LRyONS   ALIVE   AT   BEGIN- 
NING  OF  YEAR. 


545.425 


S3S.S84 
531,653 
524,626 

517499 
5'0,263 


50*,915 

480,134 
472,277 


464,280 

45'M39 
447.725 
439.1.15 
430,374 


421,115 
4". 53* 
401,623 

391,378 

3So,7S5 


36y,S27 
35S489 
346,752 
334,'<>3 
322,031 


309  fi!t) 

255,590 

281,753 
267,509 
252,00* 


237,077 
2*2,703 

207424 


2S2,2o6 

278,944 
275,5.38 


mm 

304.S4S 

261,280 
257,534 


253,708 
140,706 

245*795 

241,700 

237.508 


233,216 

2283*1 

224,195 
219437 

2'4-55* 


-■■.,, =.io 
20I.39S 
199,1,. 

'93, 
102 


■9.3.6S 
188,10 


182,350 
1764*1 
170,303 
163.980 
'57474 


'50,754 

1*0.4*' 
'2i.</  '3 


9*,9'9 


276,563 


266.51 1 
263,109 
259,678 
256,219 
25*,729 


240,207 

245.652 
242,061 

2384.M 
134.7*9 


22,1,064 

2*7,318 
223,530 

219,698 
215,822 


H 


6,67s 
6,75a 

6,841 


6*?3< 

7,027 
7,127 
7.236 
7.348 


7,467 
7.59* 
7.7*2 
7357 
7.997 


8,'4> 
«4'4 
8,590 
S,76i 
9.259 


0.583 

•0.245 

'",5'H 

10,95s 


187.477, 

182,06s 

176449 

170,614 

'64.557 


11,33s 

",737 
12,149 

'2.572 
13.002 


151.766 
'45X>35 
■  38.088 
130*330 


3$ 

ioS,505 


'3430 

■3.846 
'4,244 
14,607 
'4,9*5 


'5.'84 
IS.369 

'546$ 


PERSONS  ALIVE   AT    BEGIN- 
NING  OF  YEAR. 


MALE.     1  FEMALE. 


7i 
7» 


79 


So 
tl 

82 

h 


so 


ft) 


9> 

91 
o* 

93 
M 


9 


■00 
101 
102 
103 
104 


.2 


M2IM6 

■7-.  07 


O'-Mo 
-i.l.O 


161,124 

MM** 

'3'. '99 

■03.'S4 


61, (,.•<, 

83? 


90,133 

77.010 

4«!SS9 


41.115 
35.2SJ 
20,922 
25,060 
20,711 


38,56s 
M*«j 
142267 

19,621 
15,162 


11,500 

\57" 
6,266 

m8S 

3.'42 


'1*49 
10,709 

",3"' 


*.'53 

'440 

940 

598 

370 


"3 
'3' 
74 

4' 


4,770 
3.5'0 
2.531 

M34 


ft 


3$2 

no 

■14 


100,807 
93.07' 


&JJ47 
77J&M 

70, '73 
62,844 
55.773 


49,01s 

41/   0 

3".'77 
31.1^1 
26,178 


11,681 

17,716 
'4.258 

11,2  >. 
S302 


6.7.39 
5.006 
3.735 

ijyoS 


-  _  - 
i 


'54'"* 
'5J63 


■5.'J6 
'4.789 
MJ'9 
'3.7*6 


11,214 
11  J*e 

10.-.J8 


7J00 

5J4* 

4459 
3.65.? 


2.933 
2,310 
'■7S1 


7'3 
500 

tiS 

'47 


9" 
57 
33 
"9 


VL 


Note. — The  annual  rate  of  mortality  of  mains  of  alt  ages  is  1  in  30.91,  and  of  females,  1  in  41. $$. 

EXPECTATIOIST. 


AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

0 
I 

30-0' 

46.65 

41-85 

47-3' 

20 
21 

lit 

40.29 

8:8 

40 

4> 

26.06 

25-39 

33 

60 
6l 

'3-53 
13.96 

'4-34 

'3-75 

So 
81 

J:S 

5-f 
4.9S 

2 

4S.S3 

40-40 

22 

3S..3 
37-46 

36  79 

4» 

24-73 

26.03 

15-38 

62 

12.41 
II. $7 

'3'7 

ft) 

4-4' 

4-7' 

3 

49.61 

50.20 

23 

Sfl 

43 

14.07 

6.1 

12.60 

!^ 

4'7 

4-45 

4 

49.SI 

50-43 

*4 

44 

23-4' 

24.72 

64 

"•34 

■  2.05 

84 

3-95 

4.21 

6 

49-7' 

50 -.33 

Lo 

36. 1« 

37-04 

46 

12.76 

24.06 

3 

10.S2 

1 1. 51 

8 

3-73 

3-9S 

49-39 

48.02 

4S.37 

50.00 

35-44 

36.39 

12.11 

13-40 

10.32 
9-83 
0.36 
8.90 

10. .A 

3-53 

3-76 

I 

z% 

3 

34.77 

34- '0 

35-75 
35-'o 

Js 

21.46 

20.S2 

21.74 
22.08 

8 

•0.47 
9-97 

o.»S 

8 

r.a 

J-5 
i3S 

9 

47-74 

4S.35 

29 

33-43 

34-46 

49 

20.17 

21.42 

09 

89 

3.00 

3-'S 

10 

47-05 

47-67 

30 

3*-76 

33-8' 

50 

'9-54 
iS.no 

20.75 

70 

S-45 

0.02 
S.57 

90 

«.S4 

•5  ■? 

11 

46.3' 

46.95 

31 

32-09 

33-17 

5' 

10.09 

7' 

S.03 

01 

1.85 

M 

45-54 
44-70 

46.20 

32 

3'  -4* 

£8 

51 

■S.28 

10.41 

in 

7* 

7.62 

S.ij 

9» 

2-55 

1.70 

'3 

*s 

33 

30-74 

53 

T-"7 
17.06 

73 

7-7' 

93 

*-4' 

1-55 

'4 

43-07 

14 

30.07 

3*-*3 

54 

74 

7-3' 

94 

2.29 

2.42 

:ij 

43   IS 
42.40 
41.64 

40.10 

43-90 

43-14 

3 

25.40 

27-39 

30.  S9 
29.94 

£ 

ZJ& 

■7-43 
16.79 

g 

6.iS 

6a 

Si 

£3 

2.29 

:. 

42.40 
41.67 

3 

2.,.;.i 

15.16 

14.6S 

ia.ij 
15.55 

i 

5.S2 
5  5' 

5-SS 

9 

1:^ 

'0 

40.17 

4»-"7 

39 

16.71 

*7-99 

59 

14.10 

'4-94 

79 

5.11 

55* 

•  .70 

1 

•00 

1  .(.> 

T. 

The  mean  lifetime  of  malec  u  39.91  years,  *nd  of  females,  41.  S5. 


\ 


DEPARTMENT    OF    PUBLIC    BUSINESS. 


587 


~A 


>& 


A  Complete  Digest  of  Parliamentary  Law  and  Rules. 


'  HE  origin  of  Parliament- 
ary Law  is  to  be  found  in 
the  customs  and  rules  of 
the  British  Parliament,  the 
first  deliberative  body  of 
the  modern  world.  When 
the  Jutes  and  Saxons  left 
their  over-crowded  homes  in  the 
Low  Dutch  Lands  and  sailed 
to  England,  they  carried  with 
them  the  Witena  Gemote,  the 
root  from  which  has  sprung  ev- 
ery Congress  and  Parliament, 
every  Town  Meeting  and  Con- 
vention, every  Caucus  and  De- 
bating Society  which  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  race  in  the  Old  World,  or  the  New,  has 
held. 

Set  rules  governing  the  proceedings  of  Par- 
liament began  first  to  be  established  about  A.  D. 
1 1 80,  so  that  now  Parliamentary  Science  is 
about  seven  hundred  years  old.  In  the  course 
of  time  these  rules  became  more  extended  and 
exact,  the  conduct  of  public  meetings  was  re- 
duced to  a  science,  until  at  the  present  day  the 
man  who  is  not  familiar  with  them  is  apt  to  ex- 
pose himself  as  one  of  imperfect  education,  and 
to  make  blunders  which  bring  himself  into  ridi- 
cule, and  the  cause  which  he  is  supporting  into 


danger.  In  America,  where  every  matter,  grave 
or  light,  affecting  the  public,  or  any  part  of  it, 
is  promptly  made  the  subject  of  a  meeting,  the 
man  who  has  not  Parliamentary  Law  and  Prac- 
tice at  his  fingers'  ends  is  compelled  either 
always  to  take  a  back  seat  and  let  less  able  men 
come  forward,  or  else  be  in  constant  danger  of 
an  absurd  display  of  ignorance  unworthy  of  an 
American  citizen. 

Fortunately,  however,  the  whole  subject  is  easi- 
ly mastered,  and  easily  retained  in  the  memory. 
It  is  based  upon  certain  clearly  laid  down  prin- 
ciples, and  if  we  were  asked  to  give  in  one 
sentence  a  comprehensive  definition  of  Parlia- 
mentary Law,  we  should  promptly  answer  that 
it  was  common  sense  divided  into  rules.  Those 
things  that  appear  strange  are  really  founded 
upon  reason,  and  the  more  the  student  attacks 
the  subject  the  more  evident  do  its  harmonies 
appear.  Anyone  who  will  carefully  study  the 
following  digest  will  thoroughly  master  the 
subject. 

CALLING  A  MEETING. 

It  would  be  much  easier  to  make  a  list  of  the  suDJects  for 
which  meetings  should  not  be  called  than  of  those  for  which  they 
should.  Generally,  all  those  matters  which  affect  a  considera- 
ble part  of  the  community,  of  the  church,  or  of  the  business  to 
which  one  belongs,  are  proper  matters  for  counsel  and  discus- 
sion among  friends,  and  for  meetings  among  citizens.  The 
forms  used  in  calling  meetings  should  be  very  brief  and  pointed, 


588 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW   AM)    RULES. 


. 


intimating  plainly  what  the  gathering  is  for,  where  and  when  it 
is  to  meet.  For  instance,  forms  to  be  printed  in  the  newspapers 
should  take  this  shape : 

Notice. — The  members  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  are 
requested  to  meet  At  Mr,  James  Kyle's  residence,  241  Walker  street, 
on  Tuesday  evening1,  January  151b,  at  eight  o'clock,  to  consider  ways 
and  means  of  rebuilding  the  parsonage. 

Or  thus : 

DEMOCRATS  OF  THE  THIRD  WARD,  ATTENTION » 

A  mass  meeting  of  the  Democrats  of  the  Third  Ward  will  he  held  at 
Lafayette  Hall,  on  Locust  and  Main  streets,  on  Friday  evening,  Oct. 
3<1,  at  7 '30,  p.  m.,  in  accordance  with  the  order  of  the)  Central  Com- 
mittee, to  select  three  delegates  for  the  City  Convention  on  Saturday, 
Oct.  4th.  The  Hon.  C.  K.  Pease,  Judge  Bradley  Adams,  Sheriff  Pur- 
son,  and  others,  will  address  the  meeting. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  that    meetings  should  be  called 
without  publicity,  when  a  form  like  this  might  be  used : 
[  CONFIDENTIAL.] 

St.  Louis, Jan.  12th,  1893. 
Jamks  Asiiton,  Esq., 
Ashton  &  Co.,  Grocers. 

Dear  Sir: 

Your  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that 
the  retail  dealers  in  coffee  are  cutting  prices  until  there  \s  little  or  no 
profit  l"ft  in  the  trade.  Quite  a  number  of  us  have  agreed  to  meet  at 
the  Magnolia  Club  next  Saturday  evening,  to  discuss  the  situation, 
and  see  if  some  measures  can  not  be  taken  which  will  enable  all  of  the 
firms  to  do  a  more  satisfactory  business  than  at  present.  Please 
cither  be  present  yourself,  or  send  a  representative  empowered  to  act 
for  you,  and  oblige  You^  very  respectfully, 

Spotts  &  Tremaine. 
J.  R.  Oscjood  &  Co. 
II.  A.  Miller  &  Son. 

These  forms  might  be  greatly  increased  in  number,  but  the 
reader  will  see  the  shape  upon  which  it  is  best  to  found  them. 
Be  cure  that  written  notices  are  sent  to  all  interested,  and  that 
printed  ones  are  inserted  several  times  before  the  event  which 
they  advertise  is  to  occur. 

ORGANIZING  A  MEETING. 

As  soon  as  a  sufficient  number  have  gathered  together  at  the 
place  of  meeting,  some  gentleman — and  it  is  well  that  the  per- 
sons calling  the  meeting  should  select  this  person  with  care ;  it 
is  best  to  choose  some  well-known  and  representative  citizen — 
will  mount  the  speakers'  stand  and  rap  with  the  gavel  on  the 
table  until  the  assembly  is  brought  to  order.  He  will  then  nom- 
inate some  person  present  for  chairman,  using  the  simple  form, 
"I  move  that  Mr.  John  Gilkeson  act  as  chairman  of  this  meet- 
ing." When  the  motion  is  seconded  he  will  at  once  put  it  to 
the  house,  saying,  "  It  is  moved  and  seconded  that  John  Gilke- 
son act  as  chairman  of  this  meeting.  Those  in  favor  will  say 
'  aye'."  Those  in  favor  of  Gilkeson  will  vote  "  aye  "  in  a  clear 
tone  of  voice.  The  temporary  chairman  will  continue,  "Those 
opposed  say 'no'."  If  Mr.  Gilkeson  is  defeated  other  names 
MIC  proposed  until  a  chairman  is  elected,  when  the  one  chosen 
will  be  escorted  to  the  chair,  and  the  gavel  handed  to  him  by 
the  temporary  chairman,  who  at  once  leaves  the  stand  and 
takes  a  se.it  among  the  members.  The  chairman  raps  for  order 
and  after  B  word  or  two  of  thanks  for  the  honor  conferred  upon 
him  should  proceed  to  lay  clearly  before  the  meeting  the  purpose 
for  which  it  has  been  called.  This  is  not  the  time  for  eloquence 
or  for  attempt!  at  fine  speaking.  The  chairman  should  endeavor 
to  frame  his  remarks  so  that  every  person  in  the  hall  will  under- 
stand clearly  and  definitely  just  what  the  matter  for  rilinntfrffi 
is.  It  is  in  good  taste  for  the  chair  to  call  upon  any  other  mem- 
ber of  the  meeting  to  express  the  purpose  for  which  it  has  been 
called  if  the  chairman  docs  not  feel  himself  thoroughly  able  to 


explain  it.  But  if  the  chair  means  to  call  upon  some  other 
member  to  speak,  he  should  first  proceed  to  the  election  of  a 
secretary,  who,  when  elected,  will  read  the  call,  and  the  chair 
will  then  call  on  the  person  whom  he  wishes  to  address  the 
house;  otherwise  the  secretary  is  not  usually  chosen  until  after 
the  president  has  spoken. 

GETTING  TO  WORK. 

When  the  secretary  has  been  elected  and  the  purpose  of  the 
meeting  stated,  the  next  duty  of  the  chairman  is  to  get  the 
assembly  to  work  with  as  little  delay  as  possible.  Suppose,  fcr 
example,  it  is  proposed  to  rebuild  the  church  parsonage  lately 
destroyed  by  fire.  The  chairman  will  say,  "Gentlemen,  you 
have  heard  the  reasons  why  this  meeting  has  been  called.  What 
is  the  pleasure  of  the  house  ?  " 

A  member  will  rise  to  his  feet  and  say,  "  Mr.  Chairman." 

The  chairman  will  look  towards  the  speaker  and  say,  "Mr. 
Mclntyre,"  or,  if  he  does  not  know  the  gentleman's  name,  he 
will  say,  "  The  gentleman  to  my  right,"  indicating  the  speaker 
with  a  wave  of  his  hand.  The  purpose  of  this  is  to  draw  the 
attention  of  the  meeting  to  the  person  about  to  speak.  Mr. 
Mclntyre  then  says,  "  I  move  that  a  committee  of  three  be 
appointed  by  the  chair  to  report  ways  and  means  of  raising 
$5,000  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  parsonage." 

This  motion  being  seconded,  the  chair  announces,  "  It  is 
moved  and  seconded  that  a  committee  of  three  to  report  ways 
and  means  of  raising  $5,000  to  rebuild  the  parsonage  be 
appointed  by  the  chair."  The  matter  now  becomes  debatable, 
and  any  member  may  rise  and  address  the  chair  as  to  the  pro- 
priety or  impropriety  of  appointing  such  committee.  When  the 
discussion  seems  to  be  concluded,  the  chair  will  a>k.  "Are  you 
ready  for  the  question?  "  To  which  the  members  v. .1!  respond 
by  calling,  "Question  !"  "Question  !"  The  chair  will  then  very 
distinctly,  repeat  the  motion  so  that  all  can  hear  it  clearly :  "It 
is  moved  and  seconded  that  a  committee  of  three  be  appointed 
by  the  chair  to  report  ways  and  means  of  raising  $5,000  to 
rebuild  the  parsonage.  Those  in  favor  of  the  motion  will 
say 'aye.'"  The  ayes  vote.  "  Those  opposed  will  say' no."' 
The  noes  vote.  If  the  chairman  thinks  the  ayes  are  in  a  major- 
ity he  will  say,  "The  ayes  seem  to  have  it,"  and  then,  after  a 
pause,  if  no  one  calls  for  a  division,  "The  ayes  have  it."  If  a 
division  is  called  for,  however,  the  chairman  will  call  upon  those 
in  fevor  of  the  motion  to  take  one  side  of  the  hall  and  those 
opposed  to  go  to  the  other,  when  he  may  appoint  teK 
count  the  votes,  or  count  them  himself.  Or  he  may  make  a 
division  by  causing  each  party  to  raise  their  hands  in  turn,  or 
to  rise  up  from  their  seats  and  remain  standing  while  being 
counted.  The  motion  having  carried,  the  chair  will  proceed  to 
appoint  the  committee,  remembering  that  Parliamentary  Fti- 
quette  demands  that  the  person  who  moved  the  appointment 
shall  be  be  made  chairman  of  the  committee.  The  chair  will 
■lag  decide,  as  it  wis  not  incorporated  in  the  motion,  when  the 
report  shall  be  made.  If  it  is  probable  that  the  work  can  be 
done  in  a  half  hour  or  an  hour,  he  will  order  the  committee  to 
report  in  that  time; if  longer,  it  is  wi-cr  to  adjourn  over  to  an- 
other evening.  The  committee  having  gone  out  to  work,  and 
there  being  no  business  before  the  assembly,  the  chair  may 
announce  a  recess,  or  call  upon  some  one  present  for  a  speech,  a 


^7" 


: 


V 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW    AND    RULES. 


589 


recitation  or  a  song ;  in  this  way,  or  in  conversation,  the  inter- 
val may  be  passed.  'When  the  committee  is  ready  to  report  they 
come  back  to  the  hall  and  announce  their  presence  to  the  chair- 
man. He  raps  with  the  gavel  for  order  and  announces,  "  The 
committee  is  ready  to  report.  Mr.  Mclntyre,  please  read  your 
report." 

The  report  is  read  by  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee,  and  at 
its  conclusion  some  member  moves  its  adoption.  This  being 
seconded,  the  Chair  announces:  "It  is  moved  and  seconded 
that  the  report  of  the  committee  which  you  have  just  heard  read 
be  adopted."  This  opens  discussion,  after  which  the  motion 
is  voted  on  as  before.  The  business  of  the  evening  being  con- 
cluded, some  one  moves  to  adjourn.  It  is  seconded,  and  this 
motion  is  voted  just  as  any  other.  If  the  matter  must  be  taken 
up  again  later,  the  date  to  which  the  body  is  to  adjourn  should 
always  be  incorporated  in  the  motion.  When  the  motion  is  car- 
ried, the  Chairman  announces  the  fact  and  the  meeting  ends. 


~  yX^- 


*? 


How  to  Manage  a  Convention. 


JpONVENTIONS  differ  from  ordinary  meet- 
\/jy  ings  both  in  their  composition  and  in  the 
f  customs  which  are  observed.  The  fre- 
%  quency  of  their  occurrence  and  the 
'$'  strict  manner  in  which  members  are  held 
to  Parliamentary  Rules  make  it  necessary  for 
every  delegate  to  thoroughly  master  the  niceties 
of  their  organization  and  government,  and,  al- 
though in  the  pages  that  follow  the  broad  prin- 
ciples of  Parliamentary  Law  are  laid  down  so 
that  those  who  run  may  read,  it  is  necessary  here 
to  call  attention  to  the  peculiarities  which  make 
Conventions  differ  from  other  deliberative  bod- 
ies. Conventions  are  made  of  delegates  chosen 
either  by  sections  of  a  political  party  or  by  di- 
visions, councils,  encampments,  or  lodges  of  a 
society.  In  all  cases  the  delegate  must  be  pro- 
perly accredited  to  the  general  body,  and  one 
of  the  first  things  to  see  to  is  that  these  creden- 
tials are  in  proper  shape. 

TEMPORARY  ORGANIZATION. 

A  Convention  organizes  temporarily  before  it 
can  get  to  work.     A   Chairman,  a   Secretary, 


with  several  assistants,  and  several  Sergeants-at- 
Arms  are  chosen  after  the  usual  manner.  They 
are  the  result  of  nomination  and  election  just  as 
in  any  other  deliberative  body,  but  it  is  under- 
stood that  their  functions  will  cease  as  soon  as 
the  Permanent  Organization  is  perfected.  It  is 
generally  understood  beforehand  who  is  to  be 
selected  Temporary  Chairman,  however,  and 
although  the  tenure  of  office  is  brief  it  is  quite 
an  important  post.  Delegates  will  always  do 
well  to  act  slowly  during  the  temporary  organi- 
zation, as  it  has  frequently  happened  that  it  alone 
has  decided  the  whole  work  which  the  body 
had  assembled  to  do.  The  custom  is  to  choose 
the  temporary  organization  by  a  viva  -voce  vote, 
and  usually  the  delegates  and  the  rest  of  the 
world  help  along  in  the  voting  with  all  their 
lungs. 

THE  COMMITTEES. 

The  temporary  organization  has  for  its  sole 
purpose  the  selection  of  the  Committees  whose 
work  must  be  done  before  the  Convention  can 
go  to  business.     These  are  the  Committees: 

On  Credentials. 

On  Permanent  Organization. 

On  Order  of  Business. 

On  Rules. 

On  Resolutions. 

Although  it  is  common  to  join  these  last  two 
committees  into  one. 

Every  Convention  consists  of  delegations,  and 
each  delegation  consists  of  delegates.  When 
the  Chairman  calls  for  the  Committee  on  Cre- 
dentials the  delegations  each  name  one  of  their 
number  to  be  a  member  of  that  Committee.  So 
with  Permanent  Organization,  Order  of  Business 
and  Rules  and  Resolutions.  Each  delegation 
should  have  one  representative  on  each  Com- 
mittee. As  soon  as  the  names  are  given  in  the 
Committees  retire  and  a  recess  is  taken. 

THE  COMMITTEES  AT  WORK. 

The  duties  of  each  Committee  are  plainly  indicated  by  their 
names.  The  credentials  of  each  delegate  should  be  turned  in 
as  rapidly  as  possible;  generally  they  are  put  in  the  hands  of  the 


/ 


-apV 


ft 


~7\ 


59° 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW    AND    RULES. 


members  of  the  Credential  Committee  from  the  delegation,  but 
sometimes  contests  occur,  and  thil  is  the  time  for  the  contest  to 
begin  properly.  In  political  conventions  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant work  is  done  by  the  Order  of  Business  Committee.  It 
is  very  vital  in  what  order  candidates  shall  be  nominated.  All 
of  this  has  to  be  settled  at  once,  and  the  friends  of  a  candidate, 
if  they  are  afraid  that  other  candidates  have  sold  them  out, 
should  always  try  to  get  their  nomination  fixed  at  the  beginning 
of  the  schedule,  because  they  can  thus  make  the  doubtful  ones 
show  their  hands  at  once.  The  Committee  on  Permanent  Or- 
ganization must  supply  a  full  list  of  names  for  chairman,  secre- 
taries, sergeants-at-arms,  pages,  etc.,  for  the  convention.  The 
Committee  on  Rules  always  report  the  rules  governing  Congress, 
and  the  Resolutions  Committee  put  the  platform,  as  it  is  called, 
in  shape. 

THE  CONVENTION  AT  WORK. 

When  the  recess  ends,  the  committees  should  all  be  ready  to 
report,  which  they  do  m  this  order: 

Credentials. 

Permanent  Organization. 

Order  of  Business. 

Rules  and  Regulations. 
The  Credentials  Committee  gives  a  full  list  of  delegates  entitled 
to  sit,  the  Permanent  Organization  names  the  officers,  the  Order 
of  Business  reports  in  what  succession  the  convention  shall  ad- 
dress itself  to  the  business  before  it,  the  Rules  and  Resolutions 
give  shape  and  purpose  to  the  whole.  Each  committee  report 
is  acted  upon  as  soon  as  it  is  read,  usually  by  a  viva  voce  vote, 
and,  all  being  accepted,  the  convention  gets  to  work.  The  first 
sup  is  for  each  delegation  to  select  a  chairman,  who  acts  as 
spokesman  for  it.  This  can  be  done  in  the  intervals  betw<  I  n 
the  reports.  The  permanent  officials  are  installed,  generally 
with  short  speeches,  and  the  order  of  business  is  taken  up.  The 
chairman  orders  the  secretary  to  call  the  roll  of  delegations  fur 
nominations,  for  Governor,  tor  instance.  Two  or  three  coun- 
ties may  be  called  without  any  nominations  (for  it  is  always 
understood  beforehand  who  is  to  make  the  nominating  speeches) 
until  Butler  County  is  reached.  Then  the  gentleman  who  has 
been  selected  arises,  and,  calling  attention  to  the  eminent  serv- 
ices and  peculiar  fitness  of  the  Honorable  Allen  Blaisdell,  nomi- 
nates him  for  Governor.  Another  county  is  leached,  and  Mr. 
Pierson  is  nominated;  perhaps  four  or  five  more  and 
Blaisdell  is  seconded,  and  so  on  until  all  the  candidates  for 
(.  >\  i  nor  are  fairly  in  the  field.  The  voting  in  conventions  is 
peculiar.  As  soon  as  the  nominations  close,  each  delegate 
should  hand  to  the  chairman  of  his  delegation  a  piece  of  paper 
with  the  name  of  the  person  he  votes  for  upon  it.  When 
An  hews  County  is  called  the  chairman  rises  and  announces 
"Andrews  County  gives  three  for  Blaisdell,  two  for  Pierson  and 
one  for  Holmes.  When  the  vote  is  all  in,  the  totals  are  hand- 
ed to  the  president,  who  announces:  "Total  vote  cast,  242;  nec- 
essary  to  a  choice,  122.  Pierson, 98;  Blaisdell,  84 ;  Holmes,  53; 
Dawet,  7.  There  being  no  election,  the  convention  will  proceed 
to  vote  again."  Which  is  continued  until  by  a  clear  majority  a 
candidate  has  been  chosen.  When  a  candidate  has  been  select- 
ed he  should  thank  the  convention  for  its  preference,  and  the 
defeated  candidates  should  also  come  forward  and  express  their 
submission  to  the  will  of  the  party. 

TRADING. 

Trading  is  the  name  given  to  the  transaction  whereby  a  dele- 
gati  n,  anxious  to  secure  the  nomination  of  their  friend  to  office, 


agree  to  vote  for  other  candidates  who  are  running  for  other 
offices,  in  return  for  support  of  their  nominee.  This  is  assum- 
ing greater  proportions  every  year,  and  the  only  note  to  be 
made  upon  the  practice  is  that  usually,  from  bad  faith  and 
treachery,  it  is  a  very  uncertain  one.  Pledges  are  easily  secured, 
but  kept  with  difficulty.  In  this  age  of  combinations  the  men 
who  do  not  combine  are  sure  to  be  defeated,  but  it  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  American  politics  should  give  such  a  premium  to 
deceit  as  the  "trading'*  done  in  conventions  offers. 


-x^mm 


Things  to  be  Remembered. 


->-*- 


Seven  Things  a  Chairman  Should  Remember. 

1st.  Take  the  chair  promptly  at  the  time  for  the  meeting  to 
open. 

2nd.  Always  rise  to  your  feet  when  putting  a  question.  All 
your  remarks  io  the  house  should  be  made  standing. 

3rd.  Order  is  best  maintained  by  a  rigid  enforcement  of  par- 
liamentary law. 

4th.  Except  in  vote  by  ballot,  the  chairman  can  only  vote 
when  the  meeting  is  equally  divided,  or  when  his  vote  given  to 
the  minority  would  make  the  division  equal. 

5th.  The  chairman  should  familiarize  himself  thoroughly 
with  the  purposes  of  the  meeting. 

6th.  Common  sense,  decision  and  firmness  are  absolutely 
necessary  to  a  successful  president 

7th.  The  president's  three  duties  are:  to  preserve  order,  to 
put  questions,  and  to  keep  the  house  strictly  to  the  business  in 
hand. 


Six  Things  a  Secretary  Should  Remember. 

1st.  Provide  the  necessary  stationery  for  the  performance  of 
the  duties  of  the  secretary. 

2nd.  In  reading  minutes  and  papers  pitch  the  voice  to  reach 
the  furthest  persons  in  the  room. 

3rd.  Do  not  attempt  to  w  rite  up  minutes  during  a  meeting — 
take  full  notes  of  everything  that  happens. 

4th.  Preserve  all  papers  carefully.  Do  not  allow  members 
to  remove  them  after  they  are  read. 

5th.  See  to  it  that  all  committees  are  properly  warned  of 
their  appointment,  and  of  the  business  they  are  to  do. 

6th.  In  writing  minutes  make  them  as  short  as  possible,  but 
include  every  important  matter. 


Four  Things  a  Member  Should  Remember. 

1st.  Unless  the  chair  is  assisted  by  every  member  in  the 
maintenance  of  order,  business  will  be  retarded. 

2nd.  Always  rise  when  about  to  speak,  and  address  the  chair- 
man alone.     Be  silent  until  he  makes  the  necessary  recognition. 

3rd.  Be  careful  to  keep  to  the  ixu'nt  in  your  remarks,  and 
never  speak  twice  on  a  matter  while  there  are  other  members 
waning  to  be  heard. 

4th.  That  speaker  is  listened  to  with  attention  who  only 
speaks  when  he  has  something  pertinent  to  say. 


— oC&§<^^^§G&e>.- 


^J 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW    AND    RULES. 


591 


THREE    HUNDRED    POINTS    OF    ORDER. 

DECIDED   AT   ONE   CLANCE,  ON   A   SINCLE   PACE. 

BLANKS    IN    COLUMNS    AFFIRM    STATEMENTS    AT    THE    HEAD--THE    NEGATIVE    DENIES    THEM. 


*  Not  debatable  when  another  question  is  before  the  House. 

f  An  affirmative  vote  on  this  question  cannot  be  reconsidered. 

a  Limited  debate  only  on  the  propriety  of  postponement  allowed. 

b  May  be  moved  and  entered  on  the  record  when  another  has  the  floor,  but  may  not 
stop  the  business  then  in  progress;  maybe  called  up  by  the  mover  as  soon  as 
such  business  is  disposed  of,  and  it  then  takes  precedence  of  all  other  questions 
exept  "to  adjourn,"  or  "  to  fix  time  to  which  to  adjourn." 

cNot  debatable  when  decision  is  in  a  matter  of  breach  of  decorum. 

dCan  be  made  before  debate  has  commenced  only. 

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Leave  to  continue  speaking  after  breach  of  decorum 

no 
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no 

FORMS   IN   WHICH   QUESTIONS   MAY   BE   PUT. 

On  motion  for  previous  question,  the  form  observed  is:    "Shall  the  main  question  be  put?"    This  if  carried  ends  debate. 

On  motion  for  order  of  the  day:  "Will  the  House  now  proceed  to  the  order  of  the  day?"  Thisif  carried  supersedes  interven- 
ing motions. 

When  objection  is  raised  to  considering  question:    "Shall  the  question  be  considered?" 

On  motion  to  strike  out  words:  "Shall  the  words  stand  part  of  the  motion?"  If  this  be  not  carried,  the  words  are 
struck  out. 

On  an  appeal  from  decision  of  Chair :    "  Shall  the  decision  be  sustained  as  the  ruling  of  the  House?  " 

When  yeas   and  nays   are  ordered  by    the  House :    "As  many  as  are  in  favor  of will  answer  aye;  those  opposed  will 

answer  no,  when  their  names  are  called." 

When  a  member  has  been  counted  on  the  side  against  which  he  intended  to  vote,  the  presiding  officer  can  order  the  amend- 
ment of  the  vote,  having  first  asked  the  member:  "On  which  side  he  intended  to  give  his  voice?"  This  correction  can  be  made 
only  on  the  member's  own  representation. 


^ 


592 


PETITIONS    AND    MEMORIALS. 


T 


u 


WWW 


M 


EMORIflLS: 


AND 


p 


ETITIONS. 


The  right  of  Petition:  is  an  expression  frequently  met  with 
in  English  history.  The  earnestness  with  which  the  people  of 
that  country  strove  for  the  maintenance  of  the  right  is  a  proof 
of  its  great  importance.  The  right  of  Petition  necessarily  im- 
plies the  right  of  being  heard  and  heeded. 

The  bodies  to  whom  petitions  are  addressed  are  first  of  all 
Congress,  the  President  and  the  executive  departments  of  the 
Government,  State  Governors  and  Assemblies,  Mayors,  City 
Councils,  and  lastly  public  and  private  corporations  of  every 
kind.  Certain  set  forms  are  used  in  addressing  these  assemblies 
and  persons,  and  although  the  matter  may  vary  infinitely  it  must 
always  be  put  in  a  respectful  and  decorous  manner.  The  me- 
morial to  Congress  presented  by  the  Mississippi  River  Conven- 
tion.which  assembled  in  St.  Louis  October,  1881,  is  one  of  the 
best  exemples  of  this  kind  extant.  It  will  be  found  first  among 
the  forms  which  follow,  necessarily  abbreviated  to  fit  the 
space  at  our  disposal. 

MEMORIAL  TO  CONGRESS. 

To  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives   of  the    United    States, 

in  General  Assembly  convened: 

The  Executive  Committee  of  the  Mississippi  River  Improvement 
Convention,  held  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  in  October  last, 
under  one  of  tlie  resolutions  unanimously  Adopted,  were  charged  with 
the  duty  of  preparing  and  presenting  to  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  a  memorial  embodying  the  action  of  the  Convention,  accom- 
panied with  Mich  statistics  and  information  as  the  Committee  might 
deem  expedient. 

The  Convention  which  committed  this  grave  duty  to  your  memor- 
ialists was  one  representing,  in  an  unusual   degree,  the  commercial 

and  industrial  power  of  the  country.  The  highest  Order  of  talent, 
judgment  matured  by  careful  thought  and  large  experience  of  the 
great  iguestlon  so  Intimately  connected  with  flu-  progress  and 
Opment  of  the  imperial  domain  comprehended,  met  in  council,  and 
the  important  question  was  Considered  by  men  representing  twenty 
States  and  three  Territories,  and  half  the'  population  of  the  Union. 
I  remarkable  was  the  variety  of  interests    gathered    and    given 

utterance  to  there.    Thefarmers  and  merchants,  the  bankers,  the  man* 

ufacturers,  the  professions,  and  the  heads  of  great  transportation 
lines  by  river  and  by  rail,  with  earnest  zeal  discussed,  and  with  strik- 
ing unanimity  reached  the  conclusion  embodied  in  the  resolutions 
adopted  by  the  Convention,  and  which  it  now  becomes  the  duty  of 
your  memorialists  to  urge  upon  the  National  Legislature. 
***  +  **»**  *  • 

The  aid  now  asked,  and  the  benefits  sought  to  be  received  through 
the  liberal  action  of  the  Government,  is  not  alone  for  the  presei 

for  the  near  succeeding  years,  but  stretches  to  the  distant  future— that 
eventful  and  busy  future"    for    which    it    is    the    dutv    and    DUSil 

mnship  to  prepare,    Thi   \  dley  States  and  those  in  tin  ; 

:  (I  Sou t Invest,  bound  together  by  the  ch on  I  ion   in- 

terest, arc  fast  gaining  the  political  power  which  will  make  them  the 
?,i  antoi  .  Instead  of  the  solicitors  of  favors  through  the  Instrumental!* 
y  of  the  Government    A  compliance  now  with  their  reasonable  *\*-- 

nised,  and  will  hereafter  And  ret 
response,     A  refusal  will  breed  an  antagonism  of  sections  whicli  may 
lead  to  sectional  issues. 


And  now  we  ask,  can  there  be  a  more  propitiou*  time  for  the 
National  Legislature  to  recognize  the  value  and  importance  of  the 
work  ? 

The  products  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  carried  cheaply  by  the  river 
route  (and  through  its  influence  less  expensively  by  rail)  to  "the  outer 
markets,  have  thrown  the  balance  of  the  world's  trade  grandly  in  our 
favor.  Since  this  power  and  influence  has  been  recognized,  for  the 
first  time  in  our  history  we  now  have  among  kindred  commercial  na* 
tlons the  rank  of  creditor.  The  long-sought  position  has  been  ob- 
tained through  the  agency  of  cheap  transportation  from  the  interior 
to  tlie  sea  ;  a  policy  ere  can  only  maintain  by  carrying  the  thought  to 
the  utmost  conclusion. 

Tlie  report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  favorably  present- 
ed by  President  Arthur  in  his  message,  shows   a  surplus   revenue  of 
over  $100,000,000  for  the  last  fiscal  rear,  and  the  question  suggests 
itself,  how  can  this  accruing  surplus  he  properly  and  mo:  i 
expended  ?   Those   for  whom  we  speak  do   not   complain   of  the  bur- 
dens of  taxation.    They  do  not  ask  for  the  present  reduction  orspeedy 
extinguishment  of  the  national  debt,  but  they  do  ask  that  this  surplus 
shall  in  part  be  applied  to  their  great  and  cheap    thoroughfares,   feel- 
ing that  when  this  is  done  they  can  bear  the  burden!  by   the 
Government  In  the  form  of  taxes    much  easier  than  th< 
from  detective  and  crippled  transportation.    Now  in  the  days  of  our 
prosperity,  they  a~sk  those  to  whom  they    have  entrusted   their   I 
to  lav  aside  local  antagonisms  and  sectional  jealousies,  to  c< 
the  height  of  the  argument  and  conclusions  presented,  and   meet    the 
action  of  the  Convention  by  the  exercise  of  a   statesmanship  as  broad 
and  comprehensive  as  that  "which  marked  its  deliberations. 


Secretary, 

PETITION  TO  THE  PRESIDENT. 

To  Chester  A.  Arthur,  President  of  the  United  States. 

The  Petitioners  undersigned  respectfully  solicit  of  you  the  appoint- 
ment of  \V,  K.  Huntir  as   cadet  at  large  to  West  Point, 
man    is   the  son    of    Major  Wilson  Hunter  who  dis 
and  was  severely  Wounded  at  the  battle  of  Lookout  Mountain*      Hi      - 

twenty  yean  of  age,  of  perfect  form  and  robust  hi 

Uate  of  "Madison  University.      He  carried  off  the  highest  I 

institution  in  mathematics  and  drawing,  and  is  now  engaged   in  the 

office  of  Penny   A:    Rubold,  Civil   Engineers.     We  ask 

our  Representative    In  Congn  m  has  tires  dr.  without  know- 


of  Hunt  .  made  hit  n  I 

faneri 
ith  the  greatest  i 


ng  ot  II 
VVc  re 


fer  to  accoiapain  iujr  papers,  A,  R,  C  and  D. 


James  T.  Miumk. 

Old.    L.    Vk.NNOK. 


Galena,  Ill».,  Oct.  i(. 

V  Letter  of  Hunter  to  Yt  nnor. 

H.  "        Personal  I-'riciid  of  President, 

i  Printed  slip. 

D.  Letter  of  Dean  of  Madison  University. 


Mr  Dtar  Mr.  Vtnnor: 

You  have  so  frcepientlv  shown  your  kind  feelings  towards  me  that  I 
am  sure  yog  Will  not  think  tue  too  presumptive  in  taking  TOUT  assis- 
tance   in"  a    purpose    tli.it    I  have  resolved  upon.      It    is    that    1    should 


_M 


•   Si 


go  to  West  Point.  You  know  how  well  fitted  I  may  be  for  a  cadet- 
ship.  Should  my  purpose  meet  with  your  approval,  I  throw  all  my 
hopes  of  int  ure  success  in  life  on  you,  and  I  know  no  one  in  this  wide 
world  so  willing  and  so  well  able  to  help  me. 

With  the  most  sincere  regard,  Kver  yours, 

Galena,  Oct.  6th,  1SS2.  W.  E.  Hunter. 

B. 

SEALED    LETTER. 

My  Old  Friend; 

Should  the  application  for  the  appointment  of  Hunter  be  favorably 
received  by  you,  you  will  not  only  confer  a  favor  on  a  most  worthy 
object,  but  settle  another  matter  which  will  be  a  good  stroke  of  policy 
for  our  district.  , 

A  man  named  Trevors  is  looking  with  hungry  eyes  at  the  position 
of  U.  S.  Collector  for  this  district,  in  which  we  want  our  friend  May- 
ville  retained.  Trevor's  main  dependence  would  be  on  Morgan  and 
Vennor.  Now  Morgan  is  secretary  of  the  Illinois  State  Republican 
Committee  and  was  "a  power  in  the  last  convention.  Vennor  is  a  quiet 
capitalist  whose  subscriptions  have  been  very  heavy  in  any  Republi- 
can necessity.  You  would  find  it  hard  to  refuse  either.  Appoint 
Hunter  and  you  save  Mayville.  They  could  not  expect  you  to  make 
a  second  move  on  their  application. 

Pardon  the  length  of  this. 

As  ever  your  most  devoted, 
Galena,  Oct.  13th.  Morris  Henley. 

C. 
PRINTED  slip. 
From  the  Galena  Times,  Aug.  18I/1, 1882. 
*********  ** 

This  happy  escape  from  what  would  have  been  a  most  frightful  dis- 
aster is  all  owing  to  the  presence  of  mind  of  a  young  surveyor  in  the 
employ  of  Penny  &  Kubold.  We  predict  for  Mr.  Hunter,  the  hero 
whose  coolness  and  courage  were  the  means  of  saving  so  many  lives, 
a  most  brilliant  future. 


Messrs.  Penny  &  Rubold. 

Gentlemen: — In  recommending  my  young  friend  W.  E.  Hunter 
to  you,  I  can  say  with  truth  he  was  as  a  pupil  all  that  could  be  desired, 
apt  and  studious.  His  proficiency  in  mathematics  is  almost  phenom- 
enal. Respectfully, 

Miron  Seymour, 
Feb.  12th,  1SS2.  Dean  of  Madison  University. 


PETITION  TO  THE  GOVERNOR. 

71?  T/ios.  T.  Crittenden,  Governor  of  the  State  of  Missouri. 

Your  Petitioner  respectfully  represent  that  the  office  of  Clerk  of  the 
County  Court  of  Dayton  County  in  this  state  is  now  vacant  by  reason 
of  the  decease  of  James  Allison,  the  regularly  elected  incumbent. 
Your  petitioner  would  further  represent  that  until  the  next  general 
state  and  county  election  the  law  requires  that  the  vacancy  be  filled 
by  appointment  of  the  Governor.  Now  feeling  myself  capable  of  fil- 
ling the  position,  and  being  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  duties  of 
the  office,  I  respectfully  make  application  and  solicit  you  to  appoint 
me  Clerk  of  the  Dayton  County  Court.  Robert  Ames. 

With  our  most  cordial  recommendation. 

Henry  Warren,       J  Justices  of  the 

Thomas  Harrison,  \  County  Court. 

William  Henderson. 

S.  K.  Atchison. 

Richard  Lord,  Sheriff. 

Jesse  R.  Dunlap,  Minister. 

PETITION  TO  A  CORPORATION. 

To  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Dubuque  Gaslight  Co. 

Gentlemen: — As  the  vacant  lot  adjoining  your  works  and  owned 
by  you  would  suit  my  purpose,  I  respectfully  solicit  the  use  of  it  for 
the  storage  of  cement  and  salt.  Should  it  not  be  your  intention  to 
improve  the  lot  for  some  time,  the  collection  of  a  small  rent  front  me 
would  be  better  than  allowing  such  a  property  to  lie  idle. 

Respectfully,  Alex.  Goldman. 

PETITION  TO  A  STATE  LEGISLATURE. 

75?  the  Honorable,  the  Senate  and  House  oj    Representatives  of  the 

State  of ,in  Legislature    assembled : 

The  undersigned  petitioners,  residents  and  tax  payers  of  the  city  of 
,  respectfully  represent  that  they 


and  that  they  your  petitioners  fully  believe  that  such  action  on  your 

part  would  be  in  favor  of  the  best  interest  of  the  city  of ,  and 

would  be  in  complete  accord  with  the  will  of  the  majority  of  its  citi- 
zens, and  your  petitioners  as  in  duty  bound  will  ever  pray,  Arc,  &€• 


Signed, 


PETITION  TO  CITY  AUTHORITIES. 

To  the  Mayor  and  Common  Council  of  the  City  of : 

Gentlemen  :  Your  petitioners,  citizens  and  tax-payers  of  the  second, 
fifth  and  sixth  wards  of  this  city,  respectfully  sohcity  your  honorable 
body  to  extend  the  system  of  sewerage,  already  working  in  such  ad- 
mirable order  in  the  third  and  fourth  wards,  through  our  wards.  The 
expense  may  be  heavy  but  our  need  is  still  greater ;  for  all  the  territory 
contiguous  to  the  low  grade  streets,  Adams,  Pine  and  Lincoln,  is  in 
extreme  danger,  should  the  pestilence  now  raging  in  the  Southern 
cities  come  this  far  north.  We  respectfully  represent  that  the  largest 
portion  of  the  city  revenue  is  collected  in  our  wards  and  that  the  pro- 

eosed  extension  will  be  paid  for  wholly  by  the  property-owners  most 
enefited  by  the  sewers. 


Signed, 


(City,  Stale,  Dale.) 


PETITION  TO  A  COUNTY  COURT. 


County  Court : 

Township,  who  are 


75?  the  Hon.  Justices  of  the 

The  undersigned*  residents  of 

obliged  to  use  the  Baldwin  road  to  market  with  their  produce,  re- 
spectfully inform  your  honor  that  the  bridge  crossing  Pear  Creek  is  so 
badly  injured  by  the  last  flood  that  it  is  now  dangerous  and  cannot  be 
trusted.  Hoping  you  will  give  the  matter  immediate  attention  they 
earnestly  petition  your  honorable  court  to  order  the  necessary  repairs. 


Signed, 


(County,  State,  Date) 


A  REMONSTRANCE. 

75?  the  Mayor  and  Common  Council  oj  ; 

Gentlemen  :  The  petition  of  the  undersigned  citizens  and  tax  pav- 
ers of  the  sixth  an  seventh  wards  of  this  city  respectfully  represents 
that  they  have  learned  that  a  petition  is  now  before  you  praying  for 
the  privilege  of  constructing  a  railroad  along  Jackson  Street.  That 
if  this  privilege  were  granted  and  a  track  laiuon  that  street  the  result 
would  ne  most  injurious  to  the  property  fronting  thereon  and  would 
obstruct  the  great  traffic  now  continuous  on  that  thoroughfare.  They 
also  suggest  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  such  railroad,  as  the  one  on 
Henry  street  two  blocks  south  is  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  public. 
They  therefore  respectfully  and  earnestly  remonstrate  against  the 
granting  of  said  privilege  by  your  body. 


Signed, 


(City,  State,  Date.) 


±L 


Q st. 


|8HE  benefits  derived  socially  ami  intellectually  from 
attendance  at  Lyceums  or  debating  societies  arc  M 
generally  conceded  that  there  U  no  need  of  argument 

JjJSjjffrgS.  *°  urGe  *^e'r  formation. 

I/wi^         The  following  form  of  a  constitution  and  by-laws 
will  give  a  clear  insight  into  their  workings : 


Constitution  and  By-Laws  of  the  Ben  Franklin 
Lyceum. 

PREAMBLE. 

For  our  mutual  improvement,  for  the  entertainment  of  our 
friends  and  for  the  cultivation  of  the  amenities  of  social  life,  the 
undersigned  agree  to  form  themselves  into  a  debating  society. 
TITLE. 

ARTICLE   I. 

The  name  of  this  society  shall  be  the  Ben  Franklin  Lyceum. 
OFFICERS. 

ARTICLE   II. 

The  officers  of  the  Lyceum  shall  consist  of  a  President,  Vice-Prcsl« 
dent,  Secretary,  Treasurer,  Librarian  and  Marsh. il.  They  shall  be 
elected  annually  at  the  first  regular  meeting  after  the  15th  of  January 
in  each  year,  and  shall  continue  to  perforin  the  duties  of  their 
offices  until  the  installation  of  their  successors,  which  shall  take  place 
at  the  next  meeting  after  their  election. 

DUTIES  OF  OFFICERS. 

ARTICLE  III. 

The  President  shall  preside  at  all  meetings,  and  shall  be  ex-officio 
member  of  all  standing  committees,  but  not  of  special  commit) 

The  Vice  President  in  the  absence  of  the    President  shall  take 
nr,  but   will  not  assume  his  duties   in   committees   unless  the 
President  shall  so  request. 

The  SxCRSTAKY'a  duties  shall  be  threefold— Recording,  Corres- 
ponding and  Financial. 

1;  -■ 'or dim;.— lie  shall  keep  an  accurate   record  of  the  proceedings 
of  each  meeting,  be  prepared  to  read  them   at  the  ensuing  1 
and  bv  indexing  or  other  method   be   prepared   to   read   on   call   the 
record  of  any  business  that  may    have  taken    place    at  any  former 
'ing. 

Corresponding, — He  shall  attend  to  all  the  correspondence  of  the 
Lyceum. 

FINANCIAL, — Me  shall  keep  the  nccounts  of  the  Lvccum  with  the 
members,  with  ell  parties  having  dealings  with  thrfLvccum,  and  with 
the  Treasurer.     He  shall   collect  and  pay    over  to   the   Treasurer    all 


d  fines  and  other  income.  He  shall  WTite  warrants  on  the 
Treasu-er  to  he  signed   by  the  President  for  all  monies  to  be  paid  out. 

The  TaSASI  kkk  shall  receive  from  the  Secretary  all  monies  of  the 
Lyceum  and  shall  pay  out  the  same  only  on  the  production  of  the 
Secretary's  warrant  signed  bv  the  President.  He  shall  make  a  quar- 
terly statement  of  the  funds  in  his  hands,  which  shall  be  verified  by 
the  nooks  of  the  Secretary, 

The  Librarian  shall  have  charge  of  all  books,  periodicals,  maps, 
pictures,  globes,  curiosities  and  like  articles  either  owned  or  borrow- 
ed by  the  Lyceum. 

The  Marshal  shall  have  charge  of  the  hall,  furniture,  light, 
fuel, and  comfort  of  the  members,  lie  shall  act  as  doorkeeper,  usher 
to  visitors,  and  messenger. 

COMMITTEES. 

ARTICLE   IV. 

Immediately  after  his  installation  the  President  shall  appoint  five 
standing  committees : 

The  Executive  and  Financial  Committee, 

The  Liukarv  Committee, 

COMMIT"!  U  0  )   I. hi  1  . 

Committee  o\'i  in  Sli.ii  tion  or  Subjects  for  Debate, 

Committee  on  Criticism. 

These  committees  shall  consist  of  four  members  each,  i.  t.,  three 
appointed  and  the  President  himself. 

Special  Committees  for  all  other  purposes  shall  be  elected  by 
the  Lyceum. 

MEMBERSHIP. 

ARTICLE  V. 

Active  Membership. — An.  p<  rson  of  good  repute  in  the  commu- 
nity,of  either  se\,  over  the  age  <  irs  ir.av  become  a  member 
of  the  L  '  majority  vote  ol  the  members  present  at  the  neat 
meeting  after  their  p  he  membership  beginning  only  after 
signing  I                   tution  and  paying  the  initiation  I 

Like  Membership.— Any  person  of  good  repute,  on  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  member  and   the  vote   of   the  societv,  may  become   a   life 
member  and  have  the  benefit  of  the    library  and  mav  attend  ai! 
lngs  and  debates  on  the  payment  of  $10.00. 

Honorary  Membership  may  be  conferred  bv  vote  of  the  Lyceum 
on  any  person.    Honorary  members  shall  pay  no  fees  or  dues. 

ORDER. 
article  VI. 
The  proceedings  and  deliberations  of  the  meetings  of  the   Lyceum 
shall  be  governed  bv  the  1  raa  shown  in  the  arttcleoh  Par- 

liamentary Law  in  Peale's  Manual,  unless  such  rules  conflict  with  this 
Constitution,  its  Amendments  or  the  By-Law.. 

EXPULSION  OF  MEMBERS. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

itncient  reason  anv  member  mav  be  expelled  by  s   two. thirds 
.   the  members  present  at  anv  meeting,  provided  t: 
Committee  has  prei  matter  and  informed  flae 

r  of  the  proposed  action,  and  that  he  be  gtvea  opportunity  to 
defend  hlmsetf, 


V- 


f 


t& 


LYCEUMS    AND    DEBATING    CLUBS. 


595 


TIME  OF  MEETINGS. 

ARTICLE  VIII. 

The  regular  meetings  of  the  Lyceum  shall  he  held  in  the  Ben. 
Franklin  Jlali  at  eight  o'clock  on  every  Wednesday  evening  Special 
meetings  may  be  called  by  the  President  on  the  request  ot  five  mem- 
bers. 

AMENDMENTS. 

ARTICLE   IX. 

This  Constitution  may  be  altered  or  amended  at  any  regular  meet- 
ing by  a.  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present  I  Provided  that 
written  notice  shall  have  been  given  of  the  proposed  amendment  at  a 
previous  meeting. 

BY-LAWS. 

LIBRARY. 

RULE   I. 

No  member  shall  be  allowed  to  take  more  than  two  books  from  the 
Library  at  one  time.  A  fine  of  one  cent  per  day  for  each  volume 
shall  be  collected  from  each  member  keeping  books  more  than  one 
week.  The  Library  shall  be  opened  one  hour  oefore  the  regular  meet- 
ings of  the  Lyceum. 

QUORUM. 

RULE    II. 

Two  more  than  one-half  the  active  members  shall  constitute  a 
Quorum. 


MONTHLY  DUES. 


Each  member  shall  pay  a  monthly  due  of  fifty  cents.  Any  meipber 
having  failed  to  pay  his  dues  for  three  months  shall  be  notified  by  the 
Secretary;  if  he  dues  not  pay  by  the  end  of  fourth  month  his  member- 
ship shall  be  forfeited. 

DEBATES,  RECITATIONS   AND  SPEECHES. 

RULE   IV, 

The  President  shall  appoint  in  turn  members  to  take  part  in  the 
exercises.  A  week's  notice  shall  be  given,  and  a  member  failing  to 
fi.l  the  appointment  without  good  excuse  shall  be  fined  fifty  cents. 

ORDER  OF  BUSINESS. 

RULE  V. 

Call  to  Order. 

Roll  Call. 

Reading  of  Minutes  of  Last  Meeting. 

Correspondence. 

Reports  of  Officers. 

Reports  of  Committees. 

Good  of  the  Lyceum. 

Election  of  Members. 

New    Business. 

Debate. 

Recitation. 

Oration. 

Criticism. 

Adjournment. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE. 


1.  Ought  the  largest  city  of  a  State  to  be  the  capital  of  that  State? 

2.  Will  the  coal  supply  of  the  United  States  hold  out? 

3.  Must  the  Chinese  go? 

4.  Has  the  abolition  of    slavery  improved  the    condition   of  the 

blr»cks? 

5.  Is  universal  suffrage  a  success? 

f>.  Has  the  attendance  at  churches  changed  the  character? 

7.  Was  the  Tichborne  claimant  the  true  heir? 

8.  Is  the  drama  immoral? 

9.  Will  the  planting  of  forests  increase  the  rainfall? 

10.  Should  woman  have  the  right  of  suffrage? 

11.  Is  cremation  preferable  to  burial? 

12.  Ought  Governments  to  own  railroads  and  telegraphs? 

13.  Should  the  President  of  the  United  States  be  elected  directly  by 

the  people? 

14.  Does  Prohibition  prohibit? 

15.  Should  public  museums  and  parks  be  opened  on  Sunday? 

16.  Should   foreign  languages  be  taught  in  the  Public  Schools? 

17.  Should  the  right  to  vote  depend  on  a  property  qualification? 
1S.  Are  early  marriages  advisable  economically? 

19.  Have  we  an  aristocracy? 

20.  Could  the  Government  of  the  United  States  do  as  well  without 

the  Senate? 

21.  Will  th«  colored  race  become  amalgamated  with  the  whites? 

22.  Are  competitive  examinations  a  fair  test  for  the  fitness  of  appli- 

cants for  office? 

23.  Should  gold  be  the  standard  of  value? 

24.  Should  there  bv  more  Arctic  expeditions  sent  out? 

25.  Was  Washington  a  military  gonius? 

26.  Is  the  assessment  of  office-holders  for  political  purposes  immoral  ? 

27.  Is  communism  a  mistake? 

28.  Has  the  visit  of  Edwin  Arnold  had  any  effect  on  the  public  taste? 

29.  Is  the  co-education  of  the  sexes  advisable? 

30.  Has  the  Government  been  too  liberal  in  land  grants  to  railroads  ? 

31.  Are  inventors  sufficiently  protected  by  the  patent  laws? 

32.  Should   married   women    be  retained    as  teachers  in  the   Public 

Schools? 

33.  Should  convict  labor  be  allowed  to  compete  with  honest  labor? 

34.  Is  the  present  system  of  trial  by  jury  the  best? 

35.  Should  voting   by    ballot  be  introduced  into  all  elective   and 

legislative  proceedings? 


A\4,v\\iillllf»/L/// 


1 


596 


— 


MAGNA    CHAKTA. 


h 


|?frj3fr>tgrai*'3^^ 


MAGNA  CHARTA. 


The  Steps  in  the  Growth  of  American  Liberty. 


i 


N  the  year  121 3,  on  Aug- 
ust 25th,  in  England, was 
organized  a  movement  of 
which  we  now,  after  so 
many  centuries,  feel  the 
effects  in  our  nicely  bal- 
anced constitutions  and 
'equitable  codes  of  laws.  The  liber- 
ties for  which  our  American  fore- 
fathers battled  had  been  defined  and 
foreshadowed  by  their  ancestors, 
and  the  political  condition  of  our 
thriving  country  may  well  be  shown' 
as  the  ripened  and  mellow  fruit  from 
the  seed  sown  nearly  seven  hundred 
years  ago.  On  that  memorable  25th 
of  August  the  Prelates  and  Barons 
tiring  of  the  tyranny  and  vacillations 
of  King  John,  founded  a  Council 
and  passed  measures  to  secure  their  rights.  Af- 
ter two  years  of  contest,  with  many  vicissitudes, 
the  Barons  entered  London  and  the  King  fled 
into  Hampshire,  whence  he  sent  word  that  he 
would  comply  with  their  demands.  By  agree- 
ment both  parties  met  at  Runnymede  on  the 
9th  of  June.  The  conference  lasted  till  the  19th, 
on  which  day  the  royal  seal  was  affixed  and 
Magna  Charta,  the  glory  of  England, was  born. 
It  was  a  comprehensive  bill  of  rights,  and  though 
crude  in  form  and  with  many  clauses  of  merely 
local  value,  its  spirit  lives  and  will  live.  Clear 
and  prominent  we  find  the  motto  we  ourselves 
have  followed: 

"  No   tax  without  representation." 
It  contained  sixty-olie  articles,  the  thirty-ninth 
and  fortieth  of  which  have  had  the  most  lasting 
effect,  and  their  sentiments  are  the  very  marrow 
of  all  our  State  Constitutions. 


The  original  document  is  in  Latin,  but  a  trans- 
lation of  articles  39  and  40  from  English  Statutes 
may  give  an  idea  of  its  whole  character. 

"  39.  No  freeman  shall  be  tajcen  or  be  im- 
prisoned or  be  disseised  of  his  freehold,  or  liber- 
ties or  free  customs,  or  be  outlawed  or  exiled, 
or  any  otherwise  destroped ;  nor  will  we  pass 
upon  him,  nor  condemn  him,  but  by  lawful  judg- 
ment of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land. 

"40.  We  will  sell  to  no  man;  we  will  not 
deny  or  defer  to  any  man,  either  right  or  jus- 
tice." 

The  Mecklenburg  Declaration. 

Some  thirteen  months  previous  to  the  signing  of  the  great 
Declaration  of  Independence  there  was  drawn  up  a  document 
in  Mecklenburg  County,  N.  C,  that  was  almost  a  model  in 
wording  and  sentiment  of  the  great  charter  of  American  liberty. 
There  are  different  accounts  of  the  matter,  but  the  most  reliable 
is  this: 

At  a  public  meeting  of  the  residents  of  Mecklenburg  County, 
in  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  held  at  Charlotte  on  the  20th  day 
ol  May,  1775,  it  was 

"Resolved,  That  whenever  directly  or  indirectly  abetted,  or  in 
any  way,  form  or  manner  countenanced,  the  unchartered  and 
dangerous  invasion  of  our  rights,  ns  claimed  by  Great  Britain, 
is  an  enemy  of  our  country — to  America — and  to  the  inherent 
and  inalienable  rights  of  man. 

'•Rc/vlvcd,  That  we.  the  citizens  of  Mecklenburg  County.do 
hereby  dissolve  the  political  bonds  which  have  connected  us  to 
the  mother-country,  anil  hereby  absolve  ourselves  from  all 
allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  abjure  all  political  connec- 
tion, contract  or  association  with  that  nation,  which  has  wan- 
tonly trampled  on  our  rights  and  liberties  and  inhumanly  shed 
the  blood  of  American  patriot!  at  Lexington. 

"Kesohei/,  That  we  do  hereby  declare  ourselves  a  free  and 
independent  people:  are  and  of  right  ought  to  be  a  sovereign 
and  self-governing  association,  under  the  control  of  no  | 
other  than  that  of  our  God  and  the  general  government  of  the 
Congress.  To  the  maintenance  of  which  independence  we 
solemnly  pledge  to  each  other  our  mutual  co-operation,  our 
lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred    honor." 

other  resolutions  in  the  same  document,  regarding  ad- 
ministiation  of  the  law  and  regulating  the  militia,  having  no 
present  value,  are  omitted. 


-M 


K" 


THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 


597 


In  Congress,  July  4th,  1776. 


>  HEN, in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands 
which  have  connected  them  with  another,  and  to  as- 
sume, among-  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate 
and  equal  station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and 
nature's  God  entitle  them  a  decent  respect  to  the  opin- 
ions of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare 
the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident:  That  all 
men  are  created  equal:  that  they  are  endowed  by 
their  Creator  with  certain  inalienable  rights;  that 
among  these  are  life,  liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness.  That  to 
secure  these  rights,  governments  are  instituted  among  men,  deriving 
their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed;  that,  whenever 
a  form  of  government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right 
of  the  people  to  alter  »r  to  abolish  it,  ar.d  to  institute  a  new  govern- 
ment, laying  its  foundation  on  such  principles,  and  organizing  its 
powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their 
safety  and  happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate,  that  govern- 
ments long  established  should  not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient 
causes  j  and  accordingly  all  experience  hath  shown  that  mankind  are 
more  disposed  to  suffer  where  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  them- 
selves by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they  are  accustomed.  Hut 
when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the 
same  object,  evinces  a  design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  despot- 
ism, it  is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  government, 
and  to  provide  new  guards  for  their  future  security.  Such  has  been 
the  patient  sufferance  of  these  colonics  ;  and  such  is  now  the  necessity 
which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  systems  of  government. 
The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of  repeated 
injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct  object  the  establishment 
of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these  states.  To  prove  this,  let  facts  be 
submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary 
for  the  public  good. 

lie  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate  and  pres- 
sing importance,  unless  suspended  in  their  operation  till  his  assent 
should  be  obtained;  and  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected 
to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large 
districts  of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of 
representation  in  the  legislature — a  right  inestimable  to  them,  and 
formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  uncom- 
fortable, and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their  public  records,  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing  with 
manly  firmness   his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause 
others  to  be  elected ;  whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of 
annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  people  at  large,  for  their  exercise, 
the  state  remaining,  in  the  meantime,  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of 
invasion  from  without,  and  convulsions  within. 


/ 


He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  states ;  for 
that  purpose  obstructing;  the  laws  for  naturalization  of  foreigners, 
refusing  to  pass  others  to  encourage  their  migration  hither,  and  raising 
conditions  of  new  appropriation  of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refusing  his 
assent  to  laws  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone  for  the  tenure  of 
their  offices,  and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms  of 
officers,  to  harass  our  people,  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies,  without 
the  consent  of  our  legislatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of,  and  superior 
to,  the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign 
to  our  constitution,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws;  giving  his 
assent  to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation, — 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us : 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment  from  any 
murders  which  they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these  states  : 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world : 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent: 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by  jury: 

For  transporting  us  beyond  the  seas  to  be  tried  for  pretended 
offenses : 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neighboring  pro- 
vince, establishing  therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging  its 
boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument 
for  introducing  the  same  absolute  rule  into  these  colonies : 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  laws, 
and  altering,  fundamentally,  the  powers  of  our  governments : 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures  and  declaring  themselves 
invested  with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  pro- 
tection, and  waging  war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burnt  our  towns,  and 
destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is,  at  this  time,  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mercenaries, 
to  complete  the  works  of  death,  desolation  and  tyranny,  already  begun 
with  circumstances  of  cruelty  and  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in  the 
most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the  head  of  a  civilized 
nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on  the  high 
seas,  to  bear  arms  against  their  country,  to  become  the  executioners  of 
their  friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  hands. 

He  lias  excited  domestic  insurrections  among  us,  and  has  endeavor- 
ed to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the  merciless  Indian 
savages,  whose  known  rule  of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished  destruc- 
tion of  all  ages,  sexes   and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for  redress  in 
the  most  humble  terms  ;  our  repeated  petitions  have  been  answered  only 
by  repeated  injury.  A  prince  whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every 
act  which  may  define  a  tyrant  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 


^J 


~3  V 

I' 


Nor  have  we  been  wanting  In  attention  to  our  British  brethren.  We 
have  warned  than,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by  their  legislature 
to  extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded 
them  of  the  circumstances  of  our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We 
have  appealed  to  their  native  justice  and  magnanimity ;  and  we  have 
conjured  them,  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred,  to  disavow  these 
usurpations,  which  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connections  and 
correspondence.  They,  too,  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and 
of  sanguinity.  We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which 
denounces  our  separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  man* 
kind,  enemies  in  war,  in  peace  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
in  General  Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of 
the  world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and  by 
the  authority  of  the  good  people  of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish 
and  declare,  That  those  united  colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be, 
free  and  independent  states  ;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance 
to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between  them 
and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved  ; 
and  that,  as  free  and  independent  states,  they  have  full  power  to  levy 
war,  conclude  peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  commerce,  and  do 
all  other  acts  and  things  which  independent  states  may  of  right  do. 
And  for  the  support  of  this  declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance  on  the 
protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our 
lives,  our  fortunes    and  our  sacred  honor. 

The  foregoing  Declaration  was,  by  the  order  of  Congress,  eaffi 
and  signed  by  the  following  members  : 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Josiah  Bartlett, 
William  Whipple, 
Matthrw  Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY 

Samuel  Adams, 
John  Adams. 
Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

Stephen  Hopkins, 
WiHiam  Kllery. 

CONNECTICUT, 

Roger  Sherman, 

Samuel  Huntington, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 

NEW  YORK. 
William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 


JOHN  HANCOCK. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

Richard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon, 
Francis  Hopkinson, 
Jafcn  Hart, 
Abraham  Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Motion, 
George  Clyraer, 
James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
George  Ross. 

DELAWARE. 

Ca?sar  Rodney, 
Gnorge  Read, 
Thomas  M'Kean. 


MARYLAND. 

Samuel  Chase, 
William  Paco, 
Thomas  Stone, 


Charles  Carroll,  of  Car- 
roll ton. 

VIRGINIA. 

George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lcc, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Benjamin  Harrison, 
Thomas  Nelson,  J  r., 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee 
Carter  Braxton. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

William  Hooper, 
Joseph  11  ewes, 
John  Penn. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Edward  R titled gc, 
Thomas  Heyward,  Jr., 
Thomas  Lynch,  Jr., 
Arthur  Middleton. 

GEORGIA. 

Button  Gwinnett, 
Lyman  Hajl, 
George  Walton. 


Resolved^  That  copies  of  the  Declaration  be  sent  to  the  several   assemblies,  conventions    and  committees,  or  councils  of  safety,  and  to 
the  several  commanding  officers  of  the  Continental  troops ;  that  it  be  proclaimed  in  each  oVthe  United  States,  and  at  the  head  of  the  army. 


/ 


\ 


THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


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PREAMBLE. 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  per- 
fect union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquility,  provide  for 
the  common  defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the 
blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and 
establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I. 

SECTION    I. 

i.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives. 

SECTION    II. 

1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members 
chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States  ;  and 
the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for 
electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  attained 
to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of 
that  Stftte  :n  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to 
their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the 
whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a 
term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all 
other  persons.  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three 
years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and 
within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they 
shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed 
one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one 
representative  ;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State 
of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three;  Massachusetts, 
eight;  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  one;  Connecticut, 
five;  New  York,  six;  New  Jersey,  four;  Pennsylvania,  eight;  Dela- 
ware, one  ;  Maryland,  six  ;  Virginia,  ten  ;  North  Carolina,  five;  South- 
Carolina,  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State, 
the  executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  speaker  and 
other  officers  ;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

SECTION   III. 

i.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  sena- 


V 


tors  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,  for  six  years; 
and  each  senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the 
first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three 
classes.  The  seats  of  the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated 
at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the 
sixth  year,  so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year;  and  if 
vacancies  happen  by  resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of 
the  legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  tempor- 
ary appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  which 
shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  vice-president  of  the  United  States  shall  be  president  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  president 
pro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  vice-president,  or  when  he  shall 
exercise  the  office  of  president  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  all  be  on  oath  or  affirmation. 
When  the  president  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  chief-justice 
shall  preside:  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than 
to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any 
office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  United  States ;  but  the  party 
convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial, 
judgment,  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

SECTION    IV. 

i.  The  times,  places  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  Senators 
and  Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  Legisla- 
ture thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter 
such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  place  of  choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year;  and 
such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

SECTION  V. 

I.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  election,  returns  and  qual- 
ifications of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute 
a  quorum  to  do  business ;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from 
day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent 


40 


\~ 


members,  In  such  manner  and  under  such  penalties   as  each   House 
may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rule  of  iu  proceedings,  punish  its 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two- 
thirds,  expel  a  member. 

3.  Kach  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from 
time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their 
judgment  require  secrecy;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of 
either  House  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those 
present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to 
any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

SECTION  VI. 

1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation 
for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  treas- 
ury of  the  United  States.  They  shall,  in  all  cases,  except  treason, 
felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their 
attendance  at  the  sessions  of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to 
and  returning  from  the  same;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either 
house,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he 
was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during  such  time;  and  no  person 
holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  member  of 
either   house-  during    his  continuance  in  office. 

SECTION   VII. 

1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments 
as  on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  becomes  a  law,  be  presented  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if 
not  he  shall  return  it  with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in  which  it 
shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their 
journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  reconsideration 
two-thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent, 
together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall 
likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  that 
house,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both 
houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the 
persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal 
of  each  house  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  he  returned  by  the 
President  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  It  shall  have  been 
presented  to  him,the  same  shall  be  a  law  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had 
signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their  adjournment  prevent  its 
return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  ot  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a 
question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States  ;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved 
by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules 
and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

SECTION  VIII. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power— 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the 
debts  and  provide  for  the  common  define  and  general  welfare  q4  iN- 
United  States;    but  >U  duihs,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform 

[hoot  the  United  Si 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States. 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the 
several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  b 

4.  To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws 
on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  To  coin  mom  -.  ,  ...  (horuof,  and  of  foreign  eoin, 
and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures. 


6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  set 
and  current  coin  of  the  United  States. 

7.  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads. 

S.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing 
for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their 
respective  writings  and  discoveries. 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme  court. 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the 
high  seas,  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations. 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make 
rales  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water. 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies ;  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to 
that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years. 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy. 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  laad 
and  naval  forces. 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrection,  and  repel  invasion. 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia, 
and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States;  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the 
appointment  of  the  officers  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia 
according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress. 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over 
such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  scat  of 
government  of  the  United  States ;  and  to  exercise  like  authority  o%-er 
all  places  purchased,  by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  State  in 
which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals, 
dockyards,  and  other  needful  buildings  ;  and 

iS.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carry- 
ing into  execution  the  foregoing  powers  vested  by  this  constitution  in 
the  govcrr.ient  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  office 
thereof. 

SECTION   IX. 

i.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the 
States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohib- 
ited by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
eight;  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation  not 
exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when,  In  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public  safety  may 
require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex  fast  facto  law,  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  propor- 
tion to  the  census  or  enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  any  articles  exported  from  any 
St;ite.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce 
or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another ;  nor  shall 
vessels  bound  to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  dear  or  pay 
duties  in  another. 

6.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  In  consequence 
of  appropriations  made  by  law  ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account 
of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  pub- 
lished from  time  to  time. 

7.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States;  and  no 
person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without 

eiit  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office, 
or  title  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

SECTION   X. 

I.  No  State  shall  enter  Into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation; 
grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ;  coin  money ;  emit  bills  of  credit ; 
make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts  ; 
pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the 
ion  of  contracts;  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 
a.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
•  01  duties  on  Imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  executing  Its  Inspection  laws;  and  the  net  produce 
of  all  duties  and  Imposts  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports. 


«*  <s -*" 


K" 


THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


601 


shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States ;  and  all  such 
laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress.  No 
State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  ton- 
nage, keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or 
engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger 
as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE   II. 

SECTION    I. 

1.  The  executive  power  shail  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four 
years;  and,  together  with  the  Vice-President  chosen  for  the  same 
term,  be  elected  as  follows. 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature 
thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  electors  equal  to  the  whole  number  of 
senators  and  representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the 
Congress;  but  no  senator  or  representative,  or  person  holding  an 
office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an 
elector. 

3.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant 
of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all 
the  persons  voted  for  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each;  which  list 
they  shall  sign  and  certify  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate. 
The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes 
shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who 
have  such  a  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately  choose,  by  ballot,  one  of 
them  for  President,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then,  from  the 
five  highest  on  the  list,  the  said  House  shall,  in  like  manner,  choose 
the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall.be  taken 
by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a 
quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from 
two-thirds  of  all  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be 
necessary  to  a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  Presi- 
dent, the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors 
shall  be  the  Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more 
who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them,  by  ballot, 
the  Vice-President. 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors, 
and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be 
the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person,  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President;  neither  shall  any  person  be 
eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty- 
five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President;  and  the 
Congress  may,  by  law,  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resig- 
nation or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President,  declar- 
ing what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President ;  and  such  officer  shall  act 
accordingly,  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be 
ciected. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a 
compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during 
the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected;  and  he  shall  not 
receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the 
following  oath  or  affirmation  : — 

"I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office 
of  President  of  the  United  States  ;  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability, 
preserve,  protect  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 


SECTION   II. 

1.  The  President  shall  be  Commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States, 
when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States.  He  may 
require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of 
the  executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of 
their  respective  offices ;  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves 
and  pardons  for  offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of 
impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  Senators  present 
concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers 
and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  offict  rs  of 
the  United  States  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  pro- 
vided for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law.  But  the  Congress 
may,  by  law,  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers  as  they 
think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the 
heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

SECTION  III. 

1.  He  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  to  the  Congress  information  of 
the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such 
measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient.  He  may,  on 
extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them; 
and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them,  with  respect  to  the  time  of 
adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think 
proper.  He  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers. 
He  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed;  and  shall 
commission  all  officers  of  the  United  States. 

SECTION    IV. 

i.  The  President,  Vice-President  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  convic- 
tion of  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III 

SECTION    I. 

I.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one 
Supreme  Court  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  Congress  may  from 
time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges  both  of  the  Supreme 
and  inferior  courts  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior;  and 
shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a  compensation  which 
shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  of  office. 

SECTION  11. 

1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases  in  law  and  equity 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority;  to  all 
cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls;  to 
all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction;  to  controversies  to 
which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party;  to  controversies  between 
two  or  more  States,  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State, 
between  citizens  of  different  States,  between  citizens  of  the  same 
State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a 
State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  a  party,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  men- 
tioned, the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as 
to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under  such  regulations  as 
the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be 
by  jury,  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crime 
shall  have  been  committed;  but  when  not  committed  within  any 
State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may 
by  law  have  directed. 


K 


002 


THE   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE    UNITED   STATES. 


SECTION   III. 

i.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war 
against  them  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 
No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two 
witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

a.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason; 
but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture, 
except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attained. 


ARTICLE   IV. 

SECTION   I. 

i.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  acts, 
records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State;  and  the  Congress 
may,  by  general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and 
proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

section  n. 

x.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immu- 
nities of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime, 
who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State  shall,  on  demand 
of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up 
to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State  under  the  laws  thereof, 
escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  laws  or  regulation  therein, 
be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor ;  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on 
claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

SECTION    III. 

1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union  ;  but  no 
new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other 
State,  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States  or 
parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States  con- 
cerned, as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

a.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of,  and  make  all  needful 
rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging  to 
the  United  States  ;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  u 
to  prejudice  any  claim  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

SECTION   IV. 

1.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union  a  repub- 
lican form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  invasion  ; 
and,  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  executive  (when  the  legis- 
lature cannot  be  convened),  against  domestic  violence. 


ARTICLE    V. 

1.  The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution  ;  or,  on  the  appli- 
cation of  the  Legislature  of  two-thirds  of  the  several  Stales,  shall  call  a 
convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid 
to  all  intents  and  purposes  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the 
Legislature  of  three-fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three- 
fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed 
by  the  Congress  ;  provided,  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to 
the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  shall  in  any  manner  affect 
the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  fifth  article;  and  that 
no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the 
Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

1.  AH  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into  before  the  adoption 
of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States  under  this 
Constitution,  as  under  the  Confederation. 

a.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  Statu  which  shall 
be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  alt  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 


made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby, 
anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  not- 
withstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned  and  the 
members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and 
judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  the  several  States, 
shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support  this  Constitution; 
but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any 
office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII 

1.  The  ratification  of  the  convention  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient 
for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying 
the  same. 

Done  in  convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States 
present,  the  seventeenth  day  of  December,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty,  and  of  the 
Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America  the  twelfth. 
In   witness   whereof   we  have    hereunto    subscribed    our    iwsm. 

George  Washington. 
President  and  Deputy  from  Virgins*. 


AMENDMENTS. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or 
prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech 
or  of  the  press ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and 
to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II. 

A  well  regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE  III. 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house  without  the 
consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed 
by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers  and 
effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated; 
and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or 
affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the 
persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE  V. 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in 
cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual 
service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for 
the  same  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb,  nor  shall  be 
compelled  in  any  criminal  case,  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be 
deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  shall 
private  property  be  taken  for  public  use,  without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy 
and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein  the 
crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  previously 
ascertained  by  law;  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the 
accusation ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him  ;  to  have  com- 
pulsory process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assist- 
ance of  counsel  for  his  defense. 


-SI 


t 


THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


603 


if 


ARTICLE  VII. 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved;  and  no 
fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the 
United  States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII. 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishment  inflicted. 

ARTICLE  IX. 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be 
construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X. 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution, 
nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  Stales  respec- 
tively, or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE  XI. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to 
extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity  commenced  or  prosecuted  against 
one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  State. 

ARTICLE  XII. 

1.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall 
not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  They  shall 
name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct 
ballots,  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President;  and  they  shall  make 
distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each; 
which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat 
of  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the 
Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  the  certificates,  and  the 
votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number 
of  votes  for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no  person 
have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  num- 
bers, not  exceeding  three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President, 
the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the 
President.  But,  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by 
States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum 
for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two- 
thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary 
to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a 
President  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them, 
before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other 
constitutional  disability  of  the  President. 

2.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice-Presi- 
dent shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  nnmber  of  electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  major- 
ity, then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Senate  shall 
choose  the  Vice-President,  A  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist 
of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 

3.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII. 

1  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  t.  punishment 


for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall 
exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdic- 
tion, 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV. 

SECTION    I. 

All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the 
State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law 
which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within 
its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

SECTION  11. 
Representatives  shall  be  appointed  among  the  several  States  accord- 
ing to  their  respsotive  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons 
in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to 
vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States,  Representatives  in  Congress,  the  exec- 
utive and  judidial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  Legislature 
thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any 
way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the 
basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which 
the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of 
male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

SECTION   III. 

No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Congress,  or  elec- 
tor of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military, 
under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having  previously 
taken  an  oath  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United 
States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or 
judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  'or  rebellion  against  the 
same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof;  but  Congress 
may,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  remove  such  disability. 

SECTION  IV. 

The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized  by 
law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties 
for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  ques- 
tioned. But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or 
pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of 
any  slave;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations  and  claims  shall  be  held 
illegal  and  void. 

SECTION    V, 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legislation, 
the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE  XV. 

SECTION    I. 

The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 
or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  any  Stete,  on  account  of  race, 
color  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

SECTION    II. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 


<"ls- 


F 


604 


THE    DEPARTMENTS    AT    WASHINGTON. 


THE  DEPARTMENTS  AT  WA^TOH. 


THE  EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT. 


S  PROVIDED  by  the 
Constitution,  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States 
performs  its  allotted  work 
through  three  distinct 
«.  channels,  the  Execu- 
fej^  tive,  the  Legislative  and 


the  Judiciary. 

The  President,  ■whose  oath  of  office,  duties  and 
powers  are  described  in  the  Constitution,  holds 
office  for  four  years.  He  must  be  thirty-five  years 
of  age,  a  * 


Jfc 


fourteen  years. 
auguration  takes  place  on 
the  fourth  of  March  next 
succeeding  his  election  ;  his 
salary  is  $50,000  a  year, 
payable  monthly,  and  he 
has  the  use  of  the  furniture 
and  the  other  effects  in  the 
"White  House,"  a  Govern- 
ment building  in  Washing- 
ton, where  he  resides.  The 
President's  official  house- 
hold,  selected  by  himself, 
consists  of: 

SALARY. 

i  secretary,  -  $3,250 
1  ass't  secretary,  2,250 
a  clerks,  each,  3,000 
1  clerk,       -     -      1,800 

The  prtronagc  of  the  President  is  enormous  The  appointments  to 
every  branch  of  public  service,  made  by  htm,  give  him  a  power  Hud 
would  be  appalling  but  that  it  is  balanced  by  the  safeguard  of  the 
consent  of  the  Senate. 

The  office  of  President  is  one  which  has  been  called  by  European 
writers  the  highest  to  which  humanity  can  aspire.  The  chief  magis- 
tracy of  the  American  Republic  is  a  prize  for  which  every  eminent 
American  statesman  has  struggled,  and  it  is  singular  in  looking  back 
over  the  history  of  the  country  to  note  how  many  men  peculiarly  fitted 
by  their  great  talents  and  great  prominence  for  the  Presidency 
have  been  beaten  by  unknown  men.  Two  of  the  greatest  Senators  in 
the  history  of  the  Union  were  Daniel  Webster  and  Henry  Clay,  neither 
whom  succeeded   in  winnimr  the   crowning   honor  of  a   political 


THE    CAPITOL    AT   WASHINGTON. 


SALARY. 

SALARY. 

i  clerk,       ■     -    $1,400 

1  usher,     •     -    $1,400 

1  clerk,     *     -         1,200 

i)  doorkeepers,  e.  1 ,200 

1  stenographer,    i,Soo 

1  watchman,    •      900 

1  steward,     -         i,Soo 

l  fireman,       -     •     S64 

career.  On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  comparatively  unknown 
men  who  have  been  chosen  by  their  parties  and  elected  by  the  people, 
is  very  large. 

The  original  intention  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Republic  is  one  that 
the  politicians  of  the  country  have  departed  from  widely.  The  elect  • 
oral  system  did  not  contemplate  nominations  and  party  organization  ; 
it  intended  that  the  electors,  men  chosen  by  the  people  of  each  State 
as  safe  men  for  this  important  office,  should  cast  about  for  the  most  fit 
man  in  the  Republic  for  the  honor  of  the  Presidency,  For  this  man 
they  were  to  vote.  But  under  the  manner  in  which  the  system  is 
worked  the  electors  furnish  a  clumsy  method,  often  a  faulty  one,  lor 
expressing  the  direct  popular  will.  No  elector  would  dare  to  use  his 
own  judgment;  he  is  simply  chosen  on  a  pledge  to  vote  for  a  certain 
candidate  chosen  for  him.  In  this  way  the  people  choose  directly  the 
President,  and  yet,   owing  to  the  fact  that  the  electors  are  never  in 

number  in  exact  proportion 
to  the  population,  It  fre 
quently  happens  that,  while 
one  candidate  has  a  majori- 
ty of  the  popular  vote,  the 
other  has  a  majority  of  the 
electors  and  becomes  Presi- 
dent. 

The  Presidential  resi- 
dence at  Washington  is  a 
very  handsome  pile.  It  is 
called  the  White  House 
from  its  color.  It  has  been 
the  centre  of  the  fashion 
and  grace  of  the  republican 
court.  There  are  regular 
reception  days  set,  when 
any  one  who  wishes  may 
call  upon  the  President. 
Upon  private  reception 
days  admittance  is  only  se- 
cured by  card,  t'pon  these 
occasions,  the  gay  court  costumes  of  the  foreign  legations,  the  mili* 
tary  uniforms  and  the  splendid  dresses  of  the  ladies  form  asccne  not 
soon  to  be  forgotten. 

The  grounds  about  the  White  House,  taking  In  as  they  do  the 
conservatories  and  nurseries  of  the  Agricultural  Department,  are  very 
pretty  and  well  kept.  The  Presidential  residence  is  furnished  by  the 
Government  for  the  President. 

The  City  Government  of  Washington. 

When  the    District    of  Columbia   was    set  off  from    M.irvland  and 
Virginia,  and  put  in  possession  of  the  Government,  it  was  decided  that 
the  v  hole  territory  should  he  in  the  hands  of  the  Federal  Union  .1. 
that  it  would  he  altogether    independent   of  Stale  influence.       As  the 
city  of  Washington   grew  up  around  the  Capitol    provision  had  to  be 

r  its  municipal  government,  which  was  obliged  to  be  p< 
under  the  circumstance-*.       The  President  appoints  three  *. 
ers  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  in  whose  hands  He  all  of  the  function* 
usually  performed  bv  mayors  ann  boards  of  aldermen.      1     - 
of  Washington  have  DO  votes  as  there  arc  noelections.  All  of  t1 
officers  are  appointed,  and  the  whole  machinery  of  local  government 
is  directly  in  the  hands  of  the  President  and  Congress. 


..a. 9 


DEPARTMENT   OF    STATE. 


605 


_j@ESteJg± 


DEPARTMENT    OK    STATE. 


HE  duties  of  the  Secretary  of  this  Department  are  pre- 
scribed by  law  and  relate  chiefly  to  correspondence 
with  public  Ministers  or  Consuls  from  the  United 
S  States,  to  negotiations  with  public  Ministers  of  for- 
eign States  and  to  memorials  or  other  applica- 
tions from  foreigners.  Through  his  hands  all  the 
business  of  the  Government  with  other  Powers 
passes.  Any  bill  passed  by  Congress  and  signed  by  the  Presi- 
dent, or  that  becomes  a  law  in  any  other  lawful  manner,  is 
received  by  the  Secretary  and  made  public  by  him. 

It  is  his  duty  to  report  annually  to  Congress  all  the  in- 
formation that  should  naturally  come  through  his  office. 
Any  new  amend- 
ment to  the  Con- 
s  t  i  t  u  t  i  o  n ,  any 
act  of  Congress 
that  becomes  a 
law,  any  foreign 
treaty,  postal  con- 
vention or  Con- 
gressional joint 
resolution  is  sent 
to  the  Public 
Printer  by  the 
Secretary  of  State 
for  legal  publica- 
tion ;  he  must  also 
publish  in  some 
newspaper  the 
commercial  in- 
formation he  may 
deem  of  public 
importance.  Pass- 
ports when  ren- 
dered are  free  of 
charge.  Copies  of  records  in  this  Department  when  applied  for 
are  furnished  by  the  Clerk  at  a  cost  to  applicant  of  ten  cents  for 
every  hundred  words. 

The  salaries  paid  in  the  Department  of  State  are: 


>EFAKTMBNTS    OF    STATE,    ARMY   AN 


Secretary,      -        -        $8,000  4  clerks,  each 

3  ass't  secretaries,  each    3,500  2  clerks,  each 

I  chief  clerk,           -          2,500  10  clerks,  each 

I  translator,        -        -      2,100  2  clerks,  each 
6  chiefs  of  Bureaus,  each  2,100  10  clerks,  each 

I I  clerks,  each   -        -      1,800  1  engineer, 


$1,600 
1,400 
1,200 
1,000 
900 
1,200 


I  assistant  engineer,        -        $1,000 

With  watchmen,  firemen,  laborers,  etc,  the  total  amount  is 
about  $100,000  a  year. 

The  Examiner  of  Claims,  an  officer  appointed  by  the  Attor- 
ney-General, has  charge  of  the  legal  business  of  the  Department 
of  State.  There  are  a  number  of  Bureaus  in  the  Department, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Consular.  Quite  a  number 
of  interpreters  are  continually  needed  in  the  offices. 


/ 


<?T= 


The  Diplomatic  Service. 


The  diplomatic  service  of  the  United  States,  alt  of  which  is  in 
charge  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  consists  of  Envoys  Extraordinary 
and  Ministers  Plenipotentiary,  Ministers  Kesident,  Charges  d'Af- 
f  aires,  Consuls-General,  Consuls  ana  Commercial  Agents. 

The  highest  class  of  Ministers  are  those  sent  to  France,  Germany, 
Great  Britain  and  Russia;  they  are  paid  $17,500  per  year.  The  sec- 
ond class  ($12,000  a  year)  are  sent  to  Austria,  Hungary,  Brazil,  China, 
Italy,  Japan,  Mexico  and  Spain.    The  third  class  ($10,000  a  year) 

to  to  Chili,  Peru  and  the  Central  Amercain  States.  Ministers  Resi* 
ent  receive  $7,500  (with  the  exception  of  the  one  in  Bolivia,  $5,000, 
and  the  one  in  Liberia,  $4,000),  and  are  in  the  Argentine  Republic, 
Belgium,  Colombia,  Hawaian  Islands,  Hayti,  the  Netherlands, 
Sweden  and  Norway.  Turkey  and  Venezuela.  Charges  d'Affaires 
have  $5,000  a  year,  aria  are  in  Denmark,  Portugal,  Switzerland,  Uru- 
guay and  Paraguay.  There  are  five  Consuls-General  in  British  do- 
minions, at  Cal- 
cu  tta,  M  elbourne, 
London,  Halifax 
and  Montreal;  two 
in  Germany,  at 
Berlin  and  Frank- 
fort; two  in  Tur- 
key, at  Cairo  and 
Const  antinople; 
and  one  each  in 
Paris,  Vienna, 
Rome,  St.  Peters- 
bu  rg,  Bucharest, 
Bangkok,  Shang- 
hai, K  a  n  a  g  a  w  a, 
Havana  and  Mex- 
ico. Their  salaries 
range  from  $2 ,000  to 
$6,000.  There  are 
the  following  ranks 
of  consulates .  Five 
at  $6,000  a  year; 
two  at  $5,000;  one 
at  $4,500;  six  at 
$4,000;  eight  at  $3,- 
500;  twenty -one  at 
$3,000;  sixteen  at 
$2,500;  thirty-seven 
at  $2,000;  forty- 
seven  at  $1,500;  and 
twenty  a  t  $1,000. 
All  Consuls  receiv- 
ing a  fixed  salary 
pay  into  the  Treas- 
ury all  fees  received 
by  virtue  of  their 
office.  But  there  are  many  Consuls  and  Agents  whose  only  com- 
pensation cotnes  from  fees.  Such  officers  are  usually  allowed  to 
go  into  business. 

Secretaries  of  State. 


Thomas  Jefferson,  Va. 

Edmond  Randolph,  Va. 

Timothy  Pickering,  Penn. 

John  Marshall,  Va. 

James  Madison,  Va. 

Robert  Smith,  Md. 

James  Monroe,  Va. 

John  Q.  Adams,  Mass. 

Henry  Clay,  Ky. 

Martin  Van  Buren,  N.  Y. 

Edward  Livingston,  La. 

Louis  McLane,  Del, 

John  Forsyth,  Ga. 

Daniel  Webster,  Mass. 

Hugh  S.  Lcgair,  S.  C. 

Thomas  1 
James  G. 


1789 

Abel  P.  Upshur,  Va. 

1843 

■794 

John  C.  Calhoun.  S.  C. 

1S44 

■795 

James  Buchanan,  Penn. 

1845 

1S00 

John  M.  Clayton,  Del. 

1S49 

1S01 

Daniel  Webster,  Mass. 

1S50 

1809 

Edward  Everett,  Mass. 

185a 

1S11 

William  L.  Marcy,  N.  Y. 

1S54 

18:7 

Lewis  Cass,  Mich. 

i8S7 

1S25 

Jeremiah  S.  Black,  Penn. 

1S60 

1S29 

William  H.  Seward,  N.  Y. 

1S61 

1S31 

Elihu  B.  Washburn, 

1S69 

'S33 

Hamilton  Fish, 

1869 

»834 

William  M.  Evarts 

1877 

1S41 

James  G.  Blaine 

1SS1 

1S43 

F.  T.  Frelinghuyseu 

iSSi 

F  Bava 

rd.  Del.,         1885 

Blaine, 

Maine.            1889 

\ 

N~ 


606 


THE   TREASURY    DEPARTMENT. 


_^LL  of  the  moneys  of  the  United  States,  all  matters 
"  relating  to  the  collection  and  payment  of  the  ac- 
counts of  the  Government,  and,  in  a  word,  all  of  the 
jJ?2k'  duties  appertaining  to  the  finances  of  the  nation, 
fall  naturally  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  lie 
is  assisted  by  a  numerous  corps,  the  Treasury  Department 
requiring  naturally  more  clerical  detail  than  any  other  in  the 
Government.  There  are  three  Assistant  Secretaries,  having 
charge  of  appoint- 
ments,  public 
money,  revenue 
marine,  loans  and 
currency,  engrav- 
ing and  printing, 
the  mints,  and  the 
signature  of  doc- 
uments; they  al- 
so attend  to  cus- 
toms, special 
agents,  internal 
revenue  and  navi- 
gation, and  the 
general  supervis- 
ion   of  accounts. 

There  are  two 
Comptrollers. 
The  first  counter- 
signs warrants, 
attends  to  the  pay 
of  the  diplomatic 
service,  and  exam- 
ines  requisitions 
and  claims.  The  second  has  charge  of  the  accounts  of  the  Army, 
Soldiers'  Homes,  Pensions,  Marine  Corps  and  Navy  Yards, 
Disbursing  Agents,  and  of  the  Financial  Agency  of  the  Govern- 
ment at  London. 

The  Commissioner  of  Customs  examines,  revises  and  passes 
all  accounts  concerning  duties,  tonnage,  marine  hospitals,  fines, 
penalties  and  forfeitures  under  the  navigation  laws,  and  ftpptW  N 
bonds  of  customs  officers. 


The  Six  Auditors. 


UNITED    STATES   TREASURY    Bl'll 


There  are  six  Auditors  in  the  Treasury  Department,  among  whom 
the  work,  is  divided  as  follows: 

First  Auditor:     Customs,  Judiciary,   Public  Debt,  Warehouse  and 
Bonded  Goods,  Miscellaneous  Accounts. 

Second  Auditor:     Army  Paymaster,  Miscellaneous  Claims,  Indian 
Affairs,  Bounties,  Frauds,  Rook-keeping. 
Third  Auditor:      Book-keeper,  Quartermasters,    Subsistence    and 

Engineering,  State 
W.ir  Claims,  Mis- 
cellaneous Collec- 
tions. 

Fourth  Auditor: 
Prize  Money,  Navy 
Agents,  Paymas- 
ters. 

Fifth  Auditor: 
Diplomatic  and 
Consular  division, 
Internal  Revenue. 
Sixth  Auditor: 
Post-office  ac- 
counts. 


Other  Treasury 
Officers. 

The  Treasurer  of 
the  United  States 
has  custody  of  ait 
the  public  money; 
he  pays  warrants, 
Issues  and  redeems 
Treasury  N<  I 


deem*  National  bank  notes,  pays  the  interest  on  the  public  debt,  an^ 
is  custodian  of  the  Indian  trust  funds. 

Thi  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  supervises  and  controls  the  National 

banks  throughout  the  country,  under  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

The  Solicitor  of  the  Treasury  examines  all  revenue  frauds  and  orer- 

Icg.il  measures  for  their  prevention  and  punishment.    All  of 

t]  business  of  the  department  goes  through  his  hands,  and  the 

secret  service  operations  arc  directed  by  him.     When  required  he  must 

give  his  opinion  on  any  legal  question.     The  Solicitor  of  the  Treasury 


Z_ 


~7T 


^ 


V 


THE    TREASURY    DEPARTMENT. 


607 


is  really  an  officer  of  the  Department  of  Justice,  as  will  be  seen  on 
another  page. 

The  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue  makes  assessments  and 
apportions  taxes.  The  bureau  is  divided  into  seven  departments : 
1.  Appointments.  2.  Laws.  3.  Accounts.  4.  Tobacco.  5.  Distilled 
Spirits.  6.  Stamps.  7.  Assessments.  Special  agents  are  appointed  by 
the  Commissioner  to  watch  the  manufacture  and  handling  of  whisky. 

The  Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey  has  charge  of  all  the  sur- 
veys of  the  ocean  and  coast  and  the  making  of  maps,  charts,  etc. 

The  Bureau  of  Statistics  collects  and  publishes  information  in  regard 
to  trade  and  commerce,  shipping,  imports  and  exports,  emigration,  etc. 
Its  reports  are  published  quarterly  and  distributed  gratuitously. 

The  Mint  in  Philadelphia  is  the  one  to  which  the  Mints  at  New 
Orleans,  Carson  and  Denver  must  send  their  reports.  Each  Mint  has 
a  superintendent,  assayer,  teller,  refiner,  coiner  and  assistants,  and  the 
one  at  Philadelphia  has  also  an  engraver.  The  Director  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Mint  makes  an  annual  report  of  the  minting  done  in  the 
country. 


Quarantine. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  executes  the  laws  which  restrain,  stop 
and  govern  vessels  arriving  at  United  States  ports  from  places  afflicted 
with  infectious  diseases.  The  officers  of  the  customs  revenue  are  re- 
quired to  see  to  the  execution  of  the  public  health  laws  of  the  General 
Government  and  of  the  several  States  in  this  regard. 

The  Light-House  Board. 

The  Light-House  Board, which  is  appointed  by  the  President,  is 
attached  to  the  Treasury  Department.  It  consists  of  two  officers  of 
the  Navy  of  high  rank,  two  officers  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers  and  two 
citizens  of  high  scientific  attainments.  This  Board  has  general  charge 
of  the  light-house  service  of  the  United  States. 


The  Life-Saving  Service. 

The  life-saving  service  is  divided  into  seven  ocean  districts  and 
three  lake  districts.  The  various  stations  are  supplied  with  such 
apparatus  as  may,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
be  best  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  each  station,  such  as  life-boats, 
ropes,  mortars  for  sending  ropes  on  board  wrecked  vessels,  contriv- 
ances for  getting  passengers  safely  on  shore,  etc.  Each  district  is  in 
charge  of  a  sup— intendent,  who  possesses  the  powers  and  performs 
the  duties  of  an  inspector  of  the  customs  for  each  of  the  coasts  on 
which  stations  are  established.  These  districts  number  seven  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  three  on  the  great  lakes,  and  each  superintendent 
receives  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  the  proper  instructions 
relative  to  the  duties  required  of  him. 

Each  station  is  in  charge  of  a  keeper,  who  is  instructed  in  his  duties 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  At  some  stations  experienced  surf  - 
men  are  engaged  to  assist  in  aiding  wrecked  vessels. 


/_ 


Secretaries  of 

Alexander  Hamilton,  N.  Y.  1789 

Oliver  Wolcott,  Conn.  1795 

Samuel  Dexter,  Mass.  1800 

Albert  Gallatin,  Penn.  1802 

George  W.  Campbell,  Tenn.  1814 

Alexander  J.  Dallas,  Penn.  1814 

William  H.  Crawford,  Ga.  1817 

Richard  Rush,  Penn.  1825 

Samuel  D.  Ingham,  Penn.  1829 

Louis  McLane,  Del.  1831 

William  J.  Duane,  Penn.  1833 

Roger  B.  Taney.  Md.  1 
Appointed   during    recess;  V 1833 

not  confirmed  by  Senate.  ) 

Levi  Woodbury,  N.  H,  1834 

Thomas  Ewing,  Ohio.  1841 

Walter  Forward,  Penn.  1841 

John  C.  Spencer,  N.  Y.  1843 

Geo.  M.  Bible,  Ky.  1844 

Robert  J.  Walker,  Miss.  1845 


the  Treasury. 


William  M.  Meredith,  Penn. 
Thomas  Corwin,  Ohio. 
James  Guthrie,  Ky. 
Howell  Cobb,  Ga. 
Philip  F.  Thomas.  Md. 
John  A.  Dix,  N.  Y. 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  Ohio. 
William  Pitt  Fessenden,  Me. 
Hugh  McCulloch,  Ind. 
George  S.  BoutwelL 
William  A.  Richardson. 
Benjamin  H.  Bristow. 
Lot  M.  Morrill. 
John  Sherman. 
William  Windom. 
Charles  J.  Folger. 
Hugh  McCulloch,  Ind% 
Daniel  Manning,  N.  Y. 
Chas.  S.  Fairchild,  X.  Y. 
\V.  Windom,  Minn. 
Charles  Foster,  Ohio, 


1849 
1850 
1853 

■857 
i860 
1861 
1861 
1864 
1865 
1870 
1873 
,874 
1876 
1877 
1SS1 
1SS1 

"?♦ 

1SS5 
,ss7 

I  Sol 


N" 


608 


THE    WAR    DEPARTMENT. 


V 


THE  WAR 


1 . . 


DEPARTMENT 


f  F  ALL  matters  relating  to  military  affairs  the  Secretary 
of  War  has  entire  charge.  He  must  communicate  to 
Congress  estimates  of  the  appropriations  needed  for 
his  Department,  not  only  for  its  internal  working,  but 
for  the  construction  of  public  works  and  other  public 
service  performed  under  his  direction.  He  must  report 
annually  a  statement  of  the  appropriations  of  the  pre- 
ceding year  (always  counting  from  the  1st  of  July),  showing  how 
much  was  appropriated  for  each  Bureau  of  the  Department,  and 
the  balance  on  hand,  together  with  estimates  of  the  amounts 
necessary  for  the  ensuing  year.  lie  will  submit  to  Congress 
reports  of  surveys  of  rivers  and  harbors  ordered  by  Congress. 

He  furnishes  an  abstract  of  the  returns  of  the  Adjutants-Gen- 
eral of  the  militia  of  the  States. 

These  annual  reports  are  made  at  the  beginning  of  each  regu- 
lar session  and  cover  all  the  transactions  of  the  Department  dur- 
ing the  year.  The  Department  is  divided  into  ten  branches, 
governed  by  the  following  officers :  The  Adjutant-General,  Quar- 
termaster-General, Paymaster-General,  Commissary-General, 
Surgeon-General,  Chief  of  Engineers,  Chief  of  Ordnance,  Chief 
Signal  Officer,  the  Judge  Advocate-General  and  the  In- 
spector-General. 
The  annual  salaries  paid  in  this  Department  are : 


Secretary,            - 

• 

$S,ooo 

3  engineers,          • 

- 

3,Soo 

1  chief  clerk, 

• 

*.7So 

65  messengers,          • 

720 

46,800 

1  disbursing  clerk, 

• 

2,000 

50  laborers,          • 

660 

33.ooo 

7  Bureau  chiefs,  e. 

$2, COO 

14,000 

8  char-women 

180 

1.44° 

5a  clerks,  each 

1,800 

93.000 

125  physicians, 

,200 

150,000 

52  clerks,  each 

1,600 

83,200 

185  hospital  stewards 

360 

!«./<») 

95  clerks,  each 

■,400 

>33.°°o 

50  paymaster's  clerks 

1,200 

60,000 

390  clerks,  each 

1,200 

468,000 

90  Nat.  Ccm.  keepers 

800 

72,000 

191  clerks,  each 

I,0CO 

191,000 

450  weather  observers 

720  324,000 

33  clerks,  each 

COO 

28,800 

1,000  employes  at  ar- 

1 draughtsman, 
1  anatomist,         • 

• 

i,Soo 
1,600 

8,800 

mories     and     other 
business  of  Dep't. 

800  800,000 

8  printers,         • 

* 

593  .S9° 

+ 


With  rations,  quarters  and  fuel  in  many  cases,  the  expense  of 
the  Department  borders  on  $3,000,000  annually. 

The  Bureaus  of  the  War  Department. 

Tub  Adjutant-General's  Office.  From  this  office  are 
issued  all  orders  with  regard  to  the  movements  of  the  army. 
All  records  of  individuals  in  the  army  from  the  privates  to  the 
officer  of  the  highest  rank  may  be  found  in  this  office.  All  com- 
missions, promotions,  charges  and  discharges,  come  through  this 
Bureau.  In  one  word,  the  Adjutant-General  is  the  insii 
by  which  the  Executive  communicates  with  the  army. 

The  Quartermaster-General's  Office.  This  Bureau  has 
charge  of  the  purchasing  anil  distributing  of  all  supplies  (except 
subsistence)  needed  by  the  army,  to  furnish  transportation  for 


soldiers,  military  stores  and  supplies,  and  to  pay  all  expenses  of 
the  military  service  not  provided  for  in  other  Bureaus. 

The  Commissary-General's  Office.  The  business  of  this 
office  consists  in  the  purchase  and  distribution  of  subsistence 
and  supplies  for  the  army. 

The  Paymaster-General's  Office.  Payments  to  the  army 
are  made  through  this  office.  Arrears  of  pay  shall  never  exceed 
two  months. 

The  Surgeon-General's  Office.  This  Bureau  has  charge 
of  the  surgical  and  medical  department  of  the  army,  the  pur- 
chase and  distribution  of  hospital  and  medical  supplies.  It  has 
authority  in  sani'ary  matters,  such  as  supervising  the  cooking 
done  in  the  army,  and  the  preparation  of  rations  for  the  enlisted 
men. 

The  Office  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers.  This  Bureau  has 
charge  of  the  various  fortifications,  and  provides  for  the  surveys 
of  rivers  and  harbors.  All  matters  connected  with  skilled  labor, 
such  as  building,  bridging,  excavation,  mining,  etc.,  in  the  mili- 
tary service,  belong  to  this  Bureau. 

Office  of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance.  This  office  has  charge 
of  all  skilled  labor  necessary  in  the  preparation  and  care  of  the 
ordnance  and  ordnance  supplies.  It  purchases,  inspects  and 
controls  the  construction,  movement  and  storing  of  all  the  heavy 
armament  in  the  service. 

The  Office  of  Military  Justice.  This  office  is  under  the 
charge  of  the  Judge  Advocatt-Generpil.  The  proceedings  of  all 
Courts-Martial,  Courts  of  Inquiry  and  Military  Commissions  are 
received,  revised  and  recorded  in  this  office.  All  matters  con- 
nected with  the  administration  of  justice  in  the  army  are  the 
peculiar  province  of  this  Bureau. 

The  Signal  Office.  The  Signal  Service,  which  has  proved 
itself  of  incalculable  benefit  to  the  country,  is  an  adjunct  of  the 
War  Department  and  is  managed  by  the  officers  of  the  Army 
detailed  by  the  Secretary  of  \Y:ir. 

The  iNsrr.cTOR-CJENitMAL's  Dkpartmfnt  is  specially  estab- 
lished to  promote  economy,  efficiency  sad  compliance  with  the 
laws   Sad  'V    commands   and    stations,    at  the 

Military  V.ul.  n\  ,  .1  <  .it  all  institution-:  or  departments  thereof 
under  charge  of  oftCSfS  of  the  Arinv. 

The  Military  Academy  at  West  Point 

The  corps  of  cadets  consist  of  one  from  each  Congressional 
District  of  the  United  States,  one  from  each  State,  one  from  the 
;  of  Columbia,  and  ten  from  the  United  States  at  large, 
who  are  appointed  by  the  President.  The  cadets  must  be 
between  seventeen  and  twenty-two  years  old  when  admitted; 
they  must  b  1  in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  gram- 

mar, geography  and  history,  particularly  of  the  United  States. 
The  course  at  the  Academy  lasus  four  years,  and  on  graduation 
the  cadets  are  commissioned  as  second  lieutenants  in  the  army. 


Ml 


THE    AMERICAN    AKMY. 


609 


* 


^EsTTaETTaETT^IsnSBTTaEn^IsTT^ETTaETraCsT^ 


S 

s 
a 
5 

m 


15] 

a 

s 

a 


afaisnai^i^isfiai^isnaEita^isu^ 


i|VERY  citizen  of  this  Republic  may  well  be  proud  of 
jSJi  the  history  of  the  American  Army.  Organized  by 
KJ  George  Washington  and  commanded  ever  since  by 
eminent  chieftains,  it  has  carried  the  Star-spangled 
Banner  over  hundreds  of  stricken  fields  of  battle,  and 
never  without  honor*  It  has  fought  through  four  great 
wars  and  innumerable  Indian  revolts.  Again  and 
again  has  its  valor  been  proved,  until  to-day,  one  of  the  smallest, 
the  American  Army  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  most  effective 
in  the  world.  In  time  of  peace  its  work  does  not  cease.  All 
along  the  Western  frontier  the  scattered  forces  have  all  that 
they  can  do  holding  the  savage  Indian  tribes  to  good  behavior, 
Always  fighting  at  tremendous  odds,  the  service  performed  by 
the  soldiers  in  the  far  West  can  only  be  described  by  the  word 
"remarkable."  The  regular  army  is  the  skeleton  upon  which  in 
time  of  war  the  forces  of  the  Republic  form.  It  consists  of  about 
25,000.  On  a  war  footing  our  army  could,  no  doubt,  be  pushed 
up  to  over  three  millions  of  men  under  arms.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  civil  war  the  total  of  the  Federal  and  Confederate  service 
was  much  larger  than  that  figure.  On  the  resignation  of  Gen- 
eral U.  S.  Grant,  who  became  President  in  1868,  General  Wil- 
liam Tecumseh  Sherman,  a  soldier  who  fought  his  way  to  the 
front  in  the  time  that  tried  men's  souls,  was  assigned  to  the 
highest  rank.  General  Sherman  retired  from  active  service, 
however,  in  1883,  and  General  Phil.  Sheridan  was  placed 
in  command.  Major-General  John  M.  Schofield  is  the 
present  commander  of  the  United  States  Army. 

Pay-Roll  of  the  United  States  Army. 

GENERALS. 

3  major-generals,  each  7,500— S  aides-de-camp,  $200  addition  to 

line  pay. 
6  brigadier-generals,  each     5,500 — 13  aides-de-camp,  $150  addition  to 

line  pay. 

CAVALRY. 


:o  colonels,  each  •  $3»5oo 

10  lieutenant-colonels,  each  3,000 
30  majors,  each  •  2,500 

120  captains,  each  2,000 

10  adjutants,  each        -  i,Soo 


10  reg't  quartermasters,  ea.  $i,Soo 
120  1st  lieutenants,  each  1,600 

120  2d  lieutenants,  oach  i»Jjoo 

2  chaplains,  ea.  r  •  1,500 


ARTILLERY. 


5  colonels,  each  •  $3»50o 

5  lieutenant-colonels,  each    3,000 
15  majors,  each  •  2,500 

60  captains,  each    •        ■        2,000 


5  adjutants,  each  •  ?  1,800 

5  reg't  quarter-masters,  ea.    i,Soo 
120  1st  lieutenants,  each  1,000 

65  2d  lieutenants,  each,  T.5°° 


J  majors,  each 
250  captains,  each 
25  adjutants,  each 


,000 


25  colonels,  each 
25  lieutenant- colonels,  each  3, 
35  majors,  each  •  2,500 

i,Soo 
i,Soo 


INFANTRY. 


25  reg't  quartermasters,  e. 
250  1st  lieutenants,  each 
250  2d  lieutenants,  each 
2  chaplains. 


DEPARTMENTAL  SERVICE. 


8  brigadier-generals,  each   $5,500 
12  colonels,  each  -  3,300 

33  lieutenant -colonels,  each  3,000 


150  majors,  each 

127  captains,  each 

76  1st  lieutenants,  each 


ENGINEER  CORPS. 

1  brigadier-general,       •       $5,500    |    24  majors,  each 
6  colonels,  each  -        -    3,500    I   30  captains,  each 

12  lieutenant- colonels,  each  3,000    I 


1  brigadier-general, 

4  major-generals, 

33  brigadier-generals 
59  colonels,     - 

34  lieutenant -colonels, 
50  majors,       -        • 


SIGNAL  OFFICE. 

$5>5°°    I   32  lieutenants,  each 

RETIRED  LIST. 

131  captains, 
72  1st  lieutenants,    • 
15  2d  lieutenants, 
8  chaplains, 


$1,800 
1,500 
Moo 
i,5oo 


$2,500 
2,000 
1,600 

$2,500 
1.S00 


$1,500 


Enlisted  Men. 

NON-COMMISSIONED  OFFICERS, 

The  following  enlisted  men  are  paid  these  sums  monthly  dur- 
ing their  first  terms  of  enlistment,  with  some  modifications  pre- 
scribed by  law :  Sergeant-majors  of  cavalry,  artillery  and  infan- 
try, $23  each ;  quartermaster-sergeants  of  cavalry,  artillery  and 
infantry,  $23  each ;  chief  trumpeters  of  cavalry,  $22 ;  principal 
musicians  of  artillery  and  infantry,  $22;  chief  musicians  of  regi- 
ments, $60,  and  the  allowances  of  a  quartermaster-sergeant; 
saddler  sergeants  of  cavalry,  $22 ;  first  sergeants  of  cavalry, 
artillery  and  infantry,  $22 ;  sergeants  of  cavalry,  artillery  and 
infantry,  $17;  corporals  of  cavalry  and  light  artillery,  $15; 
corporals  of  artillery  and  infantry,  $15;  saddlers  of  cavalry, 
$15;  blacksmiths  and  farriers  of  cavalry,  $15;  trumpeters  of 
cavalry,  $13;  musicians  of  artillery  and  infantry,  $13;  privates 
of  cavalry,  artillery  and  infantry,  $13;  sergeant-majors  of  engi- 
neers, $36;  quartermaster-sergeants  of  engineers,  $36;  ser- 
geants of  engineers  and  ordnance,  $34 ;  corporals  of  engineers 
and  ordnance,  $20;  musicians  of  engineers,  $13;  privates  (first 
class)  of  engineers  and  ordnance,  $17;  privates  (second  class) 
of  engineers  and  ordnance,  $13.  To  these  rates  of  pay  $1  a 
month  is  added  for  the  third  year  of  enlistment,  $1  for  the  fourth 
year,  and  one  more  for  the  fifth  year,  making  $3  a  month 
increase  for  the  last  year  of  enlistment ;  but  this  increase  is  "  re- 
tained pay,"  and  is  not  given  to  the  soldier  until  his  term  is 
ended,  and  it  is  forfeited  if  he  misbehaves  himself  before  he 
receives  his  discharge.  Occasional  extra  services  by  soldiers  and 
non-commissioned  officers  also  entitle  them  to  additional  pay. 


/ 


_M 


610 


THE    WAR    DEPARTMENT. 


"7 


££«. 


The  Army  During  the  Civil  War. 

The  following  table  shows  the  dates  of  the  President's  proc- 
lamations for  men,  the  number  of  men  called  for  and  the  num- 
ber secured. 


JL 


DATK   OF  PRESIDENT'S   PROCLAMA- 
TION. 


April  15,  1S61 

May  3,  1861 

inly  99  and  25,  1861 
lay  and  June,  1862 

July  2,  186a 

August  4,  1 862 

June  15,  1863 

October  17,  1863.... 
February  1,  1S64.... 

March  14,  1864 

April  23,  1864 

July  18.1864 

December  19,  1864.. 

Total.. 


NO. 
CALLED 

FOR. 


75,000 

82,748  j 
500,000  j 

300,000 
300,000 
100,000 
300,000  J 
200,000  j 
200,000 
85,000 
500,000 
300,000 


-VJl-,7-0 


PERIOD  OF 
SERVICE. 


3  months. 

3  years. 

3  months* 
3  years. 
9  months. 
6  months, 

2  years. 

3  years. 
100  days. 
1,2,3  years 

1 » v  3  years 


Nt'MBER 
OBTAINED 


93.3*6 
7*4^31 

16,361 

374.807 
284,031 

83,65a 


2,690,401 


The  Strength  of  the  Federal  Army. 


DATE 

January  ist,  1S61 
uly  1st,  136: 
anuary  ist,  1862 
anuary  ist,  1863 
anuary  1st,  1S64 

January  1st,  1S65 

May  1st,  1865 


■4.66} 
■S.1,588 
527.204 
698,802 
611,250 
620,924 
797J8Q7 


".704 
J.'°3 

48,7'4 
219,3*9 

249,487 

338.S36 

202,709 


16.367 
1S6751 

575.9-7 
qiS,.8i 

86o.737 
gSMfio 
t*oo»Si6 


Volunteers  in  the  War. 


The  following 
the  Federal  army 

New  York, 
Pennsylvania, 
Ohio, 

Illinois,  • 

Indiana, 
Massachusetts, 
Missouri,  • 

Wisconsin,      • 
Michigan,  • 

Iowa,  * 

New  Jersey, 
Kentucky,       • 
Maine, 

Connecticut,    • 
Maryland, 
New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  • 

West  Virginia 
Tennessee,  • 

Minnesota, 


table  shows  the  number  of  men  furnished  to 
by  each  State  in  the  Union. 

Rhode  Island, 
Kansas,      -  .- 

District  of  Columbia, 
California, 
Delaware,        •  . 

Arkansas,  . 

New  Mexico  . 

Louisiana,  • 

Colorado,         -  • 

Indian  Nation, 
Nebraska,       «  • 

North  Carolina, 
Alabama,        •  • 

Texas, 

Oregon,  •  • 

Nevada,  • 

Wuhtngton  Territory, 
Mississippi,  ■ 

Dakota  Territory, 


445.959 
33V5S 
3'0.654 
258,162 
"94.363 
146,467 
108,162 
91,021 
S8,m 
75.793 
75.3'S 
75.275 
69.73S 
55.755 
46,053 
33,9'3 
33,27' 
32,003 
31.092 
24,002 


23.248 

20,095 

'6,534 

•5.725 

12,26s 

8.2S9 

6,561 

5.2*4 

4.903 

3.530 

3.'57 

3.'5o 

a.576 

'.965 

I,Sio 

i.oSo 

964 

545 

306 


The  Bivouac  of  the  Dead. 

There  were  killed   in   action,  or  died  of  wounds  in  the  Civil  war, 
commissioned  officers,  5,221 ;  enlisted  men,  90,868.    Died  from  disease 


or  accident,  commissioned  officers,  2,321 ;  enlisted  men,  182,329;  mak- 
ing a  total  loss  of  289,739.  Deaths  which  occurred  after  the  men  left 
the  army  arc  not  included  in  these  figures. 

The  Strength  of  the  World's  Armies. 


COUNTRIES. 


Argentine  Republic 
Austria-Hungary. . 

Belgium 

Bolivia   

Brazil 

Canada  ........  ... 

chili 

Chin.i 

Colombia 

Denmark 

Egypt 

r ranee 

Germany 

Great  Britain. 

Greece 

India,  British. 

Italy 

Japan 

Luxemburg... 

Mexico , 

Netherlands .. 

Norway 

Persia 

Peru 

Portugal 

Roumania...., 

Russia 

Scrvia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland... 

Turkey 

United  States. 

Uruguay 

Venezuela.  . . . 


1,400/100 
J7.73M01 

5.47G.&S 

2fibOjOOO 

11,108,201 

4,352,060 

2,400,3*/' 
Wfaatpaa 

3.774.COO 

i.0*4£4 
17,419,980 
36,005,788 
45,i94,'72 
35,246.S&3 

252,541^10 

■SiSomoo 

209,673 

t«B 

ijBo6#oo 

7,0002300 
3^>5cscoo 

4.348.55' 
5,376,000 

72,520,000 
1  jSoyDJO 

16,333.293 
«3>«3 
»Si.7S7 

62.622. acn 
447^00 

».7S.'97 


8^27 

46.3S3 
32M 

'5J»4 
22200 

3.573 
JOOtOOO 

3/3O0 

35.727 

'5*oo 
502,764 

tes 
12,118 

•8oj» 

214,667 
36,777 

*4A5o 
65,113 
•8.750 
57^oo 
4.670 
34^74 
19,812 

974.77" 
50,000 

00,000 

4i,aSo 
H7.500 

350,000 
2709° 
2,357 

2,240 


304,000 
'."5,833 

■6S^77 


32*00 

70°.'S2 
50J2CO 

l,u«V«»l 
3O.740 

49*54 
43*oo 
". 753."64 
■,492,10. 
577 .906 
_35*oo 

y-  ,"■' 
736,502 

5'.72' 


•63,19s 
241 JJCO 


4CV000 

78,024 
200,000 

2.7UJ05 
265,000 

■10*95 

610,200 
3,165,000 

22,357 


■3-s 

ill 

<    "S 


*  3k574.5'S 

0,776,429 
1,126,916 

777*99 


982,432 
2,539,027 

2,l./\2l6 

114,279,761 

9».3.V>^29 
74*01,500 

2,2**4,71/. 
84,481,195 

4-i."47,-"'.? 

{Mil 

9.7**64 

BJOMOO 

I  /-•'.. 75.1 


4.373.833 
5.222,227 

137,^1.-. --02 

1,7'  >."-' 
24  .So,  ,.,30 

■9May 

40,466, 

•  ,"-70,1 


o  e 
*.—•  -  r  „• 


*i-46 


•35 

1. 19 

.12 

3-09 

3.17 

2.12 

'•34 

•33 

••52 

•23 

•43 

1.04 

3.10 

3 


•91 

••* 
.1 

•5: 
.02 

•*» 

LSI 

.So 

.iS 


S3 

'5-73 
25.04 

'4-54 
3-" 


12.63 

21.'  1 
2»37 

15.82 
23- >3 
20-32 
34-'9 
15.52 

40-S3 


Secretaries  of  War. 


Henry  Knox,  Mass. 
Timothy  Pickering,  Penn. 
James  McIIcnry,  Md. 
Samuel  Dexter,  Mass. 

■  >!d,  Conn. 
Henry  Dearborn,  Mass. 
William  Eustis,  Mass. 
John  Armstrong,  N.  Y. 
James  Monroe,  Va. 
William  II.  Crawford,  Ga. 
John  C.  Calhoun,  S.  C. 
James  Barbour,  Va. 
Pctrr  n.  Porter,  N.  Y. 
John  H.  Eaton,  Tenn. 
Lewis  Cass,  Ohio. 
J..,  1  U.  Poinsett,  S.  C. 
John  MI,  Tenn. 
John  C  Spencer,  N.  Y. 
James  M.  Porter.  Penn. 

Negatived  by  Senate. 


Secretaries  of  the  Navy. 


Benjamin  Stoddard,  Md. 
Kobert  Smith,  Md. 

iacob  Crowninshicld,  Mass 
'.<ul  Hamilton,  S.  C. 
William  Jones,  Penn. 
B.  W.  Crowninshicld,  Mass.  181 
Smith  Thompson,  N.  Y. 
Samuel  L.  Southard,  N.  J 
John  Branch,  N.  C. 


■  N'4 
1805 
1809 
181.I 

1818 

1829 


Levi  Woodbury,  N.  H. 
Mahlon  Dlckerson,  N.  J. 
lames  K.  Paulding,  N.Y. 
George  E.  Badger,  N.  C. 
Abel  P.  Upshur,  Va. 
David  I  Irnshaw,  Mass. 

Negatived  by  Senate. 
Thomas  W.  Gilmer,  Va. 
John  Y.  Mason,  Va. 


1831  George  Bancroft.  Mass. 

1834  John  Y.  Mason,  Va. 

1838  William  B.  Preston.  Va. 

1841  William  A  Graham,  N.  C. 

•  841  John  P,  Kenned. .  lid. 

I    0.  James  C.  Dobbin,  N.  C. 

f   ^3  Isaac  Toncey,  Conn. 

1844  Gideon  Welles.  Conn. 

1844  Adolph  E.  I 


17S9 

•795 
1796 
1S00 
■Sol 
1S01 

IN, > 
•  Sl3 
1S14 

•Sis 
ISI7 
1825 
1823 
rfkg 
1831 
•S37 
■84' 
1S41 

•S43 


•845 

is,(. 
in,., 
1850 
185a 
18J3 
1857 
1861 
1S09 


William  Wilkins,  Penn. 
William  L.  Marcy,  N.  Y. 
George  W.  Crawfod,  Ga. 
Charles  L.  Conrad,  La. 
Jefferson  Davis,  Miss. 
John  B.  Floyd,  Va. 
Joseph  Holt,  Ky. 
Simon  Cameron,  Penn. 
Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Penn. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant 
Lorenzo  Thomas. 
John  M.  Schoficld. 
John  A.  Rawlins. 
William  W.  Belknap. 

Alphonaa  Tat't. 

lames  l>.  Cameron. 

.   \\  .  M(  Crary. 
■  .inder  Ramsey. 

Robert   I'.  Lincoln.  is-si 

Maw.  1885 

Kt  diirld  I'r.xtor,  Vermont.  18S9 

Stcsl.cn  B.  Elkins,  W.  Va.  1S9S 


•844 
■S4S 
■S49 
1S50 
«8S3 
"»S7 

is/. I 

1S6I 
■S6l 

IS68 
IS68 

iv., 
i960 
■  876 

!>»70 

'-7; 


George  M.  Rob— on. 
Richard  W.  Thompson. 
Nathan  C.off.  Jr. 
William  H.  Hunt. 
Wm.  E.  Chandler.  N.  H. 
Win.  C.  Whiten,  N    \. 
B.  F.  Tracy,  N.  V. 


1869 

'Si7 

ISM 
l88l 

m. 

INS, 

ai 


4^ 


*;■*- 


THE    NAVY    DEPARTMENT. 


611 


" 


o^i^Eptiiir^t^i^Ep^t.^ 


^^isifgEnaETrgETfHiEnaisTfaEna^f^tsuais^ 


151 
5 

a 
a 

a 

5 

a 

5 

a 
a 
a 


15] 

a 

5 

5 
5 

a 

5 
5 
5 
5 
5 

a 


■HAT  the  duties  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  are,  is  indicated  in  the 
name  of  the  Department.  He  has 
control  of  the  ships  of  war  of 
the  Republic,  and  of  all  mat- 
ters growing  out  of  that  con- 
trol. There  are  eight  Bureaus 
in  the  Department,  among  which 
the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the 
naval  work  are  divided.  These  are  the  Bureau 
of  Yards  and  Docks,  presided  over  by  an  officer 
selected  from  the  navy,  not  below  the  grade  of 
Commander ;  the  Bureau  of  Equipment  and  Re- 
cruiting, presided  over  by  a  similar  office-;  the 
Bureau  of  Navigation,  similarly  officered;  a  Bureau 
of  Ordnance,  a  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair 
follow  in  order,  the  chief  of  each  being  a  naval 
officer  of  rank ;  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering 
is  presided  over  by  one  of  the  chief  engineers  of 
the  navy ;  the  Bureau  of  Provisions  and  Clothing, 
at  the  head  of  which  is  one  of  the  paymasters  of  the  navy,  of  not 
less  than  ten  years'  standing;  and  lastly  the  Bureau  of  Medicine 
and  Surgery,  presided  over  by  one  of  the  surgeons  of  the  navy. 
Each  of  these  chiefs  is  appointed  by  the  President;  they  hold 
office  four  years  and  receive  only  the  salary  of  their  rank  in  the 
navy.  The  Secretary  in  common  with  the  other  Cabinet  officers 
gets  $8,ooo  per  year.  The  Judge  Advocate-General  re- 
ceives $3,500. 


THE  LINE  AT  SEA. 


6  rear  admirals, 
10  commodores, 
45  captains, 
S5  commanders, 


$6,000 
5,000 

3.5°° 


74  lieut.-com'ders,     2,800*3,000 
280  lieutenants,  2,400      2,600 


100,  masters,        -      $i,Soo  *  2,000 
100  ensigns,  -         1,200      1,400 

40  midshipmen,  -  1,000 

334  cadet  midship'n,    500        950 
42  mates,     ....      00c 


STAFF. 


15  medical  directors, $2,800*4,400 

13  pay  directors,           2,Soo  4,200 

70  chief  engineers,       2,800  4,200 

So  surgeons,          -       2,800  4,200 

50  paymasters,  2,800  4,200 
100  passed  and  assist* 

ant  surgeons,  1,900  2,200 
30    passed     assistant 

paymasters,                2,000  2,200 

20  ass't  paymasters,     1,700  1,900 


100  passed  ass't  eng's  $2, 
100  ass't  engineers,  1 
24  chaplains,         -        2 

1 1  naval  constructors,  3 
5  ass't  constructors, 

12  professors  of  math' 
ematics, 

9  civil  engineers, 
Cadet  engineers, 


1  colonel-commandant, 

1  colonel, 

2  lieutenant-colonels, 
1  major, 


THE  MARINE  CORPS, 

$3.5°° 
3.5°° 


3.000 
2,500 


18  captains, 

30  1st  lieutenants, 

20  2d  lieutenants,  * 


000*2,200 

,700  1,900 

,500  2,800 

,200  4,200 

,000  2,600 

,400  3,500 

.4°°  3.50O 

500  1,000 


$1,800 
•.5°° 
•,400 


MARINE  CORPS  STAFF. 

$2,500    I    2  captains, 


$2,000 


RETIRED  LIST. 

12  commanders,      -  • 

25  lieutenant-commanders,    - 
44  lieutenants. 


3  majors, 

41  rear-admirals, 

10  commodores, 

11  captains. 

Attached  to  the  Bureau  of  Navigation  is  a  hydro- 
graphic  office  which  provides  charts,  sailing  directions 
and  manuals  for  the  use  of  the  naval  and  merchant  ma- 
rine. The  Nautical  Almanac  is  prepared  at  the  Naval 
Observatory. 

Rank  in  the  Army  and  Navy. 

The  relative  rank  in  the  two  arms  of  the  service  runs 
as  follows : 

The  rear-admirals  with  major-generals,  commodores 
with  brigadier-generals,  captains  with  colonels,  commanders 
with  lieutenant-colonels,  lieutenant-commanders  with  majors, 
lieutenants  with  captains,  masters  with  1st  lieutenants,  and  en- 
signs with  2d  lieutenants. 


_M 


■te 


612 


— 9 


THE  AMERICAN  NAVY. 


THE  /{MERie/lN  Ravy. 


The  Atlanta  and  the  Boston. 


" 


¥HE  popular  thine  of  late  years,  among  papers  and 
people  inclined  to  be  flippant,  has  been  to  make  in- 
quiries regarding  the  whereabouts  of  the  United 
States  navy.  No  one  in  authority  ever  took  the 
trouble  to  answer  the  questions  springing  from  so 
many  anonymous  sources,  and  the  idea  gradually 
settled  into  a  conviction  that  as  a  nation  we  had  no 
navy,  other  than  a  sort  of  a  dress-parade  affair,  illy 
able  to  do  battle  or  protect  our  water-front  incase 
of  invasion  by  foreign  powers  which  might  at  some 
time  become  hostile.  Others,  who  recognized  the 
fact  that  the  white-winged  messenger  of  Peace  hovered  over  the  land, 
questioned  the  necessity  for  a  navy.  Possible  differences,  it  was 
argued,  were  to  be  settled  by  arbitration,  and  the  maintenance  of  a 
naval  fleet  for  home  protection  was  a  needless  extravagance  and  one 
the  government  was 
hardly  in  position  to 
afford.  But  the  theory 
that  it  is  best,  in  time 
of  peace,  to  prepare 
for  war,  gradually 
drew  into  itself  more 
supporters  in  official 
life  than  any  other 
argument  advanced, 
and  resulted  in  the 
taking  of  some  active 
steps  looking  to  the 
decided  betterment  of 
naval  affairs.  The  de- 
cision at  the  seat  of 
government  was  that 
the  claims  of  the  navy 
to.  consideration  and 
for  its  maintenance  in 
becoming  its 
usefulness  and  dignity 
rested  not  only  upon 
its  power  to  protect 
the  commerce  and 
citizens  of  the  nation  in  time  of  peace,  or  even  when  they  might 
become  imperiled  amid  the  sudden  ebullitions  of  hostility  which 
occasionally  burst  forth  in  countries  with  which  we  are  on  terms 
of  amity,  but  rest  also  upen  the  most  sacred  traditions  of  the 
Republic.  As  a  protective  measure,  however,  a  navy  has  not  been 
necessary  for  years.  At  rare  intervals  the  services  of  a  man-of-war, 
plying  in  distant  waters,  are  brought  into  requisition  to  redress 
or  prevent  a  fancied  indignity  offered  an  American  citizen  by 
some  effete  monarchy;  but  in  a  general  way  our  "relations  with 
foreign  powers,"  in  the  stereotyped  language  of  Mrs.  Victoria  in  her 
message  to  my  lords  and  gentlemen,  have  for  so  many  years  been  of  a 
friendly  and  peaceable 
character  that  "  inva- 
sion "  has  been  a  con- 
tingency so  remote  as 
to  be  hardly  entitled  to 
serious  consideration. 

The  government, how- 
ever, since  :88t  has  been 
far  from  idle  in  putting 
the  navy  of  the  United 
States  on  a  footing  that 
will  make  it  the  pride 
of  every  good  citizen  in- 
stead of  a  mark  for  ridi- 
cule, and  second  only  in 
power  to  that  of  Great 
Britain. 
It  will  be  remembered 

that  the  decade  between 

1870  and  1880  was 
marked  by  the  most 
masterly  inactivity  in  government  ship-yards,  and  all  this  time  grim 
decay  was  making  a  hearty  meal  on  everything  that  had  a  hull  With 
the  exception  of  a  couple  of  monitors  and  torpedo  boats,  built  in  an 
1  way,  the  entire  naval  fleet  was  comprised  of  wooden 
hulls,  and  at  (he  time  mentioned  (1880)  many  were  too  far  gone  for 
repairs:  others  were  fast  going  in  the  same  direction.  This  was  rec- 
i    by  the  thi  .  of  the  Navy,  the  late  Hon.  William  H 

Hunt,  and  it  wai  under  his  direction  in  1881  that  the  first  advlaoi 
inned  foi  the  purpose  of  reporting  upon  the  needs  of  th< 
whieh  they  did  to  Congress,  setting  forth  the  fact  that  if  it  became 
necessary  to  protect  American  life  01  propertT  tha  navy  COOld  make 
but  1  sorry  attempt  at  it,  and  were  wholly  unable  to  maV. 
abroad  which    tended    to    inspire  respect.     The   president  of   this 


^^Z.  "l  i0&^^^~ — 


Thp  Vesuvius. 


advisory  board  was  Rear-Admiral  John  Rogers,  and  associated  with 
him  were  fifteen  officers  in  the  regular  service  representing  its  dif- 
erent  branches,  all  of  them  of  recognized  ability  and  experience. 

To  them  it  was  left  to  determine  the  number  of  new  vessels  that 
should  immediately  be  built,  their  class,  size,  and  displacement, 
the  material  of  and  form  in  which  they  should  be  constructed,  kind 
and  size  of  engines  and  other  machinery,  ordnance  and  armament 
necessary  in  each,  equipment  and  rigging,  internal  arrangement,  and 
probable  cost  of  vessel  when  ready  for  service.  The  board  began  its 
duties  in  June,  1881.  and  in  November  of  the  same  year  made  its  report. 
Public  interest  in  ihe  general  question  of  an  American  navy  had  by 
this  time  reached  a  very  high  point,  helped  to  it  by  a  not  unkindly 
press  criticism,  and  there  soon  began  a  revival  of  iron  and  steel  in- 
terests so  far  as  they  applied  to  vessel  construction.  It  was  found  by 
the  board  that    the  requirements  of  the  naval  service,  to  keep  the 

different  squadrons 
up  to  proper  standard, 
was  seventy  vessels. 
Of  this  number  the 
naval  register  then 
contained  thirty-two, 
including  those  avail- 
able and  in  dry-dock, 
leaving  thirty-eight  lo 
be  constructed.  Of 
this  number  twenty 
were  to  be  built  for  a 
displacement  of  793 
tons  and  a  speed  of  ten 
knots  per  hour;  ten 
of  3.043  tons  displace- 
ment and  thirteea 
knots  speed ;  six  of 
4.560  tons  displace- 
ment and  fourteen 
knots  speed,  while 
two  were  to  make 
fifteen  knots  per  hour 
and  have  a  displace- 
ment of  5,873  tons. 
Five  steel  rams,  the  same  number  of  torpedo  gunboats,  ten  each  of 
harbor  and  cruising  torpedo  boats,  were  also  recommended.  The 
board  acknowledged  the  necessity  of  iron-clads  for  defense  in  time 
of  war,  but  claimed  the  time  at  its  disposal  for  the  preparation  of 
its  report  was  too  limited  for  it  to  reach  a  thoroughly  satis- 
factory conclusion,  but  recommending  the  subject  to  the  careful 
consideration  of  naval  officers. 

The  requirements  indicated  above  were  based  on  a  knowledge  of 
what  it  was  then  possible  to  do  in  the  way  of  ship-building,  but  they 
look  old-fashioned;  now  when  vessels  of  no  larger  size  are  constructed 
in  which  the  speed  is  increased  fully  thirty  per  cent.     But  it  has  never 

been  chaiged  that  the 
first  adx  tsory  board 
made  any  mistakes. 
The  requirements  1  f 
the  service  were 
carefully  conaidt 
and  among  the  fifteen 
were  men  who  had  an 
absolute,  practical 
knowledge  in  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  (lie 
service.  On  the  vital 
question  of  construc- 
tion material  there  was 
almost  a  unanimiti  1  f 
opinion  in  favor  cl 
and  thi  f  the 

board  in  this  din 
has    since    been    most 
highly     commi 

ioa  was  that 

steel  should  be  used  for  vessels,  guns  and  machinery.,81"1  thai 
than  anything  else  gave  the  impetus  to  this  Industry  which  ha*  r« 
in  th<  h  I  a  material  recognised  everywhere  as  of  tba 

very  "highest   standard 

In  a  paper  on  the  subject  read  before  the  United  States  Normal  In- 
stitute, Lieutenant  Commander  Eaton,  late  steel  inspector  of  the  new 
cruisers,  had  this  to  say: 

•  eaa  be  no  shadow  of  doubt  that  the  navy  is  now  obtaining 
for  its  latest  additions  a  material  superior  in  even-  good  quality  to  any 
other  over  used   in  any  ship.     1  make  It  is  a 

subject  of  congratulation  that  from  the  advisory  board  of  1SS3  to  the 

t  day  the  navy  has  taxed  the  resources  of  the  st< 
produce  a  quality  of  metal  superior  to  their  best.    The  requirements 


2j 


THE  AMERICAN  NAVY. 


613 


# 


have  been  severe,  the  inspection  rigid  ;  but  it  is  gratifying  to  note  how 
the  steel  has  successfully  advanced  to  meet  both.    The  specifications 
for  cruisers  No.  1  to  No.  5  and  the  four  gunboats  were  denounced  as 
impracticable  and  absurd;  but  now  the  much  more  severe  specifica- 
tions for  the  Maine  and  the  Texas  are  accepted  and  carried  out  with 
thoroughness  and  cheerfulness.     All  attempts  to  set  aside  or  reduce 
the  qualifications  have 
been  firmly  resisted  by 
the     secretary    of    the 
navy,     and    the     steel 
board  laying  the  foun- 
dation for  ships  which 
will   float  or  fight  with 
the  best  material  on  any 
ocean    or     under    any 
flag." 

In  1882  a  second  advis- 
ory board  was  formed, 
and,  aided  by  the  intelli- 
gent report  of  the  first 
board,  were  soon  ready 
with  specifications  for 
the      construction      of 
four     cruisers,    named 
later  the  Chicago,  Bos- 
ton,  Atlanta  and    Dol- 
phin.    Their  construc- 
tion was  authorized  by  acts  of  Congress  August  5,  1882,  and  March  3, 
1883,  all  four  contracts  being  let  in  July  following  to  John  Roach  & 
Sons,  of  Chester,  Pa.,  the  lowest  bidders.     The  first  vessel  completed 
was  the  Dolphin. 

This  boat  is  schooner  rigged,  carries  three  masts,  is  32  feet  beam 
and  265  long  ;  has  an  engine  capacity  of  over  2,000-horse  power,  a  dis- 
placement of  1,485  tons, 
and  has  a  speed  of  15% 
knots.  This,  being  a 
maximum,  is  not  regu- 
larly made.  She  carries 
a  two-cylinder  com- 
pound vertical  direct- 
acting  engine,  propel- 
ling a  four-bladed  wheel 
of  a  little  over  14  feet 
diameter.  She  is  effec- 
tively armed,  carrying 
a  6-inch  breech-loader 
rifle  mounted  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  can  be 
used  on  either  side.  In 
addition  to  this  gun 
there  are  on  the  fore- 
castle two  6-pounders, 
rapid  firing,  and  in  fixed 
armoured  towers  at  her 
side  four  revolving  can- 
non. When  launched 
she  was  assigned  to 
the      north        Atlantic 

squadron,  but  in  '87  was  changed  to  the  Pacific  and  made  a  flagship, 
for  which  service  her  ample  cabin  room  makes  her  peculiarly  fitted. 

The  cut  on  opposite  page  represents  the  Atlanta,  though  it  answers 
equally  well  for  the  Boston,  as  they  are  twins  in  every  respect  except 
speed,  the  Atlanta  falling  on  her  trial  trip  150-horse-power  below  the 
required  contract  development  of  3,500  horse-power,  and  the  Boston 
exceeding  require- 
ments by  about  the 
same  amount.  They 
are  both  of  3,189 
tons,  with  an  unus- 
ually heavy  arma- 
ment for  their  class 
of  men-of-war,  con- 
sisting of  one  8-inch 
breech-loading  gun, 
firing  a  250-pound 
projectile,  mounted 
in  barbette  just  for- 
ward of  the  super- 
structure on  the 
port  side,  and 
another  of  the  same 
size,  also  in  bar- 
bette, aft  on  the 
starboard  side,  and 
six  6-inch  guns  in- 
side the  super- 
structure; also  a 
secondary      battery 


feet  long,  42  beam,  draw  17  feet  of  water,  and  spread  somewhat  over 
10,000  square  feet  of  canvas.     The  contract  cost  of  hull  and  machinery 
for  Atlanta  was  $617,000,  and  Boston  $619,000.     Their  rigging  is  the 
same,  but  presents  some  peculiar  and  unusual  features,  one  of  the 
most  marked  being  the  bringing  together  of  the  poop  deck  and  top- 
gallant forecastle,  thus  forming  a  superstructure  amidships,  and  leav- 
ing the  deck  fore  and 
aft  clear  for  gun  service 
in  time  of  action.     At 
the  time  of  the  launch 
there  was  considerable 
adverse     criticism    on 
this    point,    many  sea- 
men claiming  the  vessel 
could  not  be  handled  in 
a   gale,   could    not    be 
made  to  "  lie  to,"  etc., 
but    so    far    the    boats 
have  behaved    well  at 
sea  and  proved  efficient 
cruisers,  the  Boston  a 
little  speedier  than  the 
Atlanta, as  stated.   Both 
are  square  rigged  with 
masts   well  amidships. 
The  Maine.  These  features  were  in 

the  nature  of  innova- 
tions, and  not  kindly  taken  to  by  many,  but  theorists  who  were 
formerly  objectors  realize  now  that  with  a  3,500  horse-power  engine 
aboard  a  cruiser  does  not  lie  in  the  trough  of  the  sea,  depending  on 
a  close-reeled  mainsail  to  keep  her  steadv. 

When  the  Chicago,  the  fourth  steel  ship  of  the  Navy  to  be  built, 
was  completed,  the  people  had  reason  to  feel  very  proud.    Her  first 

steam  trial  proved  the 
truth  of  the  American 
claim  that  as  soon  as  a 
want  is  really  felt  just 
so  soon  that  want  will 
be  supplied.  Not  only 
was  this  fine  vessel 
built  of  American  ma- 
terial by  American 
workmen,  but  her  de- 
signers were  entirely 
composed  of  the  line, 
engineer  and  construe* 
tioh  officers  of  the 
Navy.  She  was  built 
by  John  Roach  &  Sons, 
of  Chester,  Pa.;  after 
necessary  changes  had 
been  made,  was  com- 
missioned into  service 
in  iSSyj  and  is  the 
pride  01  the  American 
navy,  the  largest  of  the 
cruisers,  measuring 
4,500  tons.     Her  length 


hip  Chicago. 


The  San  Francisco. 


K 


of  two  6-pounder  rapid-tiring  guns  in  broadside  ports,  two  3- 
pounder  rapid-firing  guns,  and  two  47-mm.  revolving  cannons  in 
towers,  two  i-pounders  on  top  of  starboard  forward  and  port  after 
tower,  a  37-mm.  revolving  gun  in  each  top,  and  two  Gatlings.  The 
machinery  consists  of  a  three-cylinder  compound  horizontal  back- 
acting  engine.  There  are  eight  horizontal  return  tubular  boilers,  and 
a  coal  capacity  of  about  500  tons.  A  speed  of  sixteen  knots  has  been 
made  under  favorable  circumstances.  The  protective  plating  over 
engines  and  boilers  is  i'/i  inches  in  thickness.     These  vessels  are  283 


is  33^  feet  4  inches  over  all,  extreme  beam  48  feet  2-5  inches. 
She  is  bark-rigged,  carrying  nearly  5,000  yards  of  canvas ;  has 
capacity  for  940  tons  of  coal,  and  draws  but  19  feet  of  water. 
Her  motive  power  equipment  consists  of  two  compound  over- 
head beam  engines,  working  two  4-bladed  screws  some  15*4  feet  in 
diameter.     She  has  a  nest  of  five  double-ended  externally  fired  boilers. 

On  her  trial  trip  she 
developed  5,084  col- 
lective horse-power 
and  a  mean  speed  of 
15.3  knots,  the  max- 
imum for  one  hour 
being  16.3.  Running 
ten  knots  it  is  esti- 
mated that  she  can 
steam  for  twenty 
days  and  make 
about  5,000  miles. 
She  is,  like  the 
Dolphin,  intended 
for  a  flagship, 
though  her  arma- 
ment is  particularly 
heavy.  The  mount- 
ing of  heavy  guns 
on  half  turrets  is 
original  with  the 
Chicago.  These — 
four  8-inch  cannon 
— are  carried  on  the 
spar  deck,  built  out  from  the  ship's  side,  stand  twenty-four  and  one- 
half  feet  above  the  water  line,  and  command  the  entire  horizon.  In 
the  broadside  ports  on  the  gun  deck  are  six  6-inch  guns  and  also  a  6- 
inch  gun  on  each  bow.  In  the  after  portion  of  the  cabin  there  are 
two  5-inch  guns.  Her  secondary  battery  consists  of  two  Gatlings,  two 
6-ponnders,  two  i-pounders,  two  47-mm.  and  two  37-mm.  revolving 
cannon.  This  ship  is  manned  by  a  crew  of  300.  Her  steering  ap- 
paratus is  considerably  below  water  line,  protected  by  a  deck  one 
and  one-half  irches  thick,  worked  well  over  the  machinery. 


_^, 


It  was  not  until   March,  1883,  that  Congress  again  authorized  the 
construction  of  more  vessels,  the  contracts  this  lima  going  to  Messrs. 
p  of  Philadelphia,  who,  In  April,  1887,  turned  oat  the  gunboat 
Yorktown  and  the  dynamite  cruiser  Vesuvius.     Competition  for  these 
contracts  w.i  ,  the  administration  having  advanc*  m 

encouraged  them  by  offering  premiums  for  the  best  plan:,  Irre 
of  nationality  of  the  designer.  This  stimulated  a  vtry  healthy 
competition,  the  government  being  decidedly  the  gainer  in 
that  American  ship-builders  were  forced  to  greater  efforts 
by  reason  t  _  of  for- 
eign competition.  The 
contracts  were  let  on  a 
better  business  basis 
than  formerly,  in  that 
there  were  limitations 
as  to  time,  penalty 
clauses,  etc.  On  the 
other  hand  there  were 
premiums  for  excess 
of  speed  above  require- 
ments. This,  as  much 
as  anything,  has  tended 
to  do  away  with  a  re- 
liance of  sails  and  throw 
more  dependence  on 
steam-power.  The  ad- 
vantage in  absence  of 
spars  and  rigging  is 
considered  very  great. 
Another  marked  advan- 
tage gained  by  making 
it  an  object  for  skilled  interests  to  compete  for  American  ship-building 
has  been  the  gradual  increase  in  speed  attained,  the  improved  arrange- 
ment of  battery,  rig  machinery,  and  the  doing  away  with  useless  spars 
and  rigging. 

The  Yorktown  was  the  first  gunboat  constructed  under  the  act  of 
March,  1885,  at  Philadelphia.  Her  size  belies  her  name  as  a  gunboat, 
for  her  measurements  are  :  Length,  230  feet ;  beam,  36  feet ;  displace- 
ment, 1,700  tons  ;  at  this  tonnage  she  draws  14  feet  of  water.  Her  hull 
is  steel.  She  carries 
two  sets  of  triple  ex- 
pansion boilers,  with 
forced  draught,  will 
doubtless  develop  3,200 
horse-power  and  result 
in  a  speed  of  seventeen 
knots.  Her  coal  capac- 
ity is  400  tons.  For  a 
battery  she  has  six 
6- inch  breech-loading 
rifles,  two  being  well 
forward  and  two  aft, 
and  one  on  either  side 
of  her  central  section, 
all  fitted  with  steel 
shields  to  protect  the 
crew,  As  a  secondary 
battery  she  carries  five 
rapid-fire  guns,  two 
Hotchkiss  revolving 
cannon.one  Galling, an  a 
eight  torpedo  tubes.  She  is  propelled  by  twin  screws.  The  contract  price 
of  this  vessel,  including  hull  and  machinery,  was  $445,000.  Twelve 
months  after  the  letting  of  contracts  were  allowed  in  which  to  build 
her,  but  departures  from  original  plans  and  delays  in  getting  proper 
material  for  construction  purposes  made  it  necessary  to  extend  this 
limit  somewhat. 

The  Charleston  was  launched  at  San  Francisco  in  July,  18B8.  A 
peculiar  feature  in  her 
construction  is  that  she 
has  a  complete  double 
bottom  divided  into  num- 
erous water-tight  com- 
partments, with  her  en- 
gine and  other  machinery 
entirely  surrounded  and 
protected  by  coal.  Added 
to  this  is  a  protection  deck 
curving  from  the  point  of 
In  1  i  tm  to  her  item.  Her 
electric  plant  for  lighting 
and  searching  is  in  dupli- 
cate. Although  carrying 
a  fore-and-aft  sail,  her  de- 
pendence for  speed  is  on 
two  sets  of  two-cvliiicl<  1 
compound  rii-iu 
velopitiK  under  forced 
draught  ,»ower 

and  a  speed  of   alnat— n 
knots.     1 1  *  t    ann. uncut   is  two  10-inch  guns  forward  and   aft,  and   six 

D  sponsons,  increased  train  ben 
mltted   by  u'cesscd    bulwarks.      As  a  secondary  she  has  four  6-pound 
rapid-fire  gun-,  til    HotenklH  nvolvituj     .iiinoti,  and  font  GatUnga 
Dal   supply  is   htm  tons, 

The  Baltimore,  a  taw- launched  at  Snn  FranctscVt,  a  couple  of  months 
later  than  the  Charleston,  is  a  protected  cruistr  of  4,413  tons  displace- 


The  Charleston 


The  Baltimore. 


The  Newark. 


ment,  315  feet  length,  »-■'.  faefl  beam,  drawing  io'/i  feet  mean.  Her 
horizontal,  triple-expansion  engines  are,  like  the  Charleston's,  pro- 
tected. In  addition  to  a  regular  armament  of  four  8-inch  guns  on  the 
poop  and  forecastle,  on  sponsoned  platforms,  and  fix  6-inch  guns  on 
the  spar  deck,  with  six  Hotchkiss  and  four  Catlings,  she  carries  five 
torpedo  tubes,  firing  ahead,  aft  and  sides,  the  bow  tube  training  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees.  She  carries  but  two  masts,  with  fore-and-aft  sail, 
the  masts  fitted,  lik'-  those  on  the  Charleston,  with  military  tops. 
Her  maximum  speed  over  a  measured  mile  is  to  be  twenty  knots  with 

forced  draught 

(blower),  and  seven- 
teen knots  with  natural 
draught. 

The  Petrel  is  a  Balti- 
more boat,  launched  by 
Cramp,  and  is  one  of 
the  smallest  yet  con- 
rustctcd.  being  only  175 
feet  in  length,  31  feet 
beam,  displaceroe;  ■ 
tons,  and  drawing  1 1 
feet  7  inches  of  water. 
She  is  barken  tine 
rigged,  spreading  1,833 
feet  of  canvas.  A  d  • 
ditional  motive  power 
comes  from  a  set  of 
compound  engines  de- 
veloping 900  horse- 
power. Her  average 
speed  U  11%  knots. 
Although  small  it  is  considered  she  will  do  efficient  work  with  four 
6-inch  guns,  mounted  for  all-around  fire;  rapid-firing  guns  on  forecastle 
and  poop,  and  a  Hotchkiss  revolving  cannon  on  each  side.  Ten 
officers  and  100  men  will  handle  her.  While  perhaps  too  small  for  the 
comfort  of  those  who  will  have  to  go  to  sea  in  her,  she  represents  a 
general  type  of  small  vessel  of  which  the  navy  is  greatly  in  need. 

Five  monitors,  of  which  the  Puritan  is  a  fair  illustration,  the  others 
being  the  Miantonomab,  Monadnock,  Terror,  and  Amphitrite,  should 

be  included  in  the  list 
of  vessels  comprising 
the  modern  additions 
to  the  navy.  The  Puri- 
tan is  the  largest  of  the 
five,  6,000  tons. 
Terror  and  Amphitrite 
being  each  3,815  tons. 
All  nave  a  speed  of 
about  ioH  knots,  and 
engine  capacity  indicat- 
ing 1 ,426  horse-power. 
Amidships  there  is  an 
armor  belt  seven 
inches  thick,  but  at 
the  bow  and  stern  it 
tapers  to  five  inches. 
In  all  of  them  the 
covering-towers, 
smoke-stack  and 
revolving  turrets  are 
protected  by  armor 
varying  from    nine  to  eleven   and  one-half  inches  in  thickness. 

The  Newark  is  abark-rigged  ship  and  has  a  large  sail  area  in  addi- 
tion to  two  sets  of  triple-expansion  engines,  capable  of  developing 
8,500  horse-power  and  a  speed  of  about  18  knots.  Her  deck,  machinery, 
etc.,  are  thoroughly  protected.  She  is  310  feet  long,  49  feet  beam,  so^ 
feet  draught,  and  4,083  tons  displacement.  For  a  battery  she  carries 
twelve  6-tncfa  guns,  mounted  so  as  to  secure  direct  ahead  and  stern  fire 

from  four  guns  and  beam 
fire  from  six.  She  has 
a  secondary  battery  of 
four  6-pound  rapid-fire 
guns,  four  Hotchkiss  re- 
volving cannon  and  four 
Gatlings.  Torpedo  tubes, 
six  in  number,  are  to  be 
fitted,  having  a  train  of  90 
drones 

The  Philadelphia  Is  a 
protected  cruiser,  some- 
what similar  to  the  Bal- 
timore, currying  twelve 
6-inch  guns,  two  on  the 
forecastle,  two  00  the 
poop,  and  two  on  either 
DroaaaMa,      Her    speed 

was  to  he  nineteen  I 
her    builders    forfeiting 
$00,000  for  each  quarter 
oT  a  knot  >hc  tell  b*  low 
this  speed,  but  being  paid  an  equal    sum    as  a  premium    tor 
quarter  knot  In  excess  of   the   requirement.    On  the  trial   atu 
ceeded  this  by  .67  of  a    knot,    earning   a    premium  of  $50,000  for  her 
builders.     The  design  for  hull  and    engine    was   made 
Cramp,  the.  contract  prii  1  being  $1,350,000,  with  two  years  allowed 

for  completion. 

At  the   old    Roach   yard  in  Chester,  Palmer  &  Co.  have  built  the 


Concord  and  Bennington,  gunboats  on  the  general  plan  of  the  York- 
town.  The  keels  were  laid  in  1888.  On  these  boats  the  government 
paid  $100  for  each  horse-power  in  excess  of  the  amount  contracted 
For,  there  being  a  forfeit  of  exactlv  reverse  terms.  Exclusive  of 
armament  the  boats  cost  $490,000  each.  The  agreement  was  they 
should  be  completed  three  years  from  November  15,  18S7,  atwhicn 
time  the  contract  was  stoned*    They  were  launched  in  1S00. 

The  battleship  Texas  is  the  largest  yet  attempted  in  the  Norfolk 
yards,  and  is  to  be  constructed  after  plans  furnished  by  Mr.  W.  John, 
though  they  are  subject  to  slight  modification.  Her  displacement 
with  950  tons  of  coal  aboard  is  6,750  tons.  Her  length,  290  feet ;  ex- 
treme beam,  51  feet  1  inch.  She  will  have  a  double  bottom,  water- 
tight compartments,  complete  electric  outfit,  and,  exclusive  of  arma- 
ment, will  cost  $2,376,000. 

Her  main  battery  will  consist  of  two  12-inch  guns  in  turrets  en 
echelon— the  port  one 
forward  and  the  star- 
board aft — the  turrets 
having  twelve  inches  of 
steel  armor.  Her  six  6- 
inch  guns,  which  com- 
plete the  main  battery, 
are  mounted,  two  each 
side  of  the  lower  deck, 
in  sponsons — one  for- 
ward on  the  upper  deck, 
and  the  other  aft.  The 
secondary  battery  is 
composed  of  four  ex- 
pounders, four  3- 
pounders,  eight  revolv- 
ing cannon,  two  Gat- 
lings,  and  four  launch- 
ing torpedo  tubes.   The 

estimated  speed  is  seventeen  knots ;  indicated  horse-power,  8.600 
with  forced  draught.  She  has  twin  screw  triple  expansion  en- 
gines, with  39-inch  stroke.  She  carries  a  water-line  belt  of  12- 
inch  steel  armor,  protecting  magazines,  engines  and  boilers,  with  an 
armored  redoubt  running  across  the  main  deck,  protecting  the  bases 
of  the  turrets  and  their  machinery.  A  protective  deck  3  inches  in 
thickness,  and  heavy  coal  protection,  are  intended  to  further  secure 
her  vitals  against  the  enemy's  projectiles. 

The  Maine  represents  an  outlay  of  $2,500,000,  or  about  $100,000  more 
than  the  Texas.     She  is  bark-rigged,  carrying  7,135  feet  of  canvas,  be- 
sides an  engine  capacity  of  8,750  horse-power,  from  which  a  speed  of  17 
knots  will  be  derived,  using  the  force  draught;  steaming  at  10  knots 
her  coal  capacity  will  carry  her  7,000  miles.     She  is  310  feet  in  length, 
57  feet  beam,  6,648  tons  displacement,  and  draws  2i'i  feet  of  water. 
Her  armament  is  four  10-inch  guns  in   pairs  in  the  two  turrets  placed 
"  en  echelon  "  on  the  main  deck,  the  forward  turret  in  this  case  being 
on  the  starboard  side  and  the  after  one  on  the  port.     Two  of  the  6-inch 
guns  are  in  recessed  ports  in  the  bow,  two  similarly  placed  in  quarter 
ports;  the  remaining  two  are  in  broadside   on  the  superstructure  deck, 
all  being  provided  with 
2-inch    shields    for  the 
protection      of       their 
crews.    The  secondary 
battery  is   made  up  of 
four     6-pounders     and 
four  3-pounders,  rapid- 
fire    guns,  13   revolving 
cannon  and    four  Gat- 
lings,  with    seven    tor- 
pedo  tubes.     Her  twin 
screws  are  worked    by 
two     triple     expansion 
engines      in      separate 
compartments.       A 
feature    of    the   Maine 
is  her  steel  protection. 
This    consists    of     an 
armor  belt  180  feet  long, 
having  a  thickness  of  11 
inches  to  a  depth  of  one 
foot    below  the    water 
line.  Athwart      ship 

there  is  a  bulkhead  six 

inches  thick.  The  base  of  turrets  are  protected  by  oval  redoubts  10 
inches  thick,  as  are  also  loading  tubes,  machinery,  etc. 

Owing  to  the  elastic  nature  of  the  proposals  on  this  vessel,  bidders 
being  allowed  to  submit  figures  on  what  they  consider  more  suitable 
than  that  proposed  by  the  government.it  is  expected  she  will,  when 
finished,  sometime  during;  1803,  be  without  an  equal  in  any  service 
for  the  work  she  is  intended  to  perform,  that  of  coast  defense.  Her 
entire  material  is  to  be  American  production.  Some  novel  features 
are  expressed  in  the  plans,  particularly  in  the  way  of  armament. 
The  /argest  caliber  gun  yet  recommended  by  the'ordnance  bureau,  a 
16-inch  no-ton  gun,  will  be  mounted  forward,  while  aft  she  will  carry 
a  12-inch  46-ton.  In  the  bow  there  will  be  a  huge  16-inch  dynamite 
tube,  and  judiciously  distributed  for  effective  service  fifteen  rapid-fire 
guns  of  various  caliber.  In  the  no-ton  gun  the  projectile  will  weigh 
a.ooo  pounds,  requiring  a  powder  charge  of  1,000  pounds.  The  smaller 
gun,  the  46-ton,  will  carry  a  projectile  of  850  pounds,  using  a  charge  of 


The   Puritan. 


425  pounds.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  for  her  displacement  (0.648  tons) 
she  will  be  one  of  the  heaviest  armed  vessels  in  the  world,  and  in 
conjunction  with  submarine  mines  and  shore  batteries  will  rendei  it 
almost  impossible  for  an  enemy's  vessels  to  enter  the  harbor  in  which 
she  is  stationed.  The  fore  and  main  masts  are  fitted  with  military 
tops,  and  carry  machine  guns  and  a  powerful  search  light  in  the  Lop. 
Her  duplicate  electrical  fitting-Steering  fear  and  other  arrangements 
will  be  of  the  most  approved  patterns.  She  is  to  be  of  the  low  free- 
board monitor  type,  and  of  sufficiently  light  draught  to  enable  her  to 
enter  all  our  principal  ports.  She  will  also  be  fitted  for  ramming, 
having  great  speed,  stability  and  handiness.  A  belt  of  steel  armor  16 
inches  thick  protects  her  hull.  Magazines,  machinery,  etc.,  are  sub- 
ject to  additional  protection.  The  length  of  this  vessel  will  be  250  feet, 
beam  59  feet,  draught  14  feet.  Vertical  and  inverted  triple-expansion 
engines  generate  a  horse-power  estimated  at  9.000. 

The  dynamite  cruiser 
Vesuvius   is  a  veritable 
dealer    of     death    and 
destruction   totally  un- 
like       anything        yet 
launched.    She  is  built 
largely  for  speed,  long 
and    narrow     {252x26;, 
81 1    tons   displacement, 
and  draws  but  nine  feet 
of   water.     Two    triple- 
expansion     engines    of 
four      cylinders       each 
give    her    a    speed    of 
considerably      over 
twenty       knots,       and 
proves  her  the  fastest 
vessel   of    the  kind    in 
the  world.     Her  arma- 
ment is  for  throwing  dynamite  shells  from  three  16-inch  tubes  mounted 
in  her  forward  section  and  solidly  built   into  the  ship  at  a  permanent 
angle  of  i6degrees,  the  vessel  itself  being  the  gun-carriage.   All  training 
is  to  be  accomplished   by  the  steering  apparatus,  the  range  of  the  pro- 
jectiles being  regulated  by  the  amount  of  pressure  of  the  air  admitted  to 
the  tubes,  which  are  54  feet  in  length.    The  charge  for  these  fiendish  pro- 
jectiles is  600  pounds  of  explosive  gelatine,  having  a  destructive  radius 
of  more  than  100  feet. 

The  San  Francisco  was  launched  at  the  city  whose  name  she 
bears.  Her  hull  resembles  the  Newark,  but  her  battery  disposition  is 
thought  to  be  more  effective.  Guns  are  placed  on  the  forecastle  and 
poops,  extreme  forward  and  aft  sponsons  being  done  away  with.  Her 
guaranteed  speed  is  19  knots  for  four  consecutive  hours,  provision  be- 
ing made  in  the  contract  for  a  forfeit  of  $50,000  for  each  quarter  of  a 
knot  she  falls  below  that,  and  also  a  bonus  for  the  same  excess.  Her 
sail  arrangement  is  fore-and-aft  rigging  carried  on  three  masts,  the  fore 
and  main  mast  having  military  tops.  Contracts  for  her  construction 
were  let  in  October,  1887,  for  $1,428,000  to  the  Union  Iron  Works  at 
San  Francisco,  and  she  went  into  commission  in  1890. 

The  torpedo  boat 
Cushing  is  the  only 
other  vessel  now  iii 
service  that  was  built 
for  the  new  N;iw;  the 
Stiletto,  commissioned 
in  18SS,  having  been 
purchased.  Another 
torpedo  boat  is  build- 
ing at  Dubuque,  low*. 
"The  Pirate,"  Cruiser 

No.  12,  is  nearly  ready 
to  he  launched  at  Phil- 
adelphia, and  her  sis- 
ter, No.  13,  is  soon  to 
follow.  Other  ships, 
now  in  course  of  con* 
struction  are,  the  ar- 
mored vessels  Monte- 
rev,  New  York.  Mass- 
achusetts, Indiana,  Or- 
egon and  Harbor  De- 
The  Texas.  tense  Rain  No.  1;  the 

unarmored  cruisers 
Cincinnati,  Detroit,  Raleigh,  Montgomery.  Marblehead  and  Cruiser 
No.  6:  the  steel  gunboats  Machias  and  Gunboat  No.  6;  and  the 
Practice  Cruiser  for  naval  cadets. 

Besides  the  above  vessels  completed  and  in  commission,  or  in 
course  of  construction,  there  are  several  others  that  would  he  useful 
in  case  of  actual  war.  including  six  cruisers  of  iron,  the  iron  torpe- 
do-boat Alarm,  and  the  thirteen  iron-clads  or  "cheese-box"  single- 
turreted  monitors  of  the  Ericsson  design. 

The  history  of  ship-building  on  American  soil,  as  shown  by  this 
exhibit,  proves  that  a  constant  and  successful  effort  has  been  made 
in  the  direction  of  lessening  displacement,  increasing  speed,  doing 
away  with  cumbersome  rigging,  perfecting  machinery  and  bring, 
ing  batteries  up  to  the  highest  point  of  destructive  power. 


41 


;c 


4,  9_ 


r^ 


616 


THE    POST-OFFICE    DEPARTMENT. 


Jd  B;  i 


T|lE*pO£T- OFFICE  *DEpAl(TME|\lT. 


jy//.iv//-o7_^- 


'HE  Postmaster-General  is  ftp* 
pointed  by  the  President  His  term, 
unk-ss  he  dies,  resigns  or  is  removed, 
continues    for   one    month    after   the 

Presidential  term  expires.  Then-  are 
four  Assistant  Postmasters -General, 
appointed  by  the  President,  and  an 
Assistant  Attorney* General,  appointed 
by  the  Postmaster- General,  in  this 
"*^       Department. 

THE  OATH. 
Every  peiton  employed  in  the  postal  service, 
from  the  Postmaster-General  down,  before  en- 
tering upon  his  or  her  duties,  or  drawing  ;mv 
salary,  takes  the  following  oalh  : 

"I,  A.  B.,  do  solemnly  swear  (or  aftinn)  that 
I  will  faithfully  perforin  ail  the  duties  required  "1 
me,  and  abstain  from  everything'  forbidden  by 
the  laws,  in  relation  to  the  establishment  of 
post-offices  and  post-roads  within  the  United 
States  ;  and  that  I  will  honestly  and  trul j 
count  for,  and  pay  over,  any  money  belonging' 
to  the  said  United  States  which  may  come  into 
my  possession  or  control:    So  help  me  God." 

Controlling  the  machinery  of  the  whole 
postal  system,  the  duties  of  the  Postmaster -Gen  - 
eral  are  multifarious,  and  most  of  them  appear  plainly  in  the  detailed 
workings  of  the  service.  The  Postmaster-General  reports  annually 
to  Congress  all  contracts  for  carrying  the  mails  made  within  the  pre- 
ceding year,  with  all  particulars  concerning  them  ;  a  statement  of  all 
land  and  water  mail  routes  established  within  the  year,  and  of  all 
allowances  made  to  mail  contractors  above  the  contract  prii 
why  ;  a  detailed  statement  of  the  finances  of  the  Department  ;  a  repOl  t 
of  fines  assessed  against  mail  contractors  ;  a  eop\  Of  eaeh  COn1 
carrying  mails  between  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries,  and  a 
Statement  showing  its    benefits    to  the    Department;   a    report  on  the 

p.. -.i  ii  hmrinsss  and  agencies  la  foreign  countries ;  a  statement  of  the 
money  expended  In  the  Department,  with  details. 


The  Personnel 


Of  a  post-office  In  one  of '  ties  consists  of  the  Post 

his  pri\  .Hi-  secretary  and  inquiry  clerk,  Assistant  Postmaster,  auditor 

of  accounts,  bookki  IT,  watchman,  mailing   elerks,  delivery 

clerks,  lettei  ;isterod   letter  clerks,  money  order  clerks, 

special  postal  agent-.. 


The  Work. 


The  Postmaster  having  general  supervision,  his  private  secretary 
attends  to  the  correspondence  relating  to  the  business  of  the  office. 

Tiik  INQUIRY  Clerk  receives  all  complaints  about  missing  let- 
ters, and  institutes  searches  tor  them. 

The  Assistant  Postmaster  is  the  ever  present  superintendent. 

Tiik.  Aiditor  examines  and  corrects  the  accounts  of  the  Postmaster 
witli  the  Government,  and  with  his  subordinate  officers,  clerks  and 
eniplo 

Till  Bookkeeper  keeps  the  accounts  of  the  Postmaster  with  the 
Government,  and  with  every  person  doing  business  with  his  post- 
office. 

Tiik  Casuikk  has  supervision  of  all  the  money  paid  into  or  out  of 
the  post-office,  and  provides  for  its  safe  keeping  and  proper  deposit 
with  the  Unitod  States  Sub-Treasurer  or  in  some  other  designated 
place. 

The  Mail  Clerks  open  all  packages  of  letters  addressed  to  the 
office,  count  and  compare  them  with  the  pott  hills  accompanying  the 
packages,  and  check  any  errors  in  the  oills,  Hie  the  hills  and  send  the 
letters  to  the  letter  carriers'  department,  the  general  delivery,  the 
registry  office  or  the  money  order  office,  as  may  be  neces- 

If  the  office  is   a  distributing  post-office,  letters  for  other  places 
within  the  distributing  limits  ot  the  office  are  sorted,  billed,  repacked 
and  forwarded ;  some  of  the  clerks  sort  out  newspapers  and  period- 
icals for  delivering  or  mailing;  other  clerks  receive,  sort,  stamp,  bill 
and  mail  letters  for  other  places;  others  receive  and  mail  transient 
ners ;   others  receive   newspapers  and  periodicals  sent  from 
publishers  direct  to  subscribers,  weigh  them  to  find  out  the  amount  of 
to  be  prepaid,  and  send  the  account  to  the  proper  officer. 
(>  tpcrs  arc  then  forwarded  without  further  charge. 

1>m  iveky    Clerks  receive  letters,    papers    and    periodicals    not 
directed  to  any  special  box,  street  or  number,  and  place  them  in  the 
general  delivery,  to  be  called  for  by  the  owners.     Letters  directed  to  a 
i  box  are  placed  in  it  and  remain  until  called  for. 

ThI  Sii'KKiNrKMiKM  or  Free  Delivery  has  charge  of  the  letter- 
carriers. 

One  or  more  clerks  in  the  general  delivery- assort  and  deliver  the 
letters  and  papers  sent  to  their  department. 

When  letters  remain  a  set  time  in  the  general  delivery  without  being 
called  for,  thev  are  advertised  and  kept  a  certain  time  longer,  and  are 
then  forwarded  to  the  Dead  Letter  Office. 

Superintend  the  railway  postal  service,   and  the 
agents  in  the  tree  delivery  and  money  order  sen  Ice,  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  Post  office  Department. 


■s,  «_ 


K" 


THE  POST-OFFICE  DEPARTMENT. 


617 


~A 


Writer's  Address. 


Letters  bearing  upon  the  outside  the  name  and  address  of  the  writer  are 
not  advertised,  but,  if  not  called  for  within  the  time  mentioned  on  them, 
having  been  prepaid,  are  returned  without  further  charge. 


Postal  Cars. 


On  the  railway  postal  cars  the  clerks  sort  the  mails  for  each  station  on  the 
route  and  deliver  them  whilst  in  motion  by  throwing  the  bags  off  the  car  at 
the  proper  places,  or  handing  them  to  the  mail  messengers  at  the  depots 
where  the  train  halts. 


Postmasters. 


There  are  four  classes  of  postmasters.  The  fourth  class,  who 
dc  the  least  business,  are  appointed  by  the  Postmaster-General;  the  others 
by  the  President.  A  Postmaster  must  reside  within  the  delivery  of  his  office. 
He  must,  before  entering  upon  his  duties,  give  bond  to  the  Government  for 
their  faithful  performance,  with  good  security.  If  a  money  order  office, 
there  are  additional  conditions  on  the  bond.  He  must  every  three  months 
report  to  the  Postmaster-General  a  sworn  statement  of  all  moneys  received 
by  him  from  postage  or  other  sources  connected  with  his  department.  If  he 
neglects  for  one  month  to  make  this  quarterly  return  he  and  his  sureties 
forfeit  and  pay  double  the  amount  of  the  gross  receipts  at  his  office  during 
any  previous  or  subsequent  period  of  time,  and  if  at  the  time  of  trial  no 
account  has  been  rendered,  they  are  liable  to  a  penalty  in  such  a  sum  as  may 
be  estimated  equivalent. 

In  a  city  where  there  is  an  Assistant  Treasurer  of  the  United  States,  the 
Postmaster  must  deposit  with  him  all  moneys  collected.  Where  there  is  no 
Assistant  Treasurer  the  Postmaster  must  keep  such  funds  safely,  subject  to 
the  order  of  the  Postmaster-General.  He  can  neither  lend,  use,  deposit  in 
an  unauthorized  bank,  nor  exchange  for  other  money,  the  public  funds  which 
come  into  his  hands. 

Contracts  for  carrying  the  mails  (except  in  the  railway  service)  are  made 
with  tho  lowest  bidder,  he  giving  ample  security  for  the  performance  of  the 
work. 

The  Railway  Service  is  classified  according  to  the  amount  of  mail 
moved.  Companies  owning  routes  of  the  first  class  are  paid  $300  per  mile 
per  year;  second  class,  $100;  third  class,  $50. 

Letter-Carribrs  are  employed  in  towns  where  there  are  20,000  inhab- 
itants. They  must  give  bond  with  security.  They  are  uniformed.  Any 
person  assaulting  a  letter-carrier  while  performing  his  duty  is  liable  to  a  line 
of  from  $100  to  $1,000,  or  imprisonment  from  one  to  three  years. 


Rates  of  Postage. 


Postal  Cards,  i  cent  each,  go  without  further  charge  to  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  Cards  for  foreign  countries  (within  the  Postal 
Union),  2  cents  each. 

All  Letters,  to  all  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  Mexico  and  Canada,  a 
cents  per  ounce  or  fraction  thereof. 

Local,  or  m  Drop  "  Letters,  that  is,  for  the  city  or  town  where 
deposited,  3  cents  where  the  carrier  system  is  adopted,  and  I  cent 
where  there  is  no  carrier  svstem. 


First  Class.— Letters  and  all  other  written  matter,  whether 
sealed  or  unsealed,  and  all  other  matters  sealed,  nailed,  sewed,  tied 
or  fastened  in  any  manner  so  that  it  cannot  be  easily  examined,  2 
cents  for  each  ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  Postal  cards,  I  cent  each. 
Postal  cards  are  unmailable  with  any  writing  or  printing  on  the  ad- 
dress side,  except  the  direction,  or  with  anything  pasted  upon  or 
attached  to  them. 

Second  Class.— Only  for  publishers  and  news  agents;  1  cent  per 
pound. 

Third  Class. — Printed  matter,  in  unsealed  wrappers  only  (all 
matter  inclosed  in  notched  envelopes  must  pay  letter  rates),  1  cent 
for  each  two  ounces  or  fraction  thereof,  which  must  be  fully  pre- 
paid. This  includes  books,  circulars,  chromos,  engravings,  hand- 
bills, lithographs,  magazines,  music,  newspapers,  pamphlets,  photo- 
fraphs,  proof-sheets  and  manuscript  accompanying  the  same,  repro- 
uctions  by  the  electric  pen,  hektograph,  metuilograph,  papyro- 
graph,  and,  in  short,  any  reproduction  upon  paper  oy  any  process 
except  handwriting  and  the  copying  press.  Limit  of  weight,  4 
pounds,  except  for  a  single  book,  which  may  weigh  more. 

Fourth  Class. — All  mailable  matter,  not  included  in  the  three 
preceding  classes,  which  is  so  prepared  for  mailing  as  to  be  easily 
withdrawn  from  the  wrapper  and  examined.  Rate,  t  cent  per  ounce 
or  fraction  thereof.  Limit  of  weight,  four  pounds.  Full  payment 
compulsory. 


Foreign  Postage. 


COL'KTBIE). 

h 

Cot'*TBiia. 

I* 

E   y 

--- 

si 

Cape  ''oloii v      .... 
China,  via  Brindisi      . 
Comoro  Islands 
Madagascar  (except  French  Sta- 

tlODSt,  British  mail. 
H010000  (except  8p.  possessions). 

it 

IS 
13 
5 

13 
16 

4 
4 

6 

It 

4 

5' 

Natal  and  Zululaod     . 
Norfolk  Island  .... 
Orange  Free  State       .        .       ■ 
Queensland       .... 
Samnan  Islands  .... 
St.  Helena 
Transvaal  and  Bechuanaland     . 

15 
12 
11 

u 

12 
15 
19 

l 

4 

a 

n 

4 
5 

f  Per  3  ounces.     I   Per  copy.  . 

All  Countries  Except  the -Above  are  in  the  Universal 
Postal  Union,  within  which  the  rates  are  as  follows: 

Letters  per  },£  ounce 5  cents. 

Postal  cards,  each 2  cents. 

Newspapers  and  other  printed  matter,  per  2  ounces 1  cent. 

t  Packets  not  in  excess  of  10  ounces. .  5  cents. 
Commercial  papers.   <  Packets  in  excess  of  10  ounces,  for 

*     each  2  ounces,  or  fraction  thereof.  1  cent. 

1  Packets  not  in  excess  of  4  ounces  2  cents. 
Samples  of  merchandise.  }  Packets  in  excess  of  4  ounces,  for 

(     each  2  oz.t  or  fraction  thereof.  1  cent. 


Postmasters-General . 


Samuel  Osgood,  Mass.  1789 

Timothy  Pickering,  Perm.  1791 

Joseph  Habersham,  Ga.  1795 

Gideon  Granger,  Conn.  1802 

Return  J.  Mejgs,  Ohio.  1814 

John  McLean,  Ohio.  1823 

William  T.  Barry,  Ky.  1829 

Amos  Kendall,  Ky.  1S35 

John  M.  Niles,  Conn.  1840 

Francis  Granger,  N.  Y.  1841 

Charles  A.  Wickliffe,  Ky.  1S41 

Cave  Johnson,  Tenn.  1845 

Jacob  Coilamer,  Vt.  1849 

Nathan  K.  Hall,  N.  V.  1S50 

Samuel  D.  Hubbard,  Conn.  1852 

James  Campbell,  Penn.  1853 

Aaron  V.  Brown,  Tenn.  1857 


Joseph  Holt,  Ky. 
"Horatio  King.  Mo, 
Montgomery  Blair,  Md. 
William  Denison,  Ohio. 
A.  W.  Randall,  Wis. 
John  A.  T.  Creswell. 
Marshall  Jewell. 
James  N.  Tyner. 
David  M.  Key. 
Horace  Maynard. 
Thomas  L.James. 
Timothy  O.  Howe. 
W.  Qj  Gresham. 
Frank  Hatton,  Iowa. 
William  F.  Vilas,  Wis. 
Don  M.  Dickinson,  Mich. 
John  Wanamaker,  Pa. 


1859 

IN.l 
lS6l 
I664 

IS66 
lS09 

t§M 

lS-6 

1S80 
1881 

1S81 
1SS3 
1S84 
i$S<; 


BOHRD  ON  GEOGRHPHIC  NHMES. 


/ 


That  uniform  usage  in  regard  to  geographic  nomen- 
clature and  orthography  shall  obtain  throughout  the 
Executive  Department  of  the  Government,  and  particu- 
larly upon  maps  and  charts  issued  by  the  various  de- 
partments and  bureaus,  this  -board  is  constituted.     To  it 


shall  be  referred  all  unsettled  questions  concerning 
geographic  names  which  arise  in  the  Departments,  and 
the  decisions  of  the  board  are  to  be  accepted  by 
the  Departments  as  the  standard  authority  in  such 
matters. 


-X 


B  V 


K" 


618 


THE    DEPARTMENT    OF    THE    INTERIOR. 


THE  DEPARTMENTS  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 


LIST  of  the  Bureaus  over  which  the  Secretary  of 
the  Interior  has  supervision  includes  the  follow- 
ing: The  census,  the  public  lands  and  mines, 
the  Indians,  pensions  and  bounties,  patents  for 
inventors,  and  education.  He  reports  annually 
to  Congress  all  claims  for  depredations  committed 
by  the  Indians,  all  the  expenditures  of  the  different 
branches  under  his  charge,  and  estimates  for  further  ap- 
propriations. The  transactions  of  this  department  are 
conducted  through  six  branches,  each  governed  by  a 
Commissioner: 


The  General  Land  Office. 
The  Bureau  of  Indian  Affairs. 
The  Petition  Office. 


The  Patent  Office. 

The  Bureau  of  Education. 

The  Bureau  of  Railroads. 


V- 


The  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office 

Superintends  the  survey  and  sale  of  the  public  lands  of 
the  United  States;  issues  patents  for  all  lands  granted 
by  authority  of  government.  Plats  of  surveys  and  all  in- 
formation concerning  the  public  lands  can  be  found  in 
his  office.  All  patents  issued  from  the  office  are  signed 
by  the  President,  countersigned  by  the  Commissioner, 
and  have  the  seal  of  the  office  affixed. 

A  Surveyor-General  is  appointed  to  each  of  the  dis- 
tricts :  Oklahoma,  Louisiana,  Florida,  Minnesota,  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Iowa,  Dakota,  Oregon,  Washington,  Colorado, 
New  Mexico,  California,  Idaho,  Nevada,  Montana,  Utah, 
Wyoming  and  Arizona.  When  the  surveys  in  any  State 
are  finished  and  all  the  maps,  field  notes  and  other  records 
turned  over  to  the  Secretary  of  State  of  such  State,  the 
office  of  Surveyor-General  ceases  in  that  State. 

How  to  Secure  a  Homestead. 

The  public  lands  open  to  settlement  are  divided  into  two  classes 
with  respect  to  price,  one  clas6  being  held  at  $1.25  per  acre  as  the 
minimum  price,  the  other  at  $2.50  per  acre;  being  the  alternate  sec- 
tions reserved  by  the  United  .States  in  land  grants  to  railroads,  etc. 
Such  tracts  are  told  on  application  to  the  Registers  and  Receivers 


of  the  district  land  offices  to  legally  qualified  parties  upon  condi- 
tions of  actual  residence  and  improvement  under  the  pre-emption 
laws.  Widows,  heads  of  families,  or  single  persons  over  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  if  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  aliens  who  have 
declared  their  intention  to  become  citizen*,  have  the  right  of  pre- 
emption to  the  maximum  quantity  of  160  acres  each  on  becoming 
settlers  and  complying  with  the  regulations. 

Under  the  homestead  laws  a  citizen,  or  an  alien  having  declared 
his  intention  to  become  a  citizen,  has  the  right  to  160  acres  of  either 
the  $1.25  or  $2.50  class  after  actual  residence  and  cultivation  for  five 
years.  Under  the  timber  culture  law  a  citizen,  or  one  who  has  de- 
clared his  intention  to  become  such,  if  the  head  of  a  family,  or  a 
single  person  over  twenty-one  years,  may  acquire  title  to  160  acres 
on  cultivating  10  acres  of  trees  thereon  for  eight  year.  By  the  act 
of  August  30,  1800,  no  person  can  acquire  under  all  the  land  laws  an 
aggregate  area  of  more  than  320  acres  of  the  public  lands. 


Land  Offices. 


In  Missouri,  at  Boonville,  Ironton  and  Springfield;  Alabama.  a\. 
Iluntsvillc  and  Montgomery;  Louisiana,  at  New  Orleans  and 
Natchitoches;  Michigan,  at  Grayling  and  Marquette;  Arkansas, 
at  Dardanellc,  Little  Rock,  Camden  and  Harrison;  Florida,  at 
Gainesville;  Iowa,  at  Des  Moines;  Wisconsin,  at  Menash 
land,  Waus.ni  and  Eau  Claire;  California,  at  San  Francisco, 
Marysville,  Humboldt,  Stockton,  Visa  ha.  Sacrament.  ■_ 
Angeles,  Independence,  Redding  and  Susanville;  Strada. 
sun  City  and  Eureka;  Washington,  at  Olympia,  Vancouver, 
Yakima,  Seattle.  Spokane  Kails,  Watervillc  and  Walla- Walla; 
Minnesota,  Taylor's  Falls,  St.  Cloud,  Duluth,  Crookston  an 
shall;  Oregon,  at  Oregon  City,  Roseburgh,  I-c  Grand,  Burma,  The 
Dalles  and  Lake  View;  Kansas,  at  Topeka,  Salina,  Garden  City, 
Kirwin,  Larned,  Obcrlin  and  Wa  Keene\ ;  Nebraska.  Lincoln, 
Grand  Island,  North  Platte,  Alliance,  Bloomin^on,  Broken  Bow, 
Chadron,  McCook,  Neligh,  O'Neill,  Sidney  and  Valentine;  Colo- 
rado, at  Pueblo,  Akron,  Del  Norte,  Durango,  Qlenwood  Springs, 
Gunnison,  Hugo,  Lamar,  Leadvillc,  Montrose,  Sterling,  Denver 
t  itv  and  Central  City;  New  Mexico,  at  Santa  Fe,  FoUom,  Las 
Cruccs  and  Roswell;  Idaho,  at  Boise  City,  Rlackfoot,  Ccrur  d* 
Alcnc,  Hailey  and  I.ewiston;  Montana,  at  Helena,  Bowman.  Lew- 
IttOWB,  Miles  City  and  Missoula;  Utah,  at  Salt  Lake  Cit\;  Wyo- 
ming, at  Cheyenne,  Buffalo,  Kv.utston,  Lander.  Douglas  and  Sun- 
dance; Aritona,  at  Prescott  and  Tucson;  Vi*.«i,«.*i//i,  at  fnrfrurl  ; 
North  Dakota,  at  Bismarck,  I).  vi!'>  Lake,  Fargo,  Grand  Forks 
and  Minot;  South  Dakota,  at  Aberdeen,  Chamberlain.  Huron, 
Mitchell,  Pierre,  Rapid  City,  Watcrtown  ami  Yankton;  Alaska, 
at  Sitka;  Oklahoma,  at  Oklahoma  Cit> .  B«  a\ei ,  Guthrie  and  King- 
fisher. 


\ 


A 


A 


DEPARTMENT    OF    THE    INTERIOR. 


619 


"i  S/  *'4  \S  i"i   \S  &!'*  W  I 


2J-~5 


THE  BUREAU  OF  INDIAN  AFFAIRS. 


-        "» 


^MPA^LL    matters  concerning  the   Indians  are  in  charge  of 
^     the    Commissioner  of    Indian  Affairs.    He  examines 
all  accounts  and  vouchers  for  claims   and  disburse- 
ments connected  with  Indian  affairs.     He  reports  an- 
^^^^^^^^    nually  a  tabular  statement  showing  the  several  objects 
rrfiiA^    of  expenditure  under  his  supervision,  and  embodying 
the  statements  of  all  agents  issuing  supplies  of  any 
kind  to  the  Indians,  with  the    number  of  Indians    re- 
ceiving them. 

There  is  an  Advisory  Hoard  connected  with  this  Bureau,  consist- 
ing of  not  more  than  ten  persons,  appointed  by  the  President. 
Members  of  this  Board  receive  no  compensation;  they  are  chosen 
as  men  eminent  in 
the  community,  who 
have  exhibited  some 
peculiar  mark  of  fit- 
ness for  the  position. 
The  Board  supervises 
the  expenditures  of 
money  appropriated 
for  the  Indians,  and 
inspects  all  goods 
purchased  for  them. 
It  has  access  to  all 
books  and  papers  re- 
lating to  Indian  af- 
fairs in  any  Govern- 
ment office.  The 
Board  has  no  direct 
power  further  than 
that  of  inspection. 

Inspectors. 

From  one  to  five 
Indian  Inspectors  ire 
appointed  by  the 
President.  Their  duty 
is  to  visit  twice  a 
year  each  Indian  su- 
perintendency  and  agency,  and  fully  investigate  all  matters  belonging 
to  the  business  of  each,  including  the  examination  of  accounts,  the 
manner  of  expending  the  money,  the  number  of  Indians  provided  for, 
contracts  of  all  kinds,  the  condition  of  the  Indians,  their  advance  in 
civilization,  the  extent  of  the  reservations,  and  what  use  is  made  of 
the  lands  set  apart  for  that  purpose,  and  all  matters  belonging  to  the 
Indian  service. 

Each  inspector  has  power  to  examine  on  oath  all  officers  and  others 
in  and  about  the  superintendencies  and  agencies,  and  to  suspend  any 
superintendent  or  employe  and  appoint  others  temporarily.  He 
has  power  to  enforce  the  laws  in  the  several  agencies  and  superinten  • 


dencies.     The  same  inspector  does  not  visit    and    investigate    any 
agency  or  superintendency  twice  in  succession. 

Four  or  more  superintendents  are  appointed  by  the  President.  Their 
duties  are  each  in  his  own  district  to  supervise  and  control  the  official 
conduct  and  acts  of  all  persons  employed  by  the  Governmentin  Indian 
affairs. 


Indian  Agents. 


THE  PATENT  OFFICE. 


Indian  Agents  are  appointed  by  the  President.  They  must  give  bond 
wi^h  good  security  before  enlisting  upon  their  duties  Every  agent 
must  reside  and  keep  his  agency  near  the  tribe  of  Indians  to  which  he 

is  assigned.  Within 
his  agency  he  man- 
ages and  superin- 
tends the  intercourse 
with  the  Indians  and 
enforces  all  rules  pre- 
scribed  to  him.  Xo 
person  emploved  in 
Indian  affairs  may 
have  an  interest  in 
any  trade  with  them, 
under  a  penalty  of 
$5,000  and  removal 
from  office. 

Teachers  may  be 
employed  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  In- 
dians, when  it  is 
deemed  opportune. 

Indian 

Traders. 

J  A  bond  of  $5 ,000.  with 
approved  security, 
must  be  given  war- 
ranting the  observ- 
ance of  all  laws  with 

respect  to    intercourse   with  the  Indians,  by  any  one  proposing  to 

become  an  Indian  trader. 


Pension  Office. 


The  Commissioner  of  Pensions  has  the  management  of  this  office. 
Pension  Agents  are  required  to  give  bond;  they  receive  a  salary  ot 
$4,000  per  annum,  and  fifteen  cents  for  each  voucher  in  excess  of 
four  thousand  vouchers  prepared  and  paid  by  them.  Agents  and 
their  clerks  may  take  the  affidavits  of  pensioners  and  their  wit- 
nesses, but  receive  no  fee  for  that  service.  In  paying  pension  the 
agent  is  authorized  to  deduct  the  attorney's  fee  for  aiding  the  pen- 


-H 


VL 


=^ 


rr 


620 


DEPARTMENT    OF    THE     INTERIOR. 


sioner.     He  retains  a  fee  of  thirty  cents  for  this  service.     Pension 
surgeons  receive  1 1,800  a  year;  the  medical  referee  receives  $2,500. 

Hoards  of  examining  surgeons  consist  of  three  members.  In  ordi- 
nary cases  each  member  receives  one  dollar  fee;  in  spec ial  exami- 
nations, three  dollars. 

Patent  Office. 

In  this  Bureau   are   kept   all   records,   books,   models,   drawings, 
•  )n  1  iticutions  and  other  papers  and  things  belonging  to  pat- 
inventions. 

The  Commissioner  of  Patents  and  the  chief  clerk  are  required  to 
give  bond.  No  officer  or  employe^  in  the  Patent  Office  is  allowed  to 
acquire  or  take  during  his  or  her  term  of  office  any  right  or  interest 
in  any  patent  issued  by  the  office.  The  Commissioner  of  Patents 
has  copies  of  patent  claims,  laws,  regulations  and  circulars  printed 
for  the  information  of  the  public.  He  makes  an  annual  report  to 
Congress  of  ail  matters  committed  to  his  charge. 

Commissioner  of  Railroads. 

The  Commissioner  of  Railroads  is  charged  with  prescribing  a 
system  of  reports  to  be  rendered  to  him  by  the  railroad  companies 
whose  roads  are  in  whole  or  in  part  west,  north,  or  south  of  the 
Missouri  River,  and  to  which  the  United  States  have  granted  any 
loan  of  credit  or  subsidy  in  lands  or  bonds;  to  examine  the  books, 
accounts  and  property  of  said  companies;  to  see  that  the  laws  relat- 
ing to  said  companies  are  enforced,  and  to  assist  the  Government 
Directors  of  any  of  said  railroad  companies  in  all  matters  which 
come  under  their  cognizance,  whenever  they  may  officially  request 
such  assistance. 


Geological  Survey. 


The  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  has  charge  of  the  clarifi- 
cation of  the  public  lands,  and  examination  of  the  geological  struc- 
ture, mineral  resources  and  product*  of  the  national  domain. 

The  Census  Office. 

The  Superintendent  of  the  Census  supervises  the  taking  of  the 

census  of  the  United  States  every  tenth  year,  and   the   subsequent 
arrangement,  compilation  and  publication  of  the  statistic*  collected. 

Bureau  of  Education. 

The  duties  of  the  Commissioner  of  this  Bureau  consist  in  the  col- 
lection of  facts  and  figures  showing  the  condition  and  progress  ot 
education  in  the  several  States  and  Territories,  to  diffuse  informa- 
tion with  regard  to  the  management  of  schools  and  methods  of 
teaching,  and  promote  the  cause  of  education. 


Secretaries  of  the  Interior. 


Thomas  Ewing,  Ohio.  1S49 

Alex.  II.  II.  Stewart,  Va.  1850 

Robert  McClelland,  Mich.  1853 

Jacob  Thompson,  Miss.  1857 

li.  Smith,  Ind.  1861 

John  P.  Usher,  Ind.  1863 

James  Harlan,  Iowa.  1S65 

O.  II.  Browning,  111.  1806 

Jacob  D.  Cox.  1S69 


Columbus  Delano. 
Zachariah  Chandler. 
Carl  Schurz. 
Samuel  J.  Kirk  wood. 
Henry  M.  Teller.  Colo. 
I.   Q.  C.  Lamar,  Miss. 
William  F.  Vilas,  Wis. 
John  W.  Noble. 


1870 
1875 
1877 
1SS1 
1884 
.885 
1888 
1S80 


-**g.TllE  DErnRTAETlT  OF  LnDOR.^^ 


4± 


BUREAU  OF  LABOR,  connected  with  the 
Department  of  the  Interior,  was  established  by 
act  of  Congress,  June  27,  1884.  By  an  act  of  Con- 
gress June  13,  1888,  a  Department  of  Labor  was, 
created,  and  the  Bureau  of  Labor  transferred  to 
the  Department  of   Labor. 

The  Department  is  placed  in  charge  of  a  Commis- 
sioner of  Labor,  who  is  directed  to  acquire  and  diffuse 
among  the  people  of  the  United  Stales  useful  informa- 
tion on  lubjecta  connected  with  labor,  in  the  most  gen- 
eral and  comprehensive  sense  of  that  word,  and  es- 
pecially upon  its  relation  to  capital;  the  hours  of  labor; 
the  earnings  of  laboring  men  and  women,  and  the  means 
of  promoting  their  material,  social,  intellectual  and 
moral  prosperity.  He  is  also  especially  charged,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  general  design  and  duties  prescribed 
by  the  law,  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible,  and  whenever 
industrial  changes  shall  make  it  essential,  to  ascertain 
the  cost  of  producing  articles,  at  the  time  dutiable  in  the 
United  States,  in  leading  countries  where  lUCh  articles 
are  produced,  by  fully  specified  units  of  production,  and 


under  a  classification  showing  the  different  elements  of 
cost  of  such  articles  of  production,  including  wages  paid 
in  such  industries,  etc. 

It  is  also  the  duty  of  the  Commissioner  to  ascertain 
and  report  as  to  the  effect  of  the  customs  laws  upon  the 
currency  and  on  the  agricultural  industry;  especially  as 
to  their  effect  on  the  mortgage  indebtedness  of  farmers; 
what  articles  are  controlled  by  trusts,  or  other  combina- 
tions of  capital,  business  operations,  or  of  labor,  and 
what  effect  lUCh  trusts,  or  other  combinations  of  capital, 
business  operations,  or  of  labor,  have  on  production  and 
prices. 

The  Commissioner  is  also  to  establish  a  system  of 
reports,  by  which,  at  intervals  of  not  less  than  two  years, 
he  can  ascertain  the  general  condition,  so  far  as  produc- 
tion is  concerned,  of  the  leading  industries  of  the 
country,  lie  is  also  especially  charged  to  investigate  the 
causes  of,  and  facts  relating  to,  all  controversies  and  dis- 
putea  between  employers  and  employe's  as  they  may 
occur,    and    which    may    happen    to    interfere    with    the 

welfare  of  the  people  of  the  different  state-. 


The  Department  of  Agriculture 


^-^^-^-^ 


-^ 


fjHE  Secretary  ol  Agriculture  is  charged  with  the  super- 
\  Ision  of  all  public  business  relating  to  the  agricultural  in- 
'  dustry.  He  directs  the  management  of  all  the  divisions 
and  sections  and  the  bureaus  embraced  in  the  Depart- 
ment. He  exercises  advisory  supervision  over  the  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations  deriving  support  from  the 
National  Treasury,  and  has  control  of  the  quarantine 
stations  for  cattle. 
The  Chief  of  the  Weather  Bureau  has  charge  of  the  forecasting  of 
weather;  the  issue  of  storm  warnings;  the  display  of  weather  and 
flood  signals;  the  gauging  and  reporting  of  rivers;  the  maintenance 
and  operation  of  sea-coast  telegraph  lines,  and  the  collection  and 
transmission  of  marine  intelligence  for  the  benefit  of  commerce  and 


inquiry,  aids  the  stations  in  the  conduct  of  co-operative  experi- 
ments^ helps  to  make  available  to  them  the  processes  and  results  of 
experimental  inquiry  in  the  United  States  and  abroad,  and  compiles, 
edit*  and  publishes  accounts  of  station  investigations. 

The  Entomologist  disseminates  information  regarding  insects  in- 
jurious to  vegetation;  investigates  insects  sent  him  in  order  to  give 
appropriate  remedies,  and  arranges  specimens  for  illustrative  and 
museum  purposes. 

The  Ornithological  Division  investigates  the  economic  relations 
of  birds  and  mammals,  and  recommends  measures  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  beneficial  and  destruction  of  injurious  species. 

The  Division  of  Forestry  is  occupied  with  investigations  dealing 
with  the  subject  of  forestry;  with  the  distribution  01  seeds  of  valu- 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


navigation;  the  reporting  of  temperature  and  rainfall  conditions; 
the  display  of  frost  and  cold-wave  signals;  the  distribution  of  me- 
teorological information  and  the  taking  of  such  meteorological  ob- 
servations as  may  be  necessary  to  establish  and  record  the  climatic 
conditions  of  the  United  States,  or  as  are  essential  for  the  proper 
execution  of  the  foregoing  duties. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  makes  investigations  as  to  the 
existence  of  dangerous  communicable  diseases  of  live  stock,  super- 
intends the  measures  for  their  extirpation,  makes  original  investi- 
gations as  to  the  nature  and  prevention  of  such  diseases^  and  reports 
on  the  condition  and  means  of  improving  the  animal  industries  of 
the  country.  It  also  has  charge  of  the  inspection  of  import  and  ex- 
port animals,  of  the  inspection  of  vessels  for  the  transportation  of 
export  cattle,  and  of  the  quarantine  stations  for  imported  neat  cat- 
tle; supervises  the  interstate  movement  of  cattle,  and  inspects  live 
stock  and  their  products  slaughtered  for  food  consumption. 

The  Statistician  collects  information  as  to  the  condition,  prospects 
and  harvests  of  the  principal  crops,  and  of  the  numbers  and  status 
ol  farm  animals,  and  obtains  similar  information  from  European 
countries  monthly.  He  records  statistics  of  agricultural  production, 
distribution  and  consumption,  and  publishes  a  monthlv  bulletin  for 
the  use  of  editors  and  writers,  and  for  the  information  of  producers 
and  consumers,  and  for  their  protection  against  combination  and 
extortion  in  the  handling  of  the  products  01  agriculture. 

The  Chemist  makes  analyses  of  natural  fertilizers,  vegetable  pro- 
ducts and  other  materials  which  pertain  to  the  interests  of  agricul- 
ture. Applications  are  constantly  made  from  all  portions  of  the 
country  for  the  analysis  of  soils,  minerals,  liquids  and  manures. 

The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  represents  the  Department  in 
its  relations  to  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  in  the  several 
States  and  Territories.  Its  object  is  to  promote  uniformity  of 
methods  in  the  work  of  the  stations,  and,  in  general,  to  furnish  to 
them  such  advice  and  assistance  as  will  best  promote  the  purposes 
for  which  they  were  established.    To  this  end,  it  indicates  lines  of 


able  trees,  and  with  the  dissemination  of  information  upon  forestry 
matters. 

The  Botanist  investigates  plants  and  grasses  of  agricultural  value 
or  of  injurious  character,  and  answers  inquiries  relating  to  the 
same;  also  has  charge  of  the  Herbarium,  receives  botanical  contri- 
butions and  purchases  for  its  improvement,  and  distributes  duplicate 
specimens  to  agricultural  colleges  and  educational  institutions. 

The  Pomologist  distributes  information  in  regard  to  the  porno- 
logical  industry;  investigates  the  habits  and  qualities  of  fruits,  their 
adaptability  to  various  soils  and  climates  and  conditions  of  culture, 
and  introduces  new  fruits  from  foreign  countries. 

The  Division  of  Vegetable  Pathology  investigates  the  diseases  of 
plants,  and  seeks  to  determine  remedies  for  their  prevention. 

The  Microscopist  makes  investigations  relating  to  parasitic 
growths,  to  the  characteristics  of  fibers,  and  to  the  adulteration  of 
foods. 

The  Division  of  Records  and  Editing  exercises  supervision  of  the 
Department  printing1;  issues  press  notices  ol  interest  to  agricultur- 
ists, and  distributes  synopses  of  Department  publications. 

The  Division  of  Illustration  and  Engraving  comprises  the  artists 
and  engravers  engaged  in  preparing  illustrations  for  the  Depart- 
ment publications. 

The  Seed  Division  collects  new  and  valuable  seeds  and  plants  for 
propagation  and  distributes  them  to  applicants  in  all  parts  of  the 
country. 

The  Division  of  Gardens  and  Grounds  is  charged  with  the  care  of 
the  park  surrounding  the  Department  buildings,  and  with  the  duties 
connected  with  the  conservatories  and  gardens  for  testing  and  prop-  t 
agating  exotic  and  economic  plants. 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Jeremiah  M.  Rusk,  Wisconsin 1889 


*. «-. 


K 


622 


THK  ATTOKNhYc.hNKKAL. 


-7 


THE  /Ittokney-Gener/il. 


¥HE  Attorney-General  of    the   United    States  lias 
charge  of  the  Department  of  justice.    The  officers 
under  him  are  the  Solicitor-General,  three  Assistant 
Attorneys-General,  a  Solicitor  of  the  Treasury,   a 
Solicitor  of  Internal  Revenue,  a  Naval  Solicitor  and 
an  Kxaminer  of  Claims  for  the  Department  of  State, 
all   of  whom  are   appointed   by  the  President  and 
hold  office  lot  four  years. 
Whenever  required  by  the  President,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Attorney- 
General  to  give  his  advice  and  opinion  on  questions  of  law.     He  must 
decide  on  the  validity  of  the  land-title  to  any  property  where  the  Gov- 
ernment proposes  to  erect  buildings. 

He  must  give  his  opinion  on  any  question  of  law  arising  in  any  of 
the  Executive  Departments,  when  called  upon  by  the  head  of  such 
!><•[». u  tineiit. 

Hi-  rape,  intends  the  District  Attorneys  and  Marshals  of  the  United 
States,  and  may  employ  other  counsel  to  aid  District  Attorneys  in 
their  duties.  He  may  send  the  Solicitor-General  or  any  officer  of  his 
Department  to  any  State  or  district  of  the  United  States,  to  attend  to 
the  interests  of  the  Government  in  any  Federal  or  State  court.  He 
has  supervision  of  the  accounts  of  District  Attorneys,  Marshals, 
Clerks  and  other  officers  of  the  United  States  courts.  He  signs  all 
requisitions  for  the  payment  of  moneys  appropriated  for  the  use  of 
his  Department. 

II e  reports  to  Congress  annually  a  full  account  of  the  business  of 
his  Department  during  the  year,  the  expenses  of  the  Federal  courts, 
number  of  pending  suits,  number  of  additional  counsel  and  attorneys 
employed,  statistics  of  crime,  etc.  The  approval  of  the  Attorney- 
I  re&ei  il  is  necessary  to  make  the  opinions  of  his  subordinates  valid. 
All  questions  of  law   referred  to  him  he  may  submit  to  his  subordi- 


nates for  examination  and  opinion,  except  such  questions  as  involve  a 
construction  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

The  officers  of  this  Department  assist  in  performing  all  legal  service 
required  for  the  other  Departments,  in  prosecuting  or  defending  Gov- 
ernment claims  and  suits.  The  traveling  expenses  of  the  officers  of 
this  Department  when  on  duty  are  paid  in  addition  10  their  salaries. 


Attorneys-General, 


Edmund  Randolph,  Va.  1789 

William  Bradford,  Penn  1794 

Charles  I.t-t .  Ya.  1795 

Levi  Lincoln,  Mass.  1801 

Robert  Smith    Mil  1805 

John  Breckenridge.  Ky.  1805 

Casar  A.  Rodney,  Del.  1807 

William  1'inkney,  Md.  1811 

Richard  Rush,  Penn.  1814 

William  Wirt.  V.i  1817 

John  M.  Berrien,  Ga  1819 

Roger  B.  Taney,  Md.  1831 

Benjamin  T.  Buller,  N.  Y.  1834 

Felix  Giumlv.  Trim  1838 

Henry  D.  Gilpin,  Prim.  1840 

John  J.  Crittenden.  Ky.  1841 

Hugh  S.  I.rgarc.  S.  C.  1841 

John  Nelson,  Md.  1844 

John  Y.  Maaoo,  V  1  1845 

Nathan  Clifford,  Me.  1846 


Isaac  Toucey,  Conn. 
Reverdy  Johnson,  Md. 
John  J.  Crittenden,  Ky. 
Caleb  Gushing.  Mast. 
Jeremiah  S.  Black,  Penn. 
Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Penn. 
Edward  Bate- 
James  Speed,  Ky. 
Henry  Stanbery,  Ohio. 
William  M.  Evans. 
E.  Rockwood  Hoar. 
Amos  T.  Ackerman. 
George  H.  Williams- 
Edwards  Pierpont. 
Alpbonso  Taft. 
Charles  Devens. 
Wayne  MacVeagh. 
Benjamin  H.  Brewster. 
A.  II   Garland.  Ark. 
W.  H.  H.  Miller,  lod. 


1S4S 

■*■ 

1S50 

l8» 
1857 
i860 
1861 
•864 
■866 
1868 
1869 
1870 
1871 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1 881 
■881 
188] 
i--y 


THE  SUPREME  ©0HRT. 


"The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one 
Supreme  Conn,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from 
time  to  time  ordain  and  establish."—  Constitution. 

Judges  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts  hold  office  during 

good  behavior,  and  there  can  be  no  decrease  in  the  compensation  they 

receive  daring  their  continuance  in  office.     The  power  of  the  judiciary 

I 1  to  all  cases  in  law  and  equity  arising  under  the  Constitution, 

the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  all  treaties  with  foreign  countries. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  consists  of  a  Chief  Justice 
and  eight    Associate  Justices,  appointed  by  the  President. 

Precedence  of  the  Associate  Justices  is  according  to  the  dates  of 
their  con  1  missions.  Should  the  commissions  of  two  or  more  bear  the 
date,  precedence  will  be  according  to  their  age. 

Should  a  vacancy  occur  in  the  office  of  Chief  Justice,  his  duties  de- 
volve Upon  the  Associate  Justice  who  is  Hist  in  precedence. 

If  one  of  these  Judges,  after  having  held  office  for  ten  vears.  being 

then  seventy  years  of  age,  resifnt,  he  win  receive  for  the  remainder 
of  his  life  the  same  ( -ompens  aion  as  he  did  whilst  a  member  of  the 
court. 

Any  six  of  the  Justices  form  a  quorum. 

The  Siipienir  Court  appoints  ■  clerk,  a  marshal  and  a  reporter. 

TBI  Ci.ikk  is  Under  the  same  oath,  restrictions  and  bond  as  the 
clerks  iu  the  Unite. 1  States  District  Courts.  Deputy  clerks  when 
lit  eded  utaj  be  KppotutOd  Utd  innoved  by  the  court. 

'I  iu.  Marshal   i |  attend   the  court  at  its  sessions,  to 

lerve  and  execute  all  processes  |  suing  from  it,  or  made  by 

the  Chief  or  Associate  Justice,,  in  purauiDCC  of  law.  and  to  take  charge 
of  all  property  of  the  United  St.Ues  used  by   the  COUfl  or  iis  members, 


/ 


He  may,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Chief  Justice,  appoint  assist- 
ants and  messengers  to  attend  court,  with  the  same  allowance  of  com- 
pensation  as  is  received  by  similar  officers  in  the  Lower  House  of 
Congress. 

Thf.  Reporter  of  the  Supreme  Court   must  print  and   publish  the 

of  the  court  within  eight  months  after  they  are  made,  and 

every  subsequent  year  he  must  issue  a  similar  volume.     He  receives 

for  his  first  volume  $2,500,  and  for  each  of  the  succeeding  ones  $1,500. 

.uist  be  completed  at  the  prescribed  time. 

Annually,  beginning  on  the  serond  Monday  in  October,  the  Supreme 
Court  holds  its  session.  Adjourned  or  special  terms  are  held  when 
necessary. 

11  Isdiction  of  the  Supreme  Court  is  pointed  out  by  the  Consti- 
tution, and  need  not  be  repeated  here.  In  action  at  law  against  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States,  trials  of  issues  of  fact  are  always  by  jury. 


Federal  Courts. 


Supreme  Court 


9  Circuit  Courts 


55  District  Courts 


Attorney-General. 
Solicitor-General. 


Chief  Justice.        i  CUik 
Bight  Associate  <  Marshal. 
|UStli  /  K.  porter, 

sticesof  i  Clerks. 
Supreme,   and  9  <  District  Mar 
Circuit  Judges.       /     shals. 

Marshals.         i    «*«!?  *"* 
I  Grand  Juries.  I         n'ym- 
Juries  are  called  in  all  courts  when  requisi'e. 


\  55  Ju 


.lil.-s 


District  Attorneys. 


Districts. 


The  United  States  are  oivlded  into  hfty-nve  Federal  judicial  district!. 
A  Judge  fi  appointed  for  each  district  by  the  President      Each  Judge  . 
must  reside  in  the  district  for  which  he  is  appointed     All  the  records 
of  the  court  are  kept  at  the  place  where  the  District  Court  is  held. 


4^ 


K" 


i- 


THE    LEGISLATIVE    DEPARTMENT. 


623 


1     <*1THE  LEGISLATIVE  DEPARTMENT.^     1 


Duties  of  the  American  Congress. 


LTHOUGH  the  duties  and  re- 
sponsibilities of  the  American  Con- 
gress are  very  plainly  laid  down  in 
the  Constitution,  a  further  exam- 
ination of  the  functions  of  the 
Legislative  Department  cannot  but 
be  of  interest  Congress  is  divided 
into  the  Senate  and  the  House  of 
^"'Representatives,  a  division  which 
'JyFwus  made  because  our  Government 
was  founded  upon  the  model  of  England, 
whose  Parliament  consists  of  a  House  of  Peers 
and  a  House  of  Commons.  The  Senate  is 
supposed  to  play  the  same  part  in  American 
legislation  which  the  House  of  Peers  does  in 
Britain.  It  is  a  sort  of  governor  in  the  ma- 
chinery of  the  body  politic,  which  exerts  a  con- 
servative and  prudent  influence  on  law-making. 
The  Senate  originally,  although  that  meaning 
has  been  largely  neglected,  meant  the  conclave 
of  the  sovereign  States  of  the  Union,  a  council  which  was  to 
look  more  closely  after  the  general  and  external  affairs  of  the 
confederacy,  while  the  House  of  Representatives  was  to  repre- 
sent the  people  of  the  whole  Union.  This  meaning,  it  has  been 
said  above,  has  been  largely  lost  in  the  course  of  time,  but  the 
fiction  remains,  and  the  division  of  the  powers  of  Government 
between  the  two  bodies  illustrates  the  purpose  which  the  fathers 
of  the  Government  had  in  the  original  separation  inM;  fWO 
Houses. 

The  Senate. 

The  Senate  consists  of  two  Senators  from  each  State  of  the  Federal 
Union;  these  Senators  are  chosen  by  the  Legislatures  of  the  respective 
States  and  hold  office  for  six  years.  There  was  a  strong  effort  made 
at  the  time  of  the  drafting  of  the  Constitution  to  extend  the  term  for 
life,  but  this  was  believed  to  savor  too  much  of  aristocracy,  and  after 
long  debate  six  years  was  agreed  upon  as  a  compromise  measure. 
The  pay  of  Senators  is  $3,000  per  year.  The  Senate  is  presided  over 
by  the  Vice-President,  and  when  he  has  for  any  cause  vacated  his 
office  a  President  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate  is  elected.  There  are 
now  (1S92)  eighty-eight  Senators.  All  impeachments  are  tried  by 
the  Senate,  and  when  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  on  trial  the 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  must  preside.  The  Senate  must  ap- 


prove of  treaties  made  with  foreign  governments  bv  the  President  be 
fore  they  can  become  binding,  and  the  consent  of  the  Senate  is  nec- 
essary to  the  appointments  to  all  the  great  offices  of  the  State  made 
by  the  President.  The  Senate  is  the  only  permanent  body  in  the 
United  States  Government,  the  elections  being  always  so  ordered  that 
two-thirds  of  the  Senators  hold  over. 


The  House  of  Representatives. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Federal  Union  the  only  legislative  body  was 
the  Continental  Congress,  which  exercised  both  the  executive  and 
legislative  functions  of  government,  and  which  occasionally  per- 
formed judicial  duties  also.  The  old  Congress  piloted  the  nation 
through  the  Revolutionary  war,  but,  although  effective  for  its  original 
purpose,  it  was  not  able  for  the  work  which  fell  upon  its  shoulders 
under  the  articles  of  confederation.  The  articles  themselves  were 
unsuited  to  the  land,  and  in  a  little  while  it  became  evident  that  the 
United  States  experiment  would  end  in  disaster  and  disappointment 
unless  something  was  done  to  give  it  shape  and  direction. 

The  man  that  had  led  the  Continental  Army  to  glory  and  freedom 
through  the  Revolution  again  came  forward  and  preserved  by  his 
wise  statesmanship  the  Republic  which  his  military  genius  had 
founded.  At  the  call  of  George  Washington  the  American  Constitu- 
tion was  born,  and  the  keystone  of  the  Constitution  is  the  House  of 
Representatives.  This  body  is  the  brain  of  the  nation ;  on  its  floor 
ail  the  momentous  issues  of  the  Republic  have  been  settled;  no 
higher  office  can  a  citizen  win  than  a  seat  in  the  council  of  the 
Nation,  none  greater  in  the  influence  which  it  wields,  not  for  America 
alone,  but  for  the  future  of  the  human  race. 

The  number  of  Representatives  is  decided  by  the  census,  which  is 
taken  every  ten  years.  As  soon  as  this  is  done,  Congress  decides  upon 
the  number  of  Representatives  for  the  ensuing  decade.  The  number 
since  the  establishment  of  the  Constitution  has  been  as  follows : 


'7*9  —  '793. 

•   -    65 

1843  —  1S33, 

223 

1793  —  1803, 

105 

1SS3  —  1S63, 

"37 

1S03  —  1S13, 

■49 

1863  -  1873,    • 

*43 

1S13  —  1823, 

.89 

1873  -  1883, 

293 

1S23  —  1833, 

213 

18S3  —  1S93, 

■   •   3»5 

1833-1S43, 

240 

1S93  -  1903, 

356 

These  Congressmen  are  paid  $5,000  a  year,  with  certain  additions  tn 
the  shape  of  mileage,  stationery,  etc.,  etc.  The  qualifications  for  a 
Representative  are  fully  explained  in  the  Constitution. 


V_ 


^^SC 


624 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


If 


2Tfye  carious  Ailments  of  tfye  ftuman  iSoby,  ano 
IQow  to  Crcat  iZTfyem. 


<»■    ».i?.3i|ftt«^i»  «■     ^> 


?HE  mechanism  to  be  studied  in  the  body  of  a  living 
animal — more  particularly  the  highest  of  all  animals, 
man — is  of  such  wonder  and  beauty,  exquisite  finish 
and  perfection,  that,  could  it  all  be  comprehended 
and  long  enough  retained  by  the  memory  to  afford 
one  broad  contemplation  of  its  simplest  facts,  all  the  triumphs 
of  art  could  bear  no  relation  to  its  loveliness. 

Huxley  so  concisely  and  clearly  begins  his  delightful  little 
volume  of  Elementary  Physiology,  that  for  the  purposes  of 
this  article  we  cannot  do  better  than  to  quote  his  opening  lines. 
"  The  body  of  a  living  man,"  he  says,  "  performs  a  great  divers- 
ity of  actions,  some  of  which  are  quite  obvious,  others  require 
more  or  less  careful  observation,  and  yet  others  can  be  detected 
only  by  the  most  delicate  appliances  of  science. 

"  Thus  some  part  of  the  body  of  a  living  man  is  plainly  always 
in  motion.  Even  in  sleep,  when  the  limbs,  head  and  eyelids 
may  be  still,  the  incessant  rise  and  fall  of  the  chest  continues  to 
remind  us  that  we  are  viewing  slumber  and  not  death. 

"More  careful  observation  is  needed,  however,  to  detect  the 
motion  of  the  heart,  or  the  pulsation  of  the  arteries,  or  the 
changes  in  the  size  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye  with  varying  light, 
or  to  ascertain  that  the  air  which  is  breathed  out  of  the  body 
is  hotter  and  damper  than  that  which  is  taken  in  by  breathing. 

"  And  lastly,  when  we  try  to  ascertain  what  happens  in  the 
eye  when  that  organ  is  adjusted  to  different  distances,  or  what  in 
a  nerv«  when  it  is  excited  ;  or  of  what  materials  flesh  and  blood 
are  made;  or  in  virtue  of  what  mechanism  it  is  that  a  sudden 
pain  makes  one  start — we  have  to  call  into  operation  all  the 
methods  of  inductive  and  deductive  logic,  all  the  resources  of 
phytici  and  chemistry,  and  all  of  the  delicacies  of  the  art  of 
experiment. " 

It  is  plainly  obvious  that  man  differs  from  the  stones  and 
earth,  the  flowers  and  trees,  and  all  inanimate  objects.  He  is 
warm,  whiic  these  things  are  cold;  he  is  able  to  move  about  at 


will  while  they  must  remain  always  in  one  place ;  he  can  exert 
power  and  force,  while  they  must  remain  forever  inactive;  he  is 
possessed  of  mind  and  purpose  to  guide  him,  while  they  are 
influenced  only  by  the  elements. 

Combustion  and  Heat. 

Now  warmth  is  clearly  due  to  the  burning  of  something. 
The  warmth  of  the  day  and  the  heat  of  the  summer  come  to 
us  from  that  great  central  fi  e,  the  sun,  whose  flames  leap  up 
from  its  surface  tens  of  thousands  of  miles.  The  warm  breezes 
at  night,  when  the  sun  does  not  shine  upon  us,  and  the  temper- 
ate winds  which  from  time  to  time  visit  us  in  winter,  all  gain 
their  warmth  from  some  great  tract  of  southern  land  or  tropical 
body  of  water,  which,  previously  heated  by  the  fires  of  the  sun, 
now  radiates  the  heat  absorbed  therefrom,  warming  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere,  which,  moving  in  currents,  carries  heat 
from  the  tropics  even  to  the  very  poles. 

When  the  sun's  heat  is  not  sufficient  for  our  purpose,  we  make 
artificial  fires  of  wood,  coal,  oil  or  gas.  There  is  no  heat  or 
warmth,  however  slight,  that  is  not  produced  by  combustion ,  or 
oxidation,  or,  in  other  words,  the  burning  of  something.  But 
all  things  do  not  oxidize  or  burn  with  a  flame,  as  in  the  case 
of  our  furnace  fires.  You  every  day  see  objects  burn  with- 
out coming  to  a°blaze,  but  only  with  the  red  glow  of  a  live 
coal.  Other  things  you  see  burn  and  crumble  to  ashes  which 
never  even  come  to  a  glow.  If  you  hold  over  a  lamp,  and  at 
a  little  distance  from  it,  a  piece  of  writing-paper,  it  will  bum 
black  atul  finally  crumble  in  ashes  without  showing  a  single 
spark  of  fire  or  light,  and  yet  it  so  rapidly  bums  that  it  crum- 
bles to  pieces  in  the  space  of  only  a  few  moments.  The  char- 
acter or  appearance  of  combustion  or  oxidation  depends  entirely 
upon  the  rapidity  with  which  the  article  is  burned.  Thus,  -ome 
objects  burn  with  an  explosion,  some  with  Ajfame,  some  with  a 
glow,  while  some  show  only  a  simple  evolution  of  heat.     Gun- 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


625 


powder  so  quickly  burns  that  great  force  is  exerted,  though  we 
see  but  a  single  flash  of  light.  Dry  pine  burns  far  more  slowly ; 
the  force  of  its  heat  is  distributed  over  a  greater  length 
of  time,  and  hence  there  is  no  disastrous  explosion,  though 
it  burns  with  a  roaring  flame.  Peat  burns  still  more  slowly, 
and  with  the  glow  of  a  live  coal.  In  the  slaking  of  fresh 
lime  an  oxidation  or  burning  takes  place,  and  great  heat 
is  given  off,  but  there  is  no  flame,  no  glow,  no  spark  of  light. 
A  thousand  things  burn  still  more  slowly,  some  of  them  requir- 
ing years  or  centuries,  under  certain  conditions,  in  oxidation, 
and,  while  constantly  giving  off  heat,  the  burning  is  so  slow  and 
the  amount  of  heat  given  off  therefore  so  exceedingly  small, 
that  it  is  not  detectable  except  by  the  most  delicate  instruments 
of  science. 

If  combustion  takes  place  almost  instantly,  as  in  the  case  of 
dynamite,  or  gunpowder,  or  certain  gases,  we  call  the  result 
explosion.  If  it  goes  on  more  slowly,  as  with  wood,  coal  or 
peat,  we  call  the  process  bunting.  If  combustion  takes  place 
still  more  slowly,  as  in  slacking  lime,  or  in  a  bin  of  wheat  or 
barley,  where  heat  is  given  off,  but  without  a  spark  of  fire 
or  light  visible,  we  commonly  call  the  process  oxidation.  Thus, 
you  see,  the  words  explosion,  combustion,  burning  and  oxida- 
tion mean  practically  one  and  the  same  thing,  and  that  all 
force,  or  heat,  or  warmth,  comes  from  the  oxidation  or  burning 
of  something,  either  rapidly  or  slowly,  visibly  or  invisibly. 

"  If  a  mass  of  seeds  be  laid  together,"  says  Draper,  "  as  barley 
in  the  making  of  malt,  the  operation  conducted  at  a  gentle  tem- 
perature, and  with  the  access  of  atmospheric  air,  oxygen  disap- 
pears, carbonic  acid  is  set  free,  and  the  temperature  rises  forty 
,  or  fifty  degrees.  A  process  of  oxidation  must,  therefore,  have 
been  carried  into  effect,  and  to  it  we  trace  the  heat  disengaged  ; 
for  carbon  cannot  produce  carbonic  acid  without  a  rise  of  tem- 
perature ensuing.  The  loss  of  weight  which  the  seed  exhibits 
is  therefore  due  to  its  loss  of  carbon,  and  the  whole  effect  is 
explained  in  the  statement  that  atmospheric  air  has  united  with 
a  portion  of  the  carbon  contained  in  the  seed,  producing  car- 
bonic acid  gas  and  an  evolution  of  heat." 

If  we  put  a  lighted  candle  into  a  glass  jar  and  seal  it  up  air- 
tight, it  will  continue  to  burn  for  a  certain  time,  the  duration  of 
which  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  jar  ;  the  flame  will  grow 
less  and  less,  until  finally  it  will  go  out,  and  the  candle  will 
cease  to  burn.  As  soon  as  the  air  in  the  jar  has  cooled  a  little, 
drops  of  moisture  will  collect  on  the  inside  of  the  jar,  showing 
that  in  burning  the  candle  has  given  off  water.  If  we  now  open 
the  jar  and  test  the  temperature  with  a  thermometer,  we  find  the 
air  of  the  jar  warmer  than  when  the  candle  was  put  into  it,  showing 
that  in  burning  heat  was  given  off.  If  we  now  force  some  of 
the  air  of  the  jar  through  lime  water,  the  water  becomes  milky 
from  the  precipitate  of  carbonate  of  lime,  showing  the  presence 
of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  of  the  jar,  which  was  not  present 
before  the  burning  of  the  candle — showing  that  in  the  burning 
carbonic  acid -was  given  off.  If  a  further  analysis  be  made  it 
will  be  discovered  that  the  oxygen  of  the  air  in  the  jar  has  dis- 
appeared, and  if  the  candle  be  weighed,  it  will  be  found  to  have 
lost  weight. 

Such  is  the  result  of  all  combustion  or  oxidation — heat  is 
given  off,  -.uater  and  carbonic  acid  are  evolved,  oxygen  is  con- 
sumed, and  the  burning  object  loses  substance. 


Oxidation  and  Animal  Heat. 

If,  in  winter,  we  place  a  healthy  living  man  in  a  cold,  dry 
room  with  closed  glass  windows,  having  carefully  noted  the 
temperature  of  the  room  and  the  exact  weight  of  the  man,  and 
shut  him  in  as  we  did  the  burning  candle  in  the  glass  jar,  and 
then  require  him  to  walk  up  and  down  for  an  hour,  the  same 
important  facts  may  be  observed  as  in  the  case  of  the  candle. 
In  his  exercise  he  will  have  obviously  exerted  a  great  amount  of 
mechanical  force — as  much  at  least  as  would  be  required  to  lift  his 
own  weight  as  high  and  as  often  as  he  has  raised  himself  at  every 
step,  which,  in  the  aggregate,  would  be  about  a  mile  or  more 
above  the  ground.  At  the  end  of  an  hour  let  the  temperature 
of  the  room  again  be  taken,  and  it  will  be  found  to  be  warmer 
than  at  the  beginning.  The  man  has.  therefore,  given  off  heat. 
If  the  windows  of  the  room  be  observed,  the  glass  will  be  found 
covered  with  the  vapor  of  water,  wh.ch,  if  the  air  outside  be 
sufficiently  cold,  will  be  converted  into  ice  or  frost,  such  as  is 
seen  in  the  morning  upon  the  window-panes  of  our  sleeping- 
rooms  in  winter — showing  that  he  has  given  off  water.  If  some 
of  the  air  in  the  room  be  now  forced  through  lime  water,  the 
water  will  be  found  milky  from  the  precipitate  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  showing  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air,  which, 
like  the  heat  and  the  water,  has  been  given  off  by  the  man,  just 
as  we  have  seen  that  heat,  water  and  carbonic  acid  are  given  off 
by  a  burning  candle. 

And  so,  if  the  air  of  the  room  be  further  analyzed,  a  large 
amount  of  oxygen  will  be  found  to  have  disappeared.  The 
flame  of  the  candle  died  and  the  light  went  out  when  all  the 
oxygen  in  the  jar  had  been  consumed  ;  so  would  the  fires  of  life  in 
the  man  likewise  have  died  out  had  he  not  been  released  before 
all  the  oxygen  in  the  closed  room  had  been  breathed  into  his  lungs 
and  consumed.  Furthermore,  if  the  man  be  now  again  weighed 
at  the  end  of  the  hour,  he  will  be  found  to  have  lost  weight  just 
as  the  candle  lost  weight  in  burning  and  the  barley  in  oxida- 
tion. Thus,  in  the  concise  language  of  Huxley  :  "A  living, 
active  man  constantly  exerts  mechanical  force,  gives  off  heat, 
evolves  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  undergoes  a  loss  of  sub- 
stance." In  other  words,  his  tissues  are  constantly  burning  up, 
or  oxidizing,  and  when  this  process  ceases  he  grows  cold  and 
dies.  Oxidation  of  the  candle  is  started  by  applying  a  flame  to 
the  wick.  Once  begun,  it  needs  no  further  aid.  The  oxygen  of 
the  air  unites  with  the  carbon  of  the  candle,  and  the  evolution 
of  heat,  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water  in  the  form  of  vapor  is  the 
result,  and  the  process  continues  until  the  candle  is  consumed  or 
the  supply  of  oxygen  shut  off. 

As  we  have  seen,  a  man,  like  the  lighted  candle,  is  con- 
stantly burning  up,  or  oxidizing — giving  off  heat  and  water  and 
carbonic  acid,  and  the  ashes  of  his  burned  tissues.  He  loses 
every  day  300  grains  of  nitrogen  (which  is  the  ashes  of  his  mus- 
cles), six  and  a  half  pounds  of  water,  and  burns  ten  and  a  half 
ounces  of  carbon.  Altogether  he  loses  from  seven  to  ten  pounds 
in  weight  daily.  It  is  clear  that  this  state  of  things  could  not 
continue  very  many  days  or  the  man  would  dwindle  to  nothing- 
ness. He  would  last  but  a  few  days  longer  than  his  candle. 
But  long  before  this  loss  of  substance  can  be  noticed  by  another 
it  is  felt  by  the  subject,  who  suffers  from  hunger  and  thirst.  He 
takes  food  and  drink,  which  being  digested  and  made  into 
blood,  his  wasted  tissues  are  repaired,  and  the  loss  by  oxidation 


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PHVSIOI.OGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


is  made  good.  A  man  may  be  likened  to  a  lamp  that  is  cease- 
lessly fed  and  as  ceaselessly  wastes  away.  Or  he  may  be  likened 
to  a  steam  engine.  The  food  which  he  takes,  digests,  assimi- 
lates and  burns,  corresponds  to  the  coal  which  is  burned  in  the 
furnace  of  the  machine  ;  his  warmth  and  life  and  strength  cor- 
respond to  the  heat  and  power  of  the  engine.  The  warmth  and 
strength  of  the  man  and  the  heat  and  power  of  the  engine  are 
due  to  the  fuel  burned  in  the  tissues  of  the  one  and  the  furnace 
of  the  other. 

Power  and  Life  Due  to  Heat. 

All  force,  of  whatever  kind,  is  due  to  heat.  A  large  part 
of  the  machinery  of  the  world  is  run  by  steam  power,  which 
is  produced  by  heat.  The  winds  are  caused  by  the  heated 
tracts  of  land  or  bodies  of  water,  where  the  atmosphere  in 
consequence  becomes  rarified,  and  currents  of  colder  air  rush 
across  the  face  of  the  earth  with  gentle,  or  sometimes  terrific 
force,  to  fill  the  vacuum.  All  the  force  of  the  stream  and  the 
waterfall  is  due  to  heat,  which  evaporates  the  water  of  the  sea, 
and,  lifting  it  up  in  vapor,  carries  it  in  the  warm  breezes  back 
to  the  high  land,  where,  cooling,  it  falls  in  rain  and  rushes  with 
force  through  gulleys  and  the  river-beds  back  to  the  sea.  In 
like  manner  heat  is  the  cause  of  power  in  animals  and  men. 
Food  is  the  fuel ;  the  entire  body  is  the  furnace  ;  through  the 
lungs  is  the  draft  of  air.  Oxidation  and  heat  and  life  and 
power  and  force  are  the  result. 

But  the  fuel  proper  for  the  steam  engine  is  w-hollv  unsuitable 
for  this  human  engine.     To  enable  the  body  to  continue  exert- 


ing force  and  giving  out  heat,  water  and  carbonic  acid  at  the 
same  rate,  for  an  indefinite  period,  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  the  body  should  !w  supplied  with  three  things,  and  with 
three  only.  These  are  fresh  air,  water  and  food.  Mr.  Huxley 
says:  "  In  a  properly  nourished  man  a  stream  of  food  is  con- 
stantly entering  the  body  in  the  shape  of  complex  compounds 
containing  comparatively  little  oxygen  ;  as  constantly  the  ele- 
ments of  the  food  (whether  before  or  after  they  have  formed  a 
part  of  the  living  substance)  are  leaving  the  body  combined 
with  more  oxygen.  And  the  incessant  breaking  down  and  oxi- 
dation of  the  complex  compounds  which  enter  the  body  are 
definitely  proportioned  to  the  amount  of  force  which  the  body 
exerts,  whether  in  the  shape  of  heat  or  otherwise.  Let  a  man 
lift  a  heavy  body  from  the  ground,  and  the  loss  of  weight 
which  he  would  have  undergone  without  that  exertion  will  be 
immediately  increased  by  a  definite  amount,  which  cannot  be 
made  good  unless  a  proportionate  amount  of  extra  food  be 
supplied  him;  just  in  the  same  way  as  the  amount  of  work  to 
be  gotten  or.t  of  a  steam  engine  and  the  amount  of  heat  it  and 
its  furnace  give  off  bear  a  strict  proportion  to  its  consumption 
of  fuel." 

In  every  instance  the  production  of  animal  heat  and  force  is 
due  to  oxidation  taking  place  in  the  economy.  This  oxidation 
takes  place  in  the  blood,  and  in  the  tissues  themselves  in  every 
part  of  the  body.  The  food,  which  is  the  fuel  of  this  human 
engine,  before  it  can  reach  the  tissues  where  it  is  burned,  must 
undergo  elaborate  preparation. 


l^TTHE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.^" 


There  are  a  large  number  of  organs  whose  sole  use  is  the 
preparation  and  elaboration  of  the  food,  rendering  it  suitable 
for  cousumption  by  the  economy.  These  organs,  taken  to-' 
gether,  are  known  as  the  digestive  organs.  They  consist  of 
machinery  for  dividing  and  grinding  the  food  and  testing  its 
quality  ;  of  glands  for  the  manufacture  of  chemical  fluids  for 
dissolving  it ;  of  receptacles  for  holding  and  warming  it  while 
it  is  acted  upon  by  the  dissolving  fluids;  of  canals  through 
which  it  is  passed  from  one  receptacle  to  another  ;  of  absorb- 
ents which  take  up  and  carry  the  refined  product  into  the 
current  of  the  blood,  and  of  a  further  tube  to  carry  out  of  the 
body  the  insoluble  and  unsuitable  constituents  of  the  mass  taken 
into  the  stomach.  These  organs  are  the  mouth,  tongue,  palate, 
teeth,  salivary  glands,  pharynx,  oesophagus,  stomach,  small 
intestines,  large  intestines,  the  liver,  and  the  pancreas,  or 
sweetbread. 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 
The  Mouth. 

The  mouth  is  the  cavity  into  which  food  is  first  introduced. 
It  is  supplied  with  organs  for  testing  the  quality  of  the  food  ; 
with  organs  for  dividing  and  grinding,  and  with  a  fluid  for 
moistening  and  softening,  and  for  converting  the  insoluble 
starch  of  the  food  into  a  soluble  sugar.  It  has  a  fixed  roof, 
formed  by  what   is  known  as  the  hard  palate  (3),  and   with  a 


movable  floor  made  up  of  the  tongue  and  the  lower  jaw. 
Around  the  sides  and  front  of  the  mouth  are  two  rows  of  sixteen 
teeth  each,  which  spring  from  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  and  out- 
side of  these  the  cavity  is  closed  at  the  sides  by  the  cheeks,  and 
in  front  by  the  lips  When  the  mouth  is  closed  the  tongue 
comes  in  close  contact  with  the  roof  (3),  and  back  of  the  hard 
palate  the  communication  with  the  nasal  cavity  and  the  pharynx 
is  further  impeded  by  a  curtain  of  flesh,  the  soft  palate,  in  the 
middle  of  which,  at  the  ick  part  of  the  cavity  of  the 

mouth,  is  a  small  prolongation  or  teat  of  flesh,  the  uvula  (4). 
On  each  side  are  double  muscular  cords  (5  and  6),  which  are 
known  as  pillars  of  the  fauces,  and  between  these  on  each 
side  are  the  tonsils  (7).  At  the  back  part  of  the  base  of  the 
tongue  is  a  lid,  the  epiglotis  (9),  made  of  cartilage,  or  gristle, 
which  closes  the  entrance  to  the  trachea  (12).  Behind  the  uvula 
and  the  epiglotis  is  the  cavity  of  the  pharynx  (8  and  11),  which 
h  i,  u.ilK  of  muscles  and  covered  with  mucous  membrane.  It 
is  larger  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom  and  has  seven  openings 
into  it:  two  from  the  kick  part  of  the  nasal  cavity;  two  (one 
on  each  side)  above  and  close  to  these — the  openings  of  the 
eustachian  tube  (2),  leading  to  the  ears  ;  one  from  the  lack  part 
of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  (8):  one  from  the  trachea  (12)  or  wind- 
pipe, and  one  leading  into  the  atophagus  (11)  or  gullet.  The 
whole  cavity  of  the  mouth  and  the  pharynx  (as  well  as  the  entire 
alimentary  tract,  which  includes  the  gullet,  stomach  and  intes- 


■fe 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


627 


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r*» 


tines)  is  lined  by  a  delicate  membrane,  known  as  the  mucous  mem  - 
brane.  It  commenceson  the  lips  where  it  joins  the  skin  ;  it  isred 
and  moist  and  soft  and  tender  ;  its  structure  is  like  that  of  the 
skin,  only  more  delicate  and  more  easily  wounded.  It  is  full  of 
minute  little  glands  which  secrete  a  fluid  known  as  mucus,  and 
which  keep  the  membrane  moist.  Besides  these  little  mucous 
glands  there  are  three  pairs  of  large  glands  which  secrete 
three  different  kinds  of  fluid,  known  as  saliva,  and  the  glands 
as  salivary  glands.  These  glands  are  named  according  to 
their  situation :  the  sub-lingual,  under  the  tongue ;  the  sub- 
maxillary, under  and  to  the  inside  of  the  lower  jaw.  The 
saliva  secreted  by  these  two  pairs  of  glands  is  emptied  into  the 
mouth  through  a  small  duct  under  the  tip  of  the  tongue.  The 
parotid  gland  lies  in  front  of  the  ear,  and  its  duct  opens  into 
the  mouth  on  the  inside  of  the  cheek  opposite  the  second  upper 
double  tooth. 

The  Teeth. 

Each  of  the  thirty-two 
teeth  has  a  crown,  a  pulp, 
and  one  or  more  roots  or 
fangs,  which  are  received 
into  sockets  in  thejaw-bone. 
The  teeth  are  composed  of 
jvory,  an  enamel  and  a  ce- 
ment which  securely  fastens 
them  in  their  sockets. 

Every  person  who  lives  to 
adult  life  is  given  two  sets 
of  teeth.  The  first  set,  con- 
sisting of  twenty  teeth  (ten 
above  and  ten  below),  are 
known  as  the  temporary  set, 
and  the  last,  consisting  of 
thirty-two  ( sixteen  above 
and  sixteen  below),  are 
known  as  the  permanent 
set. 

After  these,  now-a-day, 
a  person  can  have  as  many 
additional  sets  of  teeth  as 
he  can  pay  for. 

The  four  teeth  in  each 
jaw  which  are  directly  in 
front  have  sharp,  chisel-like 
edges,  and  are  known  as  the 
incisors,  or  cutting  teeth. 
Next  these  on  each  side  is  a 
long,  round-cornered  and 
sharp  tooth,  something  like 
the  tooth  of  the  dog,   and 

hence  known  as  the  canine  or  tearing  tooth.  The  next  two 
teeth  on  each  side  have  two  prominent  points  or  cusps  on 
the  surface  of  the  crown,  and  are  therefore  called  bi-cuspids. 
All  of  these  have  generally  but  a  single  root  or  fang.  The 
remaining  twelve  teeth  have  two  or  more  roots  and  broad, 
heavy  crowns,  and  are  known  as  molars  or  grinding  teeth. 
(See  Fig.  2.) 


Fig.  1. 

3,  Opening  cf  the  eustachian  tube ;  3,  hard  palate;  4,  soft  palate;  5  and  6,  pillows 
of  the  fauces;  7,  tonsil;  8  and  11,  pharynx;  9,  epiglotis;  1 3,  larynx 


Each  tooth  is  supplied  with  blood-vessels  and  a  nerve,  which 
enter,  to  pass  into  the  pulp,  at  the  root  of  the  tooth,  as  shown 
by  the  illustration. 

When  solid  food  is  first  taken  into  the  mouth,  it  is  first 
submitted  to  division  and  grinding  by  the  teeth.  It  is  kept 
between  the  teeth  by  the  muscles  of  the  cheeks  on  the  outside, 
and  by  the  tongue  from  the  inside.  When  the  teeth  are  closed 
together  the  food  is  pressed  out  on  either  side,  but  is  immedi. 
ately  replaced  by  the  action  of  these  muscles,  and  this  is  con- 
tinued until  the  entire  mass  is  thoroughly  rubbed  down.  Dur- 
ing this  process  the  salivary  glands  have  been  excited  and  have 
poured  into  the  mouth  their  fluids,  which  have  become  incorpor- 
ated with  the  food,  while  the  glairy  mucus  from  the  mouth 
coats  the  bolus  of  food  thus  prepared  for  the  action  of  the 
stomach.  By  the  action  of  the  tongue  the  bolus  is  forced 
backward  into  the  pharynx,  the  soft  palate  and  valve  prevent- 
ing its  passage  upwards  into 
the  back  part  of  the  nasal 
cavity,  while  the  epiglotis 
closes  down  securely  over 
the  entrance  into  the  wind- 
pipe, and,  the  muscles  of 
the  pharynx  contracting 
upon  the  bolus,  the  move- 
ment or  act  of  swallowing 
is  performed.  The  bolus 
glides  over  the  epiglotis 
and  is  then  carried  through 
the  oesophagus,  or  gullet, 
into  the  stomach,  where  it 
is  digested. 

The  Stomach. 

The  stomach  (see  Fig.  3) 
is  the  principal  organ  of 
digestion.  It  lies  immedi- 
ately below  the  diaphragm 
in  the  cavity  of  the  abdo- 
men, being  separated  from 
the  heart  and  lungs  above 
by  the  diaphragm,  and  lies 
more  upon  the  right  side  of 
the  body  than  the  left.  It 
is  a  muscular  pouch,  being, 
when  moderately  full,  about 
twelve  inches  long  by  four 
inches  deep.  It  is  covered 
on  the  outside  by  a  delicate, 
smooth  membrane,  which 
covers  also  the  intestines 
and  lines  the  entire  cavity 
of  the  abdomen.  This  membrane  secretes  a  small  amount  of 
fluid  in  health,  sufficient  to  so  lubricate  its  surfaces  that  the 
organs  may  glide  over  each  other  without  injury.  The  stomach 
is  lined  by  the  mucous  membrane,  spoken  of  previously  as  lining 
the  entire  alimentary  tract.  This  membrane  in  the  stomach  is 
thick,  smooth,  soft  and  velvety.  When  the  stomach  is  empty  it 
lies  in  folds,  or  ruga.     When  the  stomach  is  full  these  folds  are 


k_ 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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obliterated.  When  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  is 
examined  by  a  magnifying-glass,  it  presents  a  peculiar  honey- 
combed appearance,  which  is  due  to  the  opening  of  the  ducts 
from  little  glands  situated  in  and  beneath  the  membrane.  These 
glands  secrete  an  acid  fluid  known  as  the  gastric  juice,  and  a 
certain  substance  known  as  pepsin,  which,  together,  have  the 
power  to  dissolve  a  certain  class  of  foods  known  as  proteids, 
presently  to  be  described.  The  stomach  has  two  openings,  one 
by  which  food  is  received  from  the  gullet,  or  asop/tagus,  and 
called  the  cardiac  orifice ;  the  other  by  which  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  are  passed  into  the  small  intestine,  and  known  as 
the  pyloric  orifice,  which  is  guarded  by  a  kind  of  valve — the 
pylorus. 


i 


Fig.  a. 

The    Inteetines. 

The  intestines  form  one  long  convoluted  tube  with  muscular 
and  mucous  coats  like  the  stomach,  lie  wholly  within  the 
abdominal  cavity,  and  are  enveloped  by  the  peritoneum.  They 
are  divided  into  the  small  intestines  and  the  large  intestines, 
the  latter  having  a  far  greater  diameter  than  the  former.  The 
small  intestine  is  about  twenty  feet  long  and  divided  into  the 
duodenum,  the  jejunum  and  the  ilium.  The  lining  mucous 
membrane  is  thick,  velvety,  and  full  of  blood  vessels.  It  is 
thrown  into  transverse  folds,  which  are  about  two  inches  long, 
and  half  an  inch  in  depth  in  their  broadest  place,  and  are  called 
valvule  conniventes.  These  folds  are  covered  by  a  net-work 
or  tufts  of  capillary  and  lacteal  vessels  known  as  villi.  These 
are  very  numerous — the  number  in  the  whole  length  of  the 
intestines  being  estimated  at  four  millions.  In  the  upper  part 
of  the  duodenum  empties  the  duct  from  the  pancreas  and  the 
bile  duct  from  the  liver,  both  of  which  organs  secrete  a  digest- 
ive fluid  which,  being  poured  into  the  duodenum,  completes 
the  solution  of  the  food  received  from  the  stomach. 

The  large  intestine  extends  from  the  termination  of  the  small 
intestine  to  the  outlet.  It  is  about  five  feet  in  length.  It 
differs  from  the  small  intestine  in  its  greater  size,  more  fixed 
position  and  its  sacculated  form.     It  is  divided  into  the  cecum. 


the  colon  and  the  rectum.  The  caecum  is  a  dilated  pouch, 
into  which  the  ilium  empties.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  side 
of  the  body  in  the  lower  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  Con- 
tinuous with  this  rises  the  colon.  It  passes  upward  on  the  right 
side  of  the  body,  until  it  reaohes  the  under  surface  of  the  liver, 
when  it  crosses  transversely  to  the  left  side  of  the  body,  and 
then  descends.  It  is  lined  by  mucous  membrane,  but  its  struc- 
ture is  not  of  sufficient  importance  to  demand  attention  here. 


1,  4,  Liver;  a,  ligai,.«at  of  liver:  j,  gall-bladder ; 
end  of  the  oesophagus ;   7,  stomach;  8,   10,  omentum.  9.  spleen; 


5,  diaphragm;  6,  lower 
m.  o.  spleen;   ti.  duo- 
denum; 12,   12.  small  intestine;    13,  caecum;    14.  ensiform  appendix;   15. 
15,  transverse  colon;   16,  descending  colon;   17,  urinary  bladder. 


The  Liver. 
The  liver  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body,  weighing  from 
three  to  four  pounds.  It  belongs  to  the  digestive  apparatus  its 
faction  being  chiefly  the  secretion  of  bile  ;  still  it  undoubtedly 
effects  important  changes  in  the  blood  during  its  passage  through 
the  gland.  It  is  placed  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  on  the  right 
side  of  the  body,  on  a  level  with  the  lower  ribs.  Its  upper 
surface  is  in  contact  with  the  diaphragm,  which  separates  the 
liver  frcm  the  right  lung.  It  measures,  from  side  t.>  side,  ten  to 
eleven  inches  ;  from  before  backwards,  six  to  seven  inches,  and 
is  about  three  inches  thick  in  its  thickest  part.  It  is  held  in 
place  by  strung  ligament-,,  and  is  covered  by  the  same  serous 
membrane,  the  peritoneum,  which  covers  the  stomach  and  other 
abdominal  organs.  The  liver  is  made  up  of  hepatic  or  liver 
cells,  whose  function  it  is  to  secrete  the  bile,  and  of  a  substance 
known  as  glycogen,  which  will  be  spoken  of  again.  The  Hie 
or  gall  is  a  compound  fluid  of  golden  yellow  color,  and  very 


A 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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£ 


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bitter  in  taste,  and  the  total  quantity  secreted  in  twenty-four 
hours  is  probably  not  less  than  two  or  three  pounds.  It  is 
both  a  secretion,  i.e.,  an  essential  digestive  fluid,  and  an 
excretion,  i.e.,  contains  elements  of  waste — the  ashes,  so  to 
speak,  of  oxidized  tissues,  which,  being  emptied  into  the  intes- 
tines, are  carried  out  of  the  body. 

The  Pancreas. 

The  pancreas  is  very  similar  in  structure  to  the  salivary 
glands.  It  is  placed  in  the  abdominal  cavity  beneath  the 
stomach,  and  extends  from  the  duodenum  on  the  right  to 
the  spleen  on  the  left.  The  pancreas  is  oblong  in  shape, 
and  larger  at  one  end  than  the  other.  The  larger  end,  known 
as  the  head,  is  in  contact  with  the  duodenum,  gently  tapering  to 
the  left  as  it  approaches  the  spleen,  into  what  is  called  the 
tail.  The  entire  gland  is  about  six  or  seven  inches  long,  an 
inch  and  a  half  broad,  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  and 
averages  three  ounces  in  weight.  The  pancreas  secretes  a 
digestive  fluid  very  similar  to  the  saliva,  which  empties  into  the 
duodenum  through  an  orifice  in  common  with  the  bile  from  the 
gall-bladder. 

The  Process  of  Digestion. 

When  the  stomach  is  empty  the  lining  membrane  is  pale, 
the  blood-vessels  contracted,  and  the  stomach  glands  secreting 
scarcely  more  than  enough  fluid  to  moisten  the  surface.  As 
soon,  however,  as  food  is  taken  into  the  stomach,  the  nerves  of 
the  part  are  stimulated  to  activity,  the  blood-vessels  dilate,  the 
mucous  membrane  becomes  red,  and  little  drops  of  fluid  begin 
to  appear  at  the  mouths  of  a  thousand  little  glands  and  run 
down  as  gastric  juice.  The  presence  of  food  in  the  stomach 
sets  up  a  contraction  of  its  walls,  which  rolls  the  food  about, 
not  unlike  cream  in  a  churn,  until  the  digestive  or  dissolving 
fluid  becomes  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  food.  We 
have  seen  that  saliva  has  the  power  of  acting  upon  starchy 
foods,  converting  the  starch  into  sugar,  but  has  no  power  to 
dissolve  that  class  of  foods  essential  to  life  and  known  as  vital 
food-stuffs — proteids.  Among  the  proteids  may  be  mentioned 
the  gluten,  albumen,  fibrin,  syntonin,  casein,  etc.,  which  are 
the  chief  food  constituents  of  bread,  eggs,  meat,  cheese  and 
milk.  Now  the  gastric  juice  has  the  power  of  dissolving  'these 
articles  of  food  at  the  temperature  of  about  100  degrees,  or 
that  to  which  the  food  is  raised  in  the  stomach.  The  motion 
of  the  food  in  the  stomach  has  no  other  value  than  to  thor- 
oughly mix  it  with  the  digestive  fluid.  When  the  proteids, 
whether  from  meat,  or  bread,  or  eggs,  or  cheese,  are  dissolved, 
we  have  a  substance  known  as  peptones.  Peptones  are  readily 
absorbed  and  taken  into  the  current  of  the  blood.  Still  there 
are  many  articles  of  food  that  are  not  dissolved  in  the  stomach. 
As  soon  as  the  starch-foods,  or  amyloids,  become  incorporated 
with  acid  fluid  of  the  stomach,  the  solution  which  has  begun 
by  the  alkaline  saliva  ceases,  and  these  starchy  foods  pass  out 
of  the  stomach  unchanged.  The  fats,  too,  are  not  digested  in 
the  stomach  ;  neither  is  the  solution  of  proteids — bread,  meat, 
cheese,  etc. — completed  in  the  stomach.  A  large  part  of  the 
peptones  are  absorbed  by  the  stomach  and  taken  into  the  cur- 
rent of  the  blood.  The  remaining  contents,  the  starches,  fats, 
and  half-dissolved  proteids,  are  permitted  slowly  to  flow  out  of 
the  stomach  through  the  pyloric  orifice  into  the  duodenum. 


Here  it  mixes  with  the  bile  from  the  liver,  which  has  been  saved 
up  in  a  little  reservoir,  the  gall-bladder,  for  this  purpose,  and 
with  the  fluid  from  the  pancreas,  and  with  the  juice  from  the 
intestinal  glands,  which  together  have  the  power  of  digesting 
the  starchy  foods,  breaking  up  the  fats  into  an  emulsion  (or 
held  in  suspension,  as  butter  is  in  new  milk  before  it  is  churned) 
and  completing  the  solution  of  the  proteids,  so  that  here  all 
the  starch  of  the  vegetables  we  eat  is  converted  into  a  peculiar 
sugar  known  as  grape  sugar  ;  all  the  butter,  fats  and  oils  made 
into  an  emulsion  ;  all  the  gluten,  and  syntonin,  and  casein,  and 
albumen  of  the  bread,  and  meat,  and  milk,  and  cheese,  and 
eggs  which  we  eat  is  converted  into  peptones.  Now  this  grape 
sugtr,  and  the  emulsions,  and  the  peptones,  are  very  readily 
absorbed  by  the  millions  of  villi,  or  the  velvety  little  tufts  of 
blood-vessels  and  lacteals  which  cover  the  folds  on  the  intes- 
tinal mucous  membrane.  Those  parts  of  the  food  unfit  for  the 
use  of  the  body,  or  which  are  not  needed,  are  passed  along  into 
the  large  intestine,  and  finally  carried  out  of  the  body. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 

We  have  seen  how  perfect  is  the  machinery  for  the  elabora- 
tion of  our  food,  and  the  many  processes  through  which  it  goes, 
by  which  it  is  rendered  fit  to  be  taken  into  the  current  of  the 
blood  to  rebuild  the  wonderful  organs  of  man's  mechanism  and 
to  restore  the  tissues  which  have  been  burned  up  in  the  produc- 
tion of  power  necessary  in  work,  and  in  the  production  of  animal 
heat,  which  is  essential  to  life.  More  than  this,  man  is  supplied 
with  every  desirable  means  of  testing  the  kind  and  quality  of  his 
food  before  it  is  introduced  into  this  wonderful  laboratory.  To 
digest  the  stone  of  a  peach  would  be  impossible  ;  such  things, 
taken  into  the  stomach,  could  not  result  otherwise  than  in  death. 
The  pit  is  taken  into  the  hand,  or  tried  between  the  teeth,  and, 
perceiving  its  hardness,  it  is  rejected,  even  by  a  starving  idiot,  as 
unfit  for  food.  Two  wonderful  faculties  is  man  possessed  of 
necessary  to  the  proper  inspection  of  food — the  sense  of  smell 
and  the  sense  of  taste.  The  aroma  and  flavor  of  substances  fit 
for  food  he  is  made  to  like  ;  while  the  odor  and  taste  of  sub- 
stances unfit  for  food  and  harmful  to  the  body  are  made  disa- 
greeable, nauseous,  or  even  disgusting  to  him.  Tainted  meat, 
or  decomposing  eggs,  would  be  most  harmful  taken  into  the 
stomach.  Hence,  such  articles  are  promptly  rejected  by  the 
official  inspectors — smell  and  taste.  Certain  harmful  substances 
may  fail  of  detection,  either  by  sight,  or  smell,  or  taste,  or  any 
of  the  senses  a  part  of  whose  function  is  to  inspect  the  food,  and 
therefore,  as  in  the  case  of  certain  poisons,  be  taken  into  the 
stomach.  But  even  in  the  stomach  there  seems  to  reside  a 
sense  of  the  fitness  of  things,  and  the  poison  is,  by  the  act  of 
vomiting,  immediately  rejected.  If  any  part  of  an  offending 
substance  is  carried  into  the  duodenum,  an  action  is  there  imme- 
diately set  up  to  hurry  it  out  of  the  body.  Nothing  could  be 
more  perfect  than  this  system  of  inspection  and  elaboration  of 
the  food.  Nothing  further  in  this  direction  could  be  desired,  so 
long  as  the  apparatus  of  this  wonderful  laboratory  continues  in 
good  repair — in  other  words,  so  long  as  the  organs  remain  in 
health.  Every  organ  and  tissue  in  the  body  is  liable  to  get  out 
of  repair.  Whenever  any  organ  fails  to  do  its  work  or  shows 
any  defect,  we  say  it  is  diseased. 


4k- 


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I  HVSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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Mumps. 
Parotitis,  or  Mitmps,  is  an  inflammation  of  the  parotid 
gland — that  one  of  the  salivary  glands  which  is  situated  in 
front  of  and  below  the  car.  While  the  swelling  and  soreness 
are  local,  the  disease  is  evidently  constitutional.  The  amount 
of  swelling,  soreness  and  pain  varies  in  different  cases.  There 
is  usually  considerable  pain,  particularly  upon  moving  the  jaw. 
The  swelling  may  be  limited  to  one  side,  or  both  sides  may  be 
involved.  When  both  sides  are  affected,  usually  one  side  is 
invaded  a  day  or  two  in  advance  of  the  other.  It  is  commonly 
believed  to  be  contagious,  although  some  high  authorities  deny 
this.  Whether  it  may  be  communicated  from  one  person  to 
another  or  not,  it  is  sometimes,  at  least,  endemic.  Persons 
between  18  and  30  years  of  age  are  most  susceptible  to  the  dis- 
ease. It  never  occurs  but  once  in  the  same  person.  The 
disease  is  usually  trivial  and  never  dangerous.  No  physician 
is  needed — the  popular  fear  of  taking  cold  is  groundless.  If 
the  pain  is  severe,  the  patient  will  do  well  to  lie  down  and 
keep  quiet.  Hot  fomentations  may  be  applied  to  the  swelling, 
and  twenty  drops  of  laudanum  may  be  taken  once  in  three  or 
four  hours  to  relieve  the  pain. 

Acute  Tonsilitis — Quinsy. 

Quinsy,  or  Tonsilitis,  is  an  inflammation  of  the  tonsil. 
One  or  both  tonsils  may  be  involved.  It  is  a  very  distressing 
and  painful  disease,  and  swallowing  is  rendered  very  difficult  by 
the  great  swelling  of  the  tonsils,  which  often  apparently  quite 
closes  the  opening  into  the  pharynx.  The  affection,  however, 
is  not  dangerous.  It  usually  ends  in  an  abscess,  which  breaks 
upon  the  inside.  There  is  a  predisposition  to  the  disease  in 
some  persons,  who  suffer  from  repeated  attacks.  An  attack  is 
sometimes  caused  by  exposure  to  cold.  Persons  predisposed  to  the 
disease  should  have  the  tonsils  removed,  as  should  be  done  in  all 
persons  with  permanentlyenlarged  tonsils.  A  perfect  instrument 
is  made  especially  for  this  purpose.  The  removal  of  a  tonsil 
is  but  the  work  of  a  moment  on  the  part  of  the  surgeon.  The 
operation  is  attended  with  scarcely  any  pain,  the  wound  is  alto- 
gether trivial,  and  a  permanent  cure  is  effected  and  the  patient 
relieved  from  a  constant  source  of  discomfort.  During  an 
acute  case  of  tonsilitis,  or  quinsy,  the  patient  should  remain  in 
bed  ;  poultices,  or  flannels  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  may  be 
applied  to  the  throat ;  steam  may  be  inhaled,  and  a  gargle  of  a 
saturated  solution  of  chlorate  of  potassium  in  water  may  be 
used.  In  addition,  the  following  prescription  will  be  found  of 
great  use : 

Quinine, 24  grains. 

Morphine,         .....       1  grain. 

Make  six  powders.     Take  one  every  four  hours. 

Acute  Pharyngitis— Sore  Throat— Cold. 
Acute  Pharyngitis  is  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  pharynx,  and  is  one  form  of  a  cold.  On 
looking  into  the  throat  the  membrane  is  found  to  be  red  and 
inflamed.  If  it  extends  deep  into  the  pharynx  there  will  be  a 
cough,  which  is  not  in  any  way  husky,  showing  that  the  larynx 
is  not  affected.  There  is  considerable  soreness  and  pain  when 
an  attempt   is  made  to  swallow,   and  very  often  there  is  a 


white  exudation,  both  in  the  throat  and  on  the  tonsils,  which 
are  usually  more  or  less  inflamed.  These  white  points  often 
lead  to  mistaking  the  disease  for  diphtheria.  The  affection  is 
often  attended  with  considerable  fever.  The  duration  of  the 
disease  is  from  five  to  ten  days.  The  treatment  recommended 
for  quinsy  should  be  employed. 

Chronic   Granular    Pharyngitis — Clergyman's    Sore 
Throat. 

Chronic  Pharyngitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  pharynx  of  long  standing.  It  frequently  exists 
without  the  patient  making  any  complaint.  There  is  usually, 
however,  a  dry,  hacking  cough,  which  is  increased  by  fatigue 
or  mental  depression,  and  the  voice  frequently  becomes  hoarse 
from  speaking.  It  is  a  disease  of  middle  life,  is  much  more 
common  in  men  than  women,  and  from  the  annoyance  it  occas- 
ions clergymen  it  has  received  the  name  of  clergyman's  sort 
throat.  It  occurs  no  more  frequently  among  clergymen  than 
other  persons,  but,  because  of  the  necessity  for  using  the 
voice,  it  occasions  them  more  inconvenience.  The  disease  is 
not  dangerous  and  has  no  tendency  to  run  into  consumption  or 
any  other  disease.  Still  it  is  apt  to  persist  for  many  years,  and 
is  very  difficult  to  cure.  The  following  prescription  will  do 
good,  and,  with  proper  hygienic  care,  may  produce  a  cure. 
Iodide  of  potassium,  -  -  -  4  drams. 
Bromide  of  potassium,  -  -  -  1  ounce. 
Compound  tincture  of  gentian,        -    6  ounces. 

Dose. — One  teaspoonful  in  a  wine-glass  of  water  three  times 
a  day  after  meals. 

The  above  should  be  continued  for  a  long  time.  Quinine  in 
two-grain  doses  may  be  taken  three  times  a  day.  Outdoor 
exercise  should  be  taken ;  relaxation  from  mental  labor,  together 
with  recreation  and  good  living,  will  be  found  of  the  greatest 
benefit.  If  the  patient  is  dyspeptic,  particularly,  he  should 
abandon  the  starvation  brown-bread  diet,  and  demonstrate  his 
ability  to  live  as  other  men  do,  upon  a  generous  diet  such  as 
his  appetite  craves.  Let  the  variety  of  food  taken  be  as  great 
as  possible. 

Dyspepsia. 

AcfTE  Dyspepsia — commonly  called  a  bilious  attack,  or  fit 
of  indigestion — is  a  disorder  of  short  duration.  It  begins  by  a 
sense  of  weight  and  fulness,  and  of  pain  in  the  region  of  the 
stomach  ;  nausea  and  vomiting  often  occur,  and  later  there  may 
be  adiarrhcea.  There  is  generally  slight  fever  and  considerable 
pain  in  the  head. 

Sick  Headache  is  an  acute  dyspepsia,  differing  from  the 
above  only  in  the  more  frequent  occurrence  of  vomiting  and 
severe  headache.  The  vomited  matters  usually  contain  bile, 
and  the  patient  is  commonly  described  as  bilious.  The  disease 
is  commonly  held  by  physicians  to  be  an  affection  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  stomach,  while  it  is  by  good  authority  also 
claimed  to  be  of  nervous  origin.  Whatever  the  original  cause, 
acute  indigestion  is  the  result,  and  the  evacuation  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels  is  the  way  of  relief.  One  or  tw. 
pound  cathartic  pills  may  be  given  after  the  first  occurrence  of 
vomiting.     Strict  rest  in  bed  must  be  required.     The  writer  has 


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found  the  following  prescription,  after  vomiting  has  occurred, 
to  be  of  the  utmost  service  in  numerous  cases  : 

Hydrate  of  chloral,         -         -         -         15  grains. 

Sulphate  of  morphia,         -         -         -      l/%  grain. 
Dissolve  in  a  wine-glass  of  water,  and  take  at  one  dose.     If 
the  patient  does  not  find  rest  and  sleep  in  one  hour,  repeat 
the  prescription. 

Sometimes  it  is  better  to  give  20  grains  of  chloral  at  the  first 
dose.  Often  such  treatment  will  afford  the  patient  from  five  to 
eight  hours'  sleep  ;  he  then  awakes  free  from  headache  and 
nausea.  The  disease  sometimes  appears  to  be  hereditary, 
several  members  of  the  same  family  being  subject  to  frequent 
attacks.  It  is  a  disease  of  early  adult  and  middle  life,  usually 
disappearing  after  40  years  of  age. 

Dyspepsia — a  chronic-  affection — is  characterized  by  dis- 
tention of  the  stomach  and  bowels  by  gas,  and  consequent 
uneasiness  and  pain,  with  an  oppressive  sense  of  fulness  ;  fre- 
quent regurgitations  of  fluid  from  the  stomach  which  has  either 
a  salty,  insipid  or  acid  taste.  Sometimes  it  is  acrid  and 
intensely  disagreeable.  This  regurgitation  is  commonly  known 
as  water-brash.  This  condition  is  not  unfrequently  attended 
with  a  burning,  painful  sensation  at  a  point  where  the  oesopha- 
gus opens  into  the  stomach,  extending  upward  along  the  course 
of  the  cesophagus — a  symptom  commonly  called  heart-burn. 
Constipation  is  also  generally  present.  Vomiting  is  rare.  The 
gas  in  the  stomach  and  bowels  may  be  derived  in  large  part  from 
the  fermentation  qf  undigested  food,  but  it  is  certain  that  in  many 
cases  it  has  its  origin  in  a  disordered  state  of  the  nervous 
system.  Dyspepsia  is  attended  with  depression  of  spirits. 
This  is  greatest  when  the  stomach  and  bowels  are  most  dis- 
tended by  gas,  and  is  never  seen,  I  believe,  unless  accompanied 
by  more  or  less  distention.  This  state  of  depression,  carried 
beyond  a  certain  point,  eventuates  in  a  form  of  mental  aberration 
known  as  hypocondriasis  (vulgarly  called  hypo),  or  even 
melancholia.  We  have  in  mind  a  night-watch  in  a  public  hos- 
pital, who  was  subject  to  attacks  of  rapid  accumulation  of  gas  in 
stomach  and  bowels,  attended  with  considerable  pain.  Not- 
withstanding the  frequency  of  the  attacks  and  the  always  happy 
termination  within  an  hour  or  two,  his  memory  and  experience 
seemed  of  little  use.  He  always  believed  that  he  was  within  a 
few  minutes  of  death,  and  that  the  Lord  had  made  this  special 
visitation  upon  him  as  a  punishment  for  his  sins  (although  he 
was  not  noted  for  this  sort  of  religious  faith  at  other  times), 
which  he  would  proceed  to  contess,  and  which  were  ridiculous 
trivialities  :  he  had  failed  to  be  polite  to  some  one,  or  he  had 
reported  some  employe  for  neglect  of  duty,  or  some  other 
equally  trivial  fault,  or  even  a  virtue,  which  at  these  times  he 
would  distort  into  a  fault.  He  was  no  coward,  but  a  brave, 
courageous  and  sensible  young  man.  As  soon  as  the  pain  and 
distention  was  relieved,  these  melancholy  delusions  appeared  as 
ridiculous  to  him  as  to  his  physician,  although  the  experience 
was  of  no  possible  aid  to  his  reason  on  the  next  occasion. 

Prof.  Austin  Flint,  of  New  York,  is  authority  for  the  state- 
ment that  "  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases,  dyspepsia  originates 
and  is  perpetuated  by  mental  causes.  It  is  induced  and  kept  up 
by  anxiety  and  depression.  In  the  first  place  it  is  produced  by 
mental  causes,  and  then  the  dyspepsia  reacts  upon  the  mind, 


increasing  its  morbid  condition.  Most  cases  show  the  affection 
to  have  been  preceded  by  mental  inquietude  of  some  sort.  Per- 
sons who  are  constantly  anxious  about  something,  such  as 
acquiring  success  in  life,  getting  out  of  debt,  securing  independ- 
ent positions,  or  imaginary  troubles,  are  those  who  are  prone  to 
the  disease.  The  disease  is  most  frequent  from  early  adult  to 
middle  life,  during  the  time  when  anxieties  are  greatest." 

The  Treatment. — The  scope  of  this  article  will  not  permit 
more  than  to  indicate  the  general  character  of  the  treatment  to 
be  employed.  First,  attention  should  be  given  to  the  mind. 
The  patient  should  be  made  to  understand  that  his  gloomy  fore- 
boding regarding  his  health  has  no  foundation  in  fact ;  that  his 
anxiety  constitutes  his  dyspepsia,  and  that  there  is  not  another 
such  a  father  of  "  the  blues  "  as  "  wind  on  the  stomach. "  Exer- 
cise is  a  good  thing,  but  if  ordered  to  take  it  at  stated  times 
without  any  other  purpose  than  treatment,  it  will  fail  of  its  best 
results  by  keeping  the  mind  of  the  patient  upon  himself  and 
his  dyspepsia.  He  should  have  a  change  of  scene — should  go 
where  new  objects  will  engage  his  attention  and  take  possession 
of  his  mind.  Nothing  is  better  than  foreign  travel.  Objects 
of  interest  engage  his  mind,  and  he  forgets  nimself.  He  finds  it 
impossible  to  stick  to  his  brown  bread  and  limited  variety  of  foods 
(which  he  has  had  cooked  in  a  particular  way  for  years,  perhaps, 
under  the  delusion  that  he  could  not  live  if  he  should  dare  to 
go  beyond  his  self-imposed  restrictions),  for  it  is  not  to  be 
obtained.  By  his  exercise  and  cheerful  interest  in  what  is 
novel  to  him,  he  becomes  hungry  and  indulges  freely  in  the 
variety  of  table  fares  which  he  finds  at  the  various  hotels,  and 
he  soon  learns  that  he  suffers  no  inconvenience  from  whatever 
he  chooses  to  eat,  so  that  often  a  few  months'  travel  is  sufficient 
to  permanently  dispel  the  delusions  and  cure  the  most  chronic 
case  of  years'  standing. 

There  is  no  more  prevalent  American  fallacy  than  the  notion 
that  one  should  not  sleep  soon  after  eating — the  notion  that, 
no  matter  how  hungry  one  may  be,  he  must  not  eat  before 
retiring.  This  notion  is  not  held  by  any  other  nation  in  the 
world,  and  how  it  became  so  prevalent  here,  it  is  difficult  to 
account  for.  Those  people  who  eat  the  largest  meal  at  from 
7  to  9  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  perhaps  take  a  luncheon  the 
last  thing  before  retiring,  and  who  require,  consequently,  a 
very  light  breakfast,  are  far  less  frequently  attacked  by  dys- 
pepsia than  those  who  exercise  after  eating. 

As  regards  diet,  the  patient  should  take  in  sufficient  quantities 
and  great  variety  all  kinds  of  nutritious  food.  Milk  and  nice, 
tender  meats  of  all  sorts  should  particularly  be  largely  eaten. 
Pastry,  sweets  and  sugars  had  better  be  discarded.  Ripe  fruit 
is  very  useful,  and  generally  any  article  which  the  appetite 
craves — roast  pork,  or  oysters,  or  melons,  or  even  the  infamous 
cucumber,  if  called  for  by  the  appetite — will  do  good  and  not 
harm. 

Medicinal  remedies  are  useful  in  relieving  some  of  the  symp- 
toms. The  regurgitation  of  fluid  from  the  stomach,  -Mater- 
brash,  and  the  heart-burn,  may  be  relieved  by  moderate  doses 
of  subnitrate  of  bismuth. 

The  distention  by  gas  and  the  constipation  are  best  relieved 
by  an  enema,  which  should  be  retained  for  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes.  The  patient  should  drink  a  great  deal  of  fluid — milk 
and  water.       Water  should  be  taken  in  large  quantity  between 


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meals — not  until  an  hour  after  or  half  an  hour  before  meals. 
A  movement  of  the  bowels  every  morning  should  be  sought 
directly  after  breakfast.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  induce 
this  habit.  A  glass  of  cold  water  directly  upon  rising  will  be 
useful  in  this  regard.  A  general  tonic  will  be  found  most  use- 
ful, and  should  be  occasionally  changed  for  another.  Among 
the  best  may  be  mentioned  quinine,  in  two-grain  doses  ;  com- 
pound tincture  of  gentian,  in  teaspoonful  doses,  and  tincture 
of  nux  vomica,  in  fifteen-drop  doses. 

Polyphagia — Excessive  Appetite — Gluttony. 

Polyphagia  is  characterized  by  a  voracious  appetite,  and  the 
ingestion  of  enormous  quantities  of  food  beyond  the  demands 
of  the  system.  Sometimes  the  capacity  of  digestion  is  increased 
in  these  cases,  which  leads  to  excessive  accumulations  of  fat, 
and  to  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart  and  other  organs.  In 
the  sense  in  which  the  term  is  used,  it  implies  a  disease.  It  is 
sometimes  observed  in  cases  of  mental  derangement.  The 
excessive  craving  for  food  may  be  diminished  by  the  use  of 
opium  in  some  form.     Recovery  is  to  be  expected. 

Polydipsia — Excessive  Thirst. 

Polydipsia  is  a  very  rare  disease  It  consists  in  an  excessive 
craving  for  the  imbibition  of  enormous  quantities  of  water. 
The  quantity  of  urine  voided  is  proportionately  great,  is  pale 
and  limpid,  with  nearly  the  specific  gravity  of  distilled  water. 
It  contains  no  sugar  or  other  abnormal  constituents.  There  is 
no  other  evidence  of  disease.  The  patient  drinks  several  gal- 
lons of  water  daily.  A  young  man,  a  patient  in  a  public  asylum, 
in  excellent  physical  health,  developed  this  curious  affection. 
As  soon  as  the  fact  was  discovered,  an  investigation  was  made 
by  confining  him  to  his  room,  where  he  was  permitted  to  have 
all  the  water  he  desired,  all  of  which  was  carefully  measured  to 
him.  Tile  amount  drunk  during  the  day  was  fourteen  quarts. 
The  urine  voided  during  the  same  time  was  also  measured,  and 
corresponded  precisely  to  the  water  drunk— -fourteen  quarts. 
The  next  day  he  was  permitted  to  have  only  a  pint  and  a  half 
of  fluid — half  a  pint  with  each  meal.  The  third  day  he  was 
also  restricted  to  a  pint  and  a  half  of  fluid,  and  the  urine 
voided  during  the  third  day  was  precisely  the  same  as  the  water 
taken — a  pint  and  a  half.  Recovery  in  this  case  was  com- 
plete, without  other  treatment  than  restriction  in  the  amount 
of  water  drunk.  The  symptoms  shown  during  the  excessive 
water-drinking  were  indifference  and  excessive  laziness.  Now, 
after  three  years,  there  has  been  no  recurrence  of  the  symp- 
toms. 

Dipsomania. 

Dipsomania  is  the  term  used  to  express  a  morbid  craving 
for  alcoholic  stimulants.  The  habit  maybe  developed  through 
dyspepsia  or  other  disease  of  the  digestive  system.  We  have  in 
mind  a  pitiable  case  of  a  lady  who  developed  the  habit  through 
efforts  to  get  relief  from  a  distress  which  afterwards  proved  to 
have  been  caused  by  a  tape-worm.  The  desire  for  drink  in 
some  of  these  cases  assumes  the  nature  of  the  delusions  of 
insanity.  In  such  cases  it  is  useless  to  reason  with  the  patient, 
and  the  only  certain  hope  of  relief  is  by  placing  the  patient  in 
some  institution,  where  stimulants  will  be  withheld  and  suitable 
medicinal  and  hygienic  treatment  can  be  enforced.     The  patient 


should  reside  in  such  an  institution  long  enough  to  have  the 
physical  health  fully  restored  and  the  morbid  appetite  quite 
fully  overcome. 

Inanition — Starvation. 
Inanition. — To  preserve  the  health  and  strength  it  U  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  food  should  be  supplied  in  generous 
quantity  and  variety.  There  is  no  one  article  of  food  which 
contains  all  those  principles  which  are  necessary  to  the  perfect 
nutrition  of  the  body  ;  and  among  the  first  organs  to  suffer  for 
lack  of  proper  nutrition  are  the  organs  of  digestion.  Every 
one  knows  the  pain  and  exhaustion  produced  by  a  single  day's 
abstinence  from  food.  Especially  is  this  excessive  if  work  has 
been  necessary  in  addition  to  the  abstinence  from  food.  Now, 
we  have  very  little  to  do  with  cases  of  famine,  or  starvation  by 
shipwreck.  If  our  assistance  could  be  made  available  in  such 
cases,  we  should  not  need  to  seek  the  advice  of  a  physician ; 
but  the  first  move  of  the  best  informed  as  well  as  the  most 
obtuse  person  would  be  to  supply  proper  food.  How  differently 
even  the  best  informed  often  treat  the  sick  of  their  own 
families,  not  knowing  what  is  best  to  do.  In  a  fever  of  what- 
ever kind,  the  tissues  are  being  far  more  rapidly  oxidized  or 
burned  up  than  in  health,  as  evidenced  by  the  great  heat  of  the 
body  and  the  rapid  loss  of  weight.  Under  such  circumstances, 
the  patient,  to  keep  up  the  loss,  really  requires  more  food  than 
in  health,  and  yet  how  often  he  is  deprived  of  food  entirely  for 
days  together,  with  the  idea  of  "starving  a  fever."  It  is  the 
patient,  and  not  the  fever,  that  is  being  starved.  The  tissues  of 
the  body  are  being  rapidly  consumed,  arid  if  food  is  not 
furnished  to  rebuild  these  tissues,  the  patient  must  die  from 
exhaustion.  If  a  well  person  even  were  put  to  bed,  and  there 
kept  practically  without  food,  and  scarcely  permitted  water,  for 
three  or  four  weeks,  as  many  typhoid- fever  patients  are,  a  very 
large  proportion  of  them  would  die,  and  it  would  be  plain  that 
such  a  person  had  been  starved  to  death.  Many  a  fever  patient 
has  been  starved  to  death  who  is  said  to  have  died  from  fever. 
Many  a  dyspeptic  continues  ill  for  years  because  he  restricts 
himself  ignorantly  to  too  small  a  quantity  or  to  too  small  a 
variety  of  food.  Patients  with  cancer  of  the  stomach,  or  ulcer 
of  the  stomach,  or  chronic  diarrhoea  or  dysentery,  and  many 
other  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs,  generally  die  of  starva- 
tion. The  prime  object,  then,  in  all  such  diseases,  is  to  supply 
such  food  as  can  be  digested  and  taken  into  the  blood,  in  the 
greatest  possible  variety,  and  in  such  quantities  as  will  repair 
the  waste  by  disease.  Either  an  insufficient  quantity  or  variety 
of  food  is  certain  to  be  followed  by  disease.  Disease  and  pesti- 
lence always  follow  famine.  Certain  diseases,  as  scorbutus 
(scurvy),  are  developed  for  want  of  variety  of  food. 

Gastritis— Inflammation  of  the  Stomach. 
Acute  Gastritis  is  a  very  rare  affection.  It  seldom  occurs 
except  as  the  result  of  a  wound  or  of  some  corrosive  poison. 
Pain  is  intense  ;  thirst  is  excessive ;  vomiting  is  frequent  and 
very  distressing.  The  vomited  matters  are  at  first  of  a  greenish 
color  ;  but  if  life  is  prolonged,  in  fatal  cases,  the  vomited  matters 
are  black,  with  the  appearance  of  coffee  grounds.  The  surface 
is  cold,  and  prostration  is  extreme.  Besides  poisons,  the  taking 
of  Urge  quantities  of  alcoholic  stimulants  without  food  may  act 
as  the  cause  of  an  attack.     Death,  in  fatal  cases,  takes  place  in 


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from  a  few  hours  to  a  few  days.  Cases  of  this  disease  are  so 
grave  that  a  physician  is  always  promptly  called.  The  treat- 
ment will  therefore  best  be  left  to  his  advice.  When  the  cause 
is  by  a  corrosive  poison,  the  proper  treatment  will  be  found 
under  the  head  of  poisons. 

Subacute  Gastritis,  or  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the 
stomach,  is  much  more  frequent  in  infants  than  in  adults.  When 
it  occurs  in  adults,  appetite  is  impaired  or  lost ;  nausea  and 
vomiting  are  very  likely  to  occur ;  sometimes  it  is  a  very  severe 
and  persistent  symptom.  Thirst  is  very  great,  and  cold  water 
is  craved.  Headache  is  usually  very  great,  and  weakness  and 
exhaustion  keep  the  patient  in  bed.  Many  of  the  symptoms  are 
identical  with  the  disease  already  spoken  of  under  the  heads  of 
acute  dyspepsia  and  sick  headache.  The  most  prominent  dis- 
tinction is  found  in  the  duration  of  the  attack,  subacute  gastritis 
continuing  for  from  one  to  three  weeks.  The  termination  is 
almost  always  favorable  ;  only  very  rarely,  and  in  the  most 
severe  cases,  when  the  symptoms  approach  those  of  acute 
gastritis,  is  there  any  cause  for  alarm  concerning  the  termination 
of  the  case.  The  cause  of  the  disease  is  not  always  clear. 
Among  adults,  those  addicted  to  intoxicating  beverages  are 
especially  liable  to  it. 

Treatment. — The  patient  may,  for  a  few  days,  be  restricted 
to  a  milk  diet.  If  the  stomach  is  intolerant  of  food,  enemas  of 
milk  may  be  given,  half  a  pint  at  a  time,  and  as  often  as  once 
in  three  or  four  hours,  until  the  condition  of  the  stomach  has 
improved.  Small  pieces  of  ice  may  be  swallowed  to  relieve  the 
thirst  and  the  nausea.  The  following  prescription  will  perhaps 
prove  the  most  useful  of  any  that  could  be  taken  to  relieve  the 
pain  and  vomiting : 

Subnitrate  of  bismuth,         -         -         -         i  dram. 
Sulphate  of  morphine,         -         -         -         iyi  grains. 

Make  eight  powders.  Give  one  powder  as  often  as  necessary 
to  relieve  pain. 

Neither  emetics,  cathartics  nor  laxatives  should  be  used.  If 
constipation  exists,  an  enema  or  injection  of  warm  water  should 
be  used  to  produce  an  evacuation. 

Chronic  Gastritis  is  a  chronic  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  stomach.  It  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to 
distinguish  between  chronic  gastritis  and  the  functional  disease 
dyspepsia.  If  there  is  great  thirst,  tenderness  and  soreness  at 
all  times  over  the  stomach,  loss  of  weight,  occasional  vomiting, 
the  symptoms  point  to  gastritis  rather  than  to  dyspepsia,  in 
which  none  of 'the  above  symptoms  are  prominent. 

Many  causes  lead  to  the  disease.  Insufficient  food  is  perhaps 
the  most  frequent  cause. 

Persons  suffering  from  functional  dyspepsia  brought  about  by 
a  nervous  condition  due  to  anxiety  or  depression,  may,  by  limiting 
the  quantity  and  variety  of  the  food,  bring  about  a  real  inflam- 
mation of  the  coats  of  the  stomach.  Remember  that  harm 
is  always  the  result  of  severe  so-called  "  dieting,"  that  is,  limit- 
ing the  food  taken  to  an  insufficient  quantity  and  small  variety. 

Another  and  almost  as  frequent  a  cause  is,  as  in  the  subacute 
variety,  the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants.  It  is  also  caused  by 
the  continued  use  of  arsenic,  taken  sometimes  as  a  medicine, 
but  more  often  to  improve  the  complexion.  Disease  of  the 
liver,  by  causing  congestion  of  the  stomach,  also  acts  as  a  cause. 


Treatment. — The  food  be'st  adapted  in  cases  of  this  sort  is 
millc,  bread,  butter  and  eggs,  beef  extract,  rice,  corn-starch,  etc. 
A  change  of  scene,  fair  exercise,  and  recreation  for  the  mind, 
are  in  the  direction  of  the  best  results.  As  regards  medicine, 
nothing  can  be  better  than  the  treatment  recommended  in 
dyspeysia. 

Ulcer  of  the  Stomach. 

GASTRIC  Ulcer  is  a.  tolerably  frequent  disease.  It  is  also  a 
disease  of  gravity  and  danger.-  The  ulcer  is  of  two  kinds.  One, 
known  as  the  perforating  ulcer,  is  small  and  deep,  and  affects 
chiefly  young  people  —  girls  and  young  women  with  much 
greater  frequency  than  young  men.  It  is  said  that  servant- 
girls  are  more  often  afflicted  by  this  form  of  ulcer  than  others, 
although  I  can  see  no  reason  for  this  and  doubt  the  fact.  The 
other  form  is  larger  and  not  so  deep.  It  may  be  as  large  as  a 
silver  dollar,  or  even  larger,  and  people  of  middle  age  are  more 
often  the  subjects. 

The  prominent  symptoms  are  pain  directly  after  eating,  local 
tenderness  on  pressure,  vomiting  after  eating,  and  hemorrhage 
or  bleeding  into  the  stomach.  If  blood  is  poured  out  into  the 
stomach  it  is  very  likely  to  be  vomited.  If  it  is  not  vomited 
immediately  it  is  turned  black  by  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice. 
From  the  fact  that  the  matter  vomited  is  Hack,  without  further 
examination  it  can  be  almost  certainly  relied  upon  as  being 
blood.  If  vomited  immediately  that  hemorrhage  takes  place, 
it  will  have  the  red  color  of  blood.  If  the  above  symptoms 
occur  in  a  young  person,  it  is  almost  certain  that  ulcer  of  the 
stomach  is  the  cause.  Hemorrhage  may  take  place  into  the 
stomach,  however,  without  causing  vomiting.  But  even  with- 
out this  proof,  the  other  symptoms  are  usually  sufficiently  clear 
to  render  an  opinion  upon.  In  case  of  ulcer,  pain  occurs  im- 
mediately upon  introducing  food  into  the  stomach.  In  other 
stomach  diseases  (with  the  exception  of  cancer)  the  pain  does 
not  occur  until  some  time  later.  If  any  considerable  bleeding 
takes  place  and  is  not  vomited,  the  patient  shows  the  fact  by 
weakness,  paleness,  prostration,  thirst,  and  a  peculiar  throb- 
bing of  the  arteries  in  the  neck,  caused  by  being  only  half 
filled  with  blood  at  each  pulsation.  If  the  patient  is  young 
we  may  be  absolutely  certain  that  the  ulcer  is  not  a  cancer  of 
the  stomach  (which,  in  many  respects,  has  the  same  symp- 
toms), for  canoer  rarely  happens  in  young  people.  If  the 
patient  is  of  middle  age,  then  we  may  not  be  able  to  decide  the 
case  at  once,  although  the  peculiar  symptoms  as  regards  the 
appearance,  in  addition  to  peculiarities  in  the  character  of  the 
pain  in  a  patient  suffering  from  cancer,  are  usually  sufficient  to 
render  an  opinion  tolerably  safe. 

In  fatal  cases  death  takes  place  by  different  ways.  It  some- 
times happens  that  the  vomiting  of  blood  is  the  first  symptom 
pointing  to  the  disease.  Hemorrhage  sometimes  is  so  great  as 
to  cause  death.  By  the  ulceration  af  a  blood-vessel  of  consid- 
erable size,  the  patient  bleeds  to  death.  Another  cause  of 
death  is  by  the  ulcer  perforating  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  thus 
permitting  some  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  to  escape  into 
the  abdominal  cavity,  and  thus  setting  up  an  inflammation  of 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  abdomen  {peritonitis,  a  very  pain- 
ful fever),  which,  when  produced  by  this  cause,  speedily  results 
in  death.  The  other  way  in  which  gastric  or  stomach  ulcer 
causes  death  is  by  inanition,  or  starvation.     When  food  is 


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634 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


vomited  as  soon  as  taken,  day  after  clay  and  week  after  week, 
the  patient  rapidly  loses  weight,  and  if  nutrition  is  not  sup- 
plied in  some  other  way,  soon  dies  for  want  of  food. 

Treatment.  — To  stop  hemorrhage,  pieces  of  ice  may  be  given 
to  the  patient  to  swallow,  and  cold  may  be  applied  over  the 
stomach.  If  perforation  takes  place,  nothing  can  be  done.  If 
vomiting  is  persistent,  it  is  well  not  to  give  the  patient  any  food 
by  stomach,  but  give  enemas  of  half  a  pint  of  good  rich  milk, 
beef-tea  or  mutton  broth,  and  the  white  of  eggs  beaten  up  with 
the  milk.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  stomach  a  rest, 
and  the  ulcer,  being  thus  left  free  from  irritation,  a  chance  to 
heal.  This  method  of  feeding  has,  in  some  cases,  been  kept  up 
for  two  or  three  months  at  a  time,  with  the  best  results. 

Morphine  and  bismuth  may  be  given,  to  relieve  pain  and 
vomiting.  If  food  is  given  by  stomach,  it  should  consist  princi- 
pally of  milk. 

Cathartics  or  laxatives  should  never  be  given  by  stomach.  If 
at  all,  they  should  be  given  by  enema.  Usually  enemas  of 
water  are  all  that  will  be  required. 

Cancer  of  the  Stomach. 

Cancer  of  the  Stomach  is  not  a  frequent  disease.  Sim- 
ple ulcer  of  the  stomach  is  far  more  common.  Perhaps  or.e- 
third  of  all  cancers  are  of  the  stomach.  The  disease  rarely  oc- 
curs before  forty  years  of  age.  It  is  most  common  between  fifty 
and  sixty.  It  is  twice  as  common  in  men  as  in  women.  Some- 
times there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  finding  out  what  is  the 
matter.  There  is  usually  loss  of  appetite  and  loss  of  flesh,  with 
weakness  and  exhaustion.  There  is  pain  in  the  stomach, 
which  is  increased  after  meals,  and  frequently  vomiting  also. 
Often  there  is  a  peculiar  yellow  complexion,  which  points  to 
cancer  as  the  cause.  If  these  symptoms  should  occur  in  a  young 
person,  simple  ulcer  of  the  stomach  is  more  probable.  Some- 
times a  tumor  can  be  felt  through  the  abdominal  walls  over  the 
stomach.  If  this  can  be  done,  and  the  other  symptoms  are 
present,  there  can  scarcely  be  two  opinions  in  the  case.  The 
loss  of  appetite,  the  cutting  pains,  the  vomiting,  the  black,  cof- 
fee-grounds-appearing substance  (blood  acted  upon  by  gastric- 
juice)  in  the  vomited  matter,  indicate  that  the  trouble  is  not 
dyspepsia.  The  pain  of  cancer  is  "  cutting. "  Of  simple  ulcer 
it  is  described  as  "  burning  "  or  "  gnawing. " 

The  pain  in  cancer  is  more  constant,  while  in  ulcer  it  occurs 
more  particularly  after  eating  ;  vomiting  more  immediately 
after  eating  in  simple  ulcer.  Hemorrhage  is  more  frequent 
and  greater  in  amount  in  ulcer  than  in  cancer.  A  tumor  is 
never  found  in  simple  ulcer,  and  is  often  to  be  found  in  case  of 
cancer  of  the  stomach.  These  things,  taken  in  connection 
with  the  history  of  the  case,  are  usually  sufficient  to  decide  the 
case. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  treatment  that  is  of  any  avail  in 
curing  the  disease.  Remedies  may  be  given  to  relieve  pain, 
and  life  may  be  prolonged  by  careful  attention  to  the  nutrition 
of  the  patient. 

Diairhcea. 
DlARRH<EA  is  an  affection  of  the  small  intestines,  and  is  due 
ny  different  causes.     It  may  be  temporary,  lasting  but 
for  a  few  hours,  or  it  may  be  chronic,  lasting  for  months.     It 


may  be  caused  by  any  trivial  thing,  as  a  slight  change  in  the 
weather  or  some  temporary  indigestion,  or  may  be  a  symptom 
of  some  grave  or  chronic  disease,  as  typhoid  fever,  consump- 
tion or  intestinal  catarrh.  The»e  is  one  type  which  is  prob- 
ably due  to  disease  of  the  pancreas,  in  which  fat,  in  appear- 
ance like  melted  butter,  is  evacuated,  which  upon  cooling  over 
the  stool  gives  it  the  appearance  of  being  mostly  fat.  ThU 
form  is  of  considerable  gravity,  and  often  proves  fatal. 

Diarrhcea  occurs  most  frequently  during  the  summer  months. 
In  September,  when  the  weather  suddenly  becomes  cooler, 
there  are  always  a  large  number  of  cases. 

Treatment. — If  in  the  beginning  of  a  diarrhcea  Ae  bowels 
are  freely  evacuated  by  some  mild  cathartic,  nothing  further  it 
generally  required.  For  this  purpose  a  small  dose  of  salts,  or 
what  is  better,  castor  oil,  may  be  taken.  If  the  diarrhcea  con- 
tinues, twenty-five  drops  of  laudanum  may  be  taken  every 
three  to  six  hours.  Or  instead,  five-grain  doses  of  Dover's 
powder,  or  a  sixth  of  a  grain  of  morphine. 

In  case  of  chronic  diarrhoea,  more  dependence  for  a  cure 
must  be  had  upon  suitable  diet.  Those  articles  should  be 
eaten  which  are  principally  or  wholly  digested  in  the  stomach, 
and  not  those  which  are  digested  in  the  small  intestine.  Ten- 
der meats  of  all  sorts  are  best  digested  ;  milk  may  be  taken  also, 
and  ripe  fruits.  Vegetables  generally  should  not  be  eaten. 
The  food  should  be  taken  frequently,  and  a  small  amount  at  a 
time.  If  the  patient  lives  in  the  city,  a  change  should  be  made 
to  the  country.  A  malarious  district  should  be  avoided,  and 
care  should  be  taken  as  to  dress.  Woolen  should  be  worn 
next  the  person  at  all  seasons.  Rest  in  bed  is  useful  Tonics 
should  be  taken — among  the  best  are  iron  and  quinine.  Fif- 
teen or  twenty  drops  of  laudanum  may  be  taken  when  required 
to  check  the  diarrhcea. 

Summer  Complaint. 
Diarrhoea  occurring  in  young  children,  and  prevailing  during 
the  warm  season,  is  known  as  summer  complaint.  It  is  com- 
mon during  teething,  and  may  begin  in  an  acute  attack  of 
cholera  infantum.  It  is  a  cause  of  great  mortality  among  lit- 
tle children.  In  the  large  cities  during  certain  months  fully 
one-half  of  the  deaths  are  due  to  this  cause.  The  little  pat  ient 
should  l>e  removed  to  the  country  if  possible.  A  spot  should 
be  selected  that  is  free  from  malaria,  that  is  cool  and  dry. 
Pure,  fresh,  sweet  milk,  together  with  lean,  tender  meats, 
rare  done,  or  raw  tender  beef  chopped  fine  and  seasoned  to 
taste,  should  be  fed  the  chiML  Tonics  may  be  given,  and  from 
twenty  to  sixty  drops  (according  to  the  age  of  the  child  and 
severity  of  the  diarrhcea)  of  the  camphorated  tincture  of 
opium  (paregoric)  may  be  given  every  few  hours.  Food 
should  be  taken  often,  and  a  small  amount  at  a  time. 

Enteritis — Inflammation  of  the  Small  Intestine. 
i  RITIS,  either  acute  or  subacute,  is  very  rare  after  the 
age  of  infancy.  The  diagnosis  is  not  always  clear,  but  diar- 
rhoea is  always  a  sympton,  and  is  generally  in  children  classed 
under  summer  complaint  or  cholera  infantum.  TTie  treat- 
ment advised  under  these  heads  should  be  employed.  When 
occurring  in  adults,  rest  in  bed  is  to  be  strictly  enjoined,  hot 
poultices  or  hot  water  dressing  over  the  abdomen  may  be  used. 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINK. 


635 


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s* 


and  opium  in  some  shape,   laudanum  or   morphine,  is  to  be 
given,  together  with  quinine. 

Dysentery  —  Inflammation  of  the  Large  Intestine. 
Acute  Dysentery,  or  ''flux,"  occurs  in  single,  isolated 
cases,  and  as  an  epidemic.  The  disease  is  more  frequent  in  hot 
than  in  temperate  or  cold  climates.  It  is  more  common  in  the 
summer  or  fall  than  at  other  seasons.  The  inflammation  is 
confined  to  the  large  intestine,  and  in  many  cases  affects  only  a 
very  small  portion  of  it.  The  isolated  cases  usually  end  in 
recovery,  although  death  sometimes  results  in  the  most  severe 
cases.  The  epidemic  variety,  commonly  known  as  the  bloody 
flux,  very  frequently  proves  fatal. 

The  disease  usually  begins  with  loose  passages  having  the 
appearance  of  an  ordinary  diarrhoea,  but  within  a  short  time 
the  character  of  the  evacuations  changes,  showing  a  large 
amount  of  mucus,  commonly  spoken  of  as  slime.  Following 
this,  very  dark  evacuations  frequently  take  place,  the  color  being 
due  to  blood,  the  red  color  of  the  blood  being  changed  to 
black  by  the  contents  of  the  intestine.  There  is  considerable 
griping  and  pain  with  a  constant  desire  (called  by  physicians 
tenesmus)  to  evacuate  the  bowels.  There  is  more  or  less  fever 
and  weakness.     Vomiting  is  also  common. 

In  the  epidemic  variety  the  progress  of  the  disease  is  much 
more  rapid.  All  of  the  symptoms  are  exaggerated.  The  quan- 
tity of  slime  is  more  abundant ;  blood  in  its  red  color  is  evacu- 
ated, sometimes  in  considerable  quantity.  The  fever  is  much 
higher,  and  exhaustion  and  prostration  are  much  more  marked. 
Death  sometimes  takes  place  within  a  few  hours,  and  some- 
times not  until  the  third  week.  The  great  majority  of  cases 
recover.  The  disease  may  occur  at  any  age,  but  is  most  com- 
mon from  thirty  to  forty  years. 

Treatment. — A  full  dose  of  castor  oil  or  salts  may  be  admin- 
istered in  the  beginning  of  the  disease,  to  remove  all  offending 
substances  from  the  bowels.  This  is  not  to  be  repeated.  The 
treatment  from  this  on  consists  in  efforts  to  support  the  strength 
of  the  patient  and  to  limit  the  movements  from  the  bowels. 
The  patient  should  be  kept  quiet  in  bed,  and  should  restrain  a 
movement  as  long  as  possible.  Meat  broths  and  milk  should 
form  the  chief  part  of  the  diet.  Vegetables  should  not  be  per- 
mitted. Opium  in  some  form,  either  as  laudanum  or  mor- 
phine, or  Dover's  powders,  should  be  given  after  every  move- 
ment. It  is  well  to  introduce  this  medicine  by  injection  or 
suppository  if  it  can  be  so  retained  ;'  otherwise  it  must  be  taken 
by  stomach.  If  vomiting  is  present,  efforts  to  relieve  this  must 
be  made,  directions  for  which  will  be  found  in  this  article, 
under  its  proper  head.  Quinine  in  four-grain  doses  should  be 
given  to  keep  up  the  strength.  In  malarious  districts  espec- 
ially is  quinine  imperatively  called  for.  Stimulants,  as  brandy 
or  whisky  or  milk  punch,  should  be  given  in  all  cases  of  great 
prostration. 

Chronic  Dysentery  rarely  occurs  except  as  it  follows 
acute  dysentery.  It  is  a  very  grave  and.  most  intractable  dis- 
ease. It  may  be  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  given  case  is 
chronic  dysentery  or  chronic  diarrhcea  ;  that  is,  whether  the 
inflammation  is  of  the  large  or  small  intestine. 

Treatment. — Enemas  of  warm  water  should  be  used  after 
each  movement,  and  immediately  returned,  the  object  being  to 


keep  free  from  irritating  matter  the  ulcerated  and  inflamed 
spots.  Tonics  must  be  given,  and  the  diet  should  be  most 
nutritious,  and  contain  as  little  waste  as  posiible  to  pass  over 
the  diseased  parts.  Opium  should  not  be  used  except  when 
especially  indicated  by  pain,  for  the  reason  that  it  interferes 
with  the  appetite.  The  tendency  of  the  disease  is  to  progress- 
ive loss  of  appetite  and  flesh,  and  gradual  decline,  prostration, 
apathy  and  death  from  exhaustion. 

Constipation — Costiveness. 

Constipation,  or  costiveness,  may  proceed  from  a  variety 
of  causes.  It  is  an  affection  of  the  large  intestines,  and  is  gen- 
erally functional,  i.e.,  it  is  not  due  to  any  organic  change  in 
the  part.  It  is  a  very  frequent,  and  is  generally  not  at  all  a  seri- 
ous affection,  although  it  brings  about  great  discomfort,  and  may 
be  the  origin  of  dyspepsia,  piles  and  various  other  troublesome 
diseases.  It  occasions  headache,  dulness  of  mind,  palpitation 
of  the  heart,  accumulation  of  gas  in  the  stomach  and  intestines, 
colic  pains,  and  sometimes  diarrhcea.  Severe  straining  may 
produce  great  harm.  Blood-vessels  in  the  brain  have  been  rup- 
tured, and  protrusion  of  the  rectum  has  been  occasioned  by  it. 

It  is  caused  most  frequently  by  neglect  to  attend  to  the  calls 
of  nature  when  it  is  demanded,  and  both  the  sensation  and  de- 
sire after  a  time  subside.  It  may  be  twelve  or  twenty-four 
hours  before  the  call  is  repeated.  Again  it  may  be  ignored, 
and  again  subside.  In  this  way  a  habit  is  formed  which 
becomes  very  troublesome,  destroys  one's  comfort,  and  fre- 
quently, by  interfering  with  digestion,  undermines  the  general 
health.  This  habit  of  neglecting  the  calls  of  nature  is  brought 
about  chiefly  by  two  causes :  the  mind  may  be  occupied  and 
the  patient  driven  with  work.  He  will  not  take  the  time  either 
to  eat  properly,  or  to  visit  the  closet.  But  the  far  more  fre- 
quent cause,  in  my  opinion,  especially  in  the  country,  is  the 
neglect  of  people  to  provide  themselves  with  comfortable 
closets,  and  sometimes  not  even  uncomfortable  out-houses.  In 
winter,  when  the  thermometer  is  from  five  to  forty  degrees 
below  zero,  with  deep  snow-drifts,  and  the  wind  blowing  a  gale, 
a  trip  to  a  stable,  or  to  a  cold  out -house,  through  the  cracks  of 
which  the  wind  drives  a  freezing  blast,  is  indeed  a  dreaded 
experience.  To  bare  oneself  in  such  cold,  and  perhaps  stop 
the  wind  out  of  the  privy  with  a  portion  of  one's  anatomy,  is 
not  an  experience  that  seeks  frequent  repetition.  Again,  when 
it  rains  in  spring  and  fall,,  there  is  a  dread  of  going  out  into  the 
storm.  And  in  summer  the  stench  from  the  privy  vault  is 
often  so  offensive  as  to  deter  frequent  visits.  Thus,  by  these 
inconvenieces,  people  develop  a  habit  of  waiting  as  long  as  pos- 
sible, frequently  for  days  together,  until  a  troublesome  consti- 
pation is  developed,  which  may  be  very  difficult  to  cure. 

Treatment.  —  Attention  should  first  be  directed  to  a  cure  of 
the  bad  habit  of  irregularity.  The  patient  should  go  regu- 
larly every  morning  after  breakfast,  and  take  plenty  of  time  to 
complete  the  act.  Every  house  should  have  a  comfortable 
closet,  free  from  bad  smells.  If  in  the  country  where  there 
are  no  sewers,  and  no  closet  is  possible  in  the  house,  the  privy 
should  be  well  built,  the  outside  well  boarded  up  and  battened 
and  the  inside  lathed  and  plastered,  so  as  to  keep  out  the  wind. 
A  wooden  box  should  extend  up  through  the  privy  and  open 
outside,  so  as  to  ventilate  the  vault,  which  should  be  often 


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636 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE.   , 


m 


cleaned  out.  A  good  board  walk  should  extend  from  it  to  the 
house ;  then,  if  the  house  will  keep  an  umbrella  for  rainy 
weather,  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  family  will  be  greatly 
enhanced,  and  the  doctor's  bills  will  be  smaller. 

Of  course  there  are  other  causes,  but,  whatever  they  are,  care 
should  be  taken  to  remove  or  avoid  them.  If  constipation  is 
only  temporary,  a  laxative  pill  may  be  taken,  or  an  enema  of 
water.  If,  however,  it  be  habitual  or  chronic,  other  means 
will  have  to  be  employed  to  cure  it.  The  diet  should  be,  in 
good  part,  articles  which  leave  a  large  residue  of  undigested 
matter  to  be  carried  out  of  the  body,  such  as  vegetables, 
salads,  cabbage,  greens ;  or  corn-bread,  oat  meal,  cracked 
wheat,  etc.  A  glass  of  cold  water  taken  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  before  breakfast  is  often  very  useful.  If  medicines 
be  taken  they  should  be  taken  in  small  doses  and  frequently 
repeated,  so  as  to  bring  about  a  regular  habit.  Free  purga- 
tion should  never  be  sought  ;  much  harm  is  done  by  it.  A 
small  pill  of  aloes,  or  of  aloes  and  strychnine,  which  may  be 
had  at  the  drug  stores,  will  be  found  very  effective.  One  pill 
should  be  taken  every  night ;  sometimes  one  every  night  and' 
morning  may  prove  most  effective. 

Colic. 

Colic,  strictly  speaking,  is  a  functional  affection  of  the 
colon,  characterized  by  spasmodic  pains.  It  has,  however,  by 
common  usage,  been  made  to  apply  generally  to  all  severe  spas- 
modic pains  in  the  abdomen.  Thus  it  is  applied  to  the  pains 
in  certain  inflammations,  as  peritonitis,  enteritis  and  dysentery, 
to  the  pain  caused  by  the  passage  of  gall-stones,  and  to  that 
caused  by  the  passage  of  small  stones  from  the  kidney  into  the 
bladder,  as  well  as  to  certain  neuralgias  of  the  abdominal 
organs,  as  that  caused  by  lead-poisoning.  So  the  distinctions 
are  made  by  prefixing  a  word,  as  flatulent,  or  wind  colic  ;  cra- 
pulous colic,  or  that  caused  by  indigestion,  as  in  cholera  mor- 
bus ;  hepatic  colic,  caused  by  the  passage  of  gall-stones;  ne- 
phritic colic,  caused  by  passage  of  calculi  from  the  kidney,  and 
lead  colic,  caused  by  lead-poisoning. 

For  treatment  of  the,  colic  of  dysentery,  peritonitis,  cholera 
morbus  and  cholera,  as  well  as  of  the  pain  accompanying  the 
passage  of  stones  from  the  gall-bladder  and  kidney,  see  the 
proper  heads  as  above. 

The  pain  in  colic  is  caused  by  spasm  of  the  muscular  coat  of 
the  intestine.  The  object  of  treatment  is  to  relieve  thisspasm. 
Some  persons  are  subject  to  frequent  attacks,  which  are  brought 
about  by  slight  causes.     Constipation  is  a  frequent  cause. 

Treatment  should  first  be  directed  to  the  relief  of  the  pain. 
Hot  cloths  placed  over  the  abdomen,  or  cloths  wrung  out  of 
hot  water,  will  aid,  and  will  sometimes  alone  fully  "relieve  the 
patient.  Various  hot  and  stimuluting  drinks  are  useful,  but 
there  is  no  remedy  so  absolutely  certain  of  relief  as  some  form 
of  opium.  Twenty-five  to  forty  drops  of  laudanum  maybe 
given  every  half  hour  to  an  adult,  either  by  injection  or  by  the 
stomach,  until  relief  is  obtained.  For  children,  a  proportionate 
dose.  For  infants  and  children  under  four  years,  paregoric  is 
safest.  For  adults,  morphine  may  be  given  in  quarter-grain 
doses,  every  half  hour  until  relieved.  If  the  patient  is  consti- 
pated, two  or  three  compound  cathartic  pills  may  be  taken,  or 


what  is  better,  a  large  injection  of  warm  water,  so  as  to  free 
the  bowels.     This,  in  most  instances,  will  complete  the  cure. 

Lead  Colic  is  caused  by  poisoning  by  lead.  The  lead  mmy 
be  taken  into  the  system  by  many  different  ways,  without  the 
knowledge  of  the  patient.  Persons  manufacturing  paints  or 
working  in  shot-factories  or  other  places  where  lead  is  used 
may  be  poisoned.  Painters  are  very  liable  to  lead-poisoning. 
Persons  have  been  poisoned  by  sleeping  in  a  newly-painted 
room,  or  by  using  certain  face-washes  and  hair-dyes  which  con- 
tain lead,  or  by  drinking  water  which  has  stood  in  lead  pipes, 
or  beer  or  cider  which  has  been  for  some  time  in  contact  with  a 
lead  faucet,  and  by  many  accidental  or  intentional  adulterations 
of  food.  Lead-poisoning  is  manifested  by  various  affections  of 
the  nervous  system,  such  as  paralysis,  as  of  the  extensor  muscles 
of  the  hand,  and  neuralgias,  of  which  colic,  or  neuralgia  of  the 
intestines,  is  one. 

The  bowels  are  usually  constipated.  The  pain  is  sometimes 
dull  and  heavy,  and  sometimes  sharp  and  cutting.  It  usually 
comes  on  very  gradually,  beginning  with  slight  pain,  and  grows 
worse  until  it  may  become  very  severe.  There  is  seldom  entire 
relief  from  pain,  but  there  are  periods  of  great  increase,  when 
the  paroxysms  are  excruciating.  If  not  relieved  by  treatment, 
the  pain  is  likely  to  continue  for  days,  and  perhaps  for  weeks, 
and  attacks  will  frequently  occur.  Persons  do  not  die  from 
lead  colic,  although  they  may  from  other  effects  of  lead-poison- 
ing. A  blue  line  along  the  gums  next  the  teeth  is  usually 
present  in  these  cases. 

Treatment  should  first  be  given  as  in  ordinary  colic.  When 
the  pain  is  relieved  and  the  bowels  moved,  the  following  pre- 
scription should  be  taken,  which  will  produce  a  permanent 
cure: 

Iodide  of  potassium,      -        -        -        -  i  ounce. 
Distilled  water,  ad.  •        •        •  I  ounce. 

Mix. 

Dose:     As  directed. 

The  above  is  a  saturated  solution.  Begin  with  five  drops  in 
a  wine-glass  of  water  three  times  a  day  after  meals,  and  increase 
one  drop  each  day  until  the  patient  is  taking  twenty-five  to 
thirty  drops  three  times  a  day. 

Cholera  Morbus. 

CHOLERA  Morbus,  or  sporadic  cholera,  begins  very  suddenly 
by  vomiting  and  colic  pains.  This  is  followed  by  purging  and 
increase  in  pain  and  continued  vomiting.  The  vomiting  is 
sometimes  preceded  by  a  sense  of  weight  and  uneasiness  in  the 
stomach.  If  the  vomiting  and  purging  continue  long,  both 
the  vomited  matters  and  the  dejections  become  entirely  fluid 
and  acrid.  The  skin  is  usually  cool  or  cold  ;  cramps  occur  in 
the  legs  and  feet  and  in  the  abdominal  muscles.  During  the 
interims  between  vomiting  and  purging,  the  patient  is  greatly 
prostrated  and  exhausted.  The  mouth  is  dry,  and  the  patient 
suffers  from  great  thirst. 

The  disease  is  more  frequent  in  the  summer  months,  and  is 
more  likely  to  occur  at  night  than  in  the  day-time.  The 
patient  usually  recovers. 

Treatment. — There  is  but  one  remedy  worthy  of  mention 
in  this  disease,  and  that   is  opium  in  some  shape.     The  injec- 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


637 


V 


tion  of  i.  solution  of  morphia  under  the  skin  is  the  best  way  to 
administer  it.  But  none  except  physicians  are  possessed  of  the 
necessary  instrument  for  this  purpose.  Therefore,  if  the 
method  of  administration  given  below  should  fail,  by  being 
vomited  or  evacuated  before  an  effect  can  be  produced,  a  phy- 
sician should  be  called. 

Half  a  grain  of  morphia  should  be  taken  dry  on  the  tongue 
and  dissolved  in  the  mouth,  and  should  be  given  directly  after 
vomiting.  If  this  is  rejected,  the  dose  should  be  at  once 
repeated.  If  this  is  again  rejected,  it  may  again  be  repeated,  or 
from  sixty  to  eighty  drops  of  laudanum  may  be  given  in  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  water  by  injection.  This  should  be  given 
directly  after  a  movement  of  the  bowels,  so  as  to  have  time  to 
take  effect  before  the  next  movement  occurs.  If  this  be 
rejected,  the  injection  should  be  repeated. 

To  relieve  thirst,  small  pieces  of  ice  may  be  taken  into  the 
mouth,  or  a  spoonful  of  water  may  be  allowed  every  few  min- 
utes. Sometimes  a  very  hot  cup  of  tea,  taken  without  milk  or 
sugar,  acts  well  in  relieving  the  vomiting.  The  body  should 
be  wrapped  in  a  warm  blanket. 

Cholera  Infantum. 

The  affection  treated  of  under  this  head  is  similar  to  the 
cholera  morbus  of  adults,  except  that  it  is  applied  to  children 
usually  under  two  years  of  age.  Unlike  the  disease  in  adults, 
where  recovery  is  almost  certain,  in  children  under  two  years 
"it  is  frequently  fatal.  Indeed,  cholera  infantum,  together  with 
the  more  chronic  affection  known  as  summer  complaint,  causes, 
In  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States,  nearly  one-half  the 
deaths  during  the  hot  season.  Children  of  the  poor  living  in 
crowded  tenement-houses  are  more  liable  to  the  disease  than 
others.  Change  of  food,  as  in  weaning,  frequently  acts  as  a 
cause.  Children  brought  up  on  a  bottle  are  especially  liable  to 
it.  Doubtless  poor,  diluted,  changed  or  soured  milk  is  a  cause. 
The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  obtain  fresh  and  pure 
milk  for  infants  during  these  months.  Unless  there  is  urgent 
need  in  the  interest  of  the  mother's  health,  a  child  should  not 
be  weaned  during  the  hot  months. 

The  attack  usually  begins  with  vomiting  and  purging,  which 
acts  are  frequently  repeated.  The  vomited  matters  and  the 
dejections  are  very  fluid  ;  pain,  prostration  and  cramps  ensue  ; 
the  body  is  cold.  If  the  purging  and  vomiting  can  be  arrested 
recovery  may  quickly  take  place.  If  this  cannot  be  controlled, 
however,  the  child  rapidly  fails,  suffers  from  thirst  and  pain 
and  prostration,  aud  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  days  goes 
into  collapse  and  dies.  It  may,  however,  become  chronic,  an 
affection  previously  treated  under  the  head  of  summer  com- 
plaint, when  the  child,  in  unfavorable  cases,  gradually  fails, 
becomes  emaciated  and  dull,  and  finally  dies  of  starvation. 

'Treatment. — When  an  attack  begins  the  babe  should  be 
■wrapped  in  a  warm  shawl  or  blanket.  Twenty  to  thirty  drops 
of  paregoric  should  be  given  directly  after  vomiting.  If  it  is 
rejected  the  dose  is  to  be  repeated.  If  this  is  again  rejected  or 
if  relief  does  not  follow,  it  is  again  to  be  repeated.  Each  time 
it  should  be  given  directly  after  the  act  of  purging.  If  purg- 
ing is  not  so  frequent  the  medicine  is  better  given  by  injection. 
Drinks  of  very  warm,  tea  may  be  given  ;  let  the  tea  be  as  hot 


as  can  be  well  taken.     A  physician  should  be  called  if  relief  is 
not  soon  obtained. 

The  treatment  for  the  chronic  form  will  be  found  under  the 
head  of  summer  complaint. 

Epidemic  Cholera. 
Epidemic  or  Asiatic  Cholera  is  a  disease  which  seems 
to  take  its  origin  in  India.  There  it  exists  sometimes  in  isolated 
cases,  and  sometimes  as  an  epidemic.  Frequently  it  leaves  its 
native  country,  and  makes  trips  over  the  entire  civilized  world, 
following  the  highways  of  travel  and  commerce.  It  first  occur- 
red in  the  United  States  in  1832  ;  again  in  1834.  Again  it 
took  its  origin  in  India  in  1847,  and  reached  this  country  in 
1849,  and  prevailed  herein  1850,  '51  and  '52.  Beginning  again 
in  India  in  1864,  it  reached  the  United  States  in  '66  and  pre- 
vailed somewhat  in  '67. 

The  pathology  and  cause  of  the  disease  are  not  well  under- 
stood. But  this  much  is  quite  well  established  :  That  it  has  a 
special  cause,  and  that  this  special  cause  can  be  transported  and 
reproduced  in  places  where  the  conditions  are  favorable  to  its 
development — conditions  similar  to  those  where  it  first  took  its 
origin.  That  this  special  cause  may  be  rapidly  developed  under 
conditions  favorable  to  it  ;  that  it  may  be  destroyed  by  disin- 
fectants, and  that  it  suddenly  becomes  inert,  inoperative.or  is  . 
carried  away  by  causes  not  understood.  There  are  many  well- 
established  facts  concerning  its  communicability,  which,  how- 
ever, are  often  apparently  contradictory,  and  hence  there  are 
few  physicians  who  do  not  hold  in  reserve  or  doubt  any  opin- 
ion which  their  experience  has  led  them  to  entertain. 

The  introduction  of  cholera  into  New  York  in  1866  was  not 
traceable  to  any  particular  emigrant  passenger,  nor  any  particu- 
lar lot  of  baggage  or  goods,  nor  to  any  particular  ship  ;  but  it 
followed  the  arrival  of  infected  ships  into  the  harbor. 

The  first  cases  occurred  almost  simultaneously,  and  in  widely 
separated  districts.  This  could  hardly  have  been  the  case  if  the 
disease  had  been  communicated  from  one  person  to  another. 

As  the  season  advanced  and  cases  became  more  frequent,  the 
disease  was  found  to  prevail  in  certain  low  and  insalubrious 
localities,  while  the  rest  of  the  city  was  almost  free  from  the 
epidemic.     These  localities  were  widely  separated. 

There  was  no  evidence  that  the  disease  was  ever  directly  com- 
municated from  one  person  to  another.  Persons  in  the  same 
house,  and  who  waited  upon  the  sick,  werenotmore  frequently 
attacked  than  other  persons  who  resided  in  the  insalubrious  dis- 
trict, but  at  a  distance  from  any  case. 

Where  the  epidemic  has  prevailed  in  Europe  and  in  this 
country,  no  more  than  from  one  to  ten  in  a  hundred  physicians 
and  nurses  who  cared  for  the  cholera  patients  had  the  disease. 
In  the  .London  hospital,  out  of  one  hundred  persons  employed 
in  the  cholera  wards  only  five  had  the  disease,  and  of  eleven 
laundry-women  en.oloyed  at  the  hospital  to  wash  the  soiled 
clothing  and  bedding  of  cholera  patients,  only  one  was  at- 
tacked. 

It  is  thought  by  some  to  have  its  origin  in  germs  developed 
in  the  alimentary  canal  of  cholera  patients,  which  are  further 
developed  in  the  soil,  the  condition  of  which,  as  regards  com- 
position, temperature  and  moisture,  must  be  favorable.  This 
one,  of  all  the  theories,  would  best  explain  the  phenomena  as 


k- 


M 


«U — 


K= 


638 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


usually  observed.  In  New  York,  for  example,  only  in  the  low 
and  unhealthy  parts  of  the  city  did  the  disease  make  its  appear- 
ance. Some  cases  occurred  in  persons  after  leaving  these 
unhealthy  districts  for  healthy  ones,  but  none  of  these  communi- 
cated the  disease  to  persons  living  in  the  healthy  district  to 
which  the  patient  had  gone.  The  germs  from  the  infected 
ships  seem  to  have  reached  all  of  the  infected  districts  at  about 
the  same  time,  and,  it  may  be,  could  only  become  active  by 
development  in  the  soil  peculiar  to  these  districts,  for  the  high 
and  clean  parts  of  the  city  never  became  affected. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  cholera  is  preceded  by  a  sim- 
ple diarrhoea,  which  continues  from  a  few  hours  to  a  week,  in 
different  cases,  before  the  full  development  of  the  disease. 
This  is  not  attended  by  pain  and  is  usually  considered  by  the 
patient  as  of  no  consequence.  Vomiting  during  this  stage 
rarely  occurs.  This  diarrhoea  occurs  in  not  less  than  ninety 
per  cent  of  cases.  Suddenly  the  diarrhcea  changes  its  aspect, 
and  large  watery  evacuations  take  place.  This  marks  the 
beginning  of  the  disease  proper.  The  dejections  may  be  clear 
like  water,  or  may  be  milky  or  muddy  in  appearance.  Some- 
times the  dejections  are  very  large,  sometimes  small.  The  act 
is  not  attended  by  pain.  Gurgling  sounds  in  the  bowels  are 
common.  Vomiting  is  also  a  common  symptom.  The  matter 
vomited  is  a  watery  liquid.  As  the  disease  progresses  there  is 
a  sense  of  great  prostration  and  weakness.  The  skin  is  cool. 
In  some  cases  cramps  occur  in  the  muscles  of  the  legs.  If  the 
disease  pursues  a  favorable  course,  the  vomiting  and  purging 
cease  at  the  close  of  the  stage  of  invasion,  and  the  patient  at 
once  becomes  convalescent,  and  in  the  shortest  space  of  time  is 
restored  to  his  usual  health. 

If  the  disease  does  not  end  with  the  first  stage,  all  the  bad 
symptoms  continue.  The  pulse  usually  is  frequent  and  very 
feeble,  ranging  from  no  to  150  per  minute.  The  surface  of 
the  body  becomes  cold,  the  lips  and  face  blue.  The  breath  is 
cold  and  the  respiratory  act  is  more  frequent  and  irregular. 
The  voice  is  feeble  ;  the  patient  is  indifferent  and  has  no  appre- 
hensions for  the  result.  The  cramps  la  the  feet  and  legs  is  the 
only  pain  suffered.  Thirst  is  very  great  ;  the  patient  craves 
cold  water.     The  face  becomes  so  changed  and  old  in  appear- 


ance as  not  to  be  recognizable.  The  patient  may  sink  into 
complete  collapse  in  from  three  to  eight  hours,  in  which  state 
death  usually  ensues. 

If  the  patient  rallies  from  the  state  of  collapse,  he  is  likely 
to  continue-in  a  critical  condition  for  some  time  before  reach- 
ing convalescence.  Diarrhcea  and  vomiting  frequently  con- 
tinue, the  matters  now  being  greenish  yellow  in  color,  and  the 
patient  may  finally  sink  into  a  typhoid  state  and  die.  If 
recovery  finally  takes  place,  convalescence  is  generally  slow, 
and  the  health  is  not  fully  restored  for  a  long  time.  Excep- 
tionally, even  from  the  collapsed  state,  recovery  rapidly  super- 
venes. 

Prevention  of  Cholera.— Much  may  undoubtedly  be 
done  to  prevent  the  disease  by  attention  to  cleanliness,  and  by 
disinfectants,  and  none  of  these  things  should  be  omitted. 

There  is,  however,  in  nearly  all  cases,  a  premonitory  diar- 
rhcea, and  if  this  be  effectually  treated  there  is  little  danger  of 
the  full  development  of  the  disease.  Prudent  and  intelligent 
people  who  give  prompt  attention  to  any  occurrence  of  diar- 
rhcea during  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  rarely  have  cholera. 

If  the  diarrhcea  occurs  in  a  young  child,  full  doses  of  pare- 
goric should  be  given  every  time  the  bowels  move.  If  more 
than  eight  years  old,  full  doses  of  laudanum  should  be  given, 
together  with  acetate  of  lead  and  bismuth.  For  an  adult, 
twenty-five  to  forty  drops  of  laudanum,  or,  instead,  one-sixth  to 
one-quarter  grain  of  morphine  after  every  movement  of  the 
bowels.  Small  doses  of  red  pepper,  in  addition  to  the  opiates, 
are  useful.  The  above  treatment,  taken  in  time,  will  prevent 
the  further  development  of  the  disease  in  almost  every  case. 

The  treatment  of  cholera,  when  fully  developed,  does  not 
differ  during  the  first  stages  from  that  recommended  during  the 
premonitary  diarrhoea,  except  that  the  opiates  should  be  given 
in  larger  doses.  After  collapse  has  taken  place  there  is  little 
that  can  be  done  with  any  hope  of  success.  Sometimes  active 
treatment  in  this  stage  does  harm;  it  rarely  does  good.  The 
body  should  be  kept  warm  by  the  application  of  dry  heat. 
The  nutrition  should  be  kept  up,  and  brandy  and  water  may 
be  given  frequently  in  small  quantities. 


-*THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS  AND  THE  BLOOD. 


Absorption. 
Under  the  head  of  "  Physiology  of  the  Digestive  Organs  " 
was  described  the  elaborate  process  of  the  solution  of  the 
food.  When  this  process  lias  been  completed,  absorption  takes 
place  by  the  blood-vessels  upon  the  walls  of  the  stomach  and 
small.intcstines,  and  by  a  special  system  of  little  vessels  called 
lacteals,  which  open  upon  the  Intestinal  walls.  The  solution 
of  albuminous  substances  ami  the  emulsion  of  fats  must  be  per- 
fect, or  they  will  not  be  taken  up.  Whether  they  are  taken  up 
by  the  blood-vessels  or  lacteals,  the  product  is  emptied  into 
the  large  veins.      With  the  exception  of  that  carried  by  the 


thoracic  duct,  and  one  or  two  other  lacteal  trunks,  the  product 
of  digestion,  chyle  by  name,  is  carried,  with  venous  blood, 
directly  to  the  liver,  where  it  is  distributed  to  the  liver  cells 
in  minute  capillaries,  and  is  here  probably  further  modified, 
elaborated  and  refined,  and  also  gains  the  substance  glyco- 
gen, a  liver  sugar,  and  is  then  carried  to  the  heart  in  the  cur- 
rent of  venous  blood,  and  from  the  heart  is  sent  to  the  lungs, 
there  to  be  purified  by  the  oxygen  of  the  inspired  air,  and  again 
returned  to  the  heart,  fit  to  1*  used  in  nourishing  all  the  deli- 
cate tissues  and  organs,  ami  in  turn  to  be  oxidized  or  burned 
and  carried  out  of  the  body. 


X- 


J-J 


FT 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


639 


=7f 


THE  HEART  AND  BLOOD-VESSELS. 

The  heart  is  the  central  organ  of  the  circulatory  system.  It 
is  situated  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  chest,  between  the  right 
and  left  lungs.  Its  base  is  above  and  to  the  right,  and  its  apex 
downward  and  to  the  left.  It  may  be  felt  beating  a  little  below 
and  toward  the  median  line  from  the  left  nipple.  It  is  in  size 
about  as  large  as  the  closed  fist  of  the  person  to  whom  it  be- 
longs. It  is  a  hollow  muscle  containing  four  cavities,  two  of 
which  are  upon  the  right  and  two  upon  the  left  side  of  the 
organ  ;  the  heart  thus  being  a  double,  or,  indeed,  two  distinct 
organs,  a  right  and  a  left  heart,  which,  though  bound  together, 
are  entirely  distinct  from  each  other,  each  having  its  own  par- 
ticular work  to  perform.  The  two  cavities  of  the  right  side  of 
the  heart  communicate  with  each  other,  as  do  also  the  two 
cavities  on  the  left  side.  The  openings  between  the  cavities 
are  guarded  by  valves,  which  permit  the  blood  to  flow  only  in 
one  direction. 


Fig,  4.    The  Human  Heart. 

Connected  with  each  of  the  four  chambers  of  the  heart  are 
large  blood-vessels.  The  large  veins  (Fig.  5),  the  vena  cava 
ascendens  (1),  and  the  vena  cava  descendens  (2),  bring  the 
blood  from  all  parts  of  the  body  to  the  right  heart,  and  pour  it 
into  the  upper  chamber  (3),  which,  from  its  fancied  resemblance 
to  the  ear  of  a  dog,  is  called  the  auricle.  This  upper  cavity  of 
the  right  side  of  the  heart  into  which  the  veme  cava:  empty,  is 
known  as  the  right  auricle.  It  has  very  thin  walls  and  serves 
only  as  a  receptacle  for  the  venous  blood  until  it  can  be  received 


into  the  cavity  below,  which  is  called  the  right  ventricle.  As 
soon  as  the  right  auricle  is  filled,  its  walls  contract,  and  the 
valves  which  guard  the  opening  (5,  5,  Fig.  6)  are  pushed  open 
as  shown  in  the  cut,  and  the  blood  flows  into  and  fills  the  cav- 
ity (6)  of  the  right  ventricle.  The  right  ventricle  thus  being 
filled,  its  walls  immediately  contract,  the  movement  of  the 
blood  closes  the  valves  (5,  5)  called  the  tricuspid  valves,  which 
guard  auricular  ventricular  opening  (4),  thus  preventing 
(as  shown  in  Fig.  7),  the  regurgitation  of  the  blood  back 
into  the  auricle.     At  the  same  time  it  pushes  open  the  valves 


Fig.  5. 

1,  2,  Venae cavae,  ascendens  anc*  -icscendens :  3,  right  auricle;  4,  4,  4,  4, 
lungs;  5,  pulmonary  artery:  6,  right  ventricle  ;  7,  7,  7,  7,  pulmonary 
veins;  8,  left  auricle ;  9,  left  ventricle;   — 


10.  aorta. 


(9,  9)  called  the  pulmonary  valves,  which  guard  the  entrance 
(7)  into  the  pulmonary  artery,  so  that  all  the  blood  in  the 
right  ventricle  (6)  is  forced  into  the  pulmonary  artery  (8), 
which  leads  to  the  lungs  (4,  4),  as  shown  by  the  black  vessel 
(5)  in  Fig.  5,  where  it  divides  into  a  minute  capillary  net- 
work upon  the  walls  of  the  sixty  million  air-cells  of  the  lungs. 
In  these  capillaries  the  pulmonary  veins  begin  by  little  rootlets 
which  flow  together,  forming  minute  veins,  and  these  unite  to 
form  larger  veins,  these  again  to  form  still  larger,  until  the  four 
(7i  7>  Fig.  5)  large  pulmonary  veins — two  from  each  lung — 
are  formed.  These  bring  back  the  purified  blood  from  the 
lungs  and  empty  it  into  the  upper  cavity  (8,  Fig.  5,  or  14, 
Fig.  8),  of  the  left  side  of  the  heart.  From  this  cavity, 
by  contraction  of  the  auricular  walls,  the  blood  flows  down- 
ward through  the  auriculo-ventricular  opening  (15),  guarded 
by  the  mitral  valves,  into  the  left  ventricle  (16,  Fig.  8), 
in  the  same  manner  as  fin  the  right  side.  As  soon  as  the 
left  ventricle  is  filled  with  blood,  its  strong  muscular  walls  con- 
tract. The  movement  of  the  blood  closes  the  mitral  valves  (15, 
Fig.  8),  which  prevents  the  blood  from  flowing  back  into  the  left 
auricle,  and  pushes  open  the  semilunar  valves  (g,  Fig.  9)  which 
guard  the  entrance  into  the  aorta,  so  that  all  the  blood  in  the 
ventricle  is  sent  into  the  aorta,  and  thence  all  over  the  body, 
with  such  force  that  all  the  larger  arteries  swell  and  throb  as  the 


(,,.. 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


blood  rushes  through  them.  This  throb  of  the  arteries  is  called 
the  pulse.  Physicians  make  use  of  this  knowledge  to  ascer- 
tain, in  disease,  how  the  heart  is  doing  its  work. 


Fig.  6.    Diagram  of  Right  Side  of  the  Heart. 

i,  a.  Vena  cava,  ascendens  and  descendens;  3,  cavity  of  right  auricle: 
4.  auriculo-ventricular  opening;  5,  5,  tricuspid  valves;  6,  cavity  of  right 
ventricle;  7,  opening  leading  to  pulmonary  artery;  8,  pulmonary  artery; 
g,  pulmonary  valves. 

The  aorta  ( 10,  Fig.  5 ;  1 8,  Fig.  8)  branches  and  subdivides  into 
a  great  number  of  large  arteries  leading  to  the  head,  arms,  trunk, 
lower  extremities  and  internal  organs.  These  arteries  again 
branch  and  subdivide  a  great  many  times,  until  they  are  reduced 
to  only  T^jrtj  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are  much  smaller  than 
the  finest  hair,  and  can  be  seen  only  by  a  magnifying-glass.   They 


Fig. 


1.     Diagram  of  Right  Side  of  Heart,  with  Tricuspid 
Valves  Closed  and  Pulmonary  Valve*  Open. 


lie  so  closely  together  that  the  point  of  a  needle  cannot  be  thrust 
into  any  part  of  the  body  without  wounding  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  them.  The  circulation  of  the  blood  iu  the  capillaries 
may  be  beautifully  seen  by  placing  the  web  of  the  foot  of  a 
living  frog  under  a  microscope  magnifying  about  400  diameters, 
when  all  the  little  capillaries,  with  the  blood-corpuscles  rapidly 
coursing  through  them,  may  be  seen,  as  in  Fig.  11.     If  the  frog 


♦ 


is  not  allowed  to  breathe  for  a  moment  the  circulation  in  the 
capillaries  stops,  to  begin  again  when  respiration  is  resumed. 
In  these  capillaries  the  system  veins  begin  by  little  rootlets 
which  flow  together  into  minute  vessels,  these  into  small  veins, 
these  into  larger,  and  these  again  into  still  larger,  until  all 
are  collected  into  the  two  great  trunks,  the  venae  cavz  ascendens 
and  descendens,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  empty  the  impure  blood 
collected  from  the  body  into  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart. 

The  heart  is  enclosed  by  a  serous  membrane,  the  pericar- 
dium, which  forms  a  kind  of  a  double  bag.  The  inner  layer  of  the 
membrane  is  closely  attached  to  the  heart,  the  outer  layer  being 
free.  Between  the  layers  is  a  space,  containing  an  ounce  or 
two  of  fluid,  which  is  secreted  by  the  membrane  to  lubricate 
its  surlaces,  so  that  the  movements  of  the  heart  will  not  cause 
friction  and  consequent  inflammation. 

The  heart  is  lined  by  a  delicate  membrane,  the  endocardium, 
folds  of  which  form  the  valves  at  the  openings  leading  from 
the  auricles  into  the  ventricles,  and  from  the  ventricles  into  the 
arteries. 


Diagram  of  Right  and  Left  Sides  of  Heart. 

( 1,  a,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  same  as  Fig.  5;  10,  pulmonary  artery  leading  to  tb«r 
right  lung;  1 1,  branch  of  pulmonary  artery  to  the  leftjung;  1  a, pulmonary 
veins  from  left  lung;  13,  pulmonary  veins  from  the  right  lung;  14.  cavity 
of  left  auricle;  15,  left  auricuto-ventricuUu*  opening;  16,  cavity  of  left 
ventricle;   17,  opening  into  aorta;    1 8,  aorta. 

The  muscular  walls  of  the  auricles  (Figs.  8,  9  and  10)  are  very 
thin.  As  they  have  little  work  to  do,  it  is  not  necessary  that 
they  should  be  strong.  The  walls  of  the  right  ventricle  (Fig. 
10)  arc  much  thicker  than  the  auricular  walls,  for  the  reason 
that  it  has  to  force  the  blood  through  the  capillaries  of  the 
lungs,  while  the  auricle  has  to  force  the  blood  into  the  ventri- 
cle only.  But  the  walls  of  the  left  ventricle  ( h  k.  Fig.  9)  are 
much  thicker  than  those  of  the  right,  for  the  reason  that  it  has 
many  times  its  amount  of  work  to  perform.  The  right  ven- 
tricle has  to  send  the  blood  only  to  the  lung,  while  the  left  has 
to  send  it  over  the  entire  system — from  the  crown  of  the 
head  to  the  tips  of  the  fingers  and  toes,  and  to  all  the  organs, 
the  brain,  liver,  stomach,  muscles  and  bones. 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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Diseases  of  the  Heart. 

Tht  heart,  in  health,  is  a  most  wonderful  and  beautiful 
mechanism.  It  performs  its  work  quietly  and  regularly,  day 
and  night,  sleeping  and  waking,  year  after  year,  never  stopping 
for  a  quarter  of  a  second.  But,  like  all  parts  of  the  body,  it  is 
subject  to  disease  and  injury,  and,  when  out  of  repair,  may 
cause  the  most  distressing  symptoms,  and,  not  unfrequently,  sud- 
den death. 


Fig.  9.    Showing  Right  Side  of  Heart. 

a,  b.  Columnar;  carnese;  c,  cavity  of  righ  auricle;  d,  d,  openings  of  pul- 
monary veins  into  left  auricle;  g,  semilunar  or  aortic  valves  ;/,  aorta;  k,  A, 
muscular  walls  of  right  ventricle. 

The  diseases  of  the  heart  are  many.  The  enveloping  mem- 
brane, the  pericardium,  may  become  inflamed,  when  the  dis- 
ease is  known  as  pericarditis,  signifying  "  an  inflammation 
around  the  heart."  Or  the  lining  membrane  may  become 
inflamed,  which  is  called  endocarditis  (endo,  within  ;  cardium, 
the  heart,  and  itis,  inflammation),  "  inflammation  within 
the  heart."  In  consequence  of  pericarditis,  the  fluid  around 
the  heart  may  be  greatly  increased,  so  as  to  interfere 
with  its  movements.  This  is  dropsy  of  the  heart.  Or  the 
smooth  surfaces  of  the  pericardium  or  enveloping  membrane 
may  become  agglutinated  together,  so  that  at  every  contraction 
the  heart  must  lift  the  whole  weight  of  the  diaphragm.  Or, 
from  endocarditis,  the  openings  between  the  cavities  may  be 
almost  closed  up,  or  the  valves  shortened  or  deformed  so  as 
not  to  close  perfectly,  and  hence  permit  the  blood  to  regurgi- 
tate, like  the  leaky  valves  of  an  old  pump,  which  permits  most 
of  the  water  to  flow  back  into  the  well,  instead  of  raising  it  to 
the  spout,  no  matter  how  hard  one  may  work  at  the  handle. 
A  heart  with  the  openings  greatly  contracted  by  disease  may 
be  likened  to  a  pump  with  a  spout  too  small.  It  is  easy 
to  understand  how,  if  the  openings  of  the  heart  are  con- 
tracted, as  they  sometimes  are,  to  the  size  of  a  goose-quill,  or  if 
the  valves  leak  badly,  permitting  the  blood  to  regurgitate,  the 
work  of  the  heart  is  greatly  increased.  If  a  schoolmaster 
should  become  a  blacksmith,  by  work  at  the  forge   he  would 


soon  increase  the  muscles  of  his  arms  to  double  their  former 
size.  So,  when  by  damaged  valves  or  contracted  orifices  the 
heart  is  called  upon  to  do  more  work,  the  first  effect  is  to  in- 
crease the  thickness  of  its  muscular  walls.  By  this'  cause  the 
heart  sometimes  becomes  three  or  four  times  its  normal  size. 

This  condition  is  called  hypertrophy.  But  there  is  a  limit 
to  muscular  development,  and  after  a  time  the  walls  begin  Xo 
weaken  and  to  dilate.  They  are  no  longer  strong  enough  to 
force  all  the  blood  out  of  the  cavity  when  it  contracts  upon  it. 
More  and  more  blood  remains  in  the  ventricle  after  contrac- 
tion, until  the  day  comes  when,  perhaps,  in  a  moment  of  excite- 
ment, the  ventricle  becomes  filled  with  blood,  and,  the  muscle  of 
the  heart  not  being  strong  enough  to  force  it  out,  there  is  a 
sudden  paralysis  of  the  heart  from  exhaustion  of  the  heart  mus- 
cle, and  death  immediately  ensues,  the  patient  suddenly  falling 
down  dead.  Or  the  blood  may  be  dammed  back  in  the  veins, 
because  it  cannot  get  through  the  heart.  In  this  way  death 
may  take  place  from  congestion  of  the  lungs.  When  the  lungs 
are  congested,  there  is  a  great  difficulty  in  breathing.  This  is  a 
common  symptom  of  heart  disease.  The  blood  may  be  dammed 
from  the  heart  back  into  the  veins  of  the  trunk  and  lower  ex- 
tremities. When  this  is  the  case,  the  feet  and  legs  swell,  from 
the  watery  portions  of  the  blood  escaping  outside  of  the  vessels 
into  the  tissues.  Sometimes  the  swelling  is  very  great.  There 
may  be  dropsy  of  the  abdomen  in  consequence,  or  the  liver 
and  kidneys  may  be  congested,  and  their  functions  impaired. 


Fig.  10.    Showing  Right  Side  of  Heart. 

a,  i,  Venae  cavae;  d,  left  auricle;  e,  /,  tricuspid  valves;  g,  pulmonary 
artery;  h,  aorta. 

Sometimes  fat  is  deposited  in  the  muscular  fibre  of  the  heart 
in  place  of  the  true  muscular  substance.  This  condition  is 
known  as  fatty  degeneration.  It  always  greatly  weakens  the 
power  of  the  heart,  and  its  walls  dilate.  Sometimes  the  heart 
is  paralyzed  from  this  cause,  and,  occasionally,  when  one  part 
is  more  degenerated  than  another,  the  walls  of  the  heart  may  be 
ruptured  by  its  own  contraction  upon  a  quantity  of  blood. 
Death  in  either  case,  of  course,  immediately  takes  place. 


4& 


^=^lv 


Palpitation  of  the  heart  is  not  a  disease  proper  of  the  heart. 
It  depends  upon  a  derangement  of  the  nervous  system,  just  as  a 
trembling  hand  or  jerking  eyelid  is  due  to  a  fault  of  the  nerves 
and  not  to  any  disease  of  the  hand  or  of  the  eyelid.  There 
is  nothing  dangerous  in  palpitation  of  the  heart. 

Neuralgia  of  the  heart  is  a  disease  of  the  nervous  system,  and 
not  of  the  heart. 

Most  lesions  of  the  valves  of  the  heart  are  caused  by  inflam- 
mation of  the  lining  membrane,  endocarditis,  during  an  attack 
of  inflammatory  rheumatism.  If  the  patient  does  not  die 
during  the  time  of  the  acute  inflammation,  he  is  likely  to  suffer 
from  heart  symptoms  after  a  few  years,  by  which  time  the  valves 
become  so  deformed  or  the  orifices  so  contracted  as  to  interfere 
with  the  function  of  the  heart,  and  the  patient  becomes  aware, 
for  the  first  time,  of  his  condition.  Valvular  disease  may  have 
other  causes  than  rheumatism. 

Diagnosis. — A  skilled  physician  is  able,  by  percussing  or  tap- 
ping the  chest  wall,  and  taking  note  of  the  sounds  thus  produced, 
to  say  positively  whether  the  heart  is  enlarged  or  not  ;  and,  by 
listening  to  the  beating  of  the  heart,  he  can  tell  certainly 
whether  there  is  any  leakage  at  the  valves,  and  say  with  confi- 
dence which  pair  of  valves  are  at  fault,  or  whether  there  i  or  is 
not  a  contraction  at  any  of  the  orifices.  Where  the  valve  leak, 
or  the  orifices  are  obstructed,  there  are  certain  hissing  or  blow- 
ing sounds,  called  murmurs,  which,  heard  over  different  parts  of 
the  chest,  and  at  different  times  with  reference  to  the  normal 
sounds  of  the  heart,  enable  the  educated  and  skilled  physician  to 
determine  the  character  of  the  lesion,  or  to  say  that  no  disease 
at  all  of  the  heart  exists. 


Fig.  11. 

Circulation  of  the  Blood  in  the  Foot  of  the  Frog. 

Treatment. — If  one  suspects,  for  any  reason,  a  grave  dis- 
ease of  the  heart,  he  should  go  to  some  skilled  physician  in 
whom  he  has  full  confidence,  and  be  examined.  He  will  prob- 
ably learn,  as  is  generally  the  case,  that  there  is  no  organic  dis- 
ease of  the  heart  at  all,  and  that  the  symptoms  which  occa- 
sioned the  alarm,  such  as  palpitation,  are  referable  to  a  disor- 
dered state  of  the  stomach  or  of  the  nervous  system.  The 
patient  should  not  undertake  to  treat  himself,  if  really  suffering 
from  valvular  lesions  of  the  heart,  so  that  treatment  had  best 
be  left  to  the  physician  whose  advice  is  sought  in  the  case. 


Digitalis  is,  perhaps,  the  most  valuable  remedy  which  exists 
for  strengthening  the  heart's  action.  The  body  should  be  well 
nourished,  the  food  of  good  quality  and  variety,  and  the  meals 
taken  regularly.  The  bowels  should  be  kept  regular,  and  no 
very  severe  exercise  should  be  taken.  A  gentleman,  a  patient 
of  the  writer,  suffering  from  valvular  disease,  together  with 
great  enlargement  and  dilitation  of  the  heart,  came  very  near 
death  every  Sunday  night  on  account  of  difficulty  of  breath- 
ing, due  to  congestion  of  the  lungs,  from  damming  the  blood 
back  into  the  pulmonary  veins,  the  left  heart  not  having 
strength  to  empty  the  ventricle.  It  seemed  strange  to  the 
patient  that  the  distress  came  only  on  Sunday  nights,  but  upon 
enquiry  it  was  found  that  on  the  six  week-days  he  took  three 
meals  a  day,  and  on  Sunday  but  two,  the  last  of  which  was 
about  2  o'clock  p.  m.  The  full  power  of  the  heart,  when  well 
nourished,  was  required,  in  its  damaged  condition,  for  the  per- 
formance of  its  functions,  and  the  abstinence  from  food  for  a 
few  hours  so  weakened  its  action  as  to  make  death  imminent. 
Sunday  night  suppers  were  ordered,  and  thereafter  Sunday 
night  ceased  to  be  an  especiaUlread. 


Fig.  18. 

Red  and  White  Blood-Corpusclci  Highly  Magnified. 

THE  BLOOD. 

The  blood  is  a  compound  fluid.  In  man,  and  all  the  higher 
order  of  animals,  it  is  of  a  red  color ;  in  some  of  the  lower 
forms  of  life  it  is  colorless.  The  quantity  in  nun  is  about  one- 
eighth  that  of  the  weight  of  the  body.  The  vessels  of  a  man 
weighing  one  hundred  and  forty  pounds  would  contain  nearly 
eighteen  pounds  of  blood.  The  office  of  the  blood  is  not  alone 
to  carry  nutriment  to  the  tissues  to  assist  in  their  repair,  but 
is  also  to  carry  out  of  the  body  the  products  of  waste — the 
-0  to  speak,  of  the  oxidized  tissues  which  have  been 
burned  up  or  consumed  in  the  production  of  force  and  animal 
heat.  If  a  small  part  of  a  drop  of  blood  be  examined  under 
a  microscope,  it  will  no  longer  present  the  appearance  of  a 
simple  red  fluid,  but  little  circular  bodies  with  a  yellowish-red 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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tinge  will  be  seen,  and,  if  magnified  two  hundred  and  fifty 
times,  will  present  the  appearance  shown  in  the  lower  part  (A, 
A)  of  Fig.  12.  These  are  the  red  corpuscles.  They  are  little 
flattened  circular  bodies  about  yj^ij  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  not  more  than  one-quarter  as  thick.  It  would  take 
120,000,000,000  of  them  to  make  a  cubic  inch.  The  flat  surfaces 
are  somewhat  concave,  so  that  the  centre  of  the  corpuscle  is  its 
thinnest  part.  If  examined  with  a  lens  magnifying  1,000 
times,  the  corpuscles  will  present  the  appearance  of  B,  C,  D 
in  the  figure.  After  standing  a  few  minutes  the  flat  surfaces 
of  the  corpuscles  are  inclined  to  stick  together,  and  so  arrange 
themselves  in  the  form  of  a  roll  of  coin  (D,  D).  If  treated 
with  a  drop  of  vinegar  they  become  clear  (A").  If  instead  of 
vinegar  a  drop  of  water  is  added,  they  swell  up  (E),  and 
become  globular.  If  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  time,  they 
become  shrivelled  (H,  H)  and  irregular.  In  the  lower  part  of 
Fig.  12  are  to  be  seen  two  bodies  (a,  a)  which  do  not  look 
like  the  other  corpuscles.  They  are  larger  in  size,  globular  in 
shape,  present  a  granular  appearance,  and  are  of  a  white  color. 
They  are  known  as  the  white  corpuscles.  Only  one  white  cor- 
puscle exists  to  four  hundred  of  the  red.  The  coloring  matter 
of  the  blood  is  in  the  red  corpuscles.  When  they  are  removed 
a  clear  fluid  remains. 

If  a  quantity  of  blood  be  drawn  into  a  bowl  from  the  veins 
of  an  animal,  it  will  be,  at  first,  quite  fluid,  but  in  a  few  mo- 
ments will  become  thick  like  a  mass  of  jelly.  This  mass  is 
called  a  clot,  and  the  process  coagulation.  If  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  day  or  two  the  clot  will  continue  to  contract,  and  will  be 
found  at  the  end  of  that  time  in  the  bottom  of  the  bowl,  cov- 
ered with  a  clear  liquid  called  the  serum. 

If,  as  soon  as  the  blood  is  drawn  from  the  vein,  it  be  whipped 
with  a  bunch  of  twigs,  a  white  stringy  substance,  like  the 
gluten  obtained  by  washing  flour,  is  found  to  cover  the  twigs, 
binding  them  together.  This  substance  is  called  fibrin. 
Blood,  subjected  to  this  whipping,  does  not  form  a  clot,  for  the 
reason  that  the  coagulating  substance,  fibrin,  has  been  removed 
upon  the  twigs.  If  this  whipped  or  defibrinated  blood  be  now 
permitted  to  stand,  the  red  corpuscles  settle  to  the  bottom  of 
the  bowl,  while  the  clear  serum  remains  on  top.  These  three 
constituents  of  the  blood,  fibrin,  serum  and  corpuscles,  are 
rendered  plain  to  the  sight,  but  they  are  made  up  of  many 
other  substances,  such  as  albumen,  fat,  sugar,  soda,  salt,  iron, 
lime,  magnesia,  water,  carbonic  acid  gas,  oxygen,  etc.,  etc. 

The  serum  and  the  fibrin  are  not  separated  in  the  living 
blood,  but  together  form  the  plasma.  The  office  of  the  plas- 
ma is  to  nourish  and  rebuild  the  tissues  and  to  carry  the  prod- 
ucts of  waste  and  combustion  to  those  organs — such  as  the 
liver,  kidneys  and  skin — whose  function  it  is  to  separate  them 


from  the  blood  and  carry  them  out  of  the  body.  The  particu- 
lar office  of  the  corpuscles  is  to  carry  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to 
the  tissues  and  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  tissues  to  the  lungs, 
there  to  be  exchanged  for  oxygen. 

Diseases  of  the  Blood. 

The  plasma  of  the  blood  is  replenished  in  its  nutritive  constit- 
uents by  the  food  taken  at  frequent  intervals.  Water  is  neces- 
sary to  render  the  blood  sufficiently  fluid,  and  to  hold  the  other 
constituents  in  solution.  The  presence  of  certain  chemical  sub- 
stances is  also  essential.  Lime,  iron,  and  certain  other  minerals, 
must  also  find  a  place.  Besides  these  conditions,  certain  constitu- 
ents manufactured  in  the  body  itself,  as  liver  sugar  and  the  cor- 
puscles in  normal  quantity,  are  necessary  to  health.  Water  is 
more  essential  than  food,  and  oxygen  more  than  water.  One 
deprived  of  food  dies  from  impoverishment  of  the  blood  ;  if 
deprived  of  water,  death  takes  place  much  sooner  ;  but  if 
deprived  of  oxygen,  death  ensues  within  five  to  eight  minutes. 
About  a  ton  and  a  half  in  the  shape  of  food  and  drink  is  added 
to  the  blood  of  an  ordinary  man  during  the  year.  As  there 
is  the  same  amount  of  waste,  a  ton  and  a  half  of  material, 
therefore,  must  be  carried  out  of  the  body  through  the  blood 
during  the  same  time.  Some  of  the  products  of  oxidation,  as 
urea  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  are  very  poisonous  to  the  nervous 
system.  Certain  organs,  as  the  kidneys,  skin  and  lungs,  are 
designed  especially  to  remove  these  poisons  from  the  current 
of  the  blood,  and  carry  them  out  of  the  body.  If,  through 
disease  of  these  organs,  they  fail  to  perform  their  functions,  the 
blood  becomes  highly  charged  with  the  poison,  and,  unless 
speedily  relieved,  death  is  the  result.  If  the  lungs  fail  to 
eliminate  the  carbonic  acid,  death  results  within  a  few  minutes. 
If  the  kidneys  fail  to  remove  the  urea,  death  must  follow  in  a 
short  time.    The  same  is  true  if  the  skin  fails  in  its  office. 

From  the  above  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  the  disorders  of 
the  blood  are  many.  There  may  be  too  much  blood,  when  the 
condition  is  called  plethora ;  or  too  little,  when  it  is  called 
anosmia  ;  or  it  may  contain  too  much  water,  or  too  little  ;  or 
too  many  red  corpuscles,  or  too  few ;  or  the  plasma  may  be 
deficient  in  tissue-building  constituents  ;  or  the  blood  may  be 
poisoned  by  the  retention  of  carbonic  acid  and  urea  ;  or  it  may 
contain  living  germs. 

Treatment. — A  considerable  quantity  and  wide  variety  of 
food  should  be  taken  regularly.  A  sufficient  amount  of  water 
and  fluids  should  also  be  taken.  Frequent  baths  and  a  reason- 
able amount  of  exercise  are  advised.  The  sleeping-room  should 
be  well  ventilated,  and  plenty  of  fresh  air  supplied.  Where  the 
blood  disease  is  due  to  disease  of  some  particular  organ,  the 
latter  requires  primary  attention. 


-r&'gt^lfifrZ*- 


*l- 


644 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


-*THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS. 


It  is  essentially  necessary  to  the  life  of  all  animals  that  the 
nutrient  fluid  should  be  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  system,  and 
since  the  functional  activity  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  tissues, 
and  all  tissues,  is  dependent  upon  their  oxidation,  it  is  also  neces- 
sary that  oxygen  should  be  carried  to  and  brought  directly  in 
contact  with  every  fibre  and  cell  in  the  whole  body.  This  im- 
plies the  introduction  of  air.  It  is  necessary  in  every  animal, 
moreover,  to  keep  up  the  temperature  or  body  heat  to  a  specific 
point.  This  is  also  accomplished  by  oxidation  or  burning 
either  the  disintegrating  material  which  is  passing  to  waste,  or 
the  combustible  substances,  such  as  sugars  and  fats,  found  in  the 
blood. 


Fig.  13.    Head  and  GUIs  of  the  Menobranchus. 

As  we  saw  in  the  early  part  of  this  article,  all  organic  mate- 
rial, at  its  death  and  combustion,  gives  rise  to  two  products,  car- 
bonic acid  and  water,  and  we  have  seen  by  experiment  that 
these  are  the  products  alike  of  the  burning  candle  and  the  oxi- 
dizing tissues  of  a  living  man.  These  products  of  combustion 
of  the  tissues  are  poured  into  the  current  of  the  blood.  But 
the  conditions  of  life  are  such  that  carbonic  acid  gas  acts  as  a 
poison  in  the  system,  and  me^ns  must  therefore  be  provided  for 
its  removal.  The  introduction  of  life-giving  oxygen  into  the 
system  and  the  removal  of  the  poisonous  carbonic  acid  are  ac- 
complished by  the  same  mechanism,  the  breathing  apparatus. 


lip.-.  14.    Swlmnilng-niadder  of  the  Fish. 

a,  6,  Air  chambers;  d,  c,  wind-pipe:  o,  oesophagus. 

THE    LUNGS. 

The  breathing  apparatus,  or  mechanism  by  which  oxygen  is 
introduced  into,  and  carbonic  acid  is  removed  from  the  blood, 
in  all  forms  of  life,  consists  of  a  thin  membrane  so  arranged  as 
to  permit  the  blood  to  flow  upon  one  side  of  it,  while  the  other 
side  of  the  membrane  (which  must  be  moist)  is  in  contact  with  the 
air.     The  oxygen  gas  of  the  air,  having  a  greater  affinity  or 


attraction  for  the  blood  corpuscles  than  the  carbonic  acid  gas, 
passes,  therefore,  through  the  thin  membrane  into  the  blood 
and  displaces  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  passes  out  through  the 
membrane  into  the  air.  The  membrane,  or  breathing  apparatus, 
in  all  cases,  is  the  skin,  or  some  extension,  reduplication  or 
modification  of  it,  as  the  mucous  membrane. 

In  the  lower  forms  of  aquatic  life,  and  in 
certain  worms,  which  are  always  moist,  the 
skin  serves  the  full  purpose  of  lungs  in  purify- 
ing the  blood,  and  no  special  organs  of  respir- 
ation are  required.  The  moist  skin  of  the 
frog  is  so  delicate  as  to  serve  this  purpose. 
We  may  remove  its  lungs,  and  it  will  continue 
to  live  and  breathe,  so  to  speak ;  the  heart 
will  continue  to  beat,  and  the  blood  to  circulate 
and  be  purified  so  long  as  the  skin  is  kept  wet. 
But  if  allowed  to  dry,  so  that  the  exchange 
of  gases  can  no  longer  take  place  through 
the  skin,  the  animal  soon  dies  "  from  the 
want  of  breath. " 

In  fishes,  the  gills,  which  are  covered  by  a 
delicate  membrr.ne,  take  the  place  of  the  lungs. 
There  is  a  rich  plexus  of  blood-vessels  on  one 
side  of  this  membrane,  while  the  other  side 
is  bathed  in  water.  Oxygen  is  held  in  solution 
in  the  water,  and  is  appropriated  by  the 
blood,  while  carbonic  acid  is  exhaled  through 
the  membrane.  Humboldt  placed  fishes  in 
water  which  contained  20  per  cent  of  air  in 
solution,  this  consisting  of  29.8  parts  of  oxy. 
gen,  66.2  parts  nitrogen  and  4.0  carbonic  acid. 
After  the  fishes  had  remained  in  it  a  due  time, 
analysis  showed  but  2.3  parts  oxygen,  while 
the  carbonic  acid  had  increased  to  33.8  parts, 
showing  the  ordinary  results  of  respiration. 

In  the  menobranchus  the  gills  (Fig.  13)  are 
external  feathery  tufts  on  the  sides  of  the 
neck.  Each  filament  consists  of  a  fold  of 
mucous  membrane  connected  with  that  of  the  pharynx,  and  con- 
tains a  net-work  of  capillary  blood-vessels.  Respiration  takes 
place  as  described  in  the  above  paragraph. 

But  the  first  approach  to  the  true  lung  is  seen  in  the  swim- 
ming-bladder of  fishes.  In  the  carp  there  is,  in  its  double- 
chambered  swimming-bladder  (Fig.  14),  an  approach  to  the 
double  lungs  of  the  higher  order  of  animals.  It  is  connected 
by  means  of  a  wind-pipe,  d,  c,  with  the  oesophagus,  so  that  the 
fish  is  enabled  at  will  to  increase  or  diminish  the  amount  of  air 
in  the  chambers.  While  this  is  a  rudimentary  lung,  its  real  use 
is  to  vary  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fish,  by  compression  or 
rarification  of  the  included  air.  As  explained  above,  the  gills 
in  fishes  fill  the  office  of  the  true  lung. 


Fig.  15. 

Lungs  of  Reptile 


/ 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


645 


• 


Fig.  16.   r,vuigsof 
the  Frog. 


The  lungs  of  the  reptile  present  a  sack-like, form  (Fig.  15). 
The  two  lungs  are  not  equal  in  size,  one,  A,  being  fully  devel- 
oped, while  the  other,  B,  remains  in  a  more  or  less  rudimentary 
state.  There  is  a  pulmonary  artery,  c  c,  which  brings  the  im- 
pure blood  to  the  lungs,  where  it  is  broken  up  into  minute 
capillaries  and  distributed  over  the  walls  of  the  membranous 
bag,  where  the  blood  is  purified  and  sent  through  the  pulmo- 
nary vein,  d  d,  back  to  the  heart.  The  air  is  taken  into  the 
sack  through  the  trachea,  a,  by  a  kind  of  swallowing  process, 
and  is  forced  out  again  by  contraction  of  the  abdominal  mus- 
cles. 

The  progress  from  the  simple  sack,  as 
shown  in  the  swimming-bladder  of  the 
fish  and  the  lungs  of  the  reptile,  to  the 
I  million-chambered  respiratory  organs  of 
I  the  higher  animals,  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  lungs  of  a  frog  (Fig.  16),  which  has  a 
'  number  of  imperfect  membranous  parti- 
tions dividing  up  the  sack  into  many  cham- 
bers, with  the  effect  to  greatly  increase 
the  respiratory  surface.  If  the  surface  of 
the  membrane  forming  the  walls  of  the 
sack  amounted  to  two  square  inches,  the 
effect  of  the  fifty  or  sixty  partitions  would 
De  to  increase  the  surface  of  the  respiratory  membrane  to  per- 
haps fifteen  square  inches,  so  that  the  lung  with  the  partitions  is 
capable  of  purifying 
seven  times  more 
blood  per  minute  than 
the  simple  sack  with- 
out the  partitions. 

In  man  the  trachea, 
or  wind-pipe,  divides 
into  two  bronchial 
tubes,  one  of  which 
enters  each  lung,  and 
then  branches  like  a 
tree.  The  terminal 
tubes  are  only  about 
g^  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter. Upon  the  sides 
of  these  minute  tubes 
the  air-cells  open ; 
sometimes  single  ones 
and  sometimes  many 
cells  co  m  m  u  n  i  c  a  t  e 
with  one  another  ( Fig. 
17).  Such  a  tubelet, 
with  the  air-cells  thus 
clustered  upon  it,  is  a 
miniature  representa- 
tion of  the  lungs  of  the  frog.  The  air  cells  vary  in  size  from  7^ 
to  5i„  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  said  that  each  terminal 
bronchus  has  20,000  air-cells  clustered  upon  it,  and  that  the  total 
number  in  both  lungs  is  more  than  600,000,000,  the  walls  of 
which,  if  united  and  spread  out  in  one  continuous  sheet,  would 
present  a  surface  of  1,500  square  feet.  The  cell  walls  are  formed 
of  an  exceedingly  delicate  membrane,  covered  by  the  richest  plexus 


of  capillary  blood-vessels  in  the  economy,  which  lie  so  thickly 
together  that  the  spaces  between  them  are  less  than  their 
own  diameters.  Figure  18  represents  five  air-cells,  with  the 
capillary  blood  vessels  distributed  upon  their  walls.  These  capil- 
laries are  only  jo'oo  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  requiring  200  of 
them  to  equal  the  size  of  a  cambric  needle.  As  the  cells  are 
close  together  and  the  partition  walls  of  incomprehensible  thin- 
ness, the  little  capillaries  passing 
between  them  are  brought  in  com- 
munication with  the  air  on  both 
sides.  The  blood  corpuscles  are 
obliged  to  pass  through  the  little 
vessels  in  single  file,  and  so,  with 
air  on  both  sides,  they  rapidly  and 
completely  exchange  their  poison- 
ous carbonic  acid  gas  for  pure  life- 
giving  oxygen,  and  change  their 
color  from  blue  to  crimson.  Then, 
by  the  contraction  of  the  abdom- 
inal muscles,  the  chest  walls,  and 
the  elastic  walls  of  the  air-cells 
themselves,  the  impure  air  is  forced 
out  of  the  body,  and  by  a  new  in-  ™S^u^™uSEr£g 
spiration  the  lungs  are  refilled  with  Air-Cells. 
pure  air.  This  in  turn  loses  its  oxygen  to  the  blood,  becomes 
impregnated  with  carbonic  acid,  and  is  expired,  and  the  lungs 

again     refilled     with 
pure  air. 

The  Mechanism  of 
Respiration. 

The  minute  anato- 
my of  the  pulmonary 
lobule  and  the  physi- 
ology of  the  respira- 
tory membrane  hav- 
ing been  explained,  it 
remains  only  to  recite 
the  gross  anatomy  of 
the  respiratory  or- 
gans, and  the  mech- 
anism by  which  the 
lungs  are  filled  and 
emptied  of  air. 

The  nose  may  be 
very  properly  consid- 
ered the  first  of  the 
respiratory  organs. 
By  its  turbinated 
bones  and  the  numer- 
ous cells  connected 
with  its  cavity,  a  con- 
siderable surface  is  produced,  all  of  which  is  lined  by  the  nasal 
mucous  membrane ;  over  this  surface  the  air  passes,  and  is 
warmed  and  cleansed  from  dust  before  passing  into  the  lungs. 
At  the  entrance  of  the  nostril  are  a  number  of  stiff  hairs,  which 
act  as  a  barrier  to  dust.  Within  the  nose  resides  the  sense  of 
smell,  which  informs  us  of  the  quality  of  air  we  are  breathing. 
The  cavities  of  the  hose  communicate  with  the  throat  by  two 


Showing  a  Portion  of  Five  Air-Cells,  with  the  Capillaries  Upon  Cell 
Walls  (Greatly  Magnified). 


/ 


^ 


646 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


openings.  (See  Fig.  I.)  Except  during  the  act  of  swallowing, 
the  epiglotis,  or  lid  which  covers  the  opening  into  the  larynx, 
stands  wide  open,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  while  the  gullet  below  the 
larynx  remains  closed,  so  that  there  is  a  continuous  tube  from 
the  nostrils,  into  the  lungs. 

The  Larynx  is  a  kind  of  a  triangular  box  placed  at  the  top 
of  the  trachea,  or  wind-pipe,  and  is  made  up  of  rigid  and 
unyielding  rings  of  cartilage  or  gristle.  The  larger  end  of  the 
larynx  is  placed  upward,  and  across  the  superior  opening  are 
stretched  four  ligamentous  bands  covered  by  a  most  delicate 
mucous  membrane.  These  bands  are  the  vocal  cords.  The 
two  upper  cords  are  called  the/alse,  while  the  two  lower  bands 
are  called  the  true  vocal  cords.  To  the  vibration  of  these 
latter  the  voice  is  due.  In  front  they  are  attached  to  a  fixed 
point,  the  thyroid  cartilages,  which  project  forward  on  the 
neck,  especially  in  men,  and  are  called  "Adam's  apple. "  Behind 
they  are  attached  to  movable  pieces  of  cartilage,  which  are 
controlled  by  little  muscles,  and  can  be  so  moved  as  to  separate 
the  cords  from  each  other,  as  seen  in  inspiration  (A,  Kig.  19, 
or  Fig.  22),  allowing  the  air  a  free  entrance  into  the  trachea.  In 
expiration  the  cords  fall  together,  leaving  only  a  narrow  slit  (B), 
through  which  the  air  passes  out.  When  an  attempt  is  made  to 
produce  a  sound  there  is  a  great  change  in  the  conformity  of 
the  larynx ;  the  vocal  cords  are  approximated  more  closely 
together  and  put  upon  the  stretch.  The  air  from  the  lungs  is 
then  forced  through  the  narrow  slit,  causing  the  free  edges  to 
vibrate,  at  the  same  time  forcing  them  slightly  apart  in  the 
centre,  leaving  a  narrow  oval  slit,  C,  as  shown  in  Fig.  19. 


Fig.  10.    The  Vocal  Cords. 

A,  as  teen  in  inspiration;  B,  as  seen  in  expiration;  C,  as  seen  while 
uttering  a  high-pitched  sound. 

Below  the  larynx  is  the  trachea,  a  long  air-tube,  composed  of 
rings  of  cartilage  bound  together  by  connective  tissue  and 
lined  with  mucous  membrane.  The  trachea  divides  into  two 
tubes  called  the  bronchia,  one  of  which  leads  to  each  lung,  and 
there  subdivides  and  branches  like  a  tree  into  the  ultimate 
bronchial  tubules  which  open  into  the  air-cells. 

The  lungs  are  contained  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest  (A,  Fig. 
20).  This  cavity  is  separated  from  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen 
(C)  by  an  arched  muscle  (B)  called  the  diaphragm. 

The  lungs  are  placed  one  upon  each  side  of  the  heart  (Fig. 
21).  Each  lung  is  enclosed  in  a  double  membranous  sock 
called  the  pleura,  one  fold  of  which  is  closely  attached  to  the 
substance  of  the  lung,  while  the  outside  layer  lines  the  chest 
wall.  Between  the  two  layers  is  a  cavity  which  contains  a  little 
fluid  called  serum,  which  is  secreted  by  the  membrane,  and 
serves  to  lubricate  its  surfaces,  so  that  they  glide  smoothly  over 
each  other  with  every  movement  of  the  lungs.  The  right  lung 
is  divided  into  three  (6,  7,  8)  and  the  left  into  two  (1,  2)  lobes. 


Movements  of  Respiration. 
When  the  diaphragm  contracts,  it  approaches  a  straight  line 
across  the  body  ;  at  the  same  time  the  costal  muscles  elevate  the 
ribs,  which  are  also,  because  of  their  direction,  carried  outward. 
This  increases  the  size  of  the  cavity  of  the  chest.  The  descent 
of  the  diaphragm  increases  the  length  of  the  chest-cavity,  while 
the  movement  of  the  ribs  increases  its  breadth.  This  causes  a 
vacuum  in  the  chest -cavity,  and  the  outside  air  rushes  in  through 
the  trachea  and  dilates  the  air-cells  until  the  cavity  is  filled. 
This  is  known  as  inspiration.  The  diaphragm  and  costal  mus- 
cles now  relax,  the  ribs  return  to  their  place,  thus  narrowing  the 
chest,  while  the  abdominal  muscles  contract,  forcing  the  stomach 
and  liver  upward  against  the  diaphragm,  which  rises  into  its 


Fig.  20. 

A,  cavity  of  chest;  B,  diaphragm;  C,  cavity  of  abdomen, 
arched  position,  decreasing  the  length  of  the  chest-cavity. 
These  movements,  together  with  the  elasticity  of  the  air-cells, 
force  the  contained  air  out  through  the  trachea,  emptying  the 
lungs.  This  act  is  called  expiration,  which  is  followed  by  and 
alternates  with  the  act  of  inspiration,  and  comprises  the  phe- 
nomenon of  respiration. 

DISEASES   OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS. 

Diseases  under  this  head  may  be  divided  into  those  affecting 
the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  air-passages,  those  affecting  the 
serous  membrane  covering  the  lungs,  and  those  affecting  the 
substance  of  the  lung  itself. 

Cold — Catarrh — Bronchitis. 

Coryza,  or  cold  in  the  head,  is  an  acute  inflammation  of 

the  lining  membrane  of  the  nose.     The  eyes,  in  this  disease,  are 

also  frequently  inflamed  and  red,  and  the  tears  flow  over  the 

face.  The  symptoms  begin  with  an  itching  or  tingling  sensation 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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in  the  nose,  which  is  followed  by  sneezing.  A  slight  fever  ac- 
companies these  symptoms,  and  not  unfrequently  there  is  more 
or  less  headache. 

Treatment. — Twenty  or  twenty-five  drops  of  laudanum 
should  be  taken  at  bed-time,  the  first  evening  after  the  symp- 
toms are  noticed.  Not  unfrequently  this  will  effect  a  cure.  If 
not,  another  dose  may  be  taken  the  following  evening,  and  this 
repeated  the  next.  If  the  cold  is  severe  the  laudanum  should 
be  taken  night  and  morning  until  relieved.  It  is  also  well  to 
take  four  grains  of  quinine  night  and  morning.  Instead  of 
laudanum,  one-sixth  of  a  grain  of  morphine,  or  a  full  dose  of 
Dover's  powder,  will  serve  the  purpose  equally  well.  Treated 
in  the  beginning, 
nothing  is  surer  than 
a  perfect  cure  in  from 
twenty- four  to  forty- 
eight  hours,  but  if 
not  effectually  treat- 
ed, it  is  apt  to  extend 
to  the  larynx  and  be- 
come a  severe  bron- 
chitis, or  eventuate  in 
a  chronic,  low-grade 
inflammation  of  the 
nasal  membrane, 
called  ca'arrh. 

Catarrh. 

Catarrh  is  a 
name  that  properly 
applies  to  all  inflam- 
mations of  any  part 
of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane.such  as  catarrh 
of  the  stomach  or  of 
the  bladder,  but  by 
common  usage,  un- 
less qualified  by  an- 
other word,  has  come 
to  mean  a  chronic  in- 
flammation of  the 
nasal  mucous  mem- 
brane. It  is  a  very 
troublesome  disease, 
and  is  often  very  dif- 
ficult to  treat.  Pa- 
tients are  frequently 
seen  who  have  suf- 
fered from  the  disease  for  years.  The  inflammation  is  apt  to 
extend  through  the  eustachian  tube  to  the  ears,  and  sometimes 
with  not  only  the  effect  to  impair  the  hearing,  but  to  quite  de- 
stroy it.  The  odor  is,  in  bad  cases,  most  penetrating,  rendering 
the  patient  very  offensive  to  his  associates. 

Treatment. — In  the  beginning  the  most  effective  treatment  is 
that  recommended  for  coryza.  Later,  tonics  should  be  given. 
Quinine  in  two-grain  doses,  three  times  a  day  ;  laudanum  in 
small  doses  and  iodide  of  potassium  in  five-grain  doses  three 
times  a  day.     In  the  beginning  powders  and  solutions  sniffed  up 


43 


the  nose  usually  do  harm,  and  it  is  a  question  whether  they  ever 
do  good  in  any  stage.  The  most  effective  treatment  for  a 
chronic  case  is,  perhaps,  a  change  of  climate.  The  writer  has 
known  some  excellent  cures  to  result  from  a  residence  in  North- 
ern Wisconsin,  or  in  the  region  of  Lake  Superior. 

Acute  Laryngitis. 
Acute  Laryngitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  the  larynx.  It  is  attended  with  a  cough  and  hoarse- 
ness, and  frequently  with  much  difficulty  of  breathing.  The 
hoarseness  is  due  to  inflammation  and  swelling  of  the  vocal 
cords.  Medicinal  treatment  should  be  the  same  as  that  recom- 
mended for  coryza. 
At  night  the  throat 
may  be  bound  with  a 
bandage  wrung  out 
of  cold  water.  Qui- 
nine should  be  taken 
in  four-grain  doses 
three  times  a  day. 

Disease  of   Vocal 
Cords. 

It  not  unfrequently 
happens  that  speech, 
or  the  power  of  pho- 
nation,  is  lost  in  con- 
sequence of  disease  or 
injury  of  vocal  cords, 
or  of  ulceration  or 
swelling  of  the  sur- 
rounding parts. 
Within  the  last  few 
years  a  little  instru- 
ment, called  a  laryn- 
goscope,  has  been  in- 
vented, by  which  a 
view  of  the  larynx 
and  vocal  cords  may 
be  obtained.  It  con- 
sists of  a  little  round 
mirror,  about  the 
size  of  a  copper  cent, 
fastened  at  an  angle 
upon  a  small  stem  or 
handle.  This  is  in- 
troduced into  the 
mouth,  as  shown  in 


Fig.  81.    Showing  the  Lungs  in  Situ. 

,  Upper  and  lower  lobe  of  left  lung;  6,  7,  8,  upper,  middle  and  lower  lobe  of  right  lung;  5, 
space  occupied  by  the  heart 


Fig.  22,  the  tongue  having  been  drawn  forward.  Then,  by  the 
aid  of  a  bright  light;  placed  beside  the  patient,  and  reflected 
from  a  mirror  worn  upon  the  forehead  of  the  physician,  the  rays 
are  thrown  upon  the  little  mirror  in  the  mouth  of  the  patient, 
from  which  it  is  again  reflected  down  to  and  illuminates  the  larynx, 
the  image  of  which  is  reflected  back  into  the  little  mirror  in  the 
mouth  of  the  patient.  In  Fig.  22  the  image  of  the  larynx  ind 
vocal  cords  is  shown  as  seen  by  the  physician.  By  this  means  a 
physician  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  instrument  is  able  to  examine 
an  ulcer  of  the  larynx  as  critically  as  he  might  a  burn  on  the  hand. 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


In  case  of  loss  of  the  voice,  not  clearly  due  to  an  acute  cold, 
or  in  case  of  hoarsenesss  of  long  standing,  such  an  examination 
should  be  sought  directly,  les't  the  voice  may  become  perma- 
nently impaired  or  destroyed.  Sometimes  one  or  both  of  the 
vocal  cords  may  be  paralyzed.  As  the  symptoms  may  be  due  to 
different  causes,  it  is  best  not  to  undertake  self-treatment,  but 
go  at  once  to  a  skilful  physician. 


Fig.  38.  Showing  the  Manner  of  Using  the  laryngoscope, 
with  the  Image  or  the  Larynx,  Eplglotis  and  Vocal  Cords  in 
the  Mirror. 

Bronchitis. 

Bronchitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
trachea  and  bronchial  tubes.  It  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic. 
If  acute,  there  will  be  a  slight  fever  and  considerable  cough. 
The  treatment  should  l>e  the  same  as  that  advised  for  coryza. 

Chronic  Bronchitis  usually  eventuates  from  an  acute  attack. 
The  disease  may  be  of  years'  standing.  Those  cases  of  death  of 
elderly  people  from  exhaustion,  attended  by  cough  and  expec- 
toration, and  accredited  to  consumption,  may  usually  be  put 
down  as  bronchitis.  Consumption  rarely  attacks  persons  after 
40  or  45  years  of  age. 

Treatment  should  consist  partly  in  good  living  and  warm  dress- 
ing. Any  of  the  bitter  tonics,  with  iron,  may  be  taken,  together 
with  some  form  of  opium  to  relieve  the  cough.  Iodide  of  potas- 
sium in  five-grain  doses,  with  two  grains  of  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
taken  after  meals,  will  l>e  found  very  useful. 

Pertussis — Whooping  Cough. 
Whooping  Cough  is  an  infectious  disease,  attacking  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  air  passages.  It  attacks  children, 
not  exclusively,  but  chiefly.  Among  the  first  symptoms  the 
child  appears  to  have  taken  cold.  Slight  fever,  suffused  eyes, 
running  nose  and  a  cough  make  up  the  early  symptoms.  The 
cough  is  worse  at  night,  and  the  tern]  erature  and  pulse  are 
higher.  At  this  time  there  is  nothing  "to  distinguish  it  from 
an  ordinary  cold.  This  stage  may  last  but  a  fow  days  or  be 
protracted  over  a  period  of  two  weeks,  when  these  symptoms 
are  changed  for  a  distinct  paroxysmal  cough,  hr.-ing  more 
or  less  of  a  metallic  ring.     The  child  makes  a  peculiar  noise 


during  inspiration.  There  is  more  difficulty  in  inspiration 
than  expiration  during  the  paroxysm.  The  paroxysm  over, 
the  patient  seems  to  be  well.  The  number  of  paroxysms 
during  twenty-four  hours  varies  from  ten  to  twenty  in  ordinary, 
to  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  in  aggravated  cases.  Dur- 
ing the  cough  the  child  becomes  black  in  the  face,  and  blood 
may  be  forced  from  the  nose,  throat  or  lungs,  and  at  times  from 
the  ears.  The  little  patient  soon  learns  to  dread  these  attacks, 
and  seeks  something  to  seize  upon  for  support  during  the  par- 
oxysm. If  lying  in  bed,  he  springs  up  and  perhaps  stands  upon 
his  feet,  the  tongue  being  thrust  out  of  the  mouth  during  the 
cough.  The  material  expectorated  is  a  clear,  tough  mucus.  In 
young  children  the  nurse  will  be  obliged  to  remove  this  mucus 
with  a  handkerchief  upon  the  finger.  It  seems  sometimes  as 
if  the  patient  would  die  of  strangulation  before  it  can  be 
removed.  If  the  paroxysms  are  frequent  the  front  teeth  may 
chafe  the  under  part  of  the  tongue  so  as  to  form  ulcers  which 
greatly  annoy  the  patient.  An  uncontrolable  diarrhoea  may  set 
in,  or  the  brain  may  become  affected,  when  convulsions  or  stupor 
make  their  appearance. 

Treatment. — Cough  medicines  as  a  general  thing  disturb  the 
stomach  without  mitigating  the  cough.  Small  dosesof  the  syrup 
of  ipecacuanha  may  do  good.  The  patient  should  be  kept  warm 
with  good  flannel  underclothing.  It  is  not  advisable  to  keep  him 
shut  indoors,  but  if  the  weather  is  at  all  propitious,  it  is  perhaps 
better  that  he  should  remain  out  in  the  fresh  air. 

Tonics  arc  needed.  Small  doses  of  quinine  or  cinchona  mix- 
ture will  do  good.  Three  or  four  drops  of  tincture  of  belladonna 
at  bed-time  may  give  the  patient  a  good  rest. 

If  the  child  has  not  been  vaccinated,  it  will  be  well  to  vacci- 
nate him,  for  vaccina  seems  to  favorably  modify  the  symptoms  of 
whooping  cough. 

Asthma. 

Asthma  is  caused  by  a  spasm  of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the 
small  bronchial  tubes,  which  obstructs  the  outward  flow  of  air 
from  the  lungs  ;  hence  the  great  distress  for  want  of  breath, 
ar.d  the  loud  wheezing  sounds.  The  disease  is  of  nervous  origin, 
and  is  sometimes  hereditary.     It  is  generally  worse  at  night. 

Treatment. — There  are  many  remedies  which  for  a  time  re- 
lieve the  bid  symptoms,  and  a  change  of  climate  is  almost 
always  attended  by  relief.  An  attack  may  be  brought  on  by  any 
irritating  smoke,  or  vapor,  or  dust  contained  in  the  breathing- 
air.  The  emanation  from  a  feather  pillow  is  sufficient  in  some 
persons  to  produce  a  paroxysm.  The  writer  has  found  the  fol- 
lowing prescription  of  use  in  a  greater  number  of  cases  than  any 
other.     It  usually  cuts  short  the  attack  within  a  few  hours  : 


Iodide  of  potassium, 
Carbonate  of  ammonia. 
Syrup  of  orange-peel, 
Simple  syrup, 


90  grains. 

60  grains. 

1  ounce. 


Mi\. 
Take  a  teaspoonful  every  two  to  four  hours  until  relieved. 

Pleurisy. 
Pleurisy  is  an  inflammation  of  the  pleura,  or  the  membrane 
whii  li  envelopes  the  lungs.     It  is  usually  confined  to  one  side. 


the  left  more  frequently  than  the  right, 
very  rarely,  both  sides  are  attacked  at  the 


Sometimes,  though 
same  time.     The 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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tack  begins  with  sharp  pains  in  the  side,  and  in  the  region  of  the 
nipple.  Soon  it  becomes  impossible  to  take  a  deep  inspiration 
on  account  of  the  severe  pain  caused  by  friction  of  the  two 
layers  of  the  inflamed  membrane.  Considerable  fever  is  present. 
Examination  by  a  physician  will  be  necessary  to  determine 
whether  the  symptoms  are  due  to  pleurisy  or  pneumonia. 

Pleurisy  is  not  usually  a  grave  disease.  The  patient  generally 
recovers  within  a  few  days.  Sometimes,  however,  a  great 
effusion  of  fluid  takes  place  in  the  pleural  sack,  compressing  the 
lung  so  that,  if  the  fluid  is  not  soon  absorbed,  the  lung  may 
become  permanently  disabled.  Sometimes  the  effused  fluid 
becomes  purulent. 

Treatment. — Strips  of  adhesive  plaster,  an  inch  wide  and 
from  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  long,  may  be  applied  by 
sticking  one  end  over  the  spine  and  carrying  the  strip  around 
the  body  upon  the  affected  side,  to  act  as  a  splint,  thus  prevent- 
ing any  movement  of  the  inflamed  parts.  A  quarter  of  a 
grain  of  morphine  may  be  given,  or,  instead,  twenty-five  drops 
of  laudanum.  This  may  be  repeated  every  hour  or  two  until 
relieved  from  pain.  If  effusion  takes  place  the  treatment  should 
be  left  to  the  advice  of  a  physician. 

Pneumonia. 

Pneumonia,  lung  fever,  winter  fever,  or  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  is  an  inflammation  of  the  substances  of  the  lung. 
But  a  single  lobe  of  the  affected  lung  is  usually  attacked.     The 


disease  rarely  attacks  both  lungs  at  the  same  time.  In  such  a 
case  a  double  pneumonia  is  said  to  exist.  The  lower  lobes 
(8  and  2,  Fig.  21)  are  more  frequently  attacked  than  the  upper 
(6  and  1)  lobes. 

An  attack  may  occur  at  any  season  of  the  year,  but  the  disease 
is  prevalent  in  winter  and  spring.  The  attack  begins  with  symp- 
toms similar  to  those  of  pleurisy,  congestion  of  the  affected 
lobe  rapidly  supervening.  The  temperature  rises,  and  the  pulse 
beat  and  respiratory  movements  become  more  frequent.  An 
exudation  takes  place  into  the  air-cells  of  the  affected  lobe, 
completely  filling  them,  solidifying  the  lobe  and  rendering  that 
portion  of  the  lung  entirely  useless.  A  very  high  fever  ensues, 
and  the  patient  becomes  dangerously  ill,  and  may  remain  in  a 
critical  condition  for  several  weeks.  In  unfavorable  cases 
death  results  in  from  ten  to  twenty  days,  from  exhaustion. 
Occasionally  the  inflammation  involves  both  lungs,  or  more 
than  one  lobe  if  but  one  lung  is  attacked  ■;  under  such  cir- 
circumstances  death  may,  in  rare  cases,  result  during  the  first 
or  second  day  from  suffocation. 

Treatment. —  In  so  grave  a  disease,  a  skilful  physician 
should  be  called  without  delay,  and  his  directions  for  treatment 
carefully  followed.  Good  nursing  is  of  great  importance, 
and  the  most  nourishing  food  must  be  given  from  the  begin- 
ning, in  order  to  guard  against  danger  from  exhaustion  toward 
the  close  of  the  disease. 


THE  EXCRETORY  ORGANS. 


The  name  excretory  is  applied  to  those  organs  whose  func- 
tion it  is  to  remove  from  the  blood  the  elements  of  waste  — 
the  ashes,  so  to  speak,  of  the  oxidized  tissues  —  which  have 
been  taken  into  its  current  during  its  passage  through  the 
capillaries.  Besides  the  lungs,  which  act  as  excreting  organs  in 
so  far  as  they  remove  from  the  blood  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
water,  and  the  liver,  which  also  eliminates  from  the  blood  cer- 
tain poisonous  excretions,  there  exist  two  other  organs  whose 
chief  or  exclusive  function  it  is  to  purify  the  blood,  by  removing 
from  its  current  the  debris  of  the  worn-out  and  oxidizing  tissues. 
These  organs  are  the  kidneys  and  the  skin. 
The  Kidneys. 

The  kidneys  are  two  in  number,  placed  in  the  abdominal  cavity 
one  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  column,  on  a  level  with  the 
lower  ribs.  The  kidney  is  shaped  much  like  a  lima  bean.  It  is, 
in  the  adult,  about  four  inches  long,  two  inches  wide,  one  inch  in 
thickness,  and  weighs  from  four  to  six  ounces.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  thick  cushion  of  fat  which  protects  it  from  injury.  The 
concave  margin,  which  presents  a  deep  notch  called  the  hilum, 
is  turned  toward  the  spinal  column.  At  the  hilum  enter  the 
blood-vessels  and  nerves  and  the  excretory  duct,  called  the  ureter, 
which  carries  away  the  urine  as  fast  as  it  is  secreted,  and 
empties  it  into  the  bladder,  a  membranous  reservoir  for  holding 
it,  until  such  convenient  time  as  it  may  be  voided. 


On  making  a  vertical  section  through  the  kidney  (Fig.  23) 
from  its  convex  to  its  concave  border,  it  appears  to  be  made 
up  of  two  substances,  an  outside  or  cortical  substance,  and  an 
inside  or  medullary  substance.  The  cortical  substance  forms 
the  greater  part  of  the  gland  and  occupies  its  surface.  It  is 
soft  and  dark-colored  and  contains  numerous  small  red  bodies, 
called  Malpighian  bodies,  scattered  throughout  its  substance. 
The  medullary  substance  is  of  a  pale  red  color  and  consists  of 
thousands  of  little  tubes  arranged  in  pyramids  (1  1,  2  2,  4  4, 
Fig.  23),  called  the  pyramids  of  Malpighi.  The  little  tubes, 
or  urinary  tubules,  of  which  the  pyramids  are  made  up,  are 
connected,  one  with  each  of  the  Malpighian  bodies,  from  which 
they  are  gathered  together  in  pyramids,  and  empty,  by  com- 
mon ducts  (5,  5,  5,  5),  into  a  cavity  (7)  shown  in  the  cut,  and 
known  as  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney,  from  which  the  ureter  (8) 
conducts  the  urine  away  to  the  bladder.  Figure  24  shows  the 
Malpighian  bodies  (1,  5,  6)  greatly  magnified  ;  3  is  a  branch  of 
the  renal  artery,  from  which  little  branches  (4,  4,  4)  enter  the 
little  bodies  and  break  into  minute  looped  capillaries  (5),  which 
again  unite,  forming  a  vein  (7,  7,  7),  which  passes  out  of  the 
little  body,  branches  and  subdivides  (8,  9),  and  finally  again 
breaks  up  into  capillaries  (10)  to  nourish  the  substance  of  the 
kidney.  From  the  Malpighian  bodies  extend  the  little  tubes 
(2,  2,  2),  which  finally  unite  to  form  the  pyramids. 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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It  is  in  the  Malpighian  bodies  and  in  the  little  urinary 
tubules  that  the  urine  is  separated  from  the  blood.  The 
capsules  of  these  little  bodies,  Mr.  Huxley  says,  may  be  likened 
to  a  funnel,  and  the  membranous  walls  of  the  little  capillaries 
to  very  delicate  filtering-paper,  into  which  the  blood  is  poured. 
A  substance  called  urea,  the  ashes  of  the  oxidized  muscular 
tissue,  and  certain  saline  substances,  among  which  are  common 
salt  and  the  phosphates  and  sulphates  of  potash,  soda,  lime  and 
magnesia  in  solution,  are  filtered  out  of  the  blood,  carried 
away  by  the  little  tubules  (2,  2,  2)  to  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney, 
from  which  it  flows  through  the  ureter  into  the  bladder,  and 


Fig.  23.    A  Longitudinal  Section  of  the  Kidney. 

I,  2,  4,  Pyramids  of  Malpighi;  7,  cavity  of  the  pelvis;  5,  5,  mouths  of 
the  urinary  tubules ;  8,  the  ureter. 

thence  out  of  the  body.  Thus  the  function  of  the  kidney  is  to 
purify  the  blood,  by  removing  those  poisonous  elements  of  waste 
which  cannot  be  removed  by  the  other  excretory  organs. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    KIDNEYS. 

The  kidney  is  liable  to  disease,  inflammation  and  degenera- 
tion, the  same  as  other  parts  of  the  body.  Anything  which 
interferes  with  the  proper  secretion  and  elimination  of  urea  by 
the  kidney  may  properly  be  considered  a  disease.  Sometimes 
irritation  of  the  nerves  of  the  kidney  is  sufficient  to  stop  the 
secretion  of  urine  for  a  considerable  time.  Mental  emotions 
may  diminish  or  increase  the  secretion.  It  has  long  been  ob- 
served that  the  urine  of  an  hysterical  patient  is  excessive  in 
amount  and  of  a  very  pale  color.  During  a  fever  the  urine  is 
small  in  amount  and  of  .1  very  high  color.  This  is  due  to  the 
great  evaporation  which  takes  place  from  the  skin  in  conse- 
quence of  the  high  tcmju-rature.  Almost  all  the  diseases  to 
which  the  kidney  is  liable  have  been  classed  together  and  called 
Brigkt's  disease,  so  called  because  Dr.  Richard  Bright   first 


described  one  type  of  inflammation  of  the  kidney,  and  almost 
all  knowledge  subsequently  gained  regarding  diseases  of  the 
kidney,  in  which  albumen  is  excreted,  has  been  included  under 
that  name. 

An  inflammation  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic ;  may  be 
confined  to  the  pelvis  or  to  the  urinary  tubules,  or  the  tub- 
stance  of  the  kidney  may  be  inflamed.  An  acute  inflammation 
may  cause  death  within  a  few  days,  or  it  may  become  chronic, 
or  complete  recovery  may  take  place  within  a  few  weeks.  A 
chronic  inflammation  may  last  for  many  years.     Where  the  kid- 


Fig.  24. 

1,  6,  5,  Malpighian  bodies:  a, a,  a,  urinary  tubules:  3.  renal  artery: 
4,  4.  4,  branches  of  renal  artery:  ;,  5,  plexus  of  looped  capillaries:  7,  8,  o, 
veins  and  venous  plexus. 

neys  are  so  much  diseased  as  to  fail  in  removing  the  urea  from 
the  blood,  nervous  symptoms  and  convulsions  rapidly  super- 
vene, caused  by  uremic  poisoning.  The  kidneys  failing  in  their 
duty,  the  stomach  attempts  to  perform  the  work  of  the  kidney  ; 
urine  transudes  into  the  stomach,  and  vomiting  is  se'  jp. 
The  vomited  matter  has  a  strong  ammoniacal  smell  like  urine. 
Treatment.  —  Where  disease  of  the  kidney  is  suspected  a 
skilled  and  educated  physician  should  be  consulted.  By  an 
examination  of  the  urine,  he  can  ascertain  whether  or  not  a 


V 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


651 


sufficient  amount  of  urea  is  being  eliminated,  whether  nutri- 
tive constituents  of  the  blood  are  being  lost  in  the  urine,  and 
by  the  use  of  the  microscope  can  tell,  by  the  presence  or  ab 
sence  of  epithelial  casts,  whether  the  urinary  tubules  are  dis 
eased  or  not.  Do  not  begin  taking  quack  patent -medicines 
before  you  ascertain  whether  or  not  any  disease  exists.  If  dis 
ease  of  the  kidneys  is  suspected,  because  of  pain  in  the  back 
the  chances  are  ten  to  one  that  no  disease  whatever  of  the 
kidneys  exists.  The  trouble  is,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  due  to 
the  muscles  of  the  back,  which  may  be  affected  with  rheuma- 
tism or  neuralgia,  or  simply  strained.  The  writer  has  known 
a  number  of  patients  who  supposed  they  were  suffering  from 
kidney  disease  because  of  backache,  which  was  in  reality  caused 
by  sleeping  in  an  uncomfortable,  sagging  bed.  With  a  new  bed- 
spring,  the  backache  and  supposed  "  Bright's  disease  "  disap- 
peared. Certain  quack  patent-medicines  have  obtained  a  pop- 
ular reputation  by  the  fact  that  many  people,  who  never  had 
any  disease  of  the  kidneys,  have  recovered  from  a  backache 
while  taking  the  medicine  ;  the  cessation  of  the  backache  being 
in  no  way  more  dependent  upon  the  medicine  taken  than  upon 
the  water  drunk  during  the  time.  Pain  in  the  back  is  not  a 
symptom  of  kidney-disease.  Swelling  of  the  feet,  dropsy  of 
the  face  or  loss  of  strength  is  most  often  the  first  symptom 
noticed  by  the  patient,  indicating  that  he  is  out  of  health.  Not 
unfrequentiy  faiiure  of  sight  is  the  first  symptom  observed. 
The  treatment  should  be  left  to  the  advice  of  a  physician. 

THE  SKIN. 

The  skin  is  a  hard,  firm,  elastic  membrane  which  covers 
the  body  and  serves  to  protect  the  soft  parts  from  injury.  It 
is  also  an  excretory  organ,  exhaling,  as  it  does,  a  large  portion 
of  the  fluids  given  off  from  the  body,  besides  being  the  chief 
means  of  maintaining  the  animal  heat  at  an  equable  point. 
The  skin  is  composed  of  two  layers.  The  deeper  one  is  called 
the  derma,  or  true  skin,  and  the  outer  layer  the  epidermis 
(Greek;  epi,  upon,  and  derma,  skin).  The  derma  is  composed 
of  strong  elastic  and  inelastic  fibres  interlaced  with  each  other ; 
between  the  fibres  in  some  parts  is  found  much  adipose,  or  fat- 
tissue.  In  its  substance  are  found  also  the  sweat  glands, 
sebaceous  glands,  hair  follicles,  lymphatics  and  nerves.  The 
epidermis  has  no  fibres,  but  is  composed  of  several  layers  of 
cells  placed  one  upon  another.  In  the  deepest  of  these  is  the 
pigment  or  coloring  matter  upon  which  depends  the  com- 
plexion. The  hair  and  nails  are  appendages  of  the  skin,  and 
are  but  a  modified  form  of  the  epidermic  cells. 

At  the  root  of  each  hair  is  a  little  gland,  sometimes  two  or 
more,  called  a  sebaceous  gland,  which  secretes  an  oily  substance 
which  lubricates  the  hair  and  surface  of  the  skin.  Coiled  up  in 
the  deepest  part  of  the  true  skin,  or  beneath  it,  are  little  tubes, 
which  pass  up  through  the  entire  thickness  of  the  skin  and 
open  on  the  surface.  They  are  called  sudoriparous  or  sweat 
glands. 

There  is  a  constant  exhalation  from  the  skin,  generally  not 
visible,  when  it  is  calle&insensible perspiration.  When  visible, 
it  is  called  sensible  perspiration,  or  sweat.  The  skin  excretes, 
perhaps,  more  water  than  the  kidneys,  amounting  to  between 
one  and  two  pounds  daily.     Other  excretions  are  also  eliminated 


by  the  skin,  so  that  it  becomes  one  of  the  most  important  organs 
of  the  body. 

Diseases  of  the  Skin. 

It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  article  to  consider  the  rarer  dis- 
eases of  the  skin,  or  to  more  than  indicate  the  character  and 
simpler  means  of  treatment  of  the  more  common  affections. 

At  one  time  most  of  the  skin  diseases  were  thought  to  be 
constitutional,  and  that  the  eruption  was  caused  by  attempted 
elimination  of  the  poison.  It  is  now  known  that  most  of  the 
skin  diseases  are  of  local  origin.  A  certain  class  are  caused  by 
vegetable  parasites  ;  another  class  by  animal  parasites ;  others  by 
the  local  effects  of  heat  or  cold,  or  by  the  irritation  of  mechan- 
ical or  chemical  agents  ;  others  are  in  a  measure  dependent  upon 
the  general  health,  and  others  to  specific  poisons,  which  include 
syphilis  and  the  eruptive  fevers.  The  eruptive  fevers  will  be 
treated  under  the  head  of  fevers. 

Phthiriasis — Lousiness. 

There  are  three  distinct  forms  of  pediculi,  or  lice,  which  in- 
fest thehuman  body:  the  pediculus corporis,  or  body-louse ;  pedi- 
cutus  capitis,  or  head-louse;  a~"d  the  pediculus  pubis,  or  crab 
louse.  Low  and  filthy  people  may  be  infested  with  any  or  all 
of  these  forms.  Cleanly  and  respectable  people  are,  therefore, 
never  affected  by  phthiriasis,  or  the  lesions  caused  by  these  ped- 
iculi, for  if  they  come  in  contact  with  filthy  people  infested 
with  either  variety,  and  should  by  accident  get  lice  upon  the 
body  or  head,  the  fact  is  soon  discovered,  and  the  body  rid  of 
them  before  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  to  produce  the  charac- 
teristic lesions  or  wounds.  The  fworite  seat  of  the  body-louse 
is  about  the  Iiips  or  shoulders.  They  are  seldom  found  upon 
the  body  when  the  clothing  is  removed,  but  may  be  found  in  the 
seams  of  the  under-garments,  where  they  also  lay  their  eggs. 
The  head-lice,  by  their  bites  and  by  the  excoriations  caused  by 
scratching,  not  infrequently  cause  an  eczema  of  the  scalp  which 
sometimes  eventuates  in  abscesses.  The  c-ab-louse  may  cause  a 
considerable'eruption  over  the  parts  of  the  body  infested  by 
it.  It  is  a  small  red  louse,  very  difficult  to  see.  It  clings  very 
firmly  to  the  roots  of  the  hairs  and  to  the  skin  by  means  of  crab- 
like claws.  Like  the  head-louse,  it  deposits  its  eggs  or  nits  upon 
the  hairs. 

Treatment. — In  the  case  of  phthiriasis  from  head  lice, 
the  hair  of  the  head  should  first  be  thoroughly  soaked  in  com- 
mon kerosene  oil,  two  or  three  times  a  day,  and  wrapped  up  in 
cloth  for  the  first  twenty-four  hours.  This  will  kill  both  the 
lice  and  their  nits.  It  is  never  necessary  to  cut  the  hair.  At 
the  end  of  twenty-four  hours  the  hair  should  be  thoroughly 
washed,  and  the  excoriated  patches  may  be  treated  with  a  little 
oxide  of  zinc  ointment.  When  caused  by  body  lice  the  treat- 
ment is  very  easy.  The  clothing  is  to  be  removed  and  thor- 
oughly boiled  and  carefully  ironed,  and  a  thorough  bath 
given  the  body  with  soap  and  warm  water.  The  excoriations 
readily  heal. 

The  crab  louse  is  more  difficult  to  destroy.  By  a  thorough 
application  of  one  of  the  mercurial  ointments,  however,  the 
object  may  be  accomplished. 


_M 


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652 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MKDICINE. 


] 


Tig.  25. 


The  Acarus  Scablei,  or 
Iteli  Inject. 


Scabies— The  Itch. 

The  Itch  is  quite  a  different  disease  from  phthiriasis, 
although  due  to  a  parasite.  It  is  caused  by  a  minuteinsect,  the 
acarus  scabiei,  which  bores  into  and  underneath  the  epidermic 
layer  of  the  skin.  A  good  idea  of  its  appearance  under  the 
microscope  may  be  gained 
from  the  accompanying 
cut  (Fig.  25).  The  female 
causes  the  eruption  and 
itching  by  burrowing  be- 
neath the  epidermis  to  de- 
posit her  eggs.  The  male 
is  said  never  to  penetrate 
the  skin.  The  seat  of  the 
eruption  is  most  frequent 
between  the  fingers,  on  the 
inside  of  the  wrist  and  on 
the  soles  of  the  feet.  Itch- 
ing may  be  quite  severe. 
It  is*  a  contagious  disease, 
and  is  frequently  contract- 
ed at  school,  where  some 
unkept  child  introduces  it. 
The  disgrace  attending  it 
is  such  that  it  is  becoming  a  rather  rare  disease. 

Treatment. — First  rub  the  patient  all  over  with  strong  soap, 
and  follow  this  by  a  hot  bath,  lasting  an  hour  or  more,  after 
which  rub  him  thoroughly  with  a  sulphur  ointment.  The  clothes 
are  to  be  thoroughly  boiled  or  baked. 

Tinea  Trichophytina — Ringworm. 

Ringworm  is  caused  by  a  vegetable  parasite.  It  begins  by 
a  smajl  red  spot,  which  enlarges  with  rapidity.  As  it  increases 
at  the  border  it  heals  in  the  centre.  The  margin  is  red  and 
raised  above  the  healthy  skin.  The  centre  of  the  patch  is 
scaly  and  of  a  dirty  yellow  color.  There  may  be  several 
patches. 

Treatment. — Red  precipitate  or  citrine  ointment  well  rubbed 
in  will  usually  cure  the  disease. 

Acne. 

Acne  is  a  disease  of  the  sebaceous  glands  at  the  roots  of  the 
hairs.  There  are  several  varieties,  all  of  which  consist  of  an 
eruption  upon  the  face.  The  different  forms  are  due  to  differ- 
ent causes,  but  in  most  there  is  a  disturbance  of  the  general 
health,  frequently  attended  with  dyspepsia  and  nervous  de- 
rangements. A  very  common  variety  is  the  acna  puncta  nigra, 
or  little  black  specks  over  the  nose  and  face,  due  to  little  plugs  of 
sebaceous  matter  in  the  ducts  of  the  glands,  the  projecting  end 
becoming  blackened  by  a  collection  of  dust.  Another  variety 
consists  of  little  white  specks  in  the  region  of  the  eyes,  consist- 
ing of  sebaceous  matter  beneath  a  very  thin  layer  of  skin. 
Other  varieties  consist  of  inflammation  surrounding  the  gland, 
causing  hard  indurated  nodules  as  large  as  half  a  pea. 

Treatment. — The  general  health  should  be  built  up.  If  dys- 
pepsia and  constipation  exist,  remedies  should  be  employed  for 
their  cure.  The  local  treatment  of  the  disease  should  be  left 
to  a  physician. 


Eczema — Salt  Rheum. 

Eczema  is,  perhaps,  the  most  common  of  all  skin  diseases. 
It  occurs  at  all  periods  of  life.  It  is  non-contagious  and  may 
be  either  acute  or  chronic.  It  may  make  its  appearance  upon 
any  part  of  the  body,  although  it  is  most  common  upon  the 
hands,  feet  and  scalp.  Eczema  has  been  called  a  catarrh  of 
the  skin.  It  begins  generally  by  itching  and  burning,  redness 
and  congestion.  Vesicles  or  pustules  may  appear.  There  is, 
in  all  cases,  an  exudation,  and  crust  or  scales  are  formed.  In- 
filtration sometimes  takes  place,  followed  by  fissures  or  cracks. 
Itching  is  a  prominent  symptom.  The  most  varied  appearances 
present  themselves  in  different  cases,  but  the  essential-  condi- 
tion is  a  moist  surface  upon  which  an  exudation  or  scabbing 
takes  place,  which  is  attended  by  an  unbearable  itching,  in 
comparison  with  which  the  itching  of  the  itch  is  a  most  pleas- 
ant sensation.  It  appears  upon  the  scalp  and  face  of  the- 
infant,  and  spreads  until  sometimes  the  entire  scalp  and  face  are 
completely  covered  by  the  crust.  The  feet  and  hands  of  adults 
are  the  parts  most  affected. 

Treatment. — Many  cases  of  eczema  are  very  difficult  to 
treat.  In  acute  cases  the  most  soothing  applications  are  best. 
The  skin  must  be  protected  from  the  air.  Both  air  and  water 
are  very  irritating  in  cases  of  eczema.  The  oxide  of  zinc  oint- 
ment is,  perhaps,  as  soothing  and  valuable  a  dressing  as  can  be 
used.  In  chronic  cases  the  scales  must  be  removed,  and  some- 
times require  rather  severe  stimulating  treatment,  even  to  scrub- 
bing with  a  brush  and  soap.  If  this  is  done,  the  parts  must  be 
immediately  dried  and  covered  by  a  mild  and  soothing  applica- 
tion. Water  is  to  be  avoided  when  possible.  The  different 
preparations  of  tar  are  most  popular  in  the  treatment  of  chronic 
cases.  Attention  must  be  given  to  the  general  health.  Tonics 
are  always  required,  together  with  cod  liver  oil.  Starch  and 
sugar  should  be  avoided  in  articles  of  diet,  and  a  large  amount 
of  fats  taken.  Any  measure  that  will  promote  the  general 
health  is  in  the  right  direction. 

Erysipelas. 

A  disease  characterized  by  fever,  with  a  local  inflammation  of 
the  skin.  The  part  inflamed  is  very  red.  The  boundary-line 
dividing  the  healthy  from  the  diseased  skin  is  very  marked. 

Erysipelas  may  arise  from  two  circumstances.  It  may  be 
caused  from  a  specific,  contagious  virus.  When  so  arising  it 
is  called  idiopathic  erysipelas.  It  may  be  preceded  by  some 
wound,  from  which  the  inflammation  radiates.  Under  this  con- 
dition it  is  called  traumatic  erysipelas. 

At  times  this  disease  is  very  contagious  and  very  fatal  The 
inflammation  may  extend  to  the  tissue  beneath  the  skin,  forming 
extensive  abscesses.  A  large  amount  of  connective  tissue  morti- 
fies. There  is  a  tendency  for  it  to  spread,  principally  on  the 
surface,  but  it  may  involve  internal  organs,  as  the  throat  and 
the  membrane  covering  the  brain. 

This  is  not  a  local,  but  a  constitutional  disease,  and  the  patient 
is  not  protected  against  but  rather  more  liable  to  future  ni: 

A  puerperal  woman,  coming  in  contact  with  erysipelatous 
virus  may  contract  some  form  of  puerperal  fever. 

Treatment. — An  erysipelatous  patient  should  be  kept  by  him- 
self, especially  away  from  wounded  and  puerperal  patients.    The 


-?p 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


653 


inflamed  skin  may  be  bathed  in  copperas  water  or  painted  with 
the  tincture  of  iodine.  To  prevent  the  inflammation  fromspread- 
ing,  make  a  ring  around  it,  upon  the  healthy  skin,  with  nitrate 
of  silver  or  collodion.  Internally  :  tincture  of  iron  in  twenty 
drops,  dose  in  water  every  two  or  three  hours,  and  two  grains  of 


quinine  every  hour  or  two.  If  the  inflammation  has  extended 
to  the  parts  beneath  the  skin,  and  the  skin  is  tense,  incisions 
should  be  made  to  relieve  the  tension  and  evacuate  the  pus. 
Poultices  are  of  great  service  when  there  is  a  tendency  to  gan- 
grene. 


-*THE  MUSCULAR  SYSTEM.**- 


In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  seen  how  new  matter,  in  the 
form  of  food  from  the  animal,  vegetable  and  mineral  kingdoms, 
is  being  constantly  introduced  into  the  body  to  supply  the 
waste  which  is  constantly  taking  place  there. 

To  discover  and  appropriate  these  articles  of  food,  to  pro- 
vide clothing  necessary  to  sustain  the  temperature  of  the  body, 
and  to  secure  shelter,  it  is  necessary  that  man  be  provided  with 
power  of  locomotion,  as  well  as  power  of  movement  of  one  part 
of  the  body  upon  another,  as  the  arms  upon  the  trunk  and  the 
fingers  upon  the  hands. 

This  power  of  motion  and  locomotion  is  resident  in  certain 
organs,  the  lean  meat  of  the  body,  called  muscles.  Muscles 
are  of  two  kinds,  voluntary  and  involuntary.  The  voluntary 
muscles  are  those  which  contract  in  response  to  the  will,  such 


as  the  muscles  of  the  face,  arms  and  legs.  The  involuntary 
muscles  are  those  whose  contraction  does  not  depend  upon 
our  wishes,  such  as  the  heart,  which  goes  on  contracting  month 
after  month,  and  year  after  year,  sleeping  or  waking,  never 
stopping  while  we  live.  It  is  estimated  that  during  a  life  of 
eighty  years  it  propels  half  a  million  tons  of  blood !  Every 
muscle  is  a  bundle  of  tens  of  thousands  of  fibres.  These  fibres 
are  from  ^hs  to  ttVst  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  are  made 
up  of  hundreds  of  fibrillae  only  25J)0I)  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  substance  of  these  fibrillae  presents  a  peculiar  striated 
appearance,  due  to  the  fact  that  thev  are  made  up  of  elongated 
bead-like  nuclei. 

Every  fibre  has  the  power,  under  certain  conditions,  of  shorten- 
ing its  length,  while  it  at  the  same  time  increases  its  thickness. 


Fig.  36. 

A,  a  muscular  fibre  breaking  up  into  its  fibrillae;  C,  a  muscular  fibre 
breaking  up  into  disks;  D,  a  muscular  fibre  with  contractile  substance 
torn,  and  the  sarcolemma  still  intact. 


Fig.  37.    Muscles  of  the  Arm. 

P,  the  power;  Ft  the  fulcrum;    IV,  the  weight 

This  power  is  called  muscular  contractity,  and  when,  in  virtue 
of  this  power,  a  muscular  fibre  contracts,  it  tends  to  bring  its 
ends  together  with  whatever  may  be  fastened  to  them. 

The  great  majority  of  the  muscles  are  attached  to  levers, 
which  are  the  bones  of  the  body.  Figure  27  will  illustrate  the 
different  kinds  of  levers  described  in  mechanics,  and  sufficiently 
explain  the  movements  of  the  different  levers  of  the  body  upon 
each  other. 


JiJ 


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654 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


-frTHE  BONES.-h- 


To  give  form  and  symmetry  to  the  body,  as  well  as  to  afford 
attachment  and  leverage  to  the  muscles,  by  which  locomotion  is 
made  possible,  an  essentially  different  tissue  from  any  yet  con- 
sidered is  necessary.  This  tissue  must  be  hard,  strong  and  un- 
yielding, and  so  disposed  as  to  form  a  frame- work  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  soft  parts. 

Such  a  frame-work  we  find  in  the  skeleton,  which  is  made  up 
of  bones  of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  and  known  as  long,  short, 
flat  and  irregular  bones,  and  so  disposed  as  to  perfectly 
fulfil  the  offices  for  which  they  are  intended.  Some  of  the 
bones  are  designed  principally  for  the  protection  of  soft  and 
delicate  parts.  Such  are  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  which  are 
immovably  dovetailed  together  so  as  to  form  a  strong  box  for 
the  enclosure  and  protection  of  the  brain. 

Some  not  only  afford  protection  to  delicate  organs  and  aid  in 
preserving  form  and  symmetry,  but  at  the  same  time  afford  at- 
tachment for  muscles,  and  thus  aid  in  movements  essential  to 
life.  Thus  the  ribs  afford  protection  to  the  heart  and  lungs, 
maintain  the  form  and  symmetry  of  the  chest,  and  afford  attach- 
ment for  the  respiratory  muscles. 

The  long  bones  are  found  in  the  limbs,  where  they  form  a 
system  of  levers,  which,  in  the  lower  extremities,  have  to  sus- 
tain the  weight  of  the  trunk,  and,  besides,  confer  the  power  of 
locomotion.  In  the  upper  extremities  (Fig.  27)  they  are  essen- 
tial to  those  movements  necessary  in  all  manual  labor. 

The  short  and  irregular  bones  are  found  where  great 
strength  and  solidity  are  required.  They  are  shaped  also  for  the 
attachment  of  numerous  muscles  and  for  protection  of  certain 
delicate  organs. 


Fig.  88.    A  Perfectly  Mlianed  Foot. 

Bone  tissue  is  the  hardest  structure  of  the  animal  body,  and 
at  the  same   time  possesses  a  certain  degree  of  toughm 
elasticity.     Kvery  bone,  be  it  long  or  short,  is  composed  of 
what   is    called    fundamental    substance.        It    is   a    r> 
organic  animal  substance,  called  ostine,  in  combination  with 
various  inorganic  salts,  of  which  the  phosphate  and  carbonate 


of  lime  largely  predominate.  To  the  organic  substance  are  due 
its  toughness  and  elasticity,  while  to  the  inorganic  salts  must  be 
credited  its  hardness  and  solidity. 

If  a  bone  be  soaked  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  for  a  time, 
its  mineral  constituents  will  be  removed  and  the  organic  sub- 
stance will  remain  in  the  shape  of  the 
original  bone.  This  is  no  longer  hard 
and  unyielding,  but  is  soft,  pliable  and 
elastic  ;  and,  if  a  long  bone,  it  may  be 
tied  in  a  knot,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  bone  be 
burned  for  a  short  time  in  an  open  fire, 
the  organic  substance  is  consumed,  and 
the  mineral  constituents  remain,  in 
which  case  the  bone  remains  hard  and 
in  its  original  shape,  but  has  lost  its 
elasticity.  It  is  now  very  brittle  ancL 
easily  broken. 

The  point  of  union  between  two 
bones  is  called  a  joint.  Here  the  sur- 
faces are  coated  with  smooth  cartilage 
and  covered  with  a  delicate  membrane 
which  secretes  a  peculiar  fluid  for  lubri- 
cating the  articular  surfaces. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  BONES. 

In  children  and  young  people  the  or-     "*"  a9"  A  **oi»  wlili 

ganic  substance  of  the  bones  preponder-  °"  In?,I^n!,;Sm,,"  "T 
__     ,  ,  moved.  Tied  in  »  Knot. 

ates.     The  bones  are,  therefore,  elastic 

and  very  difficult  to  break,  but  are  soft,  and  easily  bent  and 
deformed.  Bow-legs  may  be  caused  by  requiring  a  child  to 
sustain  the  weight  of  its  body  upon  its  legs  too  early. 

In  old  people  the  inorganic  constituents  of  the  bones 
preponderate,  and  therefore  their  bones  are  very  brittle  and 
easily  broken.  With  them,  great  care  against  falling  should  be 
observed. 

Rickets. 

There  is  a  disease  of  early  childhood  known  as  rickets,  in 
which  the  mineral  constituents  of  the  bones  are  not  deposited  in 
normal  quantity,  and,  as  a  result,  the  bones  become  Tery  soft; 
and,  by  action  of  the  muscles,  they  are  bent  i»to  all  sorts  of 
deformed  shapes.  Thus  result  bow-legs,  knock-knees,  pigeon- 
breasts  and  deformities  of  spine  and  pelvis.  Enlargement  of  the 
.  kes  place ;  the  head  grows  too  fast  and  the  face  too  slow. 

The  usually  caused  by  poor  food  and  damp, 

unhealthy  apartments.  The  little  patient  seldom  dies,  but  gen- 
erally becomes  more  or  less  deformed. 

Treatment. — Correct  diet,  plenty  of  g">od.  pure  milk,  suf- 
ficient animal  food,  and  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.     Give  the 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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655 


child  cold  sponge  baths  of  short  duration,  and  rub  briskly  with 
a  towel.  The  child  must  be  kept  off  its  feet  and  required  to 
sleep  on  a  mattress.     The  limbs  may  require  splints. 

Deformities  from  Clothing. 
Silly  young  girls — and  most  young  girls  are  silly  in  matters  of 
dress— deform  their  bodies  for  life  by  wearing  corsets  laced  so  as 
to  compress  the  lungs  and  heart,  and  force  downward  the  ab- 
dominal organs  into  unnatural  positions,  when,  by  the  compres- 
sion of  the  blood  vessels,  the  organs  of  the  abdomen  and  pelvis 
become  congested,  and  conditions  are  developed  from  which 
they  can  never  recover.  The  great  regret  is  that  so  many  of 
them  remain  silly,  and  that  even  mothers  may  be  found  as  silly 
as  the  girls.  Corsets  which  are  used  to  destroy  the  vital  organs 
of  our  girls  are  capable  of  doing  vastly  more  harm  than  the 
little  iron  shoes  which  are  used  to  destroy  the  feet  of  Chinese 
ladies,  because  of  the  greater  importance  of  the  organs  involved. 
A  young  American  girl  would  have  no  difficulty  in  seeing  that 
the  compressed  and  deformed  baby  foot  of  a  Chinese  lady  is  not 


handsome,  but  it  is  really  too  bad  rtiat  she  cannot  be  made  to 
see  that  her  permanently  deformed  body,  with  her  ribs  all 
crushed  in  upon  her  vital  organs,  is  not  beautiful. 

Deformed  Feet. 
But  deformed  feet  are  not  alone  found  in  China.  American 
young  men  and  young  women  will  often  wear  shoes  one  or  two 
sizes  too  short  and  with  narrow  toes,  which  pile  the  toes  of  the 
foot  one  on  the  top  of  another  until  the  most  terrible  perma- 
nent deformities  exist,  and  which,  with  corns  and  enlarged 
joints,  cause  the  ugly  shapes  which  we  see  in  men  and  women. 
Besides  the  deformity  and  the  excessive  pain,  the  young  lady  or 
gentleman  is  unable  to  walk  or  dance,  except  in  a  hopping, 
most  awkward  way.  The  motive  for  this  species  of  self- 
imposed  torture  is  to  be  handsome  and  admired,  but  they 
defeat  their  purpose  in  making  for  themselves  ugly,  deformed 
feet,  and  substitute  an  awkward  and  stumbling  gait  for  a  grace 
and  beauty  of  movement  possible  only  with  a  well-shaped  and 
unbound  foot. 


Ht*THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.**- 


The  parts  and  functions  of  the  body  which  we  have  thus  far 
considered  stand  in  subordination  to  the  wonderful  system  now 
to  be  examined.  "It  may  truly  be  said,"  are  the  words  of 
Draper,  "  that  the  position  of  any  animal  in  the  scale  of  life  is 
directly  dependent  on  the  degree  of  development  of  its  ner- 
vous system.  Through  this  it  is  brought  into  relation  with  the 
external  world,  deriving  sensations  or  impressions  therefrom. 
Through  this,  also,  all  voluntary  muscular  contractions  or 
movements  take  place. " 

Whatever  the  grade  of  intelligence  may  be,  the  degree  of 
development  or  expansion  of  the  nervous  system  is  in  close  cor- 
respondence thereto,  from  the  lowest  conditions  in  which  it  is 
first  making  its  appearance,  in  forms  of  animal  life  which  are 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  vegetable  forms,  up  to  its  highest 
elaboration  in  the  cerebro-spinal  system  of  man. 

The  nervous  system  may  be  considered  as  of  two  portions, 
the  cerebro-spinal  system  and  the  sympathetic  system.  The 
cerebro-spinal  system  consists  of  the  brain,  the  spinal  cord, 
and  the  nerves  which  proceed  from  them,  together  with  their 
ganglia.  The  sympathetic  system  consists  of  a  series  of  ner- 
vous ganglia  placed  on  the  posterior  wall  of  the  thoracic  and 
abdominal  cavities  upon  each  side  of  the  vertebral  column,  and 
of  nervous  threads  or  filaments  which  connect  these  together, 
and  supply  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels  and  the  internal 
organs.  Comparatively  little  is  known  about  the  functions  of 
the  sympathetic  system,  except  in  so  far  as  it  may  regulate  the 
size  of  the  blood-vessels  ;  and,  indeed,  this  action  appears  to 
depend  upon  the  filaments  received  from  the  spinal  nerves. 

In  both  divisions  are  found  two  kinds  of  structure— fibrous 
and  cellular.  The  latter  are  found  in  masses  of  greater  or  less 
size  and  of  various  shapes,  and  are  called  ganglia.  The  former, 
consisting  of  fibre,  serve  to  connect   the  ganglia  together  and 


to  put  them  in  communication  with  the  integument,  the  mus- 
cles and  all  parts  of  the  body.  The  function  of  the  ganglia  or 
nerve  centres  is  for  the  reception  of  impressions  and  for  the 
origination  of  motions.  The  cortex  of  the  brain  is  the  great- 
est of  these  ganglia  in  extent  and  in  function.  In  this  won- 
derful ganglion  originates  voluntary  motion  ;  here  also  are 
received,  through  the  special  senses,  the  impressions  of  exter- 
nal objects  and  circumstances,  and  from  it  originate  the  pro- 
cesses of  intellection. 

It  would  be  beyond  the  scope  and  purposes  of  this  article  to 
recite  the  more  minute  anatomy  of  the  nervous  system,  for  to 
be  of  service  to  the  reader  it  would  necessitate  space  for  explan- 
ation and  illustration  beyond  the  compass  of  the  entire  article. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  the  position  and  character  of 
the  larger  organs  which  go  to  make  it  up. 

The  brain  is  that  part  of  the  nervous  system  contained  within 
the  cavity  of  the  skull  (Fig.  30).  It  consists  of  the  cerebrum, 
cerebellum,  pons  varolii  and  medulla  oblongata.  Besides  the 
protection  afforded  this  delicate  organ  by  the  strong  bony 
walls  of  the  skull,  the  brain  is  enveloped  by  three  distinct 
membranes.  The  outer  one,  called  the  dura  mater,  is  thick 
and  strong,  and  lines  the  bones  of  the  skull.  It  dips  down 
between  the  different  parts  of  the  brain,  forming  strong  parti- 
tions, so  that  one  part  shall  not  press  upon  and  injure  another. 
Next  beneath  are  two  layers  of  a  thin  membrane  called  the 
arachnoid,  or  spider's  web.  This  is  a  serous  membrane,  with 
functions  like  that  covering  the  heart  and  lungs  ;  it  is  covered 
with  epithelium,  and  secretes  a  fluid,  small  in  amoum,  which 
lubricates  and  serves  in  a  measure,  perhaps,  as  a  kind  of 
cushion  to  protect  the  brain  from  jars  received  by  the  body. 
Beneath  this  is  a  very  delicate  membrane,  composed  principally 
of  minute  blood-vessels.   It  is  closely  adherent  to  the  substance 


ik. 


■7- 

" 


A^ 


V 


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656 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


of  the  brain,  dipping  down  into  all  the  sulci,  and  even  finding 
its  way  through  the  posterior  fissures  into  the  ventricles  or 
cavities  occupying  the  centre  of  the  brain.  Its  use  is  to  nourish 
the  brain. 

The  cerebrum  (C  C)  represents  the  principal  mass  of  the 
brain.  It  is  divided  by  a  deep  fissure,  from  before  backward, 
into  two  lateral  halves,  called  the  right  and  left  hemispheres. 
The  two  hemispheres  are  connected  together  at  the  bottom  of 
the  fissure  by  a  large  bundle  of  white  fibres,  called  the  corpus 
callosum.  In  the  centre  of  each  hemisphere  is  a  large  cavity 
called  the  right  and  left  lateral  ventricles.  The  surface  of 
the  cerebrum  is  composed  of  cellular  gray  matter  and  presents 
a  convoluted  appearance,  as  shown  in  Figure  30.  This  gray 
cellular  matter  of  the  surface  of  the  cerebrum  is  the  anatomical 
substratum  of  the  intellect.  In 
that  part  of  the  surface  of  the 
hemisphere  mid-way  between 
the  forehead  and  the  back  part 
of  the  head  originates  volun- 
tary motion.  One  special  func- 
tion of  the  part  just  back  of 
this  seems  to  be  the  reception 
of  impressions  of  external  ob- 
jects, brought  hither  by  the 
nerves  of  special  sense.  The 
forward  part  of  the  hemi- 
spheres appears  to  be  wholly 
for  the  purposes  of  intellec- 
tion. By  reference  to  Figure 
30  the  reader  will  observe  a 
sharp  point  of  bone  in  contact 
with  the  brain  just  back  of  and 
a  liule  above  the  eye.  From 
it  extending  upward  and  back- 
ward is  a  deep  fissure,  the  fis- 
sure of  Sylvius.  Toward  the 
front  part  of  this  fissure,  and 
just  above  it,  is  a  small  convo- 
lution of  gray  substance  called 
the  third  frontal  convolution. 
The  back  portion  of  this  con- 
volution on  the  left  side  of  the 
brain  is  the  anatomical  substra- 
tum of  the  faculty  of  speech. 


Fig.  30.    The  Human  Brain. 

C,  C,  cerebrum:  cb.,  cerebellum;  m.  ob.,  medulla  oblongata. 


When  this  part  is  destroyed  all  language  is  lost.      Language, 
moreover,  is  never  lost  except  by  disease  of  this  part. 

The  interior  of  the  hemispheres  is  composed  of  white  matter 
which  consists  of  fibres  connecting  together  different  parts  of 
the  brain,  and  of  fibres  passing  down  into  the  spinal  cord.  The 
fibres  are  probably  connected  with  the  cells  on  the  surface  of 
the  hemispheres,  and  after  being  gathered  into  a  bundle  pass 
down  to  other  ganglia,  there  to  be  put  in  communication  with 
the  skin,  muscles  and  viscera  of  the  body.  There  are  certain 
collections  of  gray  matter  at  the  base  of  the  hemispheres,  called 
the  basal  ganglia.  Fibres  from  these  ganglia  unite  with  the 
fibres  from  the  convolutions  in  two  triangular-shaped  bundles, 
the  crura  cerebri,  one  from  each  hemisphere,  and  pass  down- 


ward through  the  pons  varolii  into  the  medulla  oblongata  (m. 
ob. ),  as  the  oblong  body  at  the  top  of  the  spinal  cord  is  called. 

The  cerebellum  or  little  brain  (cb.)  is  situated  beneath  the 
posterior  lobes  of  the  cerebrum.  It  measures  about  three  and 
a  half  by  two  and  a  half  inches,  and  is  about  two  inches  thick 
in  its  thickest  place.  It  weighs  about  five  ounces,  being  only 
about  one-eighth  as  large  as  the  cerebrum.  It  is  composed  of 
gray  and  white  matter,  and,  like  the  cerebrum,  is  divided  into 
two  lobes.  Its  functions  are  not  well  understood,  but  are, 
at  least,  related  to  the  co-ordination  of  movements. 

The  pons  varolii  is  a  bond  of  union  or  bridge  between  the 
cerebrum  above,  the  cerebellum  behind,  and  the  medulla  oblon- 
gata below — being  made  up  of  fibres  from  these  bodies  and 
passing  in  different  directions  from  one  to  another. 

The  medulla  oblongata  is 
the  upper  enlarged  part  of  the 
spinal  cord.  It  lies  within  the 
cranial  cavity,  and  is  connected 
with  other  parts  of  the  brain 
by  bundles  of  fibres  passing  up- 
ward through  the  pons  varolii. 
It  is  composed  of  gray  and 
white  matter,  but,  unlike  the 
cerebrum,  the  white  matter  oc- 
cupies the  surface,  while  the 
masses  of  gray  matter  are  in 
the  interior.  From  the  me- 
dulla are  given  off  all  of  the 
cranial  nerves  except  two  pairs, 
the  olfactory,  or  nerves  of 
smell,  and  the  optic,  or  nerves 
of  sight.  These  two  pairs  take 
their  apparent  origin  at  the 
base  of  the  cerebrum. 

The  spinal  cord  is  the  contin- 
uation  of  the  nervous  matter 
from  the  me  Julia  down  through 
the  spinal  canal.  Were  it  not 
for  the  gray  matter  in  its  inte- 
rior, which  is  a  real  ganglionic 
centre,  it  might  be  considered 
a  great  nerve  trunk  from  which 
all  the  other  nerves  are  but 
branches.  The  spinal  cord,  like 
the  cerebrum,  is  divided  into  two  lateral  halves  by  a  deep  fissure 
in  front  and  behind.  The  two  halves  are  connected  together  in 
the  centre,  throughout  the  length  of  the  cord.  The  surface  of 
the  cord,  like  t'.e  medulla  oblongata,  is  composed  of  white  mat- 
ter. In  the  interior  of  each  half  is  a  crescentric-shaped  collec- 
sion  of  gray  matter  which  extei  ds  throughout  the  length  of  the 
cord.  The  forward  horn  of  the  gray  crescent  is  broader  than 
the  posterior  horn,  and  contains  some  very  large  nerve-cells. 
These  horns  are  called  the  anterior  and  posterior  cornua. 
The  centre  of  the  crescent  to  which  they  belong  is  connected 
with  the  gray  crescent  of  the  opposite  side  by  a  band  of  gray 
matter.  The  white  matter  of  the  cord  is  made  up  of  fibres 
which  connect  the  gray  matter  of  the  brain  with  the  gray  matter 


•f  s "" 


=& 


K 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


657 


"71 


of   the  cord  and  with   the  ganglia  on  the  roots  of  the  spinal 
nerves. 

There  are  thirty-one  pairs  of  nerves  given  off  from  the  cord, 
one  pair  passing  out  at  each  vertebral  arch  enclosing  the 
spinal  canal. 

Each  nerve  arises  from  the  cord  by  two  roots,  the  anterior 
and  posterior  roots,  which  then  unite  to  form  a  single  trunk  or 
spinal  nerve. 

If  the  trunk  of  a  spinal  nerve  be  irritated  as  by  pinching, 
two  things  happen  :  in  the  first  place,  all  the  muscles  to  which 
its  filaments  are  distributed  contract ;  in  the  second  place, 
acute  pain  is  felt,  and  the  pain  is  referred  to  that  part  of  the 
skin  to  which  the  fibres  of  the  nerve  are  distributed. 

If  the  anterior  root  of  the  nerve  be  irritated  in  the  same  way, 
all  of  the  muscles  to  which  the  nerve  is  distributed  will  contract, 
but  no  pain  will  be  felt. 

So,  if  the  posterior  root  of  the  nerve  be  irritated  in  the  same 
way,  and  the  anterior  root  be  left  untouched,  acute  pain  will  be 
felt  and  referred  to  the  whole  area  of  the  skin  to  which  the 
nerve  is  distributed,  but  none  of  the  muscles  contract. 

It  is,  therefore,  clear  that  all  the  power  for  causing  muscular 
contraction  which  a  spinal  nerve  possesses  is  centered  in  the 
fibres  which  comprise  its  anterior  roots,  while  all  the  power  of 
giving  rise  to  sensation  resides  in  its  posterior  roots.  The 
anterior  roots,  therefore,  are  commonly  called  motor,  and  the 
posterior  roots  are  called  sensory. 

If  the  anterior  roots  of  a  spinal  nerve  be  divided  in  a  living 
animal,  it  is  unable  to  move  or  contract  the  muscles  to  which 
the  nerve  is  distributed,  but  every  part  of  the  skin  remains  sen- 
sitive to  touch.  But  if  the  anterior  root  be  left  uninjured  and 
the  posterior  root  be  divided,  the  animal  will  be  able  to  move 
or  contract  all  the  muscles,  but  is  unable  to  feel  anything  over 
any  part  of  the  skin  to  which  the  filaments  are  distributed. 

By  these  experiments,  then,  it  is  clear  that  the  anterior  roots 
are  composed  of  fibres  which  convey  impulses  from  the  gang- 
lionic centres  in  the  brain  or  cord  to  the  muscles,  causing  the 
muscles  to  contract.  It  is  also  plain  that  the  posterior  roots 
are  composed  of  fibreswhich  carry  impressions  from  the  surface 
where  they  originate  to  the  centres  in  the  brain  and  cord. 

Those  nerves  which  carry  impulses  from  the  central  organ 
to  the  periphery  are  called  efferent  nerves,  while  those  which 
convey  impressions  from  the  outside  to  the  central  organ  are 
called  afferent  nerves. 

If  similar  experiments  be  performed  upon  the  spinal  cord,  it 
will  be  found  to  act  in  many  respects  similar.  If  the  cord  be 
divided  in  the  back,  the  animal  will  be  unable  to  move  the  hind 
legs,  and  this  part  of  the  body  will  be  insensible  to  pain,  while 
all  the  parts  forward  of  the  cut  will  retain  all  the  powers  of 
motion  and  sensation. 

If,  by  an  accident,  a  man  should  suffer  a  similar  injury,  all  of 
the  parts  below  the  wound  would  be  paralyzed.  The  patient 
would  be  unable  by  his  own  will-power  to  move  his  legs  ;  neither 
would  he  have  any  sensation  in  the  parts.  If  he  should  be 
blindfolded,  and  the  soles  of  his  feet  be  tickled  with  a  feather,  he 
may  jerk  up  his  legs  in  the  most  violent  manner,  still  he  will  not 
only  know  nothing  of  the  tickling,  but  will  have  no  knowledge 
of  the  jerking  of  his  legs,  for  the  reason  that  all  impressions 
made  upon  his  lower  extremities  are  cut  off  from  his  brain, 


which  is  the  anatomical  basis  of  his  mind.  He  can  make  no 
intentional  or  voluntary  movement  of  his  legs  for  the  same 
reason  ;  his  brain  is  cut  off  from  the  muscles  of  his  legs  at  the 
point  where  the  cord  is  cut  in  two.  The  movement  in  response  to 
the  tickling  of  the  feather  is  very  easily  explained.  The  impres- 
sion from  the  sole  of  the  foot  passes  up  by  the  sensory  fibres 
to  the  gray  matter  of  the  cord,  which,  acting  as  a  centre,  origin- 
ates there  an  impulse  or  stimulus,  which,  passing  out  over  the 
motor  filaments  to  the  muscles,  causes  them  to  contract,  thus 
giving  the  violent  jerk  to  the  legs. 

The  above  is  but  an  illustration  showing  that  many  of  our 
common  movements,  such  as  walking,  or  any  habitual  and  oft- 
repeated  movement,  may  be  executed  without  requiring  the 
attention  of  the  mind  ;  some  of  the  basal  ganglia  of  the  brain 
acting  as  a  centre,  and  originating  the  motor  impulses. 

If  not  the  whole  cord,  but  only  the  anterior  part,  be  injured, 
a  paralysis  of  motion  below  the  injury  results,  while  sensation 
will  remain  perfect.  If  the  posterior  part  be  injured,  on  the 
other  hand,  sensation  is  lost  while  motion  is  unaffected. 

If  one  lateral  half  of  the  spinal  cord  be  divided,  say  on  the 
right  side  of  the  body,  the  patient  will  immediately  lose  all 
power  in  the  right  leg,  but  sensation  in  the  right  leg  will  be 
perfect.  He  will,  however,  lose  all  feeling  in  the  left  leg, 
while  the  power  of  motion  in  this  leg  remains  good.  Hence, 
it  must  be  true  that  the  sensory  fibres  cross  over  from  the 
side  where  they  enter  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  cord  to  pass 
up  to  the  brain,  while  the  motor  impulses  sent  down  from  the 
brain  must  pass  down  on  the  same  side  of  the  cord  by  which 
they  pass  out  to  the  muscles. 


Fig;.  31.    Mode  of  Termination  of  Motor  Nerves. 

A,  primitive  fasciculus  of  a  muscle  of  the  human  subject:  2,  nerve  tube; 
3,  medullary  substance  of  nerve  tube;  4,  terminal  plate  situated  beneath 
the  sarcolemma. 

If  this  be  true,  it  follows  that  a  longitudinal  division  down 
the  centre  of  the  cord  throughout  its  entire  length  would 
destroy  sensation  on  both  sides  of  the  body,  without  interfering 
at  all  with  motion. 

If,  however,  the  longitudinal  incision  be  carried  up  through 
the  lower  part  of  the  medulla,  paralysis  of  motion  on  both 
sides  immediately  results,  for  at  this  point  all  of  the  motor 
fibres  from  the  right  side  of  the  brain  cross  over  to  the  left  side 
of  the  cord,  while  those  from  the  left  side  of  the  brain  cross 
over  to  the  right  side  of  the  cord. 


■    •?  s •>- 


J^I 


■♦<. 


K" 


658 


HYSIOLOGV  AND  MEDICINE. 


7 


Nerve  Endings. — The  motor  fibres  of  the  spinal  nerves 
originate  in  the  anterior  cornua  of  gray  matter  in  the  cord,  and 
are  believed  to  be  intimately  connected  there  with  certain 
nerve  cells,  which  are  capable  of  originating  motor  stimulus. 
The  distal  end  of  the  motor  fibre  passes  through  the  sarcolemtna 
of  each  muscular  fibre  and  is  brought  into  the  closest  relation 
with  the  muscular  substance,  as  shown  in  Figure  31. 

The  sense  of  touch  is  possessed  by  all  parts  of  the  body, 
some  parts  more  perfect  than  others.  Wherever  the  sense  of 
touch  is  delicate,  the  deep  layer  of  the  skin  is  raised  up  into 
little  conical  papilla.  Into  these  papillae  the  terminal  ends 
of  the  sensory  nerve  fibre  enters.  In  certain  localities,  as  the 
tips  of  the  fingers,  where  the  tactile  sense  is  very  acute,  the 


Fig.  32.    Taste-Buds  From  the  Rabbit. 

nerve  ending  is  enlarged  in  the  papillae,  forming  a  little  oval 
swelling  called  a  tactile  corpuscle.  Filaments  of  the  nerve  of 
taste  terminate  in  a  similar  manner  in  papillae  upon  the  tongue. 
Surrounding  these  papillae  are  peculiar  cells,  or  taste-buds,  in 
which  is  supposed  to  reside  the  sense  of  taste.  Figure  32 
shows  these  taste-buds  in  the  rabbit. 


Fig.  33.    Olfactory  Ganglion  and  Nerves. 

The  endings  of  the  filaments  of  the  olfactory  nerve,  or  the 
special  nerve  of  smell,  upon  the  delicate  mucous  membrane  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  nasal  cavity,  is  beautifully  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 33.  The  termination  of  the  auditory  and  optic  nerves  is 
explained  in  the  chapter  upon  the  special  senses  of  sight  and 
hearing. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

The  diseases  of  the  nervous  system,  as  might  be  expected 
from  its  delicate  anatomy  and  complicated  functions,  take  a 
wide  range,  from  the  slightest  twinge  of  pain  in  a  minute  nerve 
filament  to  total  paralysis  or  hopeless  insanity. 

In  all  the  graver  manifestations  of  nervous  disease,  the  advice 
of  a  physician  skilled  in  the  treatment  of  disease  is  naturally 
sought ;  this  will  render  discussion  of  the  more  serious  affec- 
tions unnecessary.  Xo  class  bf  diseases  are  more  serious  than 
those  of  the  nervous  system,  and  while  it  may  be  true  that 
there  is  less  tendency  to  a  spontaneous  recovery  than  any  other 
ciass  of  diseases,  yet  it  is  also  true  that  no  class  of  diseases  are 
more  favorably  influenced  by  proper  treatment. 

The  chief  symptoms  of  nervous  disease  are  usually  manifested 
either  by  pain,  convulsions,  paralysis,  trembling,  sleeplessness, 
imbecility  or  insanity.  Two  or  more  of  these  conditions  majr 
exist  in  the  same  patient.  Pain  is  a  symptom  common  to 
many  diseases.  The  disease  in  which  it  constitutes  the  only 
symptom  is 

Neuralgia. 

Pain  may  have  its  seat  along  the  course  of  any  nerve.  It  re- 
ceives different  names  corresponding  to  the  seat  of  pain.  Thus 
we  hear  of  facial  neuralgia,  inter-costal  neuralgia,  occipital 
neuralgia,  sciatica,  or  neuralgia  of  the  sciatic  nerve,  gastralgia, 
or  neuralgia  of  the  stomach,  etc.,  etc. 

The  pain  of  neuralgia  varies  in  different  cases  and  at  differ- 
ent times  from  a  slight,  dull  ache  to  the  most  excruciating  tor- 
ture. The  nerve  which  is  the  seat  of  the  pain,  in  many  instances 
at  least,  is  in  a  state  of  inflammation.  It  is  usually  tender, 
as  shown  by  examination,  at  points  where  pressure  can  be  made 
upon  the  nerve,  and  following  an  attack  there  is  usually  a 
certain  soreness  and  tenderness  over  the  seat  of  the  pain. 

Treatment. — It  is  impossible  in  this  article  to  give  the  space 
which  the  subject  demands.  The  treatment  embraces  a  large 
number  of  remedies  and  many  methods  of  procedure.  That 
which  has  affected  a  permanent  cure  in  one  case  may  have  no 
effect  in  another.  In  some  cases  the  pain  is  so  persistent  as  to 
tax  the  physician  to  the  utmost,  who  finds  a  remedy  after  hav- 
ing almost  exhausted  the  pharmacopoeia. 

Some  form  of  opium  will  always  afford  temporary  relief  if 
taken  in  sufficient  doses,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  cura- 
tive remedies  in  many  cases.  The  patient  is  apt  to  be  in  poor 
In  such  a  case,  if  a  permanent  cure  is  to  be  anticipated, 
the  general  health  must  be  improved,  and  the  body  weight 
greatly  increased.  A  method  has,  of  late  years,  been  very  suc- 
lessfully  employed  in  sanitariums,  where  the  patient  is  required 
to  take  the  necessary  amount  of  rest  in  bed,  to  take  a  large 
amount  of  the  most  nourishing  food,  at  intervals  of  only  a 
few  hours,  and  accompanied  with  baths,  massage  and  suitable 
tonic  treatment.  By  this  means  the  body  weight  is  greatly 
increased,  the  general  health  built  up,  and  this  is  almost  always 
followed  by  entire  and  ]iermanent  relief  from  pain. 
Convulsions. 

The  term  convulsion  may  be  applied  to  an  acute  spasmodic 
contraction  of  the  whole  muscular  system,  as  in  infantile  con- 
vulsions, or  to  an  occasional  paroxysm,  as  in  an  epileptic  fit,  or 
to  the  constant  irregular  contraction  of  certain  muscles,  as  in 
chorea  or  Saint  Vitus'  dance. 


/ 


-X 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


659 


Treatment. — In  the  case  of  infantile  convulsions  the  child 
may  be  placed  in  a  tub  of  warm  water,  and  cold  water  may  be 
poured  upon  its  head.  After  the  first  paroxysm  is  over,  the 
cause  of  the  convulsion  should  be  sought  out.  If  due  to  denti- 
tion, or  "  cutting  teeth,"  or  to  worms  in  the  bowels,  the  proper 
remedy  for  such  conditions  should  be  applied.  Paregoric  or 
bromide  of  potassium  will  quiet  the  system. 

In  case  of  chorea  the  general  health  must  receive  attention. 
Quinine  and  iron  will  be  found  to  be  most  valuable  tonics. 
Malt  or  cod-liver  oil  is  called  for.  A  solution  of  arsenic, 
given  in  large  doses,  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  all  medi- 
cinal substances  in  this  dis- 
ease, but  should  be  given 
only  under  the  observation 
of  a  physician. 

Epilepsy. 

Epilepsy,  or  "fits," 
needs  no  description  here, 
since  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  recognizing  the  disease 
when  it  exists.  If  all  cases 
of  epilepsy  could  receive 
proper  and  thorough  treat- 
ment from  the  beginning, 
I  believe  that  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  it  could  be 
cured,  but  frequently  no 
physician  is  consulted  until 
after  a  large  number  of 
paroxysms  have  fi  n  al  1  y 
aroused  the  friends  to  the 
danger.  Even  when  ad- 
vice is  sought,  treatment 
is  seldom  thorough  or  car- 
ried on  for  a  sufficient 
length  of  time.  In  few 
cases  should  treatment  be 
left  off  before  the  end  of, 
at  least,  two  years. 

The  treatment  of  benefit 
in  the  greatest  number  of 
cases  is  the  bromide  of 
potassium  or  sodium,  to- 
gether with  tonic  treat- 
ment and  a  generous  diet,  sleep,  rest  and  quiet.  The  bro- 
mide of  sodium  affects  the  stomach  less,  and,  therefore,  in 
most  cases  is  to  have  the  preference.  It  should  be  taken, 
according  to  the  age  of  the  patient,  in  doses  of  from  two  to 
ten  grains,  in  a  wine-glass  of  water,  three  times  a  day  after 
meals. 

Paralysis. 

Paralysis  may  o«cur  at  any  age,  and  is  due  to  many  causes. 
It  may  vary  in  extent  from  a  single  muscle,  or  group  of  muscles, 
to  a  loss  of  power  over  almost  the  entire  body. 

Paralysis  may  result  from  an  injury  to  a  nerve,  in  which  case 
only  the  muscles  supplied  by  that  particular  nerve  are  affected. 
It  may  result  from  an   injury  to  or  a  disease  of  the  spinal  cord. 


In  such  a  case  the  paralysis  may  be  found  on  one  or  both  sides 
of  the  body,  or  in  only  a  single  group  of  muscles,  according  to 
the  seat  and  extent  of  the  injury.  But  in  every  case  the  par- 
alysis is  always  below  the  point  of  disease  or  injury  of  the  cord. 
It  may  result  from  injury  or  disease  of  the  brain,  in  which  case 
the  paralysis  usually  affects  one  entu;e  side  >  r  the  body,  when  it 
is  called  lumaplegia.  When  the  disease  or  injury  is  upon  the 
right  side  of  the  brain,  the  left  leg  and  left  arm  are  paralyzed  ; 
and  when  the  disease  is  upon  the  left  side  of  the  brain,  the  par- 
alysis is  upon  the  right  side  of  the  body.  This  is  explained  by 
the  fact  that  the  motor  fibres  arising  from  one  side  of  the  brain 

cross  over  in  the  medulla 
to  the  opposite  side  of  the 
body. 

Infantile  paralysis  oc- 
curs usually  in  children  be- 
tween one  and  four  years 
of  age.  The  child  may 
be  fretful  and  troublesome 
for  a  day  or  two  previous, 
but  frequently  the  first 
symptom  noticed  is  the 
paralysis.  This  may  oc- 
cur in  the  leg  or  arm  on 
the  same  side,  or  the  leg 
on  one  side  and  the  arm 
on  the  other,  or  both  legs 
may  be  paralyzed  and  the 
arms  not  affected,  or  both 
arms  may  be  paralyzed  and 
the  legs  remain  well ;  or 
only  one  leg  or  one  arm 
may  be  the  seat  of  the 
paralysis.  The  paralysis 
is  due  to  an  inflammation 
of  the  anterior  cornu  of 
the  gray  matter  of  the 
spinal  cord,  and  the  extent 
of  the  paralysis  will  de- 
pend upon  the  extent  of 
the  inflammation.  The 
child  will  probably  not 
die.  Some  of  the  paralyzed 
muscles  will  regain  their 
power.  Others  never  will,  but  will  waste  away.  The  child 
will  grow  up  more  or  less  of  a  cripple.  The  treatment  should 
be  left  to  a  physician. 

In  paralysis  of  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  hand,  due  to 
lead-poisoning,  recovery  will  take  place  under  proper  treat- 
ment. Remove  the  cause.  If  the  patient  be  a  printer  or 
worker  in  lead,  a  change  of  occupation  will  be  necessary. 
Iedide  of  potassium  may  be  taken  in  ten-grain  doses  three 
times  a  day  after  meals  in  half  a  glass  of  water. 

Hemaplegia,  or  paralysis  of  one  side  of  the  body  due  to 
injury  or  disease  of  the  brain,  may  be  caused  by  embolism  or 
thrombosis  (plugging  of  a  blood  vessel),  thus  cutting  off  nutri- 
tion from  a  portion  of  the  brain,  or  may  be  caused  by  a  hemor- 


Fi  g.  34,    Superficial  Branches  of  the  Facial  and  the  Fifth  Nerves. 

Trunk  of  the  seventh  or  facial  nerve;  18,  19,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  branches 
of  the  fifth  nerve. 


/ 


A 


V 


660 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


rhage  into  the  substance  of  the  brain  or  upon  its  surface,  and 
thus,  by  tearing  the  nerve  fibres,  or  by  pressure,  the  function  of 
the  organ  is  destroyed  ;  or  paralysis  may  result  from  a  tumor 
or  an  abscess  in  the  brain,  or  from  other  causes.  The  results  as 
regards  the  question  of  recovery  from  the  paralysis  will  depend 
upon  the  exact  seat  and  extent  of  the  injury.  The  treatment 
should  be  left  to  the  advice  of  a  physician. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  diseases  which  manifest  strange 
symptoms,  affecting  both  the   motor  and  sensory  nerves,  but 
which  would  require  the  attention  of  a  physician,  and  which 
would  take  up  too  much  space  to  treat  here. 
Insomnia. 

Insomnia,  or  sleeplessness,  is  a  symptom  common  to  many 
nervous  diseases,  and  one  which  requires  prompt  attention,  as 
without  sleep  little  good  can  be  accomplished  in  other  directions 
by  treatment.  The  treatment  must  depend  very  much  upon  the 
age,  occupation  and  other  circumstances  of  the  patient.  If  in 
a  child,  out-door  play  at  games  requiring  exercise  sufficient  to 
produce  fatigue  should  be  encouraged. 

In  men  and  women  worried  by  business  or  domestic  cares, 
disappointments  or  anxieties,  the  case  is  much  more  serious. 
If  possible,  they  should,  for  a  time,  leave  home  and  business, 
when  they  will  often  leave  their  worries,  also,  behind  them. 
Mental  labor  should  be  abandoned  entirely,  and  physical  labor 
or  sports  requiring  little  thought,  of  a  kind  most  comform- 
able  to  the  tastes  of  the  patient,  and  affording  the  most  pleasant 
diversion,  should  be  chosen  and  followed  to  the  point  of 
fatigue.  A  generous  diet  of  the  most  nutritious  food  should  be 
taken,  and  a  comfortable  spring-bed,  in  a  well-ventilated,  cheer- 
ful room,  should  be  provided.  One  of  the  bromides,  with  tonics, 
may  be  prescribed,  together  with  meat  and  milk.  In  severe 
cases  the  hydrate  of  chloral,  in  from  fifteen  to  thirty-grain 
doses,  may  be  given  at  bed-time. 

Insanity. 

Insanity,  the  most  dreaded  of  all  the  nervous  diseases,  is  a 
mental  symptom  dependent  upon  a  disease  of  the  brain.     It  is 


commonly  classified  according  to  the  character  of  the  delusions 
and  conduct  of  the  patient.  Thus  we  have  mania,  melan- 
cholia and  dementia.  This  classification  is  further  divided 
into  the  acute  and  chronic  of  each  class. 

The  cause  of  the  disease  is  more  often  hereditary  than  other- 
wise. Aside  from  hereditary  taint,  general  poor  physical 
health,  nervous  prostration,  anxiety  and  worry  will  rank  next 
as  causes  of  attack.  Where  a  predisposition  exists,  the  most 
trivial  disorders  and  circumstances,  which,  in  other  persons, 
would  be  unfelt,  may  act,  in  these  individuals,  as  exciting  causes. 
Child-birth,  typhoid  fever,  business  failures,  disappointment  in 
love,  religious  or  other  excitement,  and  a  hundred  other  things, 
may  act  as  an  exciting  cause  in  a  person  of  an  unstable  nervous 
system. 

In  the  beginning  of  an  attack  there  is  usually  lack  of  aDpe- 
tite,  loss  of  weight,  sleeplessness,  constipation.  If  these 
symptoms  were  promptly  relieved  many  cases  of  insanity  might 
be  averted. 

Treatment. — After  the  disease  is  fully  developed,  if  melan- 
choly delusions  are  present,  the  greatest  care  and  watchfulness 
should  be  observed  to  guard  against  suicide  or  self-injury.  In 
case  of  violent  mania,  care  is  to  be  taken  that  no  injury  is  done 
to  others. 

Prompt  attention  should  be  given  to  secure  a  movement  of 
the  bowels,  to  induce  the  patient  to  take  a  suitable  amount  of 
food,  and  to  secure  not  less  than  eight  hours'  sleep  during  the 
twenty-four.  If  this  cannot  be  secured  at  home,  the  patient 
should  be  sent  to  an  institution  where  he  can  have  the  proper 
care,  without  a  clay's  delay.  The  choice  of  an  institution  will 
depend  upon  the  circumstances  of  the  patient  ;  if  possible,  an 
institution  should  be  chosen  where  there  are  not  too  many 
patients,  where  individual  care  is  certain  to  be  given  by  physi- 
cians skilled  in  the  treatment  of  such  cases.  If  the  patient  is 
poor,  he  will  have  to  be  sent  to  a  State  institution,  in  which 
case  avoid,  if  possible,  a  crowded  ward.  With  the  best  treat- 
ment, from  forty  to  fifty  per  cent  of  patients  recover. 


1  An  **  "-i^i" 


-<* THE  EYE.*- 


J 


Anatomy. 
The  eyeballs  and  nearly  all  of  their  accessory  parts  are 
securely  contained  in  two  bony  cavities  called  the  orbits.  These 
are  shaped  like  four-sided  pyramids,  with  their  bases  pointing 
forward  and  outward,  and  their  apices  backward  and  inward. 
They  are  about  1  \  inches  deep,  and  their  axes  are  incljned  to 
each  other  at  an  angle  of  42 degrees  t a  43 degrees.  Each  orbit 
has  a  roof,  floor,  inner  and  outer  wall.  The  roof  is  very  thin 
and  separates  the  orbital  from  the  cranial  cavity.  At  its  outer 
angle  there  is  a  depression  for  the  lachrymal  or  tear  gland,  and 
another  at  its  inner  angle  for  the  pulley  of  the  superior  oblique 
muscle.  The  inner  wall  has  in  front  the  lachrymal  groove  for 
lachrymal  sac.     The  base  or  facial  opening  of  the  orbit  has  a 


fc 


strong,  bony  edge,  and  is  about  !#  in.  wide,  and  1)$  in.  high. 
The  apex  is  formed  by  the  optic  foramen  and  canal,  which  con- 
nects the  orbit  with  the  interior  of  the  skull,  and  through  which 
the  optic  nerve  passes. 

The  orbits  are  lined  by  a  vascular  membrane,  which  nourishes 
the  bony  walls,  and  which  is  continuous  at  fissures  and  sutures 
with  the  periosteum  of  facial  bones,  and  dura  mater  within  the 
skull.  It  also  forms  a  tendinous  ring  around  optic  foramen, 
giving  origin  to  the  ocular  muscles. 

Upon  this  membrane,  or  periorbita,  and  filling  the  space  not 
occupied  by  the  eyeball  and  its  appendages,  is  found  connective 
tissue  and  loose  fat,  which  serve  as  a  support  to  the  globe  and 
facilitate  the  various  movements  of  which  it  is  capable.     The 


\ 


K 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


66 1 


connective  tissue  is  thickened  in  places,  forming  sheaths  for  the 
muscles,  vessels  and  nerves,  and  fascia  for  connecting  the  parts 
within  the  orbit  with  one  another,  and  with  the  periorbita. 

The  optic  nerves  originate  at  the  base  of  the  brain,  in  the 
thalami  optici  and  corpora  quadrigemina,  and  receive  filaments 
from  other  portions  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  From  their 
origin  they  run  forward  as  optic  tracts  until  they  unite  just  pos- 
terior to  the  optic  foramina  and  form  the  optic  chiasm,  in  which 
they  decussate.  The  fibres  of  the  inner  side  of  each  tract  cross 
over  to  inner  side  of  opposite  nerve  and  supply  the  inner  half  of 
the  retina  on  that  side.  The  outer  fibres  of  each  tract  pass 
directly,  without  crossing,  to  outer  half  of  nerve  and  retina  of 
same  side.  The  optic  nerves  proper  begin  at  the  outer  anterior 
edge  of  chiasm,  and,  rapidly  diverging  as  they  leave  the  cranial 
cavity,  pass  through  the  orbits  to  the  eyeballs,  which  they  enter 
about  two  lines  within  and  half  a  line  below  the  posterior  pole. 

The  eyeball  is  situated  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  orbit  a  lit- 
tle to  the  outer  side  of  its  axis,  and  about  equi-distant  from  the 


Fig.  35. 

i,  Optic  nerve:  2,  sclera;  3, cornea;  4,  Schlemm's canal:  5,  choroid;  6, 
body:  7,  iris:  8,  crystalline  lens:  9,  macula  lutea  of  retina;  10,  retina;  11, 
sory  ligament  and  canal  of  Petit:   12,  vitreous. 

upper  and  lower  walls.  It  is  maintained  in  position  by  the 
optic  nerve  behind  and  the  lids  in  front,  and  is  further  sup- 
ported behind  and  on  the  sides  by  a  cushion  of  fat.  It  is 
nearly  spherical  in  form,  but  a  side  view  shows  it  to  be  com- 
posed of  segments  of  two  spheres  of  different  diameters.  The 
anterior  segment,  which  forms  the  transparent  cornea,  has  the 
shorter  diameter  and  is  therefore  more  prominent  than  the  pos- 
terior or  scleral  portion.  The  eye  is  longer  from  before  back- 
ward than  transversely,  and  is  shortest  vertically.  The  ante- 
rior pole  is  the  geometrical  centre  of  the  cornea,  and  the  pos- 
terior pole  is  the  geometrical  centre  of  the  bottom  of  the  eye. 
The  axis  is  an  imaginary  straight  line  extending  from  pole  to 
pole.  The  equatorial  plane  is  an  imaginary  plane  through  the 
centre  of  the  globe  perpendicular  to  the  axis.     The  equator  is 


the  line  where  the  equatorial  plane  cuts  the  surface  of  the  eye- 
ball. Meridianal  planes  are  imaginary  planes  coinciding  with 
the  axis.  Meridians  are  lines  where  meridianal  planes  cut  the 
surface. 

The  eyeball  has  three  investing  membranes  or  coats  which 
maintain  its  shape  and  enclose  three  transparent  humors.  The 
outer  coat  embraces  the  cornea  and  sclera,  the  middle  coat  the 
choroid,  ciliary  body  and  iris,  and  the  inner  coat  is  the  retina. 
The  humors  are  the  aqueous,  crystalline  and  vitreous. 

The  greater  part  (five-sixths)  of  the  outer  coat,  commonly 
known  as  the  "white  of  the  eye,"  is  called  the  sclera  (from 
Gr.  skleros,  hard).  It  is  very  firm  and  elastic,  nearly  one-half 
a  line  in  thickness  behind,  where  it  is  re-enforced  by  the  sheath 
of  optic  nerve,  and  gradually  becomes  thinner  toward  the 
anterior  border,  where  it  is  only  one-fifth  of  a  line  thick. 
The  sclera  is  continuous  in  front  with  the  cornea,  being 
joined  to  the  latter  by  bevelled  edges,  the  outer  overlapping  the 
cornea  more  than  the  inner  edge.  The  opening  in  the  sclera 
behind,  for  the  passage  of  the  optic  nerve  fibres,  is  par- 
tially closed  by  a  few  fibres  from  the  sclera,  which  are 
joined  by  the  sheaths  of  the  nerve  fibres,  and  together 
form  a  sieve-like  membrane  called  the  lamina  cribrosa. 
Near  the  inner  anterior  edge  of  the  sclera  is  a  circular 
channel  called  Schlevim'1  s  canal.  It  encloses  venous 
plexus,  receives  veins  from  sclera  and  ciliary  plexus,  and 
communicates  with  the  anterior  chamber  and  anterior 
ciliary  veins. 

The  cornea  (Latin,  cornu,  horn)  forms  the  anterior 
oae-sixth  of  the  outer  coat  and  is  also  very  dense  and 
elastic.  It  fits  into  the  sclera  very  much  as  a  watch 
crystal  does  into  a  watch.  It  is  made  up  of  five  layers, 
viz. :  the  outer  and  the  inner  epithelial  layers,  the  outer 
and  inner  elastic  membranes,  and  the  corneal  substance 
proper.  The  latter  embraces  the  bulk  of  the  cornea,  as 
the  epithelial  and  elastic  layers  are  very  thin.  The  cor- 
neal substance  is  composed  of  elastic  fibres,  which  are 
arranged  into  bundles,  and  these  again  into  layers, 
whose  general  direction  is  parallel  to  the  corneal  surface. 
The  spaces  between  the  fibres,  bundles  and  layers  is  filled 
by  a  cement-like  substance,  in  which  is  a  system  of 
canals  and  spaces  containing  serous  fluid,  lymph  cells 
and  corneal  corpuscles.  The  cornea,  unlike  the  other 
coats  of  the  eye,  has  no  blood-vessels,  except  at  its  edge, 
where  a  very  narrow  zone  of  capillary  loops  is  found. 
It  is  sustained  through  the  circulation  of  serum  in  the  lymph 
channels.  Nerves  are  freely  distributed  throughout,  chiefly 
near  the  anterior  surface  in  epithelial  and  elastic  layers. 

That  portion  of  the  middle  coat  which  lines  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  sclera  is  called  the  choroid  behind,  and  the  ciliary 
body  in  front.  The  choroid  extends  from  the  optic  nerve 
entrance  to  a  line  just  anterior  to  the  equator.  The  ciliary 
body  extends  from  the  anterior  termination  of  the  choroid  to 
that  of  the  sclera,  where  it  joins  the  iris,  with  which  it  is  con- 
tinuous. The  iris  hangs  like  a  curtain  from  the  anterior  edge 
of  the  ciliary  body,  floating  in  the  aqueous  humor.  The  cho- 
roid is  composed  chiefly  of  blood-vessels  with  connective  tis- 
sue, pigment  cells  and  a  few  muscular  fibres.  The  ciliary  body 
may  be  considered  as  a  prismatic  ring  with  a  posterior,  anterior 


ciliary 
suspen- 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


4 


and  inner  edge.  The  inner  edge  gives  attachment  to  the  sus- 
pensory ligament  of  the  lens.  In  the  anterior  outer  portion  is 
fotmd  the  ciliary,  or  muscle  of  accommodation,  the  outer  fibres 
of  which  are  meridional  and  the  inner  are  circular.  The  inner 
posterior  surface  is  raised  into  from  seventy  to  eighty  folds,  the 
ciliary  processes.  The  iris  has  a  central  opening,  the  pupil, 
through  which  the  light  passes  to  the  interior  of  the  eye.  The 
amount  of  light  admitted  is  regulated  bytwo  muscles  in  the  iris, 
one  of  which  dilates  and  the  other  contracts  the  pupil. 

The  retina  is  attached  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  choroid, 
and  with  it  extends  from  the  entrance  of  the  optic  nerve  to  the 
ora  serrata.  It  has  ten  layers,  but  only  two  are  of  special 
importance,  the  others  being  accessory.  The  layer  of  rods  and 
cones  receives  the  images  of  objects  viewed,  and  the  layer  of 
nerve  fibres,  which  is  an  expansion  of  the  fibres  of  the  optic 
nerve,  transmits  the  impressions  to  the  sensorium,  and  is  recog- 
nized as  vision.  The  most  sensitive  part  of  the  retina,  the 
macula  lutea,  corresponds  very  nearly  with  the  posterior  pole. 

The  aqueous  humor  is  a  watery  fluid  which  fills  the  place 
between  the  cornea  and  crystalline  lens.    This 
space  is  divided  by  the  iris  into  the  anterior 
and  posterior  chambers,  which  communicate 
through  the  pupil. 

The  crystalline  lens  is  a  transparent  double 
convex  lens,  situated  behind  the  iris  and  be- 
tween the  aqueous  and  vitreous  humors.  It 
is  enclosed  by  two  structureless  membranes, 
the  anterior  and  posterior  capsules,  which  are 
continuous,  near  the  peripheral  edge  of  the 
lens,  with  the  zonule  of  Zinn,  or  suspensory 
ligament.  Between  the  folds  of  the  zonule 
and  the  border  of  the  lens  is  a  triangular 
space,  canal  of  Petit,  which  is  closed  during 
life  by  the  folds  falling  together.  The  ante- 
rior capsule  supports  the  margin  of  the  pupil 
unless  the  pupil  be  dilated,  in  which  case  the 
iris  floats  freely  in  the  aqueous  humor.  The 
lens,  though  clear  and  apparently  homogene- 
•  ous  in  structure,  is  composed  of  flattened  hex- 
agonal fibres  with  dentated  lateral  edges,  by 
which  they  are  firmly  joined  together.  The 
convexity  of  the  lens  is  greater  on  the  posterior  than  on  the 
anterior  surface. 

The  vitreous  body  (Lat.  vitreum,  glass)  fills  the  cavity 
within  the  retina  and  behind  the  lens.  It  is  a  structureless, 
gelatinous  substance,  possessing  a  refractive  power  less  than 
the  lens,  but  greater  than  the  aqueous  humor.  During  foetal 
life  the  hyaloid  artery  runs  from  papilla  (optic  nerve  entrance) 
to  posterior  surface  of  lens,  rudiments  of  which  sometimes  per- 
sist. The  canal  through  which  it  passes  is  the  canal  of  Cloouet, 
or  hyaloid  canal.  The  anterior  surface  of  the  vitreous  is  hol- 
lowed out  for  reception  of  the  lens,  forming  the  hyahidea 
fossa.  The  vitreous  has  no  vessels  or  nerves,  and  receives  its 
nutriment  from  the  retina  and  uveal  tract  (middle  coat). 

The  eyeball  is  moved  by  six  muscles,  five  of  which  take  their 
origin  from  the  tendinous  ring  around  the  optic  foramen  at  the 
apex  of  the  orbit.     Four  are  called  the  recti  (straight)  mus- 


cles. They  pass  directly  from  their  origin,  over  the  globe,  and 
are  inserted  in  the  sclera  near  the  corneal  margin,  one  above, 
one  below,  one  on  the  inner  and  one  on  the  outer  side.  The 
fifth  muscle,  the  superior  oblique,  passes  to  the  upper  inner 
angle  of  the  orbit,  then  through  a  tendinous  ring — the  pulley — 
then  backward  and  outward,  beneath  the  superior  rectus,  to 
upper,  outer  and  posterior  quadrant  of  the  eyeball,  where  it  is 
inserted.  The  sixth  muscle,  the  inferior  oblique,  arises  at  the 
inner  lower  angle  of  the  orbit  and  passes  outward,  downward, 
backward,  beneath  the  inferior  rectus,  then  upward  and  back- 
ward between  external  rectus  and  globe,  and  is  inserted 
close  to  the  insertion  of  the  superior  oblique. 

The  superior  rectus  moves  the  eye  upward  and  inward,  and 
rotates  it  slightly  inward.  The  internal  rectus,  the  strongest, 
moves  the  eye  inward,  and  the  external  moves  it  outward.  The 
superior  oblique  moves  the  eye  downward  and  outward,  rotat- 
ing it  inward.  The  inferior  oblique  moves  the  eye  upward  and 
outward,  rotating  it  outward.  Three  of  the  recti,  the  superior, 
inferior  and  internal,  and  the  inferior  oblique,  are  controlled  in 


i,  Inferior  oblique: 
'/,  pulley  of 


Fig.  M.    Muscle*  of  the  Eye. 

a,  cxt.  rectus;  3.  int.  rectus:  4.  inf.  rectus:  5,  sup.  rectus:  6,  sup.  oblique: 
sup.  oblique:  9,  10,  levator  palpcbrz  superior-is;  11,  optic  nerve. 

their  action  by  one  nerve,  the  third,  or  oculo  motorius.  The 
superior  oblique  is  governed  by  the  fourth,  or  trochlear  nerve. 
and  the  external  rectus  by  the  sixth,  or  abducens.  The  third 
nerve  also  sends  a  branch  to  the  ciliary  muscle  (muscle  of  ac- 
commodation). 

There  are  certain  appendages  of  the  eye  which  serve  either 
as  a  means  of  protection  or  aid  in  the  performance  of  its  func- 
tion. Of  these,  the  eyebrows,  eyelids  and  lachrymal  apparatus 
arc  the  most  important.  The  eyebrows  are  arched  elevations  of 
skin  above  the  orbits,  covered  with  rows  of  short  hairs,  and  serve 
to  protect  the  eye  and  to  slightly  influence  the  amount  of  light 
admitted.  The  eyelids  are  two  movable  folds  of  skin  covering  the 
eves  in  front  and  closing  the  orbital  entrance.  The  upper  lid 
is  the  larger,  measuring  about  four-fifths  of  an  inch  in  height 
11 1  von  its  inner  surface.  The  lower  is  only  about  half  an  inch 
high.     The  outer  or  skin  covering  of  the  lidt  is  continuous  at 


A 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


663 


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their  edges  with  their  inner  mucous  lining  or  conjunctiva  (Lat., 
conjutigere,  to  join  together),  which  is  reflected  from  the  lids 
on  to  the  eyeball,  forming  the  retrotarsal  fold  of  the  conjunc- 
tiva, and  joining  the  lids  to  the  globe.  Between  the  skin  and 
conjunctiva  the  lids  are  composed  of  loose  connective  tissue, 
muscle,  cartilage,  ligaments,  glands,  blood-vessels  and  nerves. 
The  so-called  cartilages  of  the  lids  are  not  true  cartilage,  but 
consist  of  dense  fibrous  tissue.  They  are  two  in  number,  one  in 
each  lid.  The  upper  is  the  larger,  and  is  crescentric  in  shape. 
The  lower  one  is  elliptical.  They  serve  to  maintain  the  form 
of  the  lids  and  as  points  of  attachment  for  ligaments  which 
bind  the  lids  to  edge  of  the  orbit,  and  the  muscle  which  lifts 
the  upper  lid,  the  levator  palpebne  superioris.  This  muscle 
arises  just  above  the  origin  of  the  recti  muscles  and  passes  for- 
ward along  the  roof  of  the  orbit  to  its  insertion  around  the 
upper  margin  of  the  cartilage  of  the  upper  lid.  It  is  supplied 
by  the  third  nerve. 

The  muscle  which  closes  the  lids,  orbicularis  palpebrarum, 
arises  from  the  edge  of  the  orbit,  near  the  inner  angle  of  the 
opening  between  the  lids,  and  its  fibres  pass  around  the  lids, 
between  the  skin  and  cartilage,  and  unite  at  the  outer  angle. 
It  is  supplied  by  the  facial,  supra-orbital  and  superior  maxillary 
nerves. 

The  eyelashes,  or  cilia,  are  rows  of  short,  thick  hairs  on  the 
free  margins  of  the  lids,  those  of  the  upper  lid  curving  upward 
and  those  of  the  lower  curving  downward.  Their  follicles  lie 
in  the  connective  tissue  upon  the  cartilage,  and  are  connected 
with  sebaceous  glands  which  lubricate  the  cilia. 

Imbedded  in  the  cartilages  are  blind  tubes  into  which  open 
secondary  follicles  (thirty  to  forty  in  upper  lid,  twenty  to  thirty 
in  lower).  The  tubes,  meibomian  glands,  lie  parallel  and 
open  in  a  row  near  the  inner  edge  of  the  free  border  of  the 
lid.  They  furnish  a  sebaceous  secretion  which  lubricates  the 
margin  of  the  lids.. 

The  size  of  the  opening  between  the  lids,  palpebral  fissure, 
determines  the  apparent  size  of  the  eye  ;  a  large  opening  allow- 
ing the  globe  to  bulge  forward  and  become  prominent,  while  a 
small  fissure  prevents  much  of  the  eyeball  from  being  seen. 
The  angles  formed  by  the  margins  of  the  lids  at  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  fissure  are  called  the  internal  and  external  canthi. 

The  conjunctiva,  when  the  lids  are  closed,  form  a  shut  sac, 
with  its  palpebral  and  ocular  surfaces  in  contact.  It  forms  a 
crescentric  fold  at  the  inner  canthus— semilunar  fold,  or 
plica  semilunaris.  This  is  regarded  as  the  rudiment  of  the 
third  eyelid,  or  membrana  nictitans,  in  birds.  Lying  upon  the 
semilunar  fold  in  the  inner  canthus  is  a  small  red  body,  the 
caruncula  lachrymalis.  It  consists  of  hair  follicles,  sebaceous 
glands,  connective  tissue  and  fat,  is  covered  by  mucous  mem- 
brane, and  has  a  few  fine  hairs  on  its  surface. 

The  lachrymal  apparatus  consists  of  a  secreting  portion,  the 
lachrymal  gland  and  conjunctival  glands  ;  and  the  conduct- 
ing portion,  canaliculi,  sac  and  nasal  duct.  The  lachrymal 
gland  is  almond-shaped  and  lies  in  a  depression  in  the  roof  of 
the  orbit  at  the  outer  angle.  Its  lower  surface  rests  upon  the 
outer  part  of  the  eyeball,  and  its  longest  diameter,  the  trans- 
verse, is  about  three-fifths  of  an  inch.  The  secretion  of  the 
gland  (the  tears)  is  conveyed  to  the  conjunctival  sac  by  six  to 
twelve  ducts,  which  open  in  a  row  at  the  outer  third  of  the 


44 


superior  retrotarsal  fold.  The  accessory  glands  consist  of  a 
group  of  small  glands  arranged  in  a  row  just  above  the  con- 
junctival reflection.  The  secretion  of  the  lachrymal  and  acces- 
sory glands  is  composed  of  water,  albumen  and  salt,  and  is 
spread  over  the  front  of  the  eye  by  winking  of  the  lids,  lubri- 
cating its  surface.  The  excess  is  collected  in  a  triangular  space 
at  the  inner  canthus,  the  lacus  lachrymalis,  and  is  forced  into 
the  canaliculi  by  the  orbicularis  muscle,  or  flows  over  the  cheek. 
Ordinarily  the  lachrymal  gland  pours  out  very  little  secretion, 
and  its  removal  does  not  materially  affect  the  moisture  of  the 
eye,  the  secretion  from  the  accessory  gland*  being  quite  suf- 
ficient for  this  purpose.  Under  the  same  circumstances  the 
tears  evaporate  from  the  surface  of  the  eyeball,  very  little  pass- 
ing into  the  nose. 

The  canaliculi  are  two  mucous  canals  about  one-quarter  of 
an  inch  long  and  half  a  line  in  diameter,  which  begin  in  the 
centre  of  a  small  elevation,  the  puncta,  about  one-fifth  of  an 
inch  from  the  angle  of  the  lids,  and  run  along  the  edge  of  the 
latter  (one  above  and  one  below),  to  the  lachrymal  sac.  The 
lachrymal  sac  lies  in  a  groove  in  the  upper  end  of  the  lachrymal 
canal,  oval  in  form,  and  flattened  from  before  backward;  is  about 
two-fifths  of  an  inch  long  and  one-sixth  of  an  inch  wide ;  is 
continuous  with  nasal  duct,  sometimes  direct  and  sometimes 
interrupted  by  folds  of  mucous  membrane.  The  nasal  duct 
runs  in  a  bony  canal  downward,  backward  and  outward,  three- 
fifths  to  four-fifths  of  an  inch  long  and  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  usually  opens  in  inferior  meatus  of  the  nose. 

Certain  changes  are  observed  in  most  of  the  tissues  of  the 
eye  in  old  age.  The  sclera  loses  its  elasticity  to  some  extent, 
and  presents  calcareous  deposits,  favoring  the  development  of 
the  disease  called  glaucoma.  The  cornea  diminishes  in  size 
and  thickness,  and  also  loses  tone  ;  the  elastic  layers  become 
brittle  and  show  warty  elevations  at  margins.  Usually  after 
fifty  years  of  age  fatty  degeneration  begins  in  the  upper  and 
lower  margins  of  the  cornea,  forming  arcus  senilis.  These 
grayish,  crescentric  opacities  gradually  extend  until  their  ends 
join  and  form  a  ring.  The  choroid,  ciliary  body  and  retina 
undergo  degenerative  changes,  and  their  blood  vessels  become 
atheromatous.  The  lens  increases  in  density,  becomes  flatter, 
and  loses  its  elasticity,  the  nucleus  assumes  amber  color,  and 
small  opacities  appear.  The  zonule  of  Zinn  is  weakened, 
resulting  in  a  tendency  to  dislocations  of  the  lens. 
Physiology. 

The  eyeballs  may  be  considered  as  hollow,  spherical  boxes, 
blackened  upon  their  inner  surfaces,  and  having  a  system  of 
convex  lenses  and  transparent  media,  which  unite  the  rays  of 
light,  forming  inverted  images  of  external  objects,  upon  a 
special  nervous  membrane — the  retina — which  appreciates 
both  intensity  and  color.  Each  eyeball,  therefore,  resembles  a 
camera  obscura.  Images  formed  in  the  bottom  of  the  eye  may 
be  seen  by  removing  the  sclera  and  choroid  behind  and  leaving 
only  the  retina. 

The  impressions  perceived  by  the  retina  are  conveyed  to  the 
brain  by  the  optic  nerves,  producing  the  results  we  call  vision. 
The  exact  way  in  which  our  visual  perception  is  gained  of  an 
object,  single  and  erect  from  its  two  inverted  retinal  images, 
cannot  be  satisfactorily  explained.  We  know,  however,  that 
the  two  eyes  act  in  perfect  harmony,  and  that  the  images  are 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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symmetrically  disposed  on  the  two  retinae,  and  are  combined 
into  a  single  impression.  The  two  retinal  images  are  slightly 
different,  the  eyes  being  separated  sufficiently  for  each  to  com- 
mand a  different  view.  Our  ideas  of  solidity  result  from  the 
union  of  the  two  images  ;  our  ideas  of  distance  from  the  mus- 
cular efforts  required  to  sec  distinctly  and  from  experience. 

The  iris,  with  its  central  perforation,  acts  as  a  diaphragm  reg- 
ulating the  amount  of  light  admitted  into  the  eye,  by  what  is 
known  as  the  reflex  movement  of  the  iris,  the  pupil  contract- 
ing in  a  strong  light  and  dilating  in  a  feeble  one. 

The  rays  of  light  coming  from  any  object,  when  entering  the 
eye,  pass  through  the  cornea,  aqueous  humor,  lens  and  vitreous 
before  they  reach  the  retina  at  the  bottom  (fundus)  of  the  eye. 
As  the  light  rays  pass  through  these  media  they  are  bent  (re- 
fracted) from  their  original  course  and  united  (focused)  in  the 
perfectly  shaped  eye,  on  the  retina.  It  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  they  be  focused  upon  the  retina  to  form  a  perfect  image 
upon  that  membrane.  If  the  focus  be  at  any  point  not  on  the 
retina,  a  blurred  image  results,  and  vision  of  course  is  indistinct. 
To  see  perfectly,  it  is  further  necessary  that  the  focus  be  formed 
on  the  most  sensitive  part  of  the  retina  (macula  lutca).  The 
retina  is  sensitive  to  the  impressions  of  light  throughout,  but 
especially  so  near  the  posterior  pole,  and  therefore,  when  ac- 
curate vision  is  desired,  the  eyes  are  so  directed  by  the  ocular 
muscles  that  the  light  is  focused  on  the  macula. 

Rays  of  light  coming  from  any  point  of  illumination,  how- 
ever distant,  are  divergent,  but  as  the  pupil  ordinarily  is  only 
about  two  lines  in  diameter,  rays  coming  from  a  distance  more 
than  twenty  feet  are  so  slightly  divergent  when  they  enter  the  eye 
that  the  divergence  is  not  recognized.  So,  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses, rays  coming  from  a  distance  of  twenty  feet  or  more  may 
be  regarded  as  coming  from  an  infinite  distance,  and,  therefore, 
as  being  parallel.  In  the  ideally  perfect  eye  parallel  rays  are 
focused  by  its  refractive  media  upon  the  macula,  and  a  per- 
fect image  is  formed  upon  the  perceptive  layer  of  the  retina. 

When  rays  enter  the  eye,  coming  from  a  distance  less  than 
twenty  feet,  they  are  perceptibly  divergent,  and  the  shorter  the 
distance  the  greater  the  divergence.  It  will  therefore  be  seen 
that  the  refractive  media  must  undergo  a  change,  i.e.,  increase 
the  refractive  power  sufficiently  to  unite  the  divergent  rays  on 
the  same  place  that  the  parallel  rays  were  focused.  This 
change  the  eye  is  capable  of  making,  and  it  is  called  accommo- 
dation, because  the  eye  can  be  adjusted  or  accommodated  for 
different  distances.  The  change  is  brought  about  by  the  ciliary 
muscle  contracting.  The  suspensory  ligament  is  in  this  way  re- 
laxed, and  the  lens,  of  its  own  elasticity,  is  rendered  more  con- 
vex, chiefly  on  its  anterior  surface.  The  iris  is  at  the  same  time 
pushed  forward,  and  the  pupil  contracted.  The  changes  thus 
produced  in  the  refracting  media  greatly  increase  the  refrac- 
tiv»  power,  accurately  focusing  divergent  rays.  There  is  a 
point,  however,  where  the  divergence  is  so  great  that  the  ut- 
most effort  at  accommodation  fails  to  unite  the  rays  on  the 
macula.  This  is  the  near  point  of  distinct  vision,  and  Itl  dis- 
tance from  the  eye  gradually  increases  with  age,  owing  to 
physiological  changes  in  the  lens,  diminishing  its  elasticity.  l!y 
means  of  accommodation  the  eye  sees  everything  distinctly, 
from   within   a  few  inches   to   fifteen   or   twenty   feet  away, 


beyond  which  it  is  unnecessary,  as  the  vision  is  perfect  with 
the  media  in  a  passive  condition. 

While  viewing  distant  objects,  the  axes  of  the  eyes  are  par- 
allel, but  near  objects  require  a  certain  amount  of  convergence 
to  allow  the  focus  to  be  formed  upon  the  macula  of  each  eye. 
The  interal  rectus  is  the  principal  muscle  concerned  in  the  act 
of  convergence,  but  the  other  ocular  muscles  are  more  or  less 
called  into  action  to  maintain  a  certain  position  or  change  the 
direction  of  the  eye.  Wheri  we  consider  that  six  muscles  con- 
trol the  movements  of  each  eye,  and  while  viewing  near  objects 
each  eye  must  be  accommodated  and  converged  so  that  a  perfect 
image  may  be  formed  on  a  corresponding  point  in  the  rejina  of 
each,  we  can  but  wonder  how  it  is  possible  for  this  complicated 
muscular  action  to  be  maintained  for  any  great  length  of  time 
in  a  normal  state  of  perfection,  much  more  when  some  portion 
of  the  delicate  mechanism  is  defective,  and  the  harmony  of 
action  is  seriously  disturbed. 

Errors  of  Refraction  and  Accommodation. 

Contrary  to  popular  opinion,  the  perfect  eye  is  the  excep- 
tion instead  of  the  rule.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  defect 
is  so  slight  that  the  eyes  give  very  little  trouble  unless  used 
excessively  for  close  work,  especially  by  artificial  light.  Very 
often  the  defect  so  materially  disturbs  vision,  and  requires  such 
an  unnatural  strain  to  overcome  it,  that  a  variety  of  troubles 
result.  The  eyes  not  only  feel  fatigued  and  ache,  but  the  lids 
may  swell,  or  become  inflamed,  the  eyes  becoming  so  sensitive 
that  mere  exposure  to  light  will  bring  on  a  severe  paroxysm  of 
pain.  Again  severe  attacks  of  headache,  dizziness  and  a  host 
of  nervous  disorders  may  follow. 

Emmetropia  is  the  term  applied  to  the  normally-shaped  eye- 
ball. 

Hypermetropia,  or  over-sight,  is  a  condition  where  the 
eye-ball  is  shorter  from  before  backward  than  it  should  be,  and 
as  a  consequence  parallel  rays  of  light  are  not  united  when  they 
reach  the  retina  unless  the  accommodation  be  called  into  play. 
A  hypermetropic  eye  never  sees  at  any  distance  without  mak- 
ing an  effort  at  accommodation ;  hence  it  is  never  at  rest 
except  during  sleep,  and  the  constant  strain  tends  often  to 
produce  very  serious  consequences.  In  the  majority  of  cases 
where  hypermetropia  exists,  one  eye  is  more  defective  than  the 
other,  and  thus  makes  the  defect  much  more  difficult  to  be 
overcome  by  accommodation.  The  muscle  of  accommodation 
is  under  the  same  nerve  control  as  the  muscles  of  convergence, 
and  hence  the  action  of  the  ciliary  muscle  calls  for  a  corre- 
sponding effort  on  the  part  of  the  converging  muscles,  and  vice 
versa.  When,  however,  one  or  both  eyes  are  hypermetropic, 
a  greater  effort  at  accommodation  is  required,  and  while  the  eyes 
are  focused  for  a  given  point  they  are  converged  for  a  nearer 
one,  and  double  vision  is  the  result.  The  double  vision  is  pro- 
duced by  the  images  being  formed  at  different  points  on  the 
retina  in  the  two  eyes.  Under  such  circumstances  distinct 
vision  is  only  obtained  when  the  image  of  one  eye  (the 
weaker)  is  suppressed.  If  the  difference  in  the  refractive  con- 
dition be  very  great,  it  will  be  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to 
suppress  the  image  formed  in  the  weaker  eye  ;  but  if  there  be 
but  little  difference,  one  will  turn  inward,  and  the  image,  being 
formed  on  a  less  sensitive  part  of  the  retina,  is  finally  ignored. 


-^l 


K 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


665 


In  the  former  case,  the  weaker  eye  may  remain  "  straight,"  but 
in  the  latter  the  eye  which  turns  in  will  soon  become  perma- 
nently "  crossed. "  In  this  way  nearly  all  cases  of  convergent 
squint,  or  strabismus,  are  produced. 

Treatment  of  Hypermetropic. — The  only  thing  that  can  be 
done  to  relieve  this  condition  is  to  correct  the  defect  by  hav- 
ing the  person  affected  wear  convex  glasses,  which  should  be 
adjusted  by  an  oculist  who  thoroughly  understands  the  subject. 
The  accurate  correction  of  refractive  defects  is  a  matter  of  such 
great  importance  that  no  one  but  a  competent  person  should 
undertake  to  do  it. 

Presbyopia,  or  far-sightedness,  is  a  condition  that  is  the  result 
of  natural  changesdue  to  age.  At  about  forty  years  of  age  most 
people  find  that  they  are  compelled,  in  order  to  see  well,  to 
hold  their  newspaper  a  little  farther  from  their  eyes  than  for- 
merly. The  eyes  also  feel  fatigued  much  sooner,  especially 
when  artificial  light  is  used.  This  is  the  result  of  a  diminished 
power  of  accommodation,  and  can  be  easily  relieved  by  using 
properly  fitted  convex  glasses. 

Myopia,  or  near-sightedness,  is  the  opposite  condition  from 
hypermetropia,  that  is,  instead  of  being  too  short,  the  eyeball 
is  too  long.  Parallel  rays  unite  before  they  reach  the  retina, 
and  divergent  rays  focus  without  the  aid  of  accommodation. 
In  hypermetropia  the  defect  exists  from  birth,  but  in  myopia  it 
is  usually  acquired,  although  a  predisposition,  as  a  weakened 
condition  of  the  coats  of  the  eye,  may  be  inherited.  Close 
work  favors  the  production  of  a  myopic  condition  in  the  eye. 
Straining  the  accommodation  and  convergence  increases  the 
tension  of  the  eye,  and  this  interferes  with  the  escape  of  the 
venous  blood  from  the  interior.  As  the  veins  pass  through  the 
sclera  obliquely,  any  increase  of  pressure  from  within  would 
tend  to  obstruct  the  flow  of  blood  through  them.  The  retarded 
escape  of  venous  blood  tends  to  still  further  intensify  the 
intra-ocular  pressure,  and  this  to  increase  the  myopia.  The 
trouble,  once  begun,  therefore,  is  very  likely  to  become  pro- 
gressive, unless  proper  means  are  promptly  employed  to  stay  its 
further  development. 

Treatment. — As  a  myopic  should  be  considered  as  a  "sick 
eye,"  no  time  should  be  lost  in  having  it  cared  for  by  one 
skilled  in  the  treatment  of  such  difficulties.  Unless  checked, 
the  defect  is  liable  to  go  from  bad  to  worse  until  all  useful  vision 
is  irreparably  destroyed.  All  strain  should  be  removed  as  far 
as  possible,  and  close  work  abandoned  until  the  progress  of  the 
difficulty  has  been  checked.  Concave  glasses  carefully  selected 
should  be  worn  all  the  time.  A  full  correction  of  the  myopia 
should  be  made  by  glasses  for  distant  vision  ;  and,  if  the  defect 
be  great,  about  one-half  correction  for  near  objects. 

Astigmatism  (Gr. :  a,  without,  and  stigma,  a  point). — In 
this  condition  the  rays  of  light  entering  in  one  meridian  are 
focused  at  a  different  point  from  those  entering  in  another 
meridian,  the  meridians  of  greatest  difference  being  at  right 
angles  with  each  other. 

In  simple  myopic  astigmatism,  one  meridian  is  emmetropic 
(normal)  and  the  meridian  at  right  angle  is  myopic.  Simple 
hypermetropic  astigmatism  has  one  meridian  emmetropic  and 
the  other  hypermetropic.  Compound  myopic  astigmatism  has 
both  meridians  myopic,  but  one  more  than  the  other.  Com- 
pound hypermetropic  astigmatism  has  both  meridians  hyper- 


metropic, but  one  more  than  the  other.     In  mixed  astigmatism 
one  meridian  is  myopic  and  the  other  is  hypermetropic. 

On  account  of  the  inability  to  focus  all  meridians  at  once  in 
astigmatism,  the  defect  is  a  source  of  much  greater  difficulty, 
and  its  correction  is  far  more  important  than  either  hyperme- 
tropia or  myopia.  Neither  convex  nor  concave  glasses  will  cor- 
rect astigmatism,  because,  the  surface  of  the  glass  being  curved 
equally  in  all  meridians,  when  a  glass  is  found  that  will  correct 
one  meridian,  the  other  is  either  corrected  too  much  or  too  lit- 
tle. A  glass  is  required  that  will  correct  one  meridian  and 
leave  the  other  unaffected.  This  is  found  in  what  is  called  the 
cylindrical  glass,  the  shape  of  which  shows  it  to  be  the  segment 
of  a  cylinder,  that  is,  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  cylinder 
the  glass  is  the  same  thickness  throughout,  but  its  surface  is 
curved  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  with  the  axis.  A  cylin- 
drical glass  may  be  either  convex  or  concave.  The  ordinary 
convex  and  concave  glasses  are  spherical  in  shape.  Compound 
astigmatism  is  corrected  by  using  a  lens  that  is  ground  spherical 
on  one  side  and  cylindrical  on  the  other.  Mixed  astigmatism 
is  corrected  by  one  ground  concave-cylindrical  on  one  surface 
and  convex-cylindrical  on  the  other,  with  the  axes  of  the  cylin- 
ders at  right  angles  with  each  other. 

Diseases  of  the  Eye  and  Their  Treatment. 

Diseases  of  the  eye  are  so  numerous  and  their  diagnosis  so  diffi- 
cult, that  it  requires  long  study,  special  training  and  experience 
to  recognize  and  treat  them  with  safety  and  success.  Simple 
troubles  will  usually  recover  without  treatment  if  not  meddled 
with,  but  may  ultimately  prove  serious  if  allowed  to  go  un- 
checked or  become  aggravated  by  harsh  or  improper  remedies. 
Grave  difficulties  may  be  overlooked  as  such,  until  vision  has 
been  permanently  impaired  or  destroyed.  In  view  of  these 
facts,  it  is  considered  unnecessary  if  not  dangerous  to  outline 
the  symptoms  and  treatment  of  the  various  eye  diseases  in  this 
article.  Nevertheless,  a  few  hints  with  reference  to  the  hand- 
ling of  some  of  the  simpler  affections,  conduct  in  emergencies, 
and  the  care  of  the  eyes,  will  not  be  out  of  place. 

If  a  foreign  body  should  get  into  an  eye,  the  tears  will  quickly 
begin  to  flow  freely,  and,  in  many  cases,  will  wash  it  out.  But 
if  the  substance  be  rough  and  angular,  it  may  be  imbedded  in 
the  cornea  or  the  folds  of  the  conjunctiva.  When  a  foreign 
substance  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  eye,  the  cornea  should  be 
thoroughly  inspected  by  aid  of  a  convex  lens,  if  at  hand,  to 
concentrate  the  light  upon  the  eye.  The  body  may  be  so  small 
as  to  escape  detection  with  the  unaided  eye,  but  sufficient  to 
cause  great  pain  and  dangerous  inflammation.  The  best  method 
of  removing  substances  from  the  cornea,  when  a  surgeon  can- 
not be  had,  is  to  sharpen  a  lead  pencil  very  fine,  and,  standing 
behind  the  person  seated  in  a  chair,  steady  the  eye  and  separate 
the  lids  with  the  left  hand,  and  gently  pick  it  out  with  the  point 
of  the  pencil.  After  removal  of  the  foreign  body,  the  eye 
should  be  rested,  bathed  in  warm  water  if  irritable,  and  the  per- 
son instructed  not  to  rub  it.  In  case  nothing  be  found  in  the 
cornea,  the  lower  lid  should  be  drawn  down  by  placing  the  ball 
of  the  thumb  on  the  cheek  below,  and,  by  pressing  downward, 
the  inner  surface  of  the  lid  exposed.  This  should  be  carefully 
examined,  and,  if  nothing  is  found,  the  upper  lid  should  be 
everted,  as  shown  in  Figure  37,  by  seizing  the  eyelashes  at  the 


■fc 


_s 


(J k_ 


. 


666 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


middle  of  the  lid,  and,  directing  the  person  to  look  down, 
pulling  the  lid  downward  and  outward,  then  placing  a  pencil 
or  match  on  the  lid  about  half  an  inch  from  its  edge  and  gently 
pressing  downward  while  the  edge  is  lifted  upward  and  over  the 
pencil  by  means  of  the  lashes.  If  anything  is  discovered  on 
the  upper  or  lower  lid,  it  can  be  readily  removed  by  the  corner 
of  a  handkerchief  being  twisted  to  a  point  and  used  as  a  swab 
to  brush  it  off. 


Fig.  37.    Method  of  Turning:  the  Upper  I. id. 

If  the  conjunctiva  becomes  reddened  from  any  cause,  it 
denotes,  if  long  continued,  that  inflammation  has  been  estab- 
lished ;  this  may  be  confined  to  the  conjunctiva  or  be  a  com- 
plication of  some  deep-seated  trouble.  It  is  not  safe  to  tam- 
per in  such  cases,  but  if  a  surgeon  cannot  be  had  at  once,  use 
nothing  but  simple  remedies  until  professional  advice  can  be 


secured.  Warm  salt  water  (one  quarter  teaspoonful  to  pint) 
is  a  safe  remedy  in  all  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  eye,  and 
if  used  for  ten  or  twenty  minutes  three  or  four  timesdaily,  will 
relieve  most  acute  affections  of  the  lids  and  conjunctiva.  All 
patent  eye-washes  should  be  avoided,  because  most  of  them 
contain  acetate  of  lead,  and  if  this  is  employed  when  there  is 
an  abrasion  of  the  cornea  the  lead  will  be  deposited  and  a  per- 
manent opacity  remain. 

Should  the  warm  salt  water  not  prove  sufficient  until  a  physi- 
cian can  be  seen,  bathe  the  eyes  in  a  weak  solution  of  alum  or 
boracic  acid  (two  to  five  grains  to  ounce). 

As  a  rule,  so  long  as  the  vision  remains  perfect  there  is 
nothing  dangerous  affecting  the  eye ;  when,  however,  sight 
is  impaired,  an  oculist  should  be  consulted  as  quickly  as 
possible. 

For  the  first  twenty-four  hours  cold  applications  are  advisa- 
ble in  all  injuries  of  the  eye,  especially  of  the  lids  and  con- 
junctiva ;  but  after  that  time  has  expired,  warm  dressings  are 
usually  followed  by  the  best  results. 

When  mortar,  lime  or  an  alkali  by  accident  gets  into  the 
eyes,  they  .should  be  quickly  washed  with  vinegar  and  water 
(one  part  to  eight  or  ten).  After  being  thoroughly  cleansed,  if 
any  part  of  the  conjunctiva  ;s  found  eroded,  fresh  castor  oil  or 
vaseline  should  be  applied  over  the  raw  surface,  and  care  take  i 
not  to  allow  the  lids  to  "grow"  to  the  eyebalL  If  the  con- 
junctiva be  very  much  injured,  the  lids  should  be  kept  from 
coming  in  contact  with  the  eyeball  by  a  piece  of  cotton  soaked 
in  oil.  In  cases  of  injury  from  acids,  the  eyes  should  be  washed 
immediately  in  bicarbonate  of  soda  (salaratus)  and  water  (one 
part  to  ten)  uid  then  dressed  as  a  burn. 


•VTHE   EAR.-H- 


Anatomy. 
The  anatomy  of  the  ear  is  usually  divided,  for  the  sake  of 
convenience,  into  that  of  the  external,  middle  and  internal. 
The  external  ear  embraces  the  auricle  and  exterior  auditory 
canal ;  the  middle  car  the  membrana  tympani,  cavity  of  tym- 
panum, mastoid  cells  and  eustachian  tubes ;  the  internal  ear 
the  vestibule,  semi-circular  canals,  cochlea  and  auditory  nerve. 
The  nuricle  is  the  external  funnel-shaped  appendage  attached 
to  the  malar  and  temporal  bones  by  elastic  fibres.  It  consists 
of  fihro-cartilaginous  framework  closely  covered  by  perichon- 
drium and  skin.  From  the  lower  end  of  the  cartilage  a  pro- 
jection extends,  formed  principally  by  the  skin,  the  lobe  of  the 
car.  The  outer  edge  of  the  auricle  is  called  the  helix  ;  within 
this  a  depression,  the  fossa  naviculars,  at  the  inner  edge  of 
which  is  another  ridge,  the  anti-helix.  In  front  of  the  open- 
ing of  the  auditory  canal  is  a  projection,  the  tragus  ;  opposite 
this  on  the  other  side  of  the  canal  is  another  projection,  the 
anli-tragus.  The  concavity  around  the  orifice  of  the  canal  is 
known  as  the  concha.  The  triangular  depression  above  the 
concha  is  the  fossa  triangularis. 


f    <3 •" 


The  meatus  auditorium  externus,  external  auditory  canal, 
extends  from  the  auricle  to  the  membrana  tympani  forward  and 
inward,  by  a  crooked  course  ;  average  length  about  one  inch. 
The  outer  one-third  is  cartilaginous,  continuous  with  cartilage 
of  the  auricle.  The  inner  two-thirds  is  formed  by  the  bony 
canal  in  the  temporal  bone.  At  the  bottom  of  the  canal  the 
membrana  tympani  is  inserted  in  the  tympanic  groove,  sulcus 
tympanicus.  The  membrane  is  placed  obliquely,  and  hence 
the  anterior  and  inferior  walls  of  the  canal  are  longest.  The 
canal  is  lined  by  integument  containing  soft  hairs,  sebaceous  and 
ceruminous  glands.  The  secretion  of  the  glands,  corumen 
(wax),  is  chiefly  fat  and  coloring  matter. 

The  membrana  tympani,  or  drum-head,  separates  the 
auditory  canal  from  the  tympanic  cavity.  It  is  so  obliquely 
placed  that  the  upper  border  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
nearer  the  entrance  to  canal  than  the  lower.  The  posterior 
border  is  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  nearer  than  anterior.  It  is 
ellipsoidal  in  shape,  with  its  long  axis  (one-third  of  an  inch) 
downward  and  forward.  At  the  upper  portion,  the  short  pro- 
cess of  the  malleus  shows  as  a  conical  protrusion,  from  which 


V 


?HYSIOLOGV  AND  MEDICINE. 


667 


"71 


extend  two  folds,  the  anterior  and  posterior.  The  membrane 
is  slightly  concave  externally.  The  deepest  concavity  surrounds 
the  end  of  the  handle  of  the  malleus,  and  is  called  the  umbo. 
The  membrane  is  inelastic,  and  about  yjn  inch  in  thickness. 
It  is  composed  of  three  layers,  a  middle  fibrous  layer,  covered 
externally  by  skin  of  auditory  canal,  and  mucous  membrane  of 
tympanum  internally.  The  middle  layer  has  two  layers  of 
fibres,  an  outer  radiating  and  an  inner  circular. 

When  viewed  through  the  auditory  canal,  the  healthy  mem- 
brane presents  a  delicate  bluish-gray  color  and  is  translucent. 
The  short  process  of  the  malleus  appears  as  a  whitish  tubercle, 
near  upper  margin,  and  the  handle  of  malleus  as  a  light  stripe, 
running  from  this  downward  and  backward  to  centre  of  the 
membrane.  The  "  light  spot  "  is  a  bright  triangular  reflection 
from  the  oblique  surface  of  the  membrane.  Its  apex  points  to 
end  of  handle,  and  its  base  toward  margin. 

The  cavity  of  tympanum,  or  drum  of  the  ear,  is  an  irregular- 
shaped  space,  lined  by  mucous  membrane,  which  is  continuous 
with  that  of  eustachian  tube  and  pharynx.  The  antero-posterior 
diameter  is  about  %  inch ;  the  anterior-vertical,  %  ir.ch,  and 
the  posterior-vertical,  three-fifths  of  an  inch  ;  transverse,  one- 
eighth  to  one-sixth;  opposite  drum-head,  one-twelfth  inch.  The 
eustachian  tube  opens  into  upper  part  of  anterior  wall.  Above 
the  tube  is  the  canal  for  the  tensor  tympani  muscle,  separated 
from  it  by  a  thin  plate  of  bone.  The  posterior  wall  separates 
the  tympanum  from  the  mastoid  cells,  the  openings  into  which 
are  found  at  the  upper  part,  close  to  the  roof.  The  drum-head 
forms  most  of  the  outer  wall.  The  inner  wall  forms  outer  wall 
of  the  labyrinth.  An  oval  opening  (fenestra  ovalis)  is  found 
opposite  support  of  drum-head  in  the  inner  wall  which  leads 
into  the  vestibule.  The  opening  is  closed  by  a  membrane  upon 
which  rests  the  base  of  the  stapes.  A  smaller  opening  below 
(fenestra  rotunda) leads  into  the  cochlea.  The  latter  opening 
is  closed  by  a  membrane  called  the  membrana  tympani  secon- 
daria.  Anterior,  and  between  the  fenestras,  is  a  rounded  pro- 
jection, the  promontory.  This  corresponds  with  the  first  whorl 
of  the  cochlea.  The  upper  wall  is  very  thin  and  separates  the 
tympanum  from  cranial  cavity. 

The  bones  of  the  ear  (ossicles)  are  three  in  number  —  mal- 
leus (Lat.  for  hammer),  incus  (anvil),  and  stapes  (stirrup). 
They  form  a  chain  across  tympanum  from  membrana  tympani 
to  membrana  ovalis.  The  malleus  presents  a  head,  neck,  short 
and  long  process,  and  manubrium  (handle).  The  incus  has  a 
head,  long  and  short  process.  The  head  articulates  with  mal- 
leus, and  is  joined  to  roof  of  tympanum  by  a  ligament  ;  short 
process  runs  back  to  articulate  with  posterior  wall  of  tym- 
panum. The  long  process  descends  parallel  with  and  behind 
the  handle  of  malleus  and  terminates  in  a  lenticular  tip  which 
articulates  with  the  head  of  the  stapes.  The  stapes  has  head, 
neck,  crura  and  base.     The  latter  rests  in  fenestra  ovalis. 

The  tensor  tympani  muscle  arises  from  the  periosteum  of 
the  upper  wall  of  its  canal  and  upper  wall  of  cartilage  of 
eustachian  tube,  and  from  border  of  sphenoid.  Before  leaving 
the  canal  it  becomes  tendinous,  and  as  it  enters  the  tympanum 
turns  nearly  at  right  angle  and  is  inserted  into  the  anterior  half 
of  the  inner  side  of  malleus  between  short  process  and  begin- 
ning of  the  handle.  It  draws  the  handle  inward  and  makes  the 
membrana  tympani  and  the  ligaments  of  the  ossicles  tense  ;  at 


the  same  time  the  long  process  of  the  incus  rotates  inward  with 
the  malleus  handle,  and  presses  the  stapes  against  the  oval  win- 
dow and  the  fluid  of  the  labyrinth.  The  stapedius  muscle 
originates  in  the  cavity  of  the  pyramid  and  is  inserted  in  the 
neck  of  the  stapes.  It  is  supposed  to  depress  the  base  of  the 
stapes  and  compress  the  contents  of  labyrinth. 

The  mastoid  cells  consist  or  a  number  of  irregular  cells  con- 
tained in  the  mastoid  process  of  temporal  bone.  In  the  upper 
part  of  the  process  a  single  large  cell  is  found,  the  mastoid 
antrum.  This  communicates  with  the  lower  cells  and  the 
tympanic  cavity.  The  eustachian  tube  is  about  a  line  in  diam- 
eter, and  extends  from  the  pharynx  upward,  outward  and 
backward  to  tympanum.  It  has  a  cartilaginous  and  bony  por- 
tion. The  tympanic  end  is  bony,  about  half  an  inch  long. 
The  narrowest  part  of  canal  is  at  isthmus,  the  juncture  of  car- 
tilaginous and  bony  parts.  The  pharyngeal  orifice  is  trumpet- 
shaped,  and  is  found  in  posterior  nasal  space  just  above  floor  of 
nostril.  Its  mucous  membrane  is  continuous  with  that  of  the 
pharynx  and  tympanum. 


Fig.  38. 

auditory  i 
cartilaginous  portion:    5,  ceruminous  glands;    6,  membrana  t 


r.Auricle;  3,  opening  of  ext.  auditory  canal;  3,  bony  part  of  canal:  4, 

ibr; 


--  tympani;  7, 
incus;  8,  malleus;  9,  manubrium;  10,  tensor  tympani  muscle;  11,  12, 
eustachian  tube;  13,  15,  semi-circular  canals;  16,  cochlea. 

The  internal  ear,  or  labyrinth,  contains  the  essential  parts 
of  the  hearing  apparatus,  the  ultimate  filaments  of  the  audi- 
tory nerves.  It  embraces  several  bony  cavities  contained  in 
the  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone.  Within  these 
osseous  chambers  are  membranous  sacs  which  receive  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  nerve.  The  sacs  and  intervening  spaces  are 
filled  with  a  clear  fluid.  The  bony  cavities  are  three  in  num- 
ber, the  vestibule,  semi-circular  canals  and  cochlea. 

The  vestibule  is  an  irregular  ovoid  cavity,  situated  internal 
to  the  tympanum.  Its  height  and  depth,  antero-posteriorly,  is 
about  one-fifth  of  an  inch,  and  its  transverse  diameter  about 
one-tenth  of  an  inch.  The  semi-circular  canals  are  three 
C-shaped  canals,  starting  from  the  vestibule  and  returning  to  it 


YL 


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668 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


again  ;  are  from"  one-twentieth  to  one-fifteenth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  Length  of  posterior  verticle,  eleven-twelfths  inch  ; 
anterior  verticle,  four-fifths  ;  horizontal,  one-fifth  inch. 

The  cochlea  (snail)  is  a  tube  that  coils  around  a  central  pillar 
or  axis,  and  tapers  toward  one  extremity  where  it  ends  in  a 
blind  sac.  It  is  about  one  and  one-half  inches  long,  one-tenth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  beginning  and  one-twentieth  of 
an  inch  at  the  end  ;  makes  two  and  a  half  turns  from  below 
upward  from  left  to  right  in  right  ear,  and  vice  versa  in  the 
left.  The  cupola,  or  apex,  is  directed  forward  and  outward. 
A  thin  wall  separates  the  cochlea  from  the  carotid  canal  in 
front.  Internally  it  is  in  contact  with  the  blind  end  of  the 
internal  auditory  canal.  It  projects  slightly,  as  the  promon- 
tory on  the  inner  wall  of  the  tympanum.  Its  axis,  spindle  or 
modiolus,  is  made  up  by  the  inner  walls  of  the  tube  and  a 
central  spongy  bone  substance ;  gradually  diminishes  in  size 
from  base  to  apex.  Diameter  at  base,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  ; 
at  apex,  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  ;  length,  one-sixth  of  an  inch. 
Base  rests  upon  the  bottom  of  the  internal  auditory  canal. 
The  apex  is  formed  by  the  inner  wall  of  the  last  half  whorl, 
ending  in  a  thin  section  of  funnel,  the  infundibulum.  The 
walls  of  the  cochlear  canal  are  lined  by  a  very  delicate  perios- 
teum. 

The  bony  cavities  of  the  vestibule  and  semi-circular  canals 
contain  membranous  sacs  which  correspond  in  shape  to  the 
osseous  chambers  in  which  they  are  enclosed. 

The  utricle  (Lat.,  utriculus,  a  little  leathern  bottle)  is  a 
flattened  elliptical  tube  resting  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  vesti- 
bule. The  outer  wall  is  free  and  is  separated  from  the  outer 
wall  of  the  vestibule  by  a  narrow  space  filled  with  endolymph. 

The  membranous  semi-circular  canals  are  of  the  same  shape 
as  the  body  canals,  and  open  into  the  utricle  by  five  openings, 
the  same  as  the  osseous  communicate  with  the  vestibule.  The 
membranous  fill  the  osseous  canals  at  the  openings,  but  in  other 
parts  considerable  space  exists  between  the  two,  which  is  filled 
by  connective  tissue,  vessels  and  fluid.  The  walls  of  the  utri- 
cle and  canals  are  very  thin  and  delicate. 

The  auditory  nerve,  or  portio  mollis  of  seventh  nerve, 
begins  by  two  roots  in  the  medulla  oblongata.  One  nucleus  of 
origin  is  in  floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle  ;  the  other  is  in  the 
crus  cerebelli  ad  medullma.  The  roots  are  in  communication 
with  the  gray  matter  of  the  cerebellum  and  border  of  calamus 
scriptorius.  The  nerve  winds  around  the  rest  iform  body,  from 
which  it  receives  filaments,  and  then  passes  forward  in  com- 
pany with  the  portio  dura,  or  facial  nerve,  to  the  posterior 
border  of  crus,  and  enters  the  internal  auditory  canal,  where 
some  fibres  connect  them  together.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
canal  the  auditory  nerve  divides  into  two  branches,  one 
passing  to  the  vestibule  and  the  other  to  the  cochlea.  The 
nerve,  like  the  optic,  is  one  of  special  sense,  receiving  and 
transmitting  the  impressions  of  the  waves  of  sound. 

Physiology. 
The  ear,  as  a  whole,  is  a  very  complicated  structure.  The 
sound-waves  are  collected  by  the  auricle,  reflected  into  the 
auditory  canal,  are  received  upon  the  membrana  tympani, 
which  is  thrown  into  corresponding  vibrations ;  these  are  car- 
ried by  the  chain  of  bones  across  the  tympanum  to  the  fluid  of 


the  labyrinth,  and  thence  to  the  auditory  nerves  and  through 
them  to  the  "brain,  where  they  are  recognized  as  sound.  The 
membrana  tympani,  by  the  aid  of  its  tensor  muscle,  can  be 
maintained  at  various  degrees  of  tension  adapting  it  to  differ- 
ent kinds  of  waves. 

The  atmospheric  pressure  within  the  cavity  of  the  tym- 
panum is  governed  by  its  communication  with  the  mastoid 
cells  and  pharynx.  The  elements  of  the  terminal  auditory 
apparatus  in  the  cochlea  are  supposed  to  be  tuned  to  vibrate 
in  harmony  with  all  the  different  notes  in  our  musical  scale. 
The  semi-circular  canals  are  thought  to  preside  over  the  equi- 
librium of  the  body,  and  to  be  concerned  little,  if  any,  in  the 
function  of  hearing.  There  are  still  a  number  of  points  in 
connection  with  the  physiology  of  audition  remaining  unsatis- 
factorily explained. 

Diseases  of  the  Ear  and  Their  Treatment. 

The  statements  made  in  the  article  on  the  eye  are  also  appli- 
cable to  the  ear.  The  apparatus  is  so  delicate  that  any  disturb- 
ance of  function  should  be  referred  to  a  skilled  specialist  for  cor- 
rection. Many  erroneous  ideas  still  exist  in  the  public  mind, 
which  seriously  interfere  with  the  work  of  the  aurist.  Theear  if 
regarded  by  some  as  so  "delicate  "  that  nothing  can  be  done  to 
alleviate  its  disorders,  and  cases  of  partial  deafness  are  allowed 
to  go  uncared-for  that  could  be  readily  cured. 

The  so-called  "  rising  "  in  the  ear,  followed  by  an  offensive 
discharge,  is  neglected  because  "  it  is  dangerous  to  meddle  with 
the  ear  "  or  stop  a  discharge  from  it.  Many  children  are  per- 
mitted to  go  in  this  manner  without  attention,  at  the  imminent 
peril  of  their  lives  and  with  a  serious  impairment  of  hearing. 
The  inflammation  which  causes  such  a  discharge  is  located  in 
the  tympanic  cavity,  and  is  very  liable  to  extend  into  the  mas- 
toid cells  and  the  cranial  cavity,  resulting  fatally.  No  possible 
harm  could  result  from  stopping  the  discharge,  and  no  time 
should  be  lost  in  endeavoring  to  check  it. 

Children  often  put  beans,  coffee  grains  and  other  small  sub- 
stances into  their  ears,  and  the  friends,  in  attempting  to  remove 
the  foreign  body,  push  it  further  into  the  canal.  No  instru- 
ment should  ever  be  used,  except  by  an  aurist,  to  remove  any- 
thing from  the  ear.  The  only  thing  that  can  be  safely  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  is  a  syringe. 

In  case  an  insect  gets  into  the  ear,  water  should  be  poured  in 
to  kill  it  or  cause  it  to  come  out.  If  this  should  fail  to  accom- 
plish the  desired  result,  a  physician  should  be  called. 

If  the  ear  itches  or  attracts  attention  in  any  way,  it  should 
be  examined  by  a  surgeon,  or  washed  out,  or  a  little  vaseline 
applied  on  a  pleget  of  cotton  ;  and  on  no  account  should  it  be 
picked  at  with  a  hairpin,  ear-spoon,  or  other  hard  instrument. 

One  of  the  most  common  forms  of  deafness  is  caused  by  an 
extension  of  inflammation  from  the  throat  to  the  ear  through 
the  eustachian  tube.  The  first  thing  noticed  by  the  person  is 
a  ringing  noise  in  the  ear  and  a  slight  impairment  of  hearing. 
ThWB  symptoms  may  come  on  so  gradually  as  not  to  attract 
attention  for  some  time.  The  disease  can  be  checked  in  the 
early  stages,  and  it  is  therefore  important  to  attend  to  it  as 
soon  as  noticed. 

Children  frequently  suffer  with  "  earache,"  and  as  the  attacks 
often  occur  in  the  night  when  it  is  inconvenient  to  call  medical 


4^ 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


669 


A 


aid,  every  family  should  know  how  to  render  prompt  relief.  The 
pain  is  usually  indicative  of  inflammation  in  the  middle  ear 
which  has  begun  in  the  pharynx  and  extended  to  the  ear.  Hot 
cloths  should  be  applied  to  the  throat  and  hot  water  poured  into 
the  ear.     The  water  should  be  used  as  hot  as  can  be  borne,  and 


if  it  fails  to  relieve,  a  small  quantity  (^  grain)  of  morphine, 
dissolved  in  a  few  drops  of  warm  water,  should  be  dropped  into 
the  ear  while  the  head  is  inclined  so  as  to  allow  it  to  run  in.  It 
is  not  advisable  to  use  oil  or  laudanum,  because  the  oil  may  clog 
up  the  canal,  and  the  alcohol  in  the  laudanum  will  irritate  it 


X-J%X-J%- 


-*FEYERS.*- 


Fever  is  that  morbid  condition  of  the  body  characterized  by 
increased  heat,  thirst,  loss  of  appetite,  dryness  of  skin,  acceler- 
ated pulse,  hurried  respiration,  muscular  weakness,  more  or 
less  pain  and  wakefulness,  and  general  functional  disturbance. 

Fever  may  be  symptomatic — as  when  it  is  the  result  of  in- 
flammation in  some  part  of  the  body — or  it  is  said  to  be  ideo- 
pathic,  or  essential,  when  it  is  not  the  result  of  some  other  ail- 
ment, but  of  some  specific  poison  which  has  entered  the  body, 
as  measles,  typhoid  fever,  small-pox,  etc. 

The  temperature  of  the  body  in  fever  will  range  from  99  to 
108  degrees.  This  is  told  by  the  use  of  a  thermometer  made 
for  this  purpose,  called  a  clinical  thermometer,  which  may 
be  placed  in  the  arm-pit  or  under  the  tongue,  and  allowed  to 
remain  there  for  about  three  minutes. 

The  temperature  may  run  higher  in  some  fevers  without 
alarm  than  in  others  :  105  degrees  is  a  high  fever  ;  106  degrees 
is  dangerous ;  108  degrees,  if  long  continued,  is  fatal.  For 
instance,  J04  degrees  in  typhoid  fever  is  a  high  temperature, 
while  it  is  comparatively  low  for  scarlet -fever. 

Heat  is  a  stimulus,  whether  it  originates  within  or  without 
the  body ;  hence  the  increased  action  of  the  heart. 

The  pulse  of  an  udult  in  health  ranges  from  70  to  80  beats 
per  minute.  In  fever  it  may  range  from  90  to  140  or  150.  A 
pulse  of  120  indicates  a  high  fever  ;  130,  if  long-continued,  is 
a  dangerous  symptom. 

In  a  normal  condition,  there  are  about  four  beats  of  the  pulse 
to  each  inspiration.  Hence,  the  respiration  in  all  fevers  is 
hurried  in  proportion  to  the  increased  pulse,  and  the  pulse  rate 
should  go  up  and  down  with  the  temperature.  It  is  a  bad  omen 
to  find  a  high  temperature  with  a  low  pulse,  and  vice  versa. 
Also,  it  is  a  bad  symptom  to  find  a  rapid  pulse  with  a  low 
breathing  rate. 

Pain  alone  may  produce  all  the  symptoms  of  fever,  and  upon 
the  removal  of  the  cause  of  pain  the  fever  will  subside.  The 
great  object  to  be  sought  in  the  treatment  of  fevers  is  the 
lowering  of  the  temperature,  which  can  be  accomplished  by  a 
free  use  of  cold  water.  If  not  advisable  to  use  the  pack — which 
consists  in  rolling  the  patient  in  a  sheet  lightly  wrung  out 
of  cold  water — frequent  sponge-baths  may  be  given  instead. 

The  higher  the  temperature,  or  body-heat,  the  greater  the 
evaporation.  The  water  of  the  body  is  carried  away  very 
rapidly.  Here  we  see  the  great  importance  of  free  use  of 
cold  water  as  a  drink,  which  not  only  replaces  the  water  lost, 


but  also  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  body.  Lowering  the 
temperature  lowers  the  pulse  in  force  and  frequency,  and 
also  diminishes  the  breathing  rate. 

The  heart's  action  may  be  controlled  by  the  use  of  the 
tincture  of  aconite  root  or  the  tincture  of  belladonna  in  noses 
of  about  five  drops ;  or  the  tincture  of  veratrum  viride  in 
doses  of  from  two  to  three  drops  every  three  or  four  hours. 
Some  prefer  smaller  doses  given  with  greater  frequency,  which 
can  and  must  be  done  when  the  stomach  is  at  all  irritable. 

If  there  is  much  nervousness,  the  aconite  should  be  given  ;  if 
pain,  belladonna  is  better  ;  if  at  all  desirable  to  produce 
nausea,  as  in  pneumonia,  veratrum  viride  may  be  given. 

In  all  fevers  there  is  more  or  less  increased  destruction  of 
tissue  ;  hence  the  importance  of  keeping  all  of  the  emmetories, 
the  bowels,  kidneys  and  skin,  active  or  open  to  carry  out  all 
this  increased  debris  of  the  system,  thus  keeping  the  blood 
pure. 

It  is  also  of  vital  importance  that  the  patient  should  have  an 
abundance  of  cool,  fresh  air,  and  sufficient  nourishment  to 
keep  up  the  strength  of  the  organs,  especially  the  heart. 

Fevers  are  generally  divided  into  three  classes  :  those  in 
which  the  febrile  condition  continues  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end,  called  continued  fevers  ;  those  which  come  and  go  with 
more  or  less  regularity,  called  periodical  fevers ;  and  those 
characterized  by  an  eruption  on  the  skin,  and  called  eruptive 
fevers. 

Typhoid  Fever. 

Typhoid  Fever  is  a  disease  caused  by  bad  sewerage,  the 
odor  from  old  privy  vaults,  or  drinking  water  contaminated 
with  human  excrement,  especially  from  typhoid-fever  patients. 
It  is  a  low  grade  of  fever,  which  attacks  a  person  but  once. 
It  comes  on  so  gradually  that  it  is  hard  to  say  when  the  disease 
began.  It  generally  runs  its  course  in  spite  of  treatment. 
Treatment  may  save  a  case  from  a  fatal  termination,  or  reduce 
its  duration  to  the  minimum,  which  is  three  weeks.  At  first 
the  patient  complains  of  fatigue,  loss  of  appetite,  mental  dul- 
ness  and  lack  of  interest  in  his  work.  There  may  be  diarrhoea. 
Pulse  ranges  from  90  to  no  per  minute  ;  temperature  from 
100  degrees  to  104  degrees.  The  skin  is  dry  and  of  a  bronze 
hue.  There  may  be  bleeding  from  the  nose.  The  tongue  will 
have  a  brown  coat,  which,  if  the  patient  is  not  given  an  abund- 
ance of  water,  will  become  very  dry.  The  lips  and  teeth  collect 
a  dark  brown  or  blackish,  gum-like  matter,  called  sordies.     In 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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the  second  week  the  patient  may  become  more  or  less  delirious, 
and,  if  not  closely  watched,  may  get  out  of  bed,  in  conse- 
quence of  delusions.  It  is  a  common  thing  for  the  patient  to 
imagine  himself  away  from  home.  Little  red  spots,  like  flea- 
bites,  may  make  their  appearance  upon  the  abdomen.  If  there 
has  been  diarrhoea,  the  abdomen  may  become  distended  with 
gas.  Hemorrhage  from  the  bowels  may  take  place.  During 
the  third  week  any  or  all  of  these  symptoms  may  become 
aggravated. 

If  the  patient  does  well,  at  the  end  of  the  third  week  he 
will  begin  to  improve,  the  tongue  will  clean,  the  skin  become 
moist  or  wet  with  perspiration,  and  the  mind  perhaps  become 
clear.  He  has  not  asked  for  anything,  but  now  he  may  express 
a  desire  for  food  or  drink. 

The  treatment  for  this  disease,  in  a  mild  case,  is  simply  good 
hygienic  surroundings  and  care.  On  account  of  the  low  mental 
condition,  he  may  not  be  conscious  of  his  wants.  Hence  he 
may  never  call  for  water  or  food.  m 

He  should  have  milk  and  other  nutritious  food  in  such  quan- 
tities as  he  can  digest,  at  short  but  regular  intervals. 

The  bowels  will  need  attention.  If  there  be  diarrhoea,  some 
mild  astringents  may  be  given,  as  fluid  extract  of  logwood. 
If  the  bowels  are  distended  by  gas,  spirits  of  turpentine  maybe 
given.  If  constipation  ensue,  some  mild  laxative,  as  castor-oil, 
syrup  or  tincture  of  rhubarb,  or  an  enema  of  tepid  water,  will 
relieve  the  symptoms.  The  temperature  and  circulation  can 
be  controlled,  as  laid  down  under  the  head  of  fevers  in  general. 

In  bad  cases  any  or  all  of  the  symptoms  may  be  aggravated, 
and  will  need  special  attention. 

Young  persons  are  more  likely  to  recover  than  persons 
advanced  in  life.  They  are  also  more  liable  to  contract  the 
disease. 

Typhus  Fever. 

Typhus  Fever  is  a  disease  arising  from  the  crowding  of 
human  beings  into  a  small  space,  as  in  emigrant  ships,  In  prisons 
and  in  the  poorer  quarters  in  large  cities.  Typhoid  fever  is 
produced  from  human  effete  matter  thrown  off  from  the  bowels. 
Typhus  is  liable  to  become  epidemic  after  famine  or  excessive 
privation  of  any  kind.  When  once  originated,  it  is  contagious 
in  densely  populated  districts  ;  thence  it  may  spread  to  cleaner 
and  more  healthy  parts  of  the  city. 

The  attack  is  more  sudden  and  its  duration  shorter,  and  the 
temperature  and  pulse  somewhat  higher  than  in  typhoid.  The 
eruption  on  the  skin  is  somewhat  like  measles.  Gangrenous 
spots  are  liable  to  appear,  and  may  assume  a  very  serious 
aspect.  The  tongue  becomes  contracted,  dry  and  black  ;  the 
bowels  are  constipated  ;  no  appetite  ;  delirium  is  present,  and 
is  followed  by  coma,  in  which  condition  the  patient  may  sink 
and  die,  or  gradually  pass  into  a  riore  natural  sleep,  from 
which  he  may  wake  convalescent. 

Treatment  similar  to  typhoid.     Personal  cleanliness;  perfect 
ventilation;  good,  easily-digested  food;  milk  in  its  various  forms; 
an  abundance  of  cold  water.    The  circulation  and  temperature 
are  to  be  controlled  as  directed  in  fevers  in  general 
Malarial  Fever — Ague. 

Intermittent  Fever  is  one  form  of  malarial  fever.  It 
has  cold,  hot  and  sweating  stages,  with  a  normal  interval  fol- 
lowing.    The  patient  may  go  through  these  stages  every  day, 


every  other  day,  or  every  third  day.  This  disease  is  caused  by 
decaying  vegetable  matter.  It  prevails  in  new  countries,  river 
bottoms,  districts  which  overflow,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of 
canals  or  mill-ponds.  It  may  prevail  in  houses  with  bad  cellars, 
or  where  the  sills  and  floors  are  in  a  state  of  decay.  It  does 
not  make  its  appearance  while  the  land  is  under  water,  but 
when  the  water  recedes  and  exposes  the  half-rotten  vegetable 
matter  to  the  sun.  Some  physicians  suppose  this  disease  to  be 
caused  by  a  microscopic  vegetable  germ  which  enters  the  sys- 
tem, contaminating  the  blood. 

Intermittent  fever  is  not  self-protecting  nor  self-limiting. 
Some  persons  are  never  free  from  it  while  they  reside  in  a 
malarial  district.  It  runs  an  indefinite  course  if  not  checked 
by  remedial  agents.  If  not  treated,  the  blood  of  the  patient 
becomes  impoverished,  the  lips  pale,  the  skin  sallow,  the  mus- 
cles weak  and  the  body  emaciated.  The  spleen  becomes  large, 
vulgarly  called  an  ague  take.  Some  persons  may  become  accli- 
mated, improve,  and  finally  get  well  without  medicine,  but  the 
majority  would  go  from  bad  to  worse  and  die,  or  become  so 
weak  as  to  have  no  physical  endurance  or  resistance,  and  would 
finally  succumb  to  some  other  disease  which  they,  in  the  de- 
praved state  of  the  system,  are  not  able  to  withstand.  The 
system  may  become  so  surcharged  with  the  poison  as  to  cause 
death  from  the  severity  of  the  chill  before  reaction  or  the  fever 
stage  comes  on.  This  is  what  is  called  a  "congestive  chill." 
Every  chill  is  in  reality  a  congestive  chill — that  is,  during  the 
chill  some  internal  organ  is  congested,  or  contains  an  abnormal 
amount  of  blood  ;  hence  the  variety  of  symptoms  during  this 
stage.  One  may  have  difficulty  of  breathing  because  of  con- 
gestion of  the  lungs ;  another  may  have  pain  in  the  head ; 
another,  in  the  stomach  or  heart. 

Instead  of  the  cold,  hot  and  sweating  stages,  the  patient  may 
have  severe  periodical  pains  along  the  course  of  a  nerve. 
This  constitutes  one  form  of  neuralgia.  At  another  time, 
or  another  patient,  instead  of  suffering  from  either  chills  or 
neuralgia,  may  have  a  periodical  diarrhoea,  or  there  may  be 
hemorrhage  from  some  part  of  the  mucous  membrane. 

Treatment. — The  night-air  contains  the  malarial  poison  in 
greater  abundance  than  that  of  the  day  ;  so  that  if  persons  must 
live  in  a  malarial  region,  they  can  lessen  the  liability  to  contract 
disease  by  being  in  the  house  before  sunset,  and  remaining 
there  until  after  sunrise  in  the  morning.  An  attack  may  be 
induced  in  some  persons  by  eating  anything  which  is  difficult  to 
digest.  It  becomes  thpse  who  are  susceptible  to  the  influence 
of  this  virus  to  look  well  to  their  food. 

Some  preparation  of  Peruvian  bark  enters  into  almost  every 
formula  for  the  cure  of  intermittent  fever.  Sulphate  of  cin- 
chona is  the  cheapest,  but  it  is  more  likely  to  disturb  the  stom- 
ach. Cinchonidia  is  cheaper  than  quinine,  and  is  like  it  in  ap- 
pearance. It  is  not  as  likely  to  disturb  the  stomach  as  the  sul- 
phate of  cinchona,  but  more  so  than  quinine.  Quinine  is  more 
used  because  it  is  less  irritating  to  the  stomach,  though  it  is  of 
a  higher  price.  Quinine  is  the  king  in  this  realm  of  remedies. 
If  the  interval  between  the  paroxysms  is  short,  we  must  give 
larger  doses,  and  closer  together.  When  the  paroxysms  are 
farther  apart,  we  can  give  smaller  doses — three  or  four  grains 
every  two  hours.  We  believe  we  shall  have  better  effect  from 
small    doses  close  together   than  by  giving  doses  of  five  or 


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ten  grains,  four  or  five  hours  apart.  We  need,  in  ordinary 
cases,  to  administer  from  twenty  to  thirty  grains  between  the 
paroxysms.  The  taste  of  quinine  can  be  disguised  by  putting 
it  in  cold  coffee  or  tea.  A  few  doses  of  bromo-hydric  acid 
will  prevent  the  disagreeable  effects  and  the  ringing  in  the  ears 
produced  by  quinine. 

Occasionally  we  meet  with  persons  who  cannot  take  quinine. 
We  can  use  salicine  in  the  same  doses  as  quinine,  or  a  little 
larger  doses  even. 

Arsenic  is  used  in  chronic  forms  of  the  disease,  and  may  be 
used  where  quinine  cannot  be  employed. 

Nux  vomica  or  strychnine  may  be  used  in  combination  with 
other  remedies. 

Remittent  Fever. 

Remittent  Fever  is  by  some  authors  treated  under  the 
head  of  intermittent  fever,  considering  it  simply  another  form 
of  the  same  disease.  Its  origin  appears  to  be  the  same  as  that 
of  ague,  but  the  disease  is  of  such  intensity,  and  the  stage  of 
febrile  excitement  lasts  so  long,  as  to  crowd  out  the  cold  and 
sweating  stages.  In  this  fever  the  hot  stage  is  severer  in 
intensity  as  well  as  longer  in  duration.  The  stomach  is  so 
disturbed  that  it  demands  the  major  part  of  our  attention. 
Vomiting  is  very  distressing  to  the  patient  and  annoying  to 
the  physician.  Bile  is  vomited,  and  thirst  is  very  great.  The 
skin  and  the  white  of  the  eye  become  yellow.  This  is  a  more 
serious  disease  than  the  intermittent  type.  The  bile  may  be 
absorbed  and  the  urea  not  thrown  off.  Both  contaminate  the 
blood.  The  patient  may  sink  into  a  low  typhoid  condition 
and  become  delirious.  This  condition  is  called  typho-malarial 
fever. 

In  treatment  the  stomach  first  demands  attention.  Aro- 
matic sulphuric  acid  may  be  given  in  five-drop  doses  in  water 
every  hour  or  two.  Or  ten  drops  of  dilute  muriatic  acid  and 
five  drops  of  the  tincture  of  aconite  root  in  water  every  two  or 
three  hours  may  be  given. 

To  control  the  vomiting  it  is  at  times  advisable  to  apply  a 
mustard  poultice  over  the  pit  of  the  stomach.  Lemons  are  also 
useful.  Either  let  the  patient  suck  the  juice  or  drink  a  little 
strong  lemonade.  After  we  have  controlled  the  stomach 
symptoms,  the  treatment  should  be  as  advised  in  intermittent 
fever. 

Yellow  Fever. 

Yellow  Fever  originates  in  hot,  low,  filthy  localities. 
Having  once  originated,  it  may  spread,  as  other  contagious 
diseases — may  be  carried  a  great  distance  in  clothing  or  goods. 
Exposure  and  dissipation  are  strong  predisposing  causes.  Non- 
acclimated  persons  are  more  liable  to  be  attacked  than  natives. 
It  is  more  fatal  among  the  white  population.  The  death-rate  is 
high.  Patients  recovered  from  this  fearful  disease  onjoy  immu- 
nity from  attacks  in  future.  The  attacks  generally  begin  rather 
suddenly.  The  temperature  ranges  from  101  to  107  degrees. 
The  symptoms  are  a  dry  skin,  rapid  pulse,  thirst,  frontal  head- 
ache, pain  in  the  back  and  calves  of  the  legs,  and  vomiting.  At 
first,  the  vomited  matters  consist  of  mucus  and  of  portions  of 
food.  There  is  a  cream-like  coat  upon  the  tongue,  and  tender- 
ness at  the  pit  of  the  stomach.  After  a  day  or  two  the  pains 
abate,  but  the  vomiting  is  likely  to  increase,  and  the  skin  becomes 
yellow.     About  the  fourth  day,  the  vomit  contains  blood,  hav- 


ing the  appearance  of  coffee-grounds,  and  known  as  "  the  black 
vomit. "  The  urine  and  stools  also  contain  blood.  The  tongue 
becomes  dry  and  black,  the  pulse  rapid  but  feeble.  Delirium 
and  coma  now  set  in. 

Death  or  convalescence  may  take  place  at  any  time.  Con- 
valescence may  take  place  so  early  in  the  disease  as  to  leave 
some  doubt  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  diagnosis,  and  death 
may  strike  the  patient  down  before  any  of  the  characteristic 
symptoms  are  established.  At  times  blood  is  found  not  only 
in  the  stools  and  urine,  but  the  eyes,  nose  and  mouth  may 
bleed  profusely,  thus  rendering  the  patient  the  most  pitiable 
object  imaginable. 

This  disease  demands  the  highest  hygienic  skill.  It  can  be 
perpetuated  by  the  virus  contained  in  exposed  clothing  or  fur- 
niture. Treatment  should  be  according  to  general  principles. 
Pain  and  vomiting  are  best  controlled  by  the  hypodermic  in- 
jection of  morphine.  Muriatic,  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid  and 
quinine  are  called  for. 

The  convalescence  is  generally  protracted.     The  yellowness 
of  the  skin  continues  for  a  long  time.     At  this  period  the  main 
thing  needed  is  good,  judicious  feeding  and  tonic  treatment. 
Rubeola — Measles. 

This  is  a  very  infectious  febrile  disease.  As  a  rule  it  is  ex- 
perienced but  once.  Children  are  more  frequently  attacked 
than  adults,  partly  because  most  adults  have,  as  children,  suffered 
from  an  attack,  and  thereafter  enjoy  immunity  from  the  disease. 
But  it  is  also  true  that  adults  unprotected  by  a  former  attack  are 
less  susceptible.  About  two  weeks  elapse  from  the  time  of 
exposure  to  the  development  of  the  disease.  The  first  symptoms 
are  those  of  a  cold.  The  patient  coughs  and  sneezes  ;  the  eyes 
are  suffused,  and  a  thin  mucus  flows  from  the  nose.  There  is  a 
pink  appearance  of  the  eye,  and  during  the  catarrhal  period 
there  is  a  slight  fever.  On  the  third  or  fourth  day  the  fever  is 
increased,  and  an  eruption  begins  to  make  its  appearance  at  the 
roots  of  the  hair  and  upon  the  forehead  and  temples.  The 
eruption  is  of  minute  red  spots  scarcely  raised  above  the  surface, 
and  smooth  to  the  touch.  In  small-pox  the  eruption  has  a  sandy 
or  gritty  feel.  The  first  attack  of  small-pox  is  somewhat  like 
remittent  fever — a  high  temperature  with  vomiting.  In  measles 
it  is  more  like  a  cold.  The  fever  rises  with  the  eruption.  In 
small-pox  it  falls.  Two  days  are  required  for  the  eruption  to 
become  general,  and  in  about  three  or  four  days  more  it  begins 
to  disappear  in  the  order  in  which  it  came.  Now  the  tempera- 
ture suddenly  falls  to  the  normal,  or  very  near  it.  The  temper- 
ature seldom  rises  above  104  degrees. 

At  times  the  lungs  become  involved  to  an  alarming  extent. 
The  cough  from  the  beginning  is  very  annoying,  and  it  is  liable 
to  continue  for  a  long  time  after  every  other  symptom  has  dis- 
appeared. The  eyes  become  inflamed  during  the  catarrhal 
period,  and  they  so  remain  long  after  the  patient  is  well  in 
every  other  respect.  At  times  the  eyelids  become  granulated. 
The  throat  symptoms  may  also  continue  for  some  time,  but 
never  become  a  serious  complication,  such  as  that  occasioned 
by  ~arlet  fever. 

Treatment. — In  this  disease,  great  care  against  exposure 
is  required.  More  Soldiers,  during  the  late  civil  war,  died  from 
measles  than  from  small-pox,  because  in  small-pox  less  harm 
is  occasioned  by  exposure.     All  the  windows  and  doors  may  not 


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PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


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be  permitted,  in  the  case  of  measles,  to  be  thrown  open,  unless 
it  be  summer  ;  but  from  experience  we  know  that  the  nurse  needs 
be  cautioned  more  against  keeping  the  room  too  warm,  against 
steaming,  sweating  and  stimulating  the  patient.  If  it  is  an  ordi- 
nary case,  nothing  is  required  beyond  securing  the  greatest 
amount  of  comfort.  Sometimes  the  eruption  is  very  tardy  in 
coming  out.  In  such  cases,  a  warm  bath  is  useful  in  bringing  out 
the  eruption.  Hot  drinks  may  also  be  given.  Such  cases  are 
exceptions,  however,  and  not  the  rule.  A  few  drops  of  aconite 
and  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  in  water,  may  lower  the  pulse  rate  and 
temperature,  but  are  generally  not  required.  Syrup  of  ipecacu- 
anha and  syrup  of  tolu  will  mitigate  the  cough.  The  bowels 
may  need  some  attention.  If  there  should  be  a  diarrhoea,  pare- 
goric may  be  added  to  the  cough  syrup.  If  constipation  exist, 
syrup  rhubarb  may  l>e  given. 

The  "  black  "  measles  is  not  another  disease,  but  a  malig- 
nant form  of  the  same,  the  eruption  being  attended  by  small 
hemorrhages  under  the  skin,  analogous  to  that  in  the  malig- 
nant form  of  small-pox.  This  condition  is  attended  with 
danger. 

Variola— Small-Pox. 

Smai.l-pox  is  a  highly  contagious,  sj)ecific  fever,  which  makes 
its  appearance  in  about  two  weeks  after  having  been  exposed  to 
the  contagious  influence.  One  attack  secures  the  patient  im- 
munity from  the  disease  in  future.  The  attack  begins  with  a 
very  high  fever  and  intense  backache.  The  pain  is  in  the  centre 
of  the  back,  and  is  not  relieved  or  altered  in  the  least  by  any 
change  of  position.  There  may  be  vomiting  as  in  remittent 
fever.  At  first  there  is  no  eruption,  nor  anything,  except  the 
peculiarity  of  the  pain  in  the  back,  which  would  lead  any  one  to 
suspect  the  true  nature  of  the  disease.  On  the  second  or  third 
day  the  eruption  makes  its  appearance  at  the  roots  of  the  hair 
on  the  forehead.  The  eruption  is  raised  above  the  surface,  and 
gives  to  the  touch  a  gritty  or  sandy  feeling.  If  this  is  looked  for 
diligently,  there  need  be  no  mistaking  small-pox  for  measles, 
since  the  eruption  of  measles  at  first  is  not  elevated,  but  is 
smooth,  while  that  of  small-pox  is  sharply  elevated.  This 
sharp,  papillary  eruption  develops  into  little  vesicles  or  blisters 
filled  with  a  watery  fluid.  About  the  seventh  day  these  little 
blisters  become  filled  with  pus,  hence  are  called  pustules.  A 
peculiarity  of  these  pustules  is  that  the  centre  is  depressed, 
forming  an  umbilicattd  pustule.  About  the  tenth  or  eleventh 
day  the  pustule  is  fully  developed,  and  dries  into  a  crust  by  the 
fourteenth  day.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  throat,  and 
sometimes  the  trachea,  is  also  effected  by  the  eruption.  The 
patient  coughs  and  ex|iectorates  a  very  tough  and  disagreeable 
mucus. 

On  the  appearance  of  the  eruption  the  fever  abates  and  the 
patient  feels  much  better,  while  in  scarlet  fever  the  temper- 
ature increases  with  the  eruption.  In  small-pox  the  reverse  is 
true.  About  the  eighth  or  ninth  day,  at  which  time  the  pustules 
are  developed,  the  fever  rises  again.  This  is  termed  the  second- 
ary f  ever,  and  is  the  most  dangerous  period  of  the  disease.  The 
patient  is  weaker  and  has  less  power  of  resistance. 

The  pustules  are  very  likely  to  destroy  the  true  skin  beneath 
them,  hence  the  pit,  so  commonly  seen  after  this  disease. 
Where  the  pustules  are  not  so  numerous,  but  6tand  alone,  the 
eruption  is  said  to  be  discrete.     When  they  are  so  numerous 


as  to  touch  each  other,  it  is  called  confluent.  Sometimes, 
instead  of  the  vesicle  filling  with  a  watery  material,  they  fill  with 
blood ;  hemorrhage  also  takes  place  from  the  various  parts  of 
the  mucous  membrane.  This  form  is  called  hemorrhagic  or 
malignant  small-pox. 

Treatment.  —  From  beginning  to  end  the  sufferer  needs  an 
abundance  of  cool,  fresh  air.  In  ordinary  weather  windows  and 
doors  should  be  open,  provided  the  wind  does  not  blow  directly 
upon  the  patient.  The  neighbors  need  not  object,  for  the  con- 
tagion of  small-pox  is  not  carried  through  the  air.  The  virus 
must  be  carried  from  the  sick  to  the  well,  and  whatever  can  be 
the  means  of  this  transfer  of  virus  (usually  in  clothing)  will 
communicate  the  disease,  and  it  cannot  be  communicated  in  any 
other  way.  An  abundance  of  bland  drinks  to  soothe  the  irritated 
throat — such  as  flax-seed  tea,  barley-water  and  milk.  Chlo- 
rate of  potassium  may  be  freely  used  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  temperature  must  be  treated  as  stated  under  the  head  of 
fevers  in  general. 

When  the  pustules  are  formed,  the  skin,  especially  of  the 
face  and  hands,  may  be  covered  with  olive  oil.  It  soothes  the 
itching  and  prevents  a  too  hard  crust  forming.  Some  cover  the 
face  with  mercurial  ointment  for  the  same  purpose,  to  prevent 
pitting.  If  stimulants  are  needed,  it  is  not  until  the  secondary 
fever  sets  in.  This  is  looked  upon  as  a  critical  period.  The 
patient  needs  to  be  well  fed.  If  the  throat  is  sore,  solid  food 
may  be  out  of  the  question. 

The  eyes  will  need  at  times  special  care.  The  room  may  have 
to  be  darkened.  A  solut  ion  may  be  made  of  sulphate  of  zinc, 
two  grains  to  an  ounce  of  distilled  water.  A  few  minims  of  this 
solution  may  be  dropped  into  the  eyes  two  or  three  times  a  day 
to  control  the  inflammation. 

Varioloid 
Is  a  modified  form  of  small-pox.  One  who  has  had  small-pox, 
or  has  been  vaccinated,  but  is  not  fully  protected,  if  exposed  to 
the  disease,  may  become  ill  with  all  the  symptoms  of  small-pox, 
but  in  a  modified  degree.  The  eruption  makes  its  appearance, 
there  being,  however,  but  few  pustules,  and  these  are  less  likely 
than  the  pustules  of  variola  to  leave  scars.  No  secondary  fever 
is  developed  in  varioloid.  Hut  little  treatment  is  needed,  and 
that  little  does  not  differ  from  that  of  small-pox. 

Vaccination— Cow- Pox. 

Cow-pox  is  contracted  from  small-pox  in  the  cow.  If  matter 
be  taken  from  the  pustule  of  a  small-pox  patient  and  introduced 
into  the  cow,  in  due  time  the  eruption  will  make  its  appearance 
upon  the  udder.  Pus  taken  from  a  pustule  on  the  udder  of 
the  cow  and  introduced  under  the  skin  of  a  human  being  will 
produce  the  disease  of  tine  or  cov>-poxt  which  is  believed  to  pro- 
tad  the  subject  against  an  attack  of  true  variola.  At  the  point 
where  the  virus  has  been  introduced,  a  vesicle  appears,  which  in 
a  day  or  two  develops  into  a  pustule.  This  pustule  is  depressed 
in  the  centre. 

The  course  is  precisely  the  same  as  in  small-pox,  only  that 
the  pustules  are  confined  to  the  one  point  where  the  virus  was 
introduced  into  the  system.  The  fever  is  insignificant  in  com- 
parison with  that  attending  small-pox.  Why  the  disease  should 
be  thus  modified  by  passing  through  the  cow,  we  do  not  know. 


N" 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


673 


^r 


But,  knowing  that  small-pox  protects  a  person  from  any  future 
attack,  and  knowing  that  cow-pox  is  small-pox,  we  can  readily 
understand  why  cow-pox  protects  against  small-pox. 

If  by  introducing  an  insignificant  disease  the  human  family 
can  be  protected  from  such  a  loathsome,  disfiguring,  devastating 
scourge  as  small-pox,  he  who  opposes  it  should  be  considered  a 
misanthrope,  and  should  be  treated  as  such  by  all  intelligent 
citizens. 

Vericella — Chicken-Pox. 

Chicken-pox  is  a  contagious  but  an  insignificant  disease, 
generally  confined  to  children.  The  fever  is  so  mild  as  to  need 
no  attention.  The  eruption  at  first  consists  of  pimples  with 
inflamed  bases,  which  develop  into  blisters,  or  vesicles,  as  large 
as  split  peas,  or  even  sometimes  as  large  as  copper  coins. 
These  become  filled  with  a  milky  fluid,  and  finally  break  and 
dry  up  into  crusts  or  scabs.  The  eruption  comes  out  in  suc- 
cessive crops,  so  that  in  a  well-marked  case  it  can  be  seen  in  its 
various  stages  at  the  same  time.  The  eruption  lasts  about  a 
week,  and  in  about  another  week  the  crusts  fall  off.  This 
disease,  like  the  other  eruptive  fevers,  protects  against  itself. 
No  treatment  beyond  good  nursing  is  required. 

Scarlatina — Scarlet  Fever. 

Scarlet  Fever  is  a  highly  infectious  malady,  attacking 
children  chiefly ;  not  because  the  child  is  any  more  susceptible 
to  its  influence,  but  because  the  older  children  and  adults  have  all 
had  the  disease  or  are  not  susceptible  to  it.  Why  some  should 
pass  through  several  epidemics  without  taking  it,  and  then  some 
time  in  after  life  should  contract  the  disease,  we  do  not  know. 

The  beginning  of  the  disease  is  generally  sudden.  A  child 
exposed  a  week  ago  has  been  in  perfect  health  until  now.  The 
attack  begins  with  a  high  temperature,  headache,  vomiting,  and 
sore  throat.  Young  children  may  have  convulsions  at  the 
very  beginning  of  the  attack.  Within  the  next  twenty-four 
hours  a  fine  red  rash  may  be  seen  over  the  chest.  Within  a  few 
hours  it  may  make  its  appearance  on  the  arms,  lower  part  of 
the  abdomen  and  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  thighs,  and  be- 
come ger  .-ml  within  the  next  twenty-four  hours.  It  will  take 
three  o  iour  days  to  fully  develop.  The  temperature  increases 
with  .e  rash.  It  may  rise  to  one  hundred  and  six  degrees  with- 
out much  alarm — even  one  hundred  and  seven  or  one  hundred 
and  eight— but  if  this  temperature  long  continues  we  may  look 
for  an  unfavorable  issue.  The  eruption  begins  to  fade  about  the 
fifth  or  sixth  day,  and  the  temperature  and  pulse  should  fall 
as  the  eruption  fades.  We  may  expect  the  rash  to  disappear 
about  the  tenth  day  of  the  disease. 

This  disease  may  be  so  mild  as  to  demand  no  attention,  there 
being  nothing  but  a  red  rash  and  very  little  fever.  At  another 
time  the  throat  symptoms  are  the  only  ones  of  gravity.  The 
throat  trouble  may  be  of  secondary  consideration,  or  the  swell- 
ing may  threaten  suffocation.  Ulceration  of  the  throat  may 
become  serious.  This  form  has  been  called  malignant  or 
putrid  sore  throat. 

Treatment. — The  patient  should  be  removed  from  all  unpro- 
tected persons.  Cold  water  may  be  used  to  sponge  the  patient. 
We  must  keep  down  the  temperature  to  the  lowest  point. 
Aconite  and  belladonna  may  be  used  to  lower  the  temperature. 
Chlorate  of  potash  for  the  throat  (not  only  as  a  gargle,  but  we 


may  administer  from  forty  to  sixty  grains  in  twenty-four  hours). 
The  room  should  be  cool  and  well  ventilated.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  carbolic  acid  may  be  put  into  the  water  used  in  bathing. 

When  the  skin  begins  to  scale  off,  it  will  be  well  to  anoint  the 
patient  with  vaseline  containing  five  per  cent  of  carbolic  acid. 
The  kidneys  will  need  attention,  as  well  as  the  ears.  It  is  not 
uncommon  for  a  child  to  get  well  of  this  fever  and  die  of  dropsy. 
Many  deaf  persons  owe  their  misfortune  to  the  sequels  of  scarlet 
fever.  Patients  convalescing  from  this  disease  need  as  much  if 
not  more  care  than  during  the  higher  stages  of  the  fever.  A  cold 
may  produce  irreparable  mischief. 

Diphtheria. 

Diphtheria  is  a  contagious  febrile  disease,  during  which  an 
ash-colored  false  membrane  forms,  generally  in  the  throat.  It 
may  form  in  the  nose,  in  the  larynx  or  trachea.  The  first  symp- 
tom is  usually  a  chill,  followed  by  high  temperature  (105  or  106 
degrees  Fahrenheit),  and  more  or  less  swelling  of  the  parts  in- 
volved, threatening  death  by  suffocation  or  inability  to  swallow. 
There  is  a  peculiar  odor  of  the  breath  of  the  patient.  The 
disease  may  be  communicated  by  the  matter  coughed  up  ;  hence 
the  necessity  of  especial  care.  Handkerchiefs  and  towels  used 
by  the  sick  of  this  disease  should  be  properly  taken  care  of.  It 
is  better  to  use  old  cloths  and  bum  them. 

This  is  a  disease  of  all  countries,  persons,  ages,  sexes  and 
conditions,  but  children  are  more  liable  to  be  attacked,  and  it  is 
more  fatal  with  them.     The  mortuary  rate  is  high. 

This  disease,  in  a  particular  case,  may  be  so  mild  as  not  to 
occasion  inconvenience  to  any  extent  beyond  a  little  sore  throat. 
It  may  be  so  severe  and  the  swelling  so  great  as  to  threaten 
death  by  shock  or  by  suffocation  in  a  few  hours. 

The  sequels  may  be  serious ;  by  attacking  the  kidneys,  and 
interfering  with  the  proper  evacuation  of  urea,  the  patient  may 
die  of  uremic  poisoning.  The  throat  may  become  paralyzed, 
so  that  the  patient  cannot  swallow,  the  paralysis  extending  to 
the  organs  of  speech.  It  may  extend  also  to  the  limbs.  The 
patient,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  recovers  from  the  paralysis 
within  four  months,  if  he  survives  the  acute  stages  of  the  disease. 
Diphtheria  is  not  to  be  treated  wholly  as  a  local  disease.  The 
tendency  is  to  loss  of  strength  and  death  from  exhaustion  ; 
hence  tonics  should  be  administered  from  the  beginning.  Qui- 
nine is  well  borne.  Two  grains  every  hour  or  two  may  be 
given,  or  tincture  of  iron  in  doses  of  ten  drops  every  two  or  three 
hours  in  a  tablespoonful  of  water.  It  will  be  well  to  have  the 
patient  drink  this  slowly  so  that  it  may  have  a  local  effect  upon 
the  throat.  If  the  throat  is  badly  swollen  a  gargle  of  tincture 
of  iron  and  water  may  be  used  every  three  or  four  hours.  In  all 
cases  of  diphtheria  a  physician  should  see  the  patient  daily. 

Rheumatism. 

Rheumatism  is  a  constitutional  disease,  characterized  by 
certain  local  manifestations.  These  manifestations  are  due  to 
inflammation,  acute  or  chronic,  of  the  synovial  membrane 
lining  th,e  joints,  of  certain  serous  membranes,  particularly 
those  of  the  heart,  and  of  fibrous  tissue  elsewhere  in  the 
body.  Rheumatism  is  classified  as  acute  articular  rheuma- 
tism and  chronic  rheumatism. 

In  Acute  Articular  Rheumatism  the  lining  membranes 
of  the  joints  are  inflamed.     In  the  course  of  the  disease  cer- 


'vf« 


K" 


674 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


"7f 


tain  complications  involving  internal  organs  are  liable  to  arise. 
The  parts  more  likely  to  become  affected  are  the  serous  mem- 
branes, the  endocardium  and  pericardium  lining  and  surround- 
ing the  heart. 

The  attack  usually  begins  suddenly.  Sometimes  there  is  a 
slight  amount  of  fever  for  a  day  or  two  preceding  the  joint 
affection ;  sometimes  the  pain  and  tenderness  of  the  joints 
precede  the  fever,  but  usually  these  symptoms  appear  together. 
The  disease  may  attack  any  joint  of  the  body,  and  is  indeed 
very  seldom  confined  to  one  or  two.  The  affected  joints  are 
swollen,  red  and  extremely  tender.  Pain  is  not  so  great  except 
when  attempting  t~>  move,  or  when  disturbed  or  jarred.  The 
slightest  movement  causes  the  most  excruciating  pain.  Swell- 
ing is  most  apparent  when  the  knees,  ankles  or  wrists  are  the 
joints  involved.  The  swelling  is  usually  in  proportion  to  the 
severity  of  the  inflammation.  One  joint  after  another  gen- 
erally becomes  involve  i.  Sometimes  upon  attacking  a  new 
joint  all  tenderness  ana  swelling  disappear  from  the  joints  first 
involved.  The  fever  ranges  in  this  disease  between  102  and 
108  degrees.     Profuse  sweating  is  a  common  symptom. 

The  disease  very  rarely  proves  fatal.  When  it  does  it  is  due 
to  the  extension  of  the  inflammation  to  the  heart,  and  the 
development  of  pericarditis.  Even  then  the  number  of  deaths 
during  the  acute  attack  is  very  small,  but  in  the  fact  that  the 
heart  is  so  frequently  attacked  lies  the  danger  of  the  disease,  for, 
as  explained  under  the  head  of  diseases  of  the  heart,  the  great 
majority  of  valvular  diseases  of  the  heart  are  due  to  endocarditis 
developed  during  an  attack  of  acute  rheumatism.  Usually, 
however,  the  lesion  of  the  valves  causes  no  inconvenience  until 
a  number  of  years  afterward.  The  heart  is  more  likely  to 
become  involved,  the  more  intense  the  disease.  Other  organs, 
such  as  the  pleura,  the  peritoneum  and  the  membranes  envel- 
oping the  brain,  have  been  known  to  suffer  inflammation  during 
the  attack,  but  it  is  extremely  rare.    The  head  is  usually  free 


from  pain.  The  duration  of  the  attack  varies  from  ten  days  to 
five  or  six  weeks.  There  are  sometimes  relapses.  One  who 
has  once  suffered  from  acute  rheumatism  is  more  liable  to  sub- 
sequent attacks. 

Treatment. —  Notwithstanding  the  popularity  of  salicylic 
acid,  or  the  salicylate  of  soda,  in  the  treatment  of  rheumatism 
during  the  last  few  years,  we  believe  that  as  much  or  more  may 
be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  what  has  been  known  as  the 
alkaline  treatment.  The  alkali,  either  bicarbonate  of  potass* 
or  soda,  should  be  given  in  full  doses,  every  three  or  four 
hours.  Lemon  juice  may  be  added  to  the  dose  and  taken  while 
effervescing.  As  soon  as  the  urine  is  rendered  alkaline  (which 
may  be  told  by  testing  with  red  litmus  paper,  which  turns  to 
blue  if  dipped  into  an  alkaline  fluid),  the  dose  should  be  greatly 
diminished,  and  taken  thereafter  only  once  or  twice  a  day. 
Tonics  are  useful.  Quinine  in  two-grain  doses  may  be  given. 
Tincture  of  aconite  applied  to  the  swollen  joints  often  affords 
relief.  Chloroform  liniment  or  soap  liniment  is  also  used  for 
this  purpose.  The  salicylate  of  soda  is  much  employed — per- 
haps at  this  time  more  than  any  other  remedy. 

Chronic  Rheumatism  differs  from  the  acute  variety  in 
the  degree  of  severity  of  the  symptoms,  and  in  their  duration. 
In  mild  cases  the  patients  are  able  to  go  about  their  work,  but 
suffer  more  or  less  pain  in  the  affected  joints.  In  other  cases, 
more  severe,  the  patient  is  confined  to  his  bed,  and  frequently, 
with  those  about  their  avocations,  there  is  more  or  less  deform- 
ity of  the  joints. 

Treatment. — The  alkalies  may  be  used  in  small  doses  ;  also 
the  salicylate  of  soda.  Iodide  of  potassium  is  sometimes  very 
useful,  and  in  malarious  districts  quinine  is  to  be  employed. 

The  local  applications  to  the  joints  here  are  of  more  impor- 
tance than  in  the  acute  variety.  Tincture  of  aconite,  tincture  of 
iodine  and  chloroform  liniment  are  very  useful. 


1^ 


Al 


-*  EMERGENCIES.**- 


Hemorrhage. 
A  rapid  loss  of  blood  is  one  of  the  most  alarming  experi- 
ences in  life.  Nothing  is  more  startling  than  the  hemorrhage 
from  a  large  vessel,  in  the  case  of  wounds  made  with  a  sharp 
instrument.  If  the  wound  is  of  one  of  the  limbs,  the  bleeding 
may  be  easily  controlled  until  a  surgeon  can  arrive.  If  the 
blood  is  of  a  bright-red  color,  and  flows  in  spurts  with  the  pulse, 
the  wounded  vessel  is  an  artery,  and  the  blood  comes  directly 
from  the  heart.  The  artery  must  be  compressed  above  the 
wound.     The  best  way  to  do  this,  in  case  of  the  arm,  is  to  tie  a 


Fig.  39.    Bandage  Applied  on  Arm  to  Stop  Bleeding. 

The  dotted  line  indicates  the  course  of  the  artery. 

hard  knot  in  a  handkerchief ;  then  pass  the  ends  around  the  arm 
and  tie  firmly,  having  placed  the  knot  over  the  course  of  the 
artery ;  then  insert  a  small  stick,  and  tighten  the  bandage  by 
twisting,  as  shown  in  Fig.  39.  If  the  wound  be  of  the  leg, 
apply  the  knotted  handkerchief  as  shown  in  Fig.  40.  The 
bandage  thus  made  is  correctly  applied  if  the  bleeding  ceases. 
Otherwise  the  position  of  the  knot  must  be  changed  until  the 
bleeding  vessel  is  successfully  compressed. 

If  the  wound  is  of  the  trunk,  or  if  the  bleeding  is  not  severe, 
the  edges  should  be  brought  closely  together  with  adhesive  plas- 
ter, or  with  a  common  needle  and  thread,  and  the  wound  filled 
with  cobwebs,  or  any  substance  favoring  coagulation  of  the 
blood.  The  patient  should  be  laid  down  and  kept  perfectly 
quiet. 

Bleeding  from  the  Nose  is  caused  by  the  rupture  of  a 
small  vessel  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane.  Generally,  the 
loss  of  blood  is  not  great,  and  soon  ceases  without  treatment. 
Occasionally  the  hemorrhage  is  so  profuse  as  to  greatly  weaken 
the  patient,  and  even  endanger  life.  Cold  applied  to  the  back 
of  the  neck,  by  means  of  a  piece  of  ice  or  iron,  is  useful. 
Plugging  the  nostrils  is  sometimes  of  benefit,  but  in  severe  cases 
the  blood  will  then  flow  backward  into  the  throat.  In  the  most 
severe  cases  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  plug  also  the  opening 


of  the  nose  into  the  throat.  This  last  measure  is  always  success- 
ful,  but  a  physician  should  be  called  to  do  the  operation,  as 
a  person  without  experience  would  be  apt  to  fail. 

Bleeding  from  the  Lungs. — A  small  amount  of  blood 
sometimes  takes  place  into  the  bronchial  tubes,  giving  rise  to 
"spitting  of  blood."  With  this  variety  there  in  no  immediate 
danger  from  loss  of  blood.  Sometimes,  however,  in  cases  of 
consumption,  rupture  of  vessels  of  considerable  size  takes  place, 
causing  a  copious  hemorrhage.  This  is  sometimes  so  severe  as 
to  cause  death.  The  patient  should  be  put  to  bed  at  once  and 
required  to  lie  quietly  upon  his  back.  Twenty  drops 
of  laudanum  may  be  given  every  two  hours.  Also  ace- 
tate of  lead  or  tannic  acid.  A  lemon  may  be  sucked, 
and  in  some  instances  has  a  most  excellent  effect.  A 
large  spoonful  of  common  salt,  dissolved  and  taken 
into  the  stomac'i,  is  said  to  be  very  useful  in  control* 
ling  the  hemorrhage.  The  patient  should  be  kept  quiet 
for  several  days. 

Accidents. 

BRUISES,    SPRAINS,   DISLOCATIONS   AND   FRACTURES. 

A  Bruise  should  be  dressed  with  a  cold  water  band- 
age and  kept  wet.     Perfect  rest  should  be  given  the 


Fig.  40. 


Bandage  Applied   on  Thigh  so  as  to  Stop  Bleed- 
ing from  a  Wound   Below. 


The  black  line  indicates  the  course  of  the  artery. 

part.  In  case  of  a  bruise  about  the  face  or  eyes,  much  of  the 
discoloration  may  be  prevented  by  at  once  applying  a  cold  water 
dressing,  or  ice,  which  is  better. 


-M 


676 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


~7\ 


A  SPRAIN,  whether  it  is  of  the  ankle,  or  knee,  or  wrist, 
should  at  once  be  tightly  and  thoroughly  bandaged,  and  perfect 
rest  should  be  given  the  part.  A  speedy  recovery  by  this  means 
will  usually  result,  when  any  other  course  may  make  a  cripple. 
In  bandaging  the  knee  or  ankle  the  bandage  must  be  applied 
down  to  the  toes,  to  prevent  swelling  and  stoppage-of  the  cir- 
culation. 

In  case  of  either  Fractures  or  Dislocations  the  patient 
should  not  be  allowed  to  make  an  effort,  lest  he  may  do  himself 
additional  injury.  A  great  many  times,  by  attempting  to  walk 
with  a  broken  leg,  patients  have  thrust  the  end  of  the  fractured 
bone  out  through  the  flesh,  thus  greatly  increasing  the  danger 
of  a  serioms  result.  The  injured  member  should  be  straightened 
out,  and  the  patient  placed  in  the  most  comfortable  position  to 
await  the  coming  of  the  surgeon. 

Bites  and   Stings. 

Bite  of  a  Mad  Dog. — The  wound  is  to  be  immediately 
sucked  either  by  the  patient  or  another  person.  No  harm  can 
result  if  there  are  no  abrasions  or  scratches  upon  the  lips,  and  it 
is  a  very  ready  and  effective  way  of  removing  the  poison  from 
the  wound.  Send  at  once  for  a  medical  man  to  cut  or  cauter- 
ize the  wound.  If  none  can  be  had  within  a  few  minutes,  any 
person  can  cauterize  the  wound  with  lunar  caustic,  or,  if  none 
be  at  hand,  the  wound  may  be  burned  to  the  bottom  by  a  small 
red-hot  iron.  The  bite  of  a  dog  not  mad  is  usually  very  pain- 
ful, and  is  attended  with  considerable  inflammation  and  swell- 
ing. Cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water  may  be  applied.  Later, 
a  flax-seed  poultice,  with  a  half-teaspoonful  of  laudanum 
sprinkled  upon  it,  should  be  applied. 

Bite  of  a  Venomous  Serpent  should  be  treated  in  the 
same  way  as  the  bite  of  a  mad  dog.  Brandy  or  whisky  should 
be  given  in  considerable  quantity. 

Stings  of  Wasps  and  Bees  may  be  treated  by  bathing 
the  parts  with  ammonia  or  hartshorn,  diluted  with  an  equal 
amount  of  water.  In  case  of  the  honey-bee  sting,  if  there  is 
much  swelling,  a  poultice  of  flaxseed  should  be  applied. 

Burns,  Scalds  and  Frost-Bites. 

In  case  of  Burns  or  Scalds  the  parts  should  be  protected  from 
the  air  at  once.  If  a  quantity  of  white  oil-paint  is  at  hand, 
cover  the  burn  at  once  by  applying  gently  a  very  thick  coat 
of  the  paint.  In  a  little  while  another  coat  is  to  be  given.  If 
no  paint  is  to  be  had,  apply  olive  oil  and  cover  with  flour.  If 
no  sweet  oil  is  to  be  had,  lard  will  do..  If  no  oil  of  any  sort  is 
to  be  had,  then  cover  the  part  with  dry  flour.  The  patient 
should  be  given  a  full  dose  of  laudanum  or  paregoric,  or  opium 
or  morphine.  If  the  burn  has  been  very  extensive,  a  physician 
should  now  be  sent  for. 

Incase  of  Frost-Bite,  the  circulation  must  be  slowly  restored; 
hance  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  bring  the  patient  into  a 
warm  room.  The  frozen  part  may  be  rubbed  with  snow  in 
a  cold  room,  or  immersed  in  very  cold  water,  and  kept  there 
for  two  or  three  hours,  until  the  circulation  has  been  fully 
restored. 

Suffocation. 

Suffocation  takes  place  whenever  the  air  is  shut  out  of  the 
lungs ;  this  may  lie  done  by  compressing  the  windpipe,  as  in 
choking  or  hanging;  or  filling  the  lungs  with  water,   as  in 


drowning  ;  or  with  poisonous  gases,  as  charcoal  gas  from  burn- 
ing charcoal,  or  by  the  escape  of  illuminating  gas  into  the 
sleeping-room ;  or  by  the  poisonous  gas  in  mines  and  old 
wells. 

In  case  of  strangulation,  as  by  hanging,  the  pressure  upon  the 
windpipe  is  to  be  instantly  removed,  and  the  bands  about  the 
neck  and  body  loosened.  In  the  case  of  inhalation  of  a  poisonous 
gas  the  patient  is  to  be  at  once  removed  into  the  open  air  ;  while 
the  drowning  person  is,  of  course,  to  be  removed  at  once  from 
the  water,  and  movements  made  for  emptying  the  water  out  of 
the  lungs.  The  wet  clothes  should  be  stripped  off  and  the 
body  wrapped  in  a  warm  shawl,  blanket  or  dry  coat  ;  no  time 
should  be  lost  in  changing  the  clothing,  but  efforts  at  artificial 
respiration  should  be  made  at  once,  and  the  clothing  can  be 
gotten  off  while  these  efforts  are  in  progress.  Artificial  respir- 
ation should  be  employed  in  all  cases,  whether  of  hanging, 
drowning,  or  suffocation  by  a  poisonous  gas.  The  following 
method  of  Marshall  Hall  is  as  good  as  any  other : 

1.  Treat  the  patient  instantly  on  the  spot,  in  the  open  air, 
freely  exposing  the  face,  neck  and  chest  to  the  breeze,  except  in 
severe  weather 

2.  In  order  to  clear  the  throat,  place  the  patient  gently  on  the 
face,  with  one  wrist  under  the  forehead,  that  all  fluid,  and  the 
tongue  itself,  may  fall  forward,  and  leave  the  entrance  into  the 
wind-pipe  free. 

3.  To  excite  respiration,  turn  the  patient  slightly  on  his  side, 
and  apply  some  irritating  or  stimulating  agent  to  the  nostrils,  as 
vetratrine,  dilute  ammonia,  etc 

4.  Make  the  face  warm  by  brisk  friction ;  then  dash  cold 
water  upon  it. 

5.  If  not  successful,  lose  no  time ;  but,  to  imitate  respira- 
tion, place  the  patient  on  his  face,  and  turn  the  body  gently, 
but  completely,  on  the  side,  and  a  little  beyond  ;  then  again  on 
the  face,  and  so  on,  alternately.  Repeat  these  movements 
deliberately  and  perseveringly,  fifteen  times  only  in  a  minute. 
(When  the  patient  lies  on  the  thorax,  this  cavity  is  compressed 
by  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  expiration  takes  place.  When 
he  is  turned  on  the  side,  this  pressure  is  removed,  and  inspira- 
tion occurs.) 

6.  When  the  prone  position  is  resumed,  make  a  uniform  and 
efficient  pressure  along  the  spine,  removing  the  pressure  immedi- 
ately, before  rotation  on  the  side.  (The  pressure  augments  the 
expiration;  the  rotation  commences  inspiration.)  Continue 
these  measures. 

7.  Rub  the  limbs  upward,  with  firm  pressure  and  with 
energy.  (The  object  being  to  aid  the  return  of  venous  blood 
to  the  heart.) 

8.  Substitute  for  the  patient's  wet  clothing,  if  possible, 
such  other  covering  as  can  be  instantly  procured,  each  bystander 
supplying  a  coat  or  cloak,  etc.  Meantime,  and  from  time  to 
time,  to  excite  inspiration,  let  the  surface  of  the  body  be 
slapped  briskly  with  the  hand. 

0.  Rub  the  body  briskly  till  it  is  dry  and  warm,  then  dash 
cold  water  upon  it,  and  repeat  the  rubbing. 

Avoid  the  immediate  removal  of  the  patient,  as  it  involves  a 
dangerous  loss  of  time  ;  also,  the  use  of  bellows,  or  any  forc- 
ing instrument  ;  also,  the  warm  bath,  and  all  rough  treatment. 


K= 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


677 


"7f 


Poisoning. 

In  cases  of  poisoning  something  must  be  done  at  once,  before 
a  physician  can  have  time  to  reach  the  patient.  The  first  effort 
should  be  to  get  the  poison  out  of  the  stomach.  This  can  be 
done  by  inducing  vomiting.  This  should  be  done  in  every 
case,  no  matter  what  poison  has  been  swallowed. 

Endeavor  to  wash  out  the  stomach  in  the  following  manner  : 
a  tablespoonful  of  common  dry  mustard  is  to  be  added  to  about 
two  quarts  of  warm  water;  stir  well  and  give  to  the  patient  by 
the  tumblerful  until  he  vomits  freely.  In  some  cases,  half  the 
mixture  will  be  required  before  vomiting  is  induced.  If  no 
mustard  is  at  hand,  then  use  the  warm  water  alone. 

The  patient  should  be  undressed  and  put  to  bed.  If  the  skin 
becomes  cold  and  the  breathing  rapid,  stimulants  are  required, 
such  as  bottles  of  hot  water  placed  at  the  feet  and  in  contact 
with  the  body,  always  taking  care  not  to  burn  the  skin. 

In  the  case  of  known  opium  or  morphine  poisoning,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  above  the  victim  should  be  walked  rapidly  by  a 
strong  person  on  either  side. 

Acids  (Oxalic,  Sulphuric,  Nitric). — Give  large  draughts  of 
cooking  soda  in  water,  then  wash  out  the  stomach  as  directed 
in  general  rules. 

Carbolic  Acid  kills  very  rapidly.  Pour  oil  into  the  victim's 
mouth  freely.  Apply  friction  to  the  surface.  Inject  diluted 
whisky  into  the  bowels.  Children  have  been  seriously  poisoned 
by  carbolic  acid  injected  into  the  bowels  to  destroy  pin  worms. 
In  such  cases  empty  the  bowels  completely  by  warm  soap  suds 
injected  into  the  bowels,  and  stimulate  the  victim  by  whisky 
and  water  in  the  stomach. 

Aconite. — Wash  out  the  stomach.  Rub  the  entire  surface  of 
the  body  with  a  coarse  towel.  Inject  a  tablespoonful  of  whisky 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  water  into  the  bowels. 

Antimony  (Hive  Syrup). — A  draught  of  sweet  oil  or  milk, 
followed  by  washing  out  the  stomach.  Give  diluted  whisky  by 
the  mouth  and  inject  it  into  the  bowels. 

Arsenic  (Fowler's  Solution).— Draughts  of  milk  or  starch, 
followed  by  washing  out  the  stomach.  Stimulants  injected  into 
the  bowels. 

Alkalies  (Potash,  Ammonia). — Pour  sweet  oil  or  milk  into 
the  mouth  freely;  afterward  wash  out  the  stomach. 


Belladonna. — Wash  out  the  stomach.  Apply  friction  to  the 
surface.     Stimulate  with  whisky. 

Chloral. — Empty  the  stomach.  Artificial  heat  to  the  sur- 
face.    Stimulants  by  injection. 

Chloroform. — If  taken  into  the  stomach,  wash  it  out.  If 
respiration  threatens  to  cease,  use  artificial  respiration  and  ap- 
ply heat  and  friction  to  the  surface.  If  inhaled,  the  victim 
should  be  placed  head  down  while  efforts  are  being  made  to 
maintain  respiration  artificially.  Keep  the  body  warm.  All 
persons  should  make  themselves  familiar  with  methods  of  in- 
ducing artificial  respiration,  and  remember  to  employ  them  with 
steady  persistency  in  cases  of  drowning. 

Mercury  (Corrosive  Sublimate). — White  of  eggs,  or,  if  not 
at  hand,  give  milk  freely.     Wash  out  the  stomach  afterward. 

Opium  (Morphine). — The  greatest  difficulty  will  be  experi- 
enced in  emptying  the  stomach,  which  may  be  facilitated  by 
tickling  the  front  portions  of  the  throat  with  a  feather.  Com- 
pel the  patient  to  walk  rapidly  if  possible.  If  not,  use  the  most 
vigorous  friction  to  the  surface  without  ceasing.  If  necessary, 
severe  pain  should  be  produced  by  sharply  pinching  the  thumb 
nail  until  the  patient  responds.  Hot  black  coffee.  Artificial 
respiration.  Children  are  frequently  killed  by  soothing  syrups. 
These  should  never  be  given  except  by  medical  advice. 

Fainting. 
The  cause  of  Fainting  is  lack  of  blood  in  the  brain ; 
hence,  the  patient,  in  case  of  a  faint,  should  be  placed  in  a  posi- 
tion favoring  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  brain.  The  patient  should 
be  laid  at  once  flat  down  upon  a  bed,  a  sofa,  or  the  floor,  with- 
out any  pillow  under  the  head  ;  then  cold  water  can  be  dashed 
in  the  face,  which  will  have  the  desired  effect. 

Sunstroke. 

In  case  of  Sunstroke,  unfasten  and  remove  all  excess  of  cloth- 
ing and  dash  pails  of  cold  water  over  the  head  and  chest  of  the 
patient.  As  soon  as  ice  can  be  procured  make  an  ice-cap  of 
towels,  and  cover  the  head  with  ice  broken  in  small  pieces. 
This  treatment  of  cold  to  the  head  is  to  be  kept  up  for  many 
hours,  or  even  for  days  in  some  cases.  A  physician  should  be 
called  as  soon  as  possible,  but  treatment  should  go  vigorously 
forward  until  his  arrival. 


-r*r- 


•ttor 


/ 


AV 


678 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  MEDICINE. 


-i»POSOLOGICAL  TABLE, 


MEDICINES,  WITH   DOSES  FOR  ADULTS. 


V 


For  patients  over  20  years  of  age,  the  full  dose  ;  from  14  to  20  years,  %  of  full  dose ;  7  to  14  years,  %  dose ;  4  to  7  years,  # 

dose  ;  3  years,  £  dose  ;  2  years,  y„  dose  ;  1  year,  r^  dose. 

Mwllclne.  Doge. 

Arsenic,  Fowler's  Solution  of 2  to  10  drops. 

Aconite,  Extract  of. ito  j4  grain. 

Aconite,  Tincture  of I  to  5  drops. 

Aloes,  Purified I  to  5  grains. 

"       Pills  of 1  to  4  pills. 

"       Pills  of  Asafcetida  and. 1  to  4  pills. 

Asafcetida,  Mixture  of .'/£  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

"  Tincture  of %  to  2  teaspoonfuls. 

"  Pills  of. 1  to  4  pills. 

Atropia,  Sulphate  of t4o  to  fa  of  a  grain. 

Belladonna,  Extract  of. %  to  1  grain. 

"  Fluid  Extract  of I  to  5  drops. 

"  Tincture  of 5  to  30  drops. 

Bismuth,  Subnitrate  of 10  to  30  grains. 

Bromide  of  Ammonia 5  '°  2°  grains. 

"         of  Potassium 5  to  20  grains. 

"  of  Sodium 5  to  20  grains. 

Buchu,  Fluid  Extract  of 10  to  60  drops. 

Calibar  Bean,  Extract  of %  to  1  grain. 

Calomel ito  10  grains. 

Camphor,  Spirits  of 5  to  15  drops. 

Camphor  Water t  to  4  teaspoonfuls. 

Capsicum,  Tincture  of 10  to  20  drops. 

Castor  Oil. ...'....   X  to  2  tablespoonfuls 

Chloral,  Hydrate  of 5  to  30  grains. 

Cinchona,  Sulphate  of. 5  to  30  grains. 

Cinchona,  Compound  Tincture  of. 1  to  4  teaspoonfuls. 

Cod  Liver  Oil %  to  1  tablespoonful. 

Copper,  Sulphate  of i  to  %  grain. 

Corrosive  Sublimate fa  to  fa  grain. 

Cream  of  Tartar 5  to  60  grains. 

Croton  Oil I  to  2  drops. 

Digitalis,  Extract  of }£  to  2  grains. 

Digitalis,  Tincture  of. 5  to  60  drops. 

Dover's  Powder 5  to  10  grains. 

Epsom  Salts %  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

Ergot,  Fluid  Extract  of. ^  to  2  teaspoonfuls. 

Gentian,  Extract  of. I  to  5  grains. 

Gilsemium,  Fluid  Extract  of 5  to  10  drops. 

Hydrochloric  Acid,  dilute 1  to  5  drops. 

Hyosciamus,  Fluid  Extract  of 5  to  20  drops. 

Hyosciamus,  Tincture  of %  to  2  teaspoonfuls. 

Iodine,  Compound  Tincture  of 2  to  5  drops. 


M<Mlicine. 

Iodide  of  Potassium 5  to  30  grains. 

Ipicacuanha,  Fluid  Extract  of 2  to  30  drops. 

Ipicacuanha,  Syrup  of 1  to  4  teaspoonfuls. 

Ipicacuanha,  Troches  of  Morphine  and. ito  10  troches. 

Iron,  Reduced 1  to  2  grains. 

Iron,  Pyrophosphate  of. 2  to  5  grains. 

Iron,  Tincture  of  the  Chloride  of 5  to  30  drops. 

Lactic  Acid 15  to  30  drops. 

Laudanum 15  to  40  drops. 

Lead,  Sugar  of. ^  to  5  grains. 

May  Apple,  Resin  of y&  to  %  grain. 

May  Apple,  Extract  of 3  to  8  grains. 

Muriatic  Acid,  dilute 5  to  10  drops. 

Morphine }i  to  %  grains. 

Magnesia,  Sulphate  of )£  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

Mustard,  Ground 1  to  2  teaspoonfuls. 

Nitre,  Sweet  Spirits  of ^  to  1  teaspoonful. 

Nitro-Muriatic  Acid,  dilute. 2  to  10  drops. 

Nux  Vomica,  Tincture  of 10  to  25  drops. 

Opium,  Extract  of. ^  to  2  grains. 

Opium,  Tincture  of 15  to  40  drops. 

Opium,  Camphorated  Tincture  of %  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

Paregoric X  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

Potassium,  Bicarbonate  of. 5  to  20  grains. 

Potassium,  Bitartrate  of 5  to  60  grains. 

Potassium,  Bromide  of. 5  to  20  grains. 

Potassium,  Chlorate  of 5  to  20  grains. 

Potassium,  Iodide  of 5  to  30  grains. 

Potassium,  Liquor  of 2  to  20  drops. 

Pepsin 5  to  lograins. 

Quassia,  Tincture  of 5  to  60  drops. 

Quinine 2  to  10  grains. 

Salicin 5  to  20  grains. 

Senna,  Confection  of. 1  to  2  teaspoonfuls. 

Senna,  Fluid  Extract  of 1  tablespoonful. 

Soda,  Bicarbonate  of 5  to  30  grains. 

Soda,  Salicylate  of to  to  30  grains. 

Squill,  Syrup  of Ji  to  I  teaspoonful. 

Strychnia,  Sulphate  of fa  to  fa  of  a  grain. 

Turpentine,  Spirits  or  Oil  of 5  to  10  drops. 

Valerian,  Tincture  of %  to  2  teaspoonfuls. 

Veratrum  Viride,  Tincture  of 1  to  4  drops. 

Zinc,  Oxide  of ){  to  5  grains. 


_\ 


!lv 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


079 


P^  JpDERN  f  IJflE£. 

With  Plans  and  Estimates. 

HILE  the  aim  of  this  department  is  to  give  a  practical  ex- 
position of  the  science  of  Architecture  as  modified  by 
modern  thought  and  necessity,  and  more  especially  in  its 
relation  to  the  building  of  country  homes,  a  brief  introductory  al- 
lusion may  be  made  to  the  general  principles  of  architectural  beauty,  which, 
though  founded  upon  ideas  evolved  and  matured  by  the  ancients,  are  to-day 
the  main  sources  of  inspiration  for  the  builder  who  seeks  to  render  what  he 
builds  beautiful  as  well  as  convenient  and  comfortable.  Many  as  may  be  the 
styles  of  architecture,  the  science  is  divided  into  five  great  original  divisions, 
known  as  the  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  Tuscan  and  Composite  orders.  Of 
these,  the  three  first  named  are  of  Greek  origin;  the  last  two  are  Roman 
adaptations  of  the  former,  the  Composite  order  being  a  rich  and  glowing  union 
of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian,  while  the  Tuscan  is  merely  an  elaboration  of  the 
Doric.  With  the  political  partition  of  the  Roman  Empire  came  a  division  of 
its  architecture  into  the  Byzantine,  which  became  tinged  with  orientalism,  indicated  in  its  richness  of  color  and  decoration,  and 
the  Early  Christian  and  Romanesque,  both  of  which  are  more  simple.  Among  other  styles  which  strongly  influence  modern 
building  are  the  Gothic,  and  the  Renaissance,  which  is  a  revival  of  Grecian  architecture  adapted  to  modern  requirements.  Other 
styles,  which  are  very  seldom  resorted  to,  are  the  Egyptian,  marked  by  sloping  walls,  great  solidity,  and  ornamentation  in  hiero- 
glyphics and  the  lotus-flower ;  the  Assyrian,  of  fantastic  design,  with  huge  flights  of  stairs  and  lengthy  terraces ;  the  Chinese,  char- 
acterized by  curling  eaves  and  a  succession  of  roofs  tapering  one  above  the  other ;  the  Indian,  exemplified  by  temples  cut  from 
the  solid  rock,  and  the  Moorish,  richest  of  all  in  its  combination  of  light  colors  and  elaboration  of  minute  and  beautiful  details. 


/ 


<«c==s#  PRACTICAL  ARCHITECTURE.  -^=^=^ 

A  commendable  tendency  of  the  times  is  to  combine  in  all  things  beauty  and  utility.  A  house  is  the  physical  exponent  of  the 
standing  and  character,  the  tastes  and  aspirations  of  its  owner,  and  nothing  is  more  worthy  of  a  man's  thought  and  at- 
tention than  the  structure  and  its  surroundings  which  he  calls  his  home.  In  building  a  modem  home  in  the  country,  it  being  al- 
ways understood  that  harmony  of  outline  and  proportion  is  sought  in  connection  with  more  indispensable  requirements,  the  follow- 

45 


^ 


rr 


680 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


7 


ing  excellencies  must  be  constantly  aimed  at  s  Convenience  of 
arrangement;  facility  of  construction  and  repair;  protection 
from  heat  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter ;  means  of  ventilat- 
ing and  warming;  conformity  with  the  surrounding  scenery. 
These  are  the  leading  ideas  which  should  guide  the  builder, 
and,  as  the  question  of  convenient  arrangement  has  an  external 
as  well  as  an  internal  application,  the  first  matter  to  receive  con- 
sideration will  be 

The  Choice  of  a  Site. 

In  making  the  selection  the  things  to  be  avoided  should  re- 
ceive attention.  Among  these  are  a  location  on  the  north  or 
west  side  of  a  hill,  and  proximity  of  sluggish  streams,  marshes, 
bogs,  swamps,  the  miasma  from  which  will  poison  the  at- 
mosphere and  certainly  entail  liability  to  disease  upon  those 
breathing  ft.  The  steep  side  of  an  evenly  rising  hill  offers  an 
objectionable  posi- 
tion when  other  hills 
of  equal  height  and 
like  conformation 
surround  it,  cutting 
off  the  necessary 
amount  of  sunlight 
The  principal  rooms 
of  the  house  should 
be  so  located  as  to 
be  well  exposed  to 
the  sun's  rays.  The 
dining-room  should 
get  the  benefit  of  the 
morning  sun ;  the 
principal  c  h  a  m  b  e  r 
and  the  sitting-room 
should  be  located  so 
as  to  invite  the  sun- 
shine through  both 
the  morning  and  the 
afternoon.  Either 
the  morning  or  the 
afternoon  sun  should 
be  secured  for  the 
other  rooms,  parlors, 
etc.,  while  the  kitch- 
en, bath-room,  store- 
rooms, etc.,  can  be 
given  the  locations  which  are  least  favored  with  solar  rays. 

An  elevated  site  presents  many  great  advantages.  It  in- 
vites the  sunlight  to  come  early  and  stay  late.  It  places  at  com- 
mand a  sweeping  view  of  the  surrounding  country.  It  insures 
the  presence  of  pure  and  salubrious  atmosphere,  and  gives  the 
best  facilities  for  draining.  With  such  a  site,  protected  from 
the  western  and  northern  winds  by  belts  of  timber  or  thatches 
of  higher  ground,  as  near  an  approach  as  is  possible  to  absolute 
comfort  and  healthfulness,  as  far  as  location  can  govern  them,  will 
be  secured. 

"Jonformity  with  the  surrounding  scenery  is  an  object  that 
should  not  be  overlooked.  When  possible  place  the  house 
so  that  the  occupant,  no  matter  which  way  he  will  direct  his 
glance,  may  be  greeted  by  a  pleasant  landscape,  whose  natural 


A   KUKAL    HUME. 


advantages  can  be  greatly  improved  by  the  planting  here  and 
there  of  trees  or  shrubs.  These,  too,  may  be  advantageously 
employed  in  the  ornamentation  of  the  actual  site  of  the  build- 
ing, care  being  taken  that  they  should  not  be  placed  too  near 
the  building  so  as  to  swell  the  volume  of  dampness  to  an  un- 
healthy  extent 

Building  a  Home. 

After  the  farmer  has  made  up  his  mind  that  he  will  build  a 
home,  the  next  thing  to  be  definitely  settled  is  the  kind  of  a 
house  he  intends  to  erect  Whatever  changes  in  the  main  plan 
are  to  be  made  are  accomplished  easily  and  at  no  expense  be- 
fore the  actual  building  has  been  begun.  Therefore  let  the 
builder  thoroughly  embody  in  his  plans  what  he  wants  in  his 
house,  where  he  wants  it  and  how  he  wants  it,  before  he  even 
goes  so  far  as  to  stake  out  the  foundation.     In  this  preliminary 

work,  which  will  be 
found  to  be  full  of 
pleasure,  an  inval- 
uable adviser  will  be 
found  in  the  wife 
who  is  to  preside 
over  the  home  when 
it  is  finished.  Her 
keen  intuition  and 
ready  inventive  fac- 
ulty will  find  a  quick 
solution  for  any  of 
the  agreeable  puz- 
zles which  arise  from 
time  to  time  in  plan- 
ning a  house.  Con- 
venience of  arrange- 
ment which  is  the 
creator  of  home 
comfort,  must  be 
studied  at  every 
point  when  the  work 
of  building  the  home 
on  paper  is  in  prog- 
ress. These  desid- 
erata should  in  no 
instance  be  made 
subordinate  to  ap- 
pearance. With  the 
exercise  of  a  little  ingenuity  both  comfort  and  beauty  may  be  pre- 
served in  combination.  In  the  question  of  facility  of  construc- 
tion and  repair  many  local  issues  will  of  course  take  part 
Availability  and  cost  have  a  good  deal  to  say  on  this  subject 
Other  things  being  equal,  stone  provides  the  handsomest  and 
most  durable  building  material,  as  well  as  the  most  artistic, 
its  unembellished  surface  always  harmonizing  with  the 
scenery  which  surrounds  and  the  foliage  which  enfolds  it 
Next  comes  brick,  which,  though  lacking  the  lasting  power  and 
beauty  of  stone,  presents  points  of  utility  and  permanence  of 
great  value.  Lastly,  wood  claims  attention,  and  on  its  behalf 
are  urged  its  cheapness  and  dryness,  its  general  healthfulness, 
its  facility  of  ventilation,  the  readiness  with  which  it  is  worked, 
and  its  pronounced  capability  of  ready  ornamentation.    The 


/* 


^7 

" 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


68l 


only  offset  to  all  these  advantages  is  supplied  in  its  perishable 
nature ;  but  with  care  this  may  be  greatly  modified.  No  home 
presents  a  more  cheerful  exterior  than  that  of  wood  painted  in 
the  bright  and  cheerful  tints  now  in  vogue.  A  propos  of  paint- 
>ng>  a  great  mistake  is  occasionally  made  by  the  owners  of 
wooden  buildings  when  they  seek  to  have  the  surfaces  con- 
verted into  a  supposed  imitation  of  stone  or  brick.  At  a  dis- 
tance the  imposture  may  succeed,  but  a  closer  view  dispels  the 
thin  illusion,  and  the  cheap  effect  creates  anything  but  the  im- 
pression which  has  been  aimed  at  so  awkwardly. 

As  a  general,  a  very  general  rule,  the  publishers  of  such 
books  as  have  hitherto  attempted  to  handle  the  question  of 
modern  architecture  in  a  practical  way  have  been  content  to 
supply  their  readers  with  some  good  general  advice  on  the  sub- 
ject o'  the  selection  of  the  location  and  material  of  a  house, 
after  which  they  bring  the  subject  to  a  sudden  and  unsatisfactory 
ending,  by  advising  the  intending  builder,  when  he  has  got  thus 
far,  to  employ  an  architect  and  entrust  to  his  judgment  and  dis- 
cretion, paid  for  by  a  large  percentage  on  the  actual  cost  of  the 
house,  the  completion  of  the  structure.  Such  is  not  the  inten- 
tion of  this  book.  It  has  given  the  house-builder  advice  on  the 
subjects  mentioned,  and,  having  led  him  up  to  the  point  where 
planning  ends  and  construction  begins,  it  will  not  there  leave 
him.  In  the  plans  and  specifications  to  be  found  further  on  are 
provided  clear  and  comprehensive  data,  by  following  which 
any  farmer,  with  the  assistance  of  one  or  more  competent  car- 
penters, will  be  able  to  construct  the  house  which  he  has 
planned. 

Before  these  are  brought  under  consideration,  an  estimate, 
aiiuwing  just 

How  the  Money  is  Applied 

in  the  building  of  a  $1,500  house,  will  provide  an  idea  of  the 
cost  of  the  various  materials  used  in  its  construction,  and  will 
form  a  reliable  basis  of  calculation  for  houses  of  less  or  greater 
cost  : 

Excavation,  45  yards  at  15  cents $    6.75 

Brick-wo-k.  13,600  at  ?S.oo, 10S.S0 

J°ists. 63.00 

Flooring,  2,000  feet 80.00 

Raftcrs 57.00 

Studding  and  framing 108.00 

Sheathing,  4,500  feet ,03,50 

Weather. boarding,  2,500  feet 125.00 

Shingles  and  shingling,  1,900  at  $5.00 05,00 

Gutters  and  cornices,  196  feet  feet  at  30  cents 5S.S0 

Doors,  with  hardware,  13  at  $S.oo 104.00 

Windows,  complete,  14  at  $7.50 105.00 

Bases,  460  feet  at  6  cents, 27.60 

Porches  and  stairs 58.00 

Painting  and  glazing, ,30.00 

Galvanized  iron  and  tin  work, 63.00 

Lathing  and  plastering,  868  yards  at  20  cents '73.6o 

Grates  and  mantels 3C.00 

Sundries 33.00 

Total,  including  labor,  etc $1,539,05 

Water. 

A  full  supply  of  water  is  of  essential  importance,  and  the  near- 
er it  can  be  brought  to  the  house  the  better ;  and  best  of  all  if  it 


can  be  introduced  right  into  the  house.  In  hilly  localities  a 
spring  may  be  found  whose  elevation  will  enable  its  waters  to 
flow  through  the  whole  house.  Failing  such  a  convenient  ally 
of  domestic  comfort,  a  hydraulic  ram  may  be  employed  to  force 
the  water  through  the  system  of  pipes  with  which  the  house  is 
supplied.  The  ventilation  of  water  is  essential,  and  for  this 
purpose  cisterns  should  be  left  exposed  and  uncovered.  With- 
out good  drinking-water  good  health  will  be  unattainable.  Sev- 
eral simple  but  reliable  tests  of  its  quality  are  given,  among 
which  the  following  are  worthy  of  attention :  Good  drinking 
water  cooks  vegetables  well,  especially  the  dry  kind,  such  as 
peas  and  beans.  To  the  eye  it  should  be  limpid ;  V  the  nose, 
scentless ;  to  the  taste,  insipid.  After  drinking  in  moderation 
no  sensation  of  weight  should  be  felt  in  the  stomach.  If  the 
water  fulfils  all  these  conditions  it  may  be  relied  upon  as  excel- 
lent Avoid  the  use  of  rain-water  caught  on  the  roof  and  saved 
in  cisterns,  as,  being  impregnated  with  dust,  soot,  and  other 
impurities,  it  is  necessarily  impure.  By  filtration  it  can  be  ren- 
dered drinkable,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  build  your  cistern  in 
two  compartments,  separated  one  from  the  other  by  a  water- 
tight wall  of  brick,  with  a  space  left  in  the  bottom  for  a  box  fill- 
ed with  alternate  layers  of  gravel,  sand  and  powdered  charcoal. 
The  water  will  be  filtered  by  passing  through  this  box,  and  be 
made  safe  and  pleasant  for  use. 
When  it  is  decided  to  have  a 

Cellar 

care  should  be  taken  to  so  construct  it  that  the  dangers  arising 
from  foul  air,  through  bad  ventilation  and  lack  of  the  purifying 
sunlight,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  A  cellar  which  is 
intended  for  the  storage  of  vegetables  through  the  winter  should 
not  be  connected  with,  certainly  never  directly  beneath  the 
dwelling.  In  any  case  it  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean,  as 
the  foul  gases  given  off  by  decomposing  vegetables  are  highly 
detrimental  to  health. 
A  few  dollars  expended  on  an 

Ice-House 

will  be  found  to  be  one  of  the  best  investments  the  farmer  ever 
made.  Up  to  within  comparatively  few  years  ice  was  invariably 
stored  underground,  but  recently  it  has  been  found  that  the 
crystal  coldness  can  be  as  well  preserved  in  a  house  built  above 
ground,  provided  only  that  it  is  constructed  on  a  plan  which 
secures  non-conduction  of  heat  into  the  interior.  A  very  good 
plan  for  an  efficacious  ice-house,  to  cost  only  $25,  can  be  given : 
It  should  be  built  of  boards  with  double  walls  filled  with  saw- 
dust, or  chaff,  or  fine  straw.  A  large  ventilating  window  is 
placed  at  each  end  at  the  top ;  these  windows  should  always  be 
open.  Care  should  be  taken  that  all  the  saw-dust  is  pressed 
solid,  so  that  no  cavities  are  left.  An  ice-house  with  one  apart- 
ment, 8  by  10  feet,  and  6  feet  high,  will  keep  ice  enough  for  a 
moderate  family.  To  build  such  a  house  will  be  required  216 
square  feet  of  inch-thick  weather-boarding,  $3.60;  132  feet  of 
rafters,  10  feet  long,  4  by  2  inches,  $1.80;  103  feet  of  slats,  7 
feet  long,  $2.10;  two  doors,  $2.00;  shingles,  1,150,  $2.90. 
Total,  $25.  The  employment  of  materials  which  are  non- 
conductors of  heat  and  the  securing  of  proper  drainage  are  the 
great  points  to  be  looked  after  in  building  an  ice-house. 


^A 


&\ 


} 


V 


682 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE. 


A 


^l 


BEAUTIFUL*  HOMES. 


THE   LATEST    DESIGNS   FOR   COTTAGES   AND    DWELLINGS. 
-W~+ — »*« — »~H- 


THE  principal  motive  in  this  work  is  to  give  moderate- 
priced  dwellings,  ranging  from  $1,000  to  JS6,ooo,  one 
or  two,  however,  touching  figures  considerably  higher. 
We  realize  that  the  architecture  of  the  future  will  be  more  quiet 
and  less  florid  than  it  has  been  for  several  years  past ;  we  have, 
therefore,  endeavored  so  to  treat  the  designs  that  they  will 
always  look  well.  Careful  study  has  also  been  given  to  the 
planning,  the  arrangement  being  comfortable  and  convenient. 
We  consider  it  better  taste  to  avoid  flimsy  and  trashy  details  in 
the  construction  of  our  homes ;  the  study  should  be  more  for 
repose  and  harmony  and  less  for  ostentatious  display.  The 
picturesque  roof  is  the  principal  feature  in  modem  cottage  archi- 
tecture, and  is  coming  to  be  treated  more  simply  than  formerly. 
Many  people  raise  the  objection  to  the  picturesque  roof,  that  it 
will  get  out  of  repair  easily.  But  there  is  no  reason  why  a  steep 
roof  need  get  out  of  repair  sooner  than  a  flat  one,  providing  ,it  is 
properly  constructed. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  hi  looking  over  the  designs, 
"  How  much  would  such  a  house  cost  ?  "  This  question  we 
anticipate,  and  in  some  cases  estimates  are  given.  But  it  is 
possible  to  do  so  in  a  general  way  only,  as  the  expense  of  a 
building  depends  entirely  upon  the  specifications  and  details, 
and  on  the  cost  of  materials  and  labor  in  the  location  where  the 
building  is  erected. 

It  does  not  pay  to  attempt  to  build  too  cheaply,  although 
economy  should  be  carefully  considered.  Take,  for  instance, 
plate  A.  This  cottage  might,  by  leaving  out  a  good  foundation 
wall,  the  cellar,  cistern,  etc.,  be  built  for  $600  or  $800.  This 
would  necessitate  setting  the  house  upon  cedar  posts,  boarding  up 
the  under-pinning,  and  otherwise  "  skinning  "  it,  thus  making  a 
trap  for  infectious  diseases,  not  fit  for  a  beast  to  inhabit,  instead 
of  a  comfortable  home  for  a  family  to  dwell  in.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  same  cottage  is  built  with  a  good  foundation  wall, 
the  cellar  well  drained,  the  frame  warmly  sheathed  and  other- 
wise specified  to  be  in  good  condition,  comfortable  and  healthful, 
it  will  cost  from  $1,200  to  $  1400. 

The  designs  and  plans  immediately  following,  numbered  A  to 
L,  are  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Kirby,  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  and  are  selected 
from  a  series  of  twenty-four  designs  published  by  him  in  1885, 
and  constituting  a  "  Portfolio  of  Cottages "  which  docs  credit 
even  to  an  architect  of  Mr.  Kirby's  reputation.  These  designs 
are  in  accordance  with  the  best  modern  taste,  and  represent  that 
union  of  comfort  and  artistic  beauty  which  is  now  demanded  in 
the  better  class  of  home  architecture. 


Design  A  shows  a  small  frame  cottage  suitable  for  a  family 
of  modest  means,  but  possessed  of  culture  and  refinement.  By 
reference  to  the  floor  plans  it  will  be  seen  that  the  arrangement 
of  rooms  consists  of  a  living-room,  dining-room,  a  small  bed- 
room and  a  kitchen  on  the  first  floor.  The  stairs  connect  the 
living-room  with  the  second  story,  and  are  what  are  known  as 
box  stairs.  The  cellar  is  reached  by  stairs  immediately  under 
the  main  stairs.  This  general  arrangement  is  usually  quite 
economical.  The  house  is  approached  through  a  commodious 
porch,  which  sweeps  down  from  the  main  roof,  and  seems  to 
Invite  you  to  come  under  its  shelter.  The  balcony  at  the  left  is 
entered  through  a  window  extending  to  the  floor  of  the  parlor. 
The  kitchen  is  reached  through  a  side  porch.  The  second  floor 
contains  three  chambers,  with  closets  from  each.  This  cottage 
gave  excellent  satisfaction  when  built. 

Design  B. — This  cottage  seems  to  suggest  to  us  a  home — a 
home  where  the  little  child  basks  in  the  sunshine  of  a  mother's 
love,  and  where  the  broad,  sheltering  roof  seems  a  guarantee  of 
comfort  within.  This  cottage  is  also  arranged  so  that  the  cost 
may  be  kept  at  the  lowest  limit.  On  entering  the  hall  the  stairs 
mount  to  the  second  story.  From  the  hall  we  enter  the  parlor, 
or  living-room,  which  contains  in  one  corner  a  cheerful  fireplace. 
A  kitchen  and  bed-room  take  up  the  remaining  space  allotted  to 
the  first  floor.  The  cellar  is  reached  by  a  stairway  under  the 
hall  stairs.  The  second  floor  has  a  small  hall  and  three  chambers 
with  accompanying  closets.  The  entire  exterior  surface  is  covered 
with  sheathing  or  matched  boards,  to  make  it  warm  in  winter 
and  cool  in  summer.  Upon  this  sheathing  in  the  first  story  are 
placed  feather-edge  clapboards  showing  about  three  inches  to  the 
weather.  The  upper  part  or  second  story  is  shingled.  The 
general  effect  of  this  cottage  when  painted  with  warm,  harmoni- 
ous colors  is  very  pleasing. 

Design  C. — This  design  has  an  individuality  about  it  which  at 
once  recommends  it.  While  it  is  comparatively  ornate,  it  is  free 
from  any  of  the  flimsy  detail  which  many  associate  with  tbe  so- 
called  Queen  Anne  style.  The  broad  veranda,  extending  across 
the  entire  front  of  the  house,  leads  us  into  the  vestibule  or  small 
hO,  out  of  which  ascend  the  stairs  to  the  second  floor.  The 
sides  of  the  stairs  are  neatly  wainscoted, and  have  a  rail  attached 
to  same.  The  dining-room  and  living-room  are  connected  by 
an  archway.  At  the  left  of  the  dining-room  is  a  small  bed-room, 
which  the  architect  has  not  placed  there  to  please  himself,  but 
because  most  people  building  a  country  house  seem  to  demand 
something  of  the  kind.   "  So  nice  in  case  of  sickness,"  they  say. 


/ 


1+ 


.\ 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


683 


7 


£ 


It  usually  turns  out,  however,  that  they  seldom  use  this  little 
room  for  a  bed-room,  but  turn  it  into  a  sewing-room,  or  some- 
thing of  that  sort. 

Design  D. — This  design  is  somewhat  more  extensive  than 
any  of  the  foregoing.  The  house  itself  is  even  more  pleasing 
than  the  perspective  drawing  of  it.  In  this  building  we  get  the 
soft,  harmonious  combination  of  colors,  which,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  general  outlines,  makes  an  attractive  appear- 
ance. In  this  example,  as  well  as  imsome  of  the  others,  the 
porch,  or  veranda,  is  a  special  feature.  The  hall  staircase  has 
an  ample  landing,  which  is  always  desirable,  and  it  will 
be  noticed  that  the  principal  rooms  and  hall  can  be  easily  thrown 
together.  The  living-room  contains  a  fireplace,  and  between  the 
kitchen  and  dining-room  there  are  two  doors,  each  double-hung, 
to  swing  either  way.  This  feature  prevents  steam  and  the  smells 
of  cooking  from  passing  to  the  dining-room.  A  bed-room  is 
arranged  on  the  first  floor.  The  kitchen  is  connected  with 
second  story  by  a  back  stairway.  In  the  second  story  we  get 
five  chambers,  with  bath-room,  having  bath-tub,  hand-basin  and 
water-closet.  The  balcony  to  the  right,  on  second  floor,  is 
reached  through  the  chamber  window.  The  staircase  window 
has  cathedral  glass  laid  in  lead  mullions. 

Design  E. — The  exterior  of  this  design  is  perhaps  more  re- 
markable for  oddity  than  anything  else.  The  lower  part  is  clap- 
boarded,  and  the  upper  part  is  shingled.  The  interior,  though 
small,  has  the  benefit  of  quite  a  spacious  hallway,  with  a  nice 
landing  staircase.  A  corner  fireplace  is  also  a  feature  of  the 
interior. 

Design  F. — This  design  embodies  the  usual  arrangement 
of  rooms,  the  hall  having  a  landing  staircase.  The  hall,  parlor 
and  living-rooms  are  connected  by  means  of  sliding  doors.  The 
exterior  is  plentifully  supplied  with  verandas,  balconies,  etc. 
The  rooms  are  nearly  all  of  very  fair  size,  and  are  all  conven- 
iently located. 

Design  G  was  arranged  for  a  summer  cottage,  and  was  in- 
tended to  accommodate  two  or  three  families.     The  living-room 


is  made  large  enough  to  be  used  in  common,  out  of  which  the 
open  staircase  connects  with  the  upper  floor.  Back  of  the  living- 
room  is  a  kitchen.  The  house  is  well  supplied  with  bed-rooms, 
and  has  a  wide  veranda  extending  all  around  it.  On  either  side 
above  the  veranda  are  two  large  balconies.  The  interior  is  de- 
signed to  be  left  unfinished. 

Design  H. — This  cottage  is  attractive  on  the  exterior,  and 
desirable  in  the  interior.  The  large  reception  hall  forms  a 
prominent  feature  of  the  inner  arrangement.  Its  connection 
with  all  the  other  principal  rooms  is  such  that  by  means  of  slid- 
ing doors  all  of  the  rooms  can  easily  be  thrown  together.  This 
cottage  would  cost  about  $10,000,  much  depending,  however, 
upon  the  manner  and  style  of  finish. 

Design  I. — As  a  frame  dwelling  design  I  has  given  most 
excellent  satisfaction.  A  broad  veranda  spans  the  entire  front, 
from  which  we  enter  the  large  reception  hall.  This  hall  has  a 
fireplace,  and  is  connected  by  archways  with  the  landing  stair- 
case, hall  and  parlor.  The  staircase  is  a  beautiful  feature  in  this 
house.  A  very  desirable  arrangement  is  the  connection  of 
kitchen  with  front  door  by  means  of  a  second  hall.  The  sec- 
ond floor  contains  chambers  of  good  size,  with  spacious  closets, 
and  good  bath-room  and  water-closet. 

Design  K  is  a  brick  dwelling,  and  adjoins  design  C.  It  will 
be  seen,  by  reference  to  floor  plans,  that  the  hall  enters  the  cen- 
ter of  the  house,  and  communicates  with  a  cross  or  transept  hall, 
which  is  lighted  by  means  of  an  elegant  cathedral  glass  staircase 
window.  A  back  hall  with  an  open  staircase  is  a  good  feature. 
The  rooms  are  so  arranged  that  all  are  pleasant  and  commodious. 

Design  L  gives  us  a  brick  building  of  semi-detached  dwellings. 
This  house  is  three  full  stories  high,  besides  the  attic  and  cellar. 
The  reception  hall  forms  a  desirable  feature,  and  the  staircase  is 
reversed  from  the  usual  order.  The  rear  part  of  the  house  has 
no  stairs,  but  is  furnished  with  an  elevator,  extending  from  cellar 
to  attic.  On  the  second  floor  is  a  large  bath-room,  which  takes 
the  place  of  one  of  the  rooms  marked  as  bed-room.  The  first 
floor  is  finished  in  cherry,  the  second  in  oak,  and  the  third  in  pine. 


t 


Design  A.     A  SMALL  COTTAGE.     To  cost,  complete,  about  $1,400. 


Kitchen. 
ll'xl£.' 


Livinc/R.     j 
10x14." 


Bal. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR. 


SECOND  FLOOR. 


/ 


n 


Design  B.     SMALL  COTTAGE.    To  cost,  complete,  about  $1,500. 


)k- 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


Roor. 


Boor 


BedR. 
9x15. 


T 


HalL 


m 


Roor. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


\ 


-^ 


K 


686 


1 


Design  C.    A  SMALL  FRAME  COTTAGE.    To  cost,  complete,  about  $2,000. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


4* 


J* 


w 


■#•" — I 1 1 It 


687 


# 


Design  D.     A  SUMMER  COTTAGE.    To  cost  about  $2,000. 


BedH. 
10x20! 


Veranda. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


^ 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


^ 


Design  E.     A  SMALL  FRAME  COTTAGE.     To  cost,  complete,  about  $2,500. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


4h* 


^ 


> 


^ 9 


K 


Design  F.     A  FRAME  COTTAGE.    To  cost,  complete,  about  $3,500. 


Roof. 


K3 

Store  R. 
12x  20! 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


-^ 


^ 


*fe 


Design  G.     FRAME  COTTAGE.     Cost,  complete,  about  $4,500. 


BedR. 

Il'xli 


Pass.  I  Pantry. 


Veranda. 


r 


Chamber. 
11x12.' 


Bath. 


m 


■ 

Chamber. 

12x1+'. 


C 


Chamber. 
15x15.' 


g     Hall.      |ciov|ck». 


D 


Chamber. 
13x15'.      J!   Clos- 


7f 


l& 


VL 


Design  H.    A  FRAME  DWELLING. 


stoop- 


Balcony. 


Principal  Floor, 


Second  Floor. 


691 


4 


693 


Design  I.     A  FRAME  DWELLING.    To  cost  about  $6,000. 


■Roof 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


•3F 


Al 


:«r 


693 


f 


Design  K.     A  BRICK  DWELLING. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


^ 


694 


V 


w « — ^" 


Design  L.     SEMI-DETACHED  BRICK  DWELLINGS. 


PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


-? 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


695 


^ 


<  A  $3,000  PRIZE  COTTAGE.  I> 


A  $3,000  PRIZE   COTTAGE.— ELEVATION. 


The  American  Architect,  in  1883,  offered  a  prize  for  the  best 
original  plan  of  a  cottage  approximating  in  cost  $3,000.  A  large 
number  of  architects  entered  the  competition,  but  the  jury  de- 
cided that  the  accompanying  designs,  by  W.  E.  Chamberlain, 
of  Cambridgeport,  Mass.,  were  incontestably  worthy  of  the  first 
place.  While  there  is  nothing  that  can  be  called  eccentric  in 
the  architecture,  it  is  a  fresh  and  unexpected  conception.  There 
is  a  certain  distinction  which  removes  the  design  from  the  or- 
dinary type,  suggesting  that  the  occupant  of  this  cottage  has 
more  social  prestige  than  his  neighbors. 

The  plan  provides  a  piazza  which  is  partially  roofed  for  sum- 
mer, while  a  vestibule  to  the  hall  answers  the  requirements  of  a 
winter  dwelling.  The  parlor  and  dining-room  communicate 
with  each  other  and  with  the  hall.  The  kitchen  has  an  ample 
porch,  which  would,  perhaps,  better  have  been  utilized  for  a 
shed  or  wash-room.  There  is  a  cellar  under  the  whole  house. 
A  furnace  is  depended  upon  to  heat  the  various  rooms,  except 
the  parlor  and  dining-room,  which  have  open  fireplaces.  By 
changing  the  positicn  of  the  back  stairs  ifc  the  second-floor 
plan  to  the  left  side  of  the  kitchen,  some  valuable  space  might 
be  gained.  The  main  stairs  continue  up  in  a  tower  to  the  attic, 
where  another  room  is  obtained. 


46 


The  house  is  supposed  to  be  built  in  Allston,  Mass.,  near 
Boston.  Labor  is  as  cheap  there  as  anywhere.  The  Boston 
market  is  at  hand,  railroad  accommodation  easy,  and  stone- 
work cheap. 

The  cellar  walls  are  of  18-inch  rough  stone  up  to  grade,  and 
then  1 8-inch  brick  wall  up  to  sill. 

Walls  of  first  story  covered  with  pine  "siding,"  broad  hori- 
zontal sheathing  10  inches  wide. 

Above  second-story  floor-beams  shingles  everywhere,  left 
untouched  by  paint  or  stain,  to  become  gray  with  time. 

Rough  boarding  and  lower  floors  of  hemlock.  Frame  of 
spruce.  Plaster,  two-coat  work.  No  wainscoting  or  hard-wood 
finish.     Mill  windows  and  doors. 

Sizes :  Sills,  4  inches  by  6  inches ;  plates,  4  inches  by  6 
inches ;  wall-studs,  2  inches  by  4  inches,  16  inches  on  centres ; 
partition-studs,  2  inches  by  3  inches,  16  inches  on  centres ;  first- 
floor  beams,  2  inches  by  9  inches ;  second-floor  beams,  2  inches 
by  10  inches  (the  reason  for  this  is  that  the  second  story  pro- 
jects in  two  places,  and  has  many  unsupported  partitions  to 
carry) ;  third-floor  beams,  2  inches  by  8  inches ;  rafters,  2  inches 
by  8  inches. 


T 


iW 


696 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


Estimate  of  Cost. 

Except  for  stone  and  brick  work,  the  prices  quoted  for  material  are  cost  prices,  not  counting  labor  or  builder's  profit,  which 
will  be  found  added  at  the  end.  On  the  lower  floor,  without  including  piazzas,  there  are  817  sq.  ft.  At  $3.50  per  sq.  ft.,  the 
house  would  cost  $2,859.50.  This,  with  piazza-work  and  the  architect's  commission,  would  bring  the  figure  very  near  $3,055.55, 
as  computed. 


Excavation,  5,500  cu.  ft.  =  304  cu. 
yds.,  10  >i<t $  44-88 

Cellar  Wall  (stone)  40  perch,  O 
$3.50  (la'd) 140.00 

Brick  Foundation  (8  in.  thick)  with 
vault,  piazza  piers,  and  3  cellar  piers, 
158  cu.  ft.  (34  bricks  to  a  foot) ;  3,793 
bricks,  $30  per  M.  (laid) 75.84 

Chimneys, 9,380 bricks, <a  $jo(laid)..  187.60 

Frame.  sft  rT 

Sills,  plates,  outer  walls   and  in* 

ncr  partitions 1  .7.. < 

First  floor 1 ,388 

Second  floor ..1,480 

Third  floor too 

Second-floor  ceiling -joists 648 

Attic  ceiling- joists 330 

Roof .1,166 

Total,  19  $16 7,893  136.37 

Rough  Outside  Boardino.  sq  tt 

First  floor 1,311 

Second  floor 1,197 

Third  floor 384 

Roof 1,405 


Outs,  Windows. 
First    floor,  14 
Second  "      13 
Third      "       4 

30  »  33  sq.  ft. 
Total,  (SJij 


4,397 


.  660 

•3.637    47»8 


/ 


Rough  Lower  Floors.    g„  „_ 

Firstfloor .608 

Second  floor 700 

Attic 350 


Total,  <S  $13. 


SQ.FT. 


1,558  30.35 


Outer  Covering. 

First  floor,  siding  (9  $30 964    38.93 

Second  floor,  shingles 810 

Third  and  gables,  shingles 434 

Roof 1,405 

Total 3/545 

1  jo  ft.  to  1 ,000  shingles,  33  M.,  '<»  $3.75.    83.50 


WINDOWS,  34  large.  Including  sash, 
glazing,  weights,  line,  sash-fast, 
frame  architraves  and  blinds,  fit  $5.50  133.00 

7  small  ones,  %  $3.35 33.75 

Doors,  38,  Including  hardware,  thresh- 
olds and  architraves,  <a  $6.50 183.00 

Stairs,  all  told 140.00 

Nails 35°° 

UrrER  Floors,  1,611  ft..  <a  $30 48.33 

None  in  garret. 

Plaster  (including  lathing). 
Walls.  gQ  ,T- 

Kir^t  Boot 3.473 

Second  floor 3,353 

Third  floor 713 

Total 6.SJ7 


O"™-  so..rr. 

Lower  floor,  3  outer  doors 85 

"         "       11  inside  doors 484 

"         "       13  windows 195 

Second  "      10  doors 440 

*'        "      13  windows 100 

Third      "        3  doors 133 

"         "        3  windows 45 

Total 1,561 

6^37-1  ,S6>  =4*76  sq.  ft —553  sq.  yds. 
»>8# *  99-54 


Ceilings 

Plumbing  (bath-room  and  sink  only) 

Gutters,  75  ft.,  %  \if 

Conductors,  60  ft.,  •)  io# 

Plaster  Band  on  exterior  (architect 

to  do  the  "scratch -work") 

Furnace 

Painting  (on  outside,  the  lower  story 

and  all  mouldings  will  be  painted ; 

shingles  left  as  put  on) 

Labor 

Two  FiRErLACES  (owner  already  ha* 

tiles) 


30JS 

150.00 

9.00 

6.00 

8.00 
150.00 


135.00 

700.00 


■a  b 


Total $3/541.14 

Builder's  Profit,  10 « 364.14 

Architect's  Commission,  5  * 150.00 

Other  ExrsNSES ....  15000 

Total *3.°S5S$ 


.\ 


»v 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


697 


<  A  $2,500  HOUSE.  > 


This  structure  is  in  the  Queen  Anne  style,  now  becoming  so 
popular,  and  presents  a  neat  and  attractive  appearance.  The 
conventional  main  hall 
and  stairway  are  dis- 
pensed with,  and  in- 
stead there  is  provided 
a  vestibule  entrance  out- 
side the  house,  from  a 
part  of  the  veranda. 
This  makes  the  stairs 
less  conspicuous,  with 
approaches  at  the  foot 
from  two  directions,  in 
that  way  serving  well 
for  general  use  from  the 
main  house  and  as  a 
private  stairway  from 
the  rear  extension. 

The  exterior  presents 
an   angular  and  pictur- 
esque appearance.    Pro- 
tection from  storms  is 
afforded    the    windows 
and    entrances    by    the 
extensive   veranda    and 
other  projections.     De- 
sirable shade  is  also  fur- 
nished by  the  same  means.    The  roofs  are  of  dark  slate,  and  a 
cresting  of  ornamental  iron  along  the  main  ridges,  properly 
connected    with    ground 
rods,  serves  as  a  protec- 
tion    against     lightning. 
The    window    openings, 
having  a  single  light  of 
plain  glass  in  the  lower 
sash,  contain  in  the  upper 
one  several  smaller  tinted 
lights,  which,  in  a  variety 
of  pleasing  colors,  pro- 
duce a  most  cheerful  ef- 
fect. 

In  the  first  story  the 
height  of  ceilings  is  ten 
feet.  There  are  four  good- 
sized  rooms,  each  with 
outlooks  at  their  sides  and 
ends.  The  main  entrance 
is  from  the  front  veranda, 
through  a  good-sized  ves- 
tibule, which  is  lighted  at 
the  side  by  a  cluster  win- 
dow of  tinted  glass,  and 
has  side  and  end  doors 
opening  to  the  parlor  and 
sitting-room.  The  parlor  has  four  windows,  facing  three  direc- 
tions, each  protected  from  storms,  and  agreeably  shaded  by  the 


FRONT    ELEVATION. 


veranda.  There  is  a  large  open  fire-place,  and  doors  commun- 
icating with  the  sitting  and  dining-rooms.  The  sitting  and  din- 
ing-rooms adjoin  each 
other  through  sliding 
doors,  which  admit  of 
their  being  used  togeth- 
er, as  occasion  may  re- 
quire. The  kitchen  is 
convenient,  well-lighted, 
has  a  large  fire-place, 
with  range,  and  adjoins 
a  pantry.  The  rear  en- 
trance, or  porch,  is  also 
reached  through  a  door 
from  the  sitting-room. 
The  stairs  to  the  cellar 
and  to  the  second  story 
are  placed  between  the 
dining-room  and  kit- 
chen, and  may  be  reach- 
ed from  each  direct, 

In  the  second  story  the 
height  of  ceiling  is  nine 
feet  This  story  has  a 
central  hall,  three  cham- 
bers, three  closets  and 
a  trunk-room.  The  stairs 
to  the  attic  are  placed  above  those  of  the  first  story. 
The  height  of  ceiling  in  the  attic  is  three  feet  at  the  plates  or 

sides,  and  follows  the  raf- 
ters to  the  full  height  of 
seven  feet  A  hall  and 
three  chambers  may  be  fin- 
ished on  this  floor,  with  the 
doors  and  windows  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  ends 
of  each. 

The  cellar  equals  the 
first  story  in  area.  It  has 
an  outside  entrance,  five 
windows,  and  stairs  lead- 
ing to  the  first  story. 
Height  of  ceiling,  6j  feet. 
The  foundations  and 
chimneys  of  this  house 
are  of  hard  brick,  laid  in 
good  mortar.  The  frame 
is  of  sawed  spruce,  with 
siding,  for  the  body,  of 
clapboards  laid  on  thick- 
nessed  sheathing  and 
building  felt  The  gables 
and  frieze  courses  are  of 
red-wood  shingles,  also 
on  sheathing.  The  main  reef  is  of  dark  slate,  laid  on  sheathing 
and  tarred  felt    The  veranda  roofs  are  also  slate,  laid  on 


SIDE   ELEVATION. 


-M 


>-£. 


698 


MODERN    ARCHITF.CTURE. 


inverted  pine  flooring.  The  flooring  outside  is  of  I  \  by  41-inch 
T  and  G  pine;  inside,  of  il  by  7-inch  T  and  G  spruce.  The 
windows  have  plank  frames,  with  ii-inch  sash,  glazed  with  sec- 
ond quality  French  glass.  The  doors  are  of  seasoned  pine, 
panelled  and  molded.    The  inside  finish  is  clear  pine,  reeded, 


with  blocks.  The  inside  walls  and  ceilings  are  hard-finished 
on  two  coats  of  brown  mortar,  and  the  principal  rooms  of  the 
first  story  have  neat  stucco  cornices.  The  painting  is  two-coat 
work,  of  selected  colors.  The  designs  for  this  structure  are 
from  the  American  Agriculturist. 


* 


-JVCTtf-  I 
*      15 


-ft 


TSt" 


-^«°«- 


T 


■FV^rV- 
JVJf 


Varmlle 


•T 


r— 1 


MAIN   FLOOR. 


BBOONO  hikj*. 


Estimate  of  Cost. 


160  yards  excavation,  at  25^  per  yard .$  40.00 

15,000  brick,  foundation  and  chimneys  (complete)  at  $15  pcrM.  225.00 

32  feet  blue  atone,  steps  ami  .sills,  at  30^  per  foot 9.60 

1,000  yards  plastering,  at  30^  yer  yard ■•••«■•  300.00 

aio  stucco  cornices,  at  3o^  per  foot ,. 43.00 

5,000  feet  timber,  at  $20  per  M 100.00 

:  jo  joists,  nt  16^  each 16.00 

350  wall  strips,  at  n  f»  each 27 .50 

4,500  feel  slu alliing,  at  3(P  per  foot 135.00 

450  clapboard*,  M  i6j*~  each 73.00 

31  bunches  shingles,  at  $1.50  per  hunch 31.00 

34!  squares  slate,  at  $<>  per  square 220.50 

950  feet  outside  flooring,  at  $f  per  foot 47-5o 

2,050  feet  inside  flooring,  at  4$  per  feet 106.00 

5  cellar  windows,  at  I3  each 15.00 


23  full-sized  windows,  at  $S  each $184.00 

11  half- windows,  at  $5  each 55*°° 

29  doors,  at  $7  each 303.00 

3  stairs,  at  $10  each 30.00 

Veranda  and  porch  finish 50.00 

5  kegs  nails,  at  $4  each 30.00 

4  closet  finish ao.00 

M.tnti  Is 30.00 

Tin  gutters  and  leaders 

Carting 

Painting 180,00 

Carpenters*  labor  (not  included  above) 240.00 

Pump,  sink  and  Incidentals 60.00 

Total,  complete $2,490*60 


^ 


« — ^ 


K" 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


699 


DWELLING-HOUSE.— Design  I. 


i 


n 


F/lAUFA/tC/ICF/l-  i 


DESIGN  I. — ELEVATION. 


k 


As  long  as  the  argument  is  indisputable  that  there  is  in  a 
square  house,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  outside  covering, 
more  room 
than  in  one 
of  almost  any 
other  form,  a 
large  major- 
ity who  are 
about  to 
build  seem  to 
have  deter- 
mined to  a- 
dopt  that 
shape.  The 
dwelling  here 

illustrated  ground  floor 

was  built  on  a  slight  elevation. 

PLAN  OF  PRINCIPAL  STORY. 

A,  veranda,  6  by  25;   B,  hall  10.6  by  15;  C,  parlor,  15  by 
19.6 j  D,  sitting-room,  15  by  19.6;  E,  book-closet;  F,  bed- 


room, 10.6  by  15 ;  G,  G,  closets ;  H,  dining-room,  12  by  22 ;  /, 
/,  china-closets ;  J,  back  porch,  6  by  7.6 ;  K,  veranda,  5  by  22  ; 

Z,  kitchen,  11 
by  12.6;  M, 
"sink;  N,  cis- 
tern -  pump ; 
O ,  cup- 
board; P, 
pantry,  7.6 
by  8;  Q,  stair- 
way t  o  cel- 
lar ;  H,  stair- 
way to  back 
chambers ;  S, 
wood  -  room. 


THE  SECOND  STORY. 

The  upper  floor  of  this  structure  comprises  a  hall,  three 
chambers,  four  closets,  stairway  to  attic,  two  bed-rooms,  bath- 
room, store-room  and  balcony. 


-       '   tt^"1 


* 


1 


700 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


m 


A  RURAL  GOTHIC  FARM-HOUSE— Design  2. 


In  this  plan  for 
antral  home,  with 
the  exception  of 
the  cornice  on  the 
gables  and  a  few 
cheap  brackets, 
there  is  no  orna- 
mentation  to 
cause  an  unneces- 
sary  outlay  of 
money,  and  noth- 
ing likely  to  get 
out  of  repair,  as 
is  o.'.cn  the  case 
with  the  flimsy 
ornaments  attach- 
ed to  so  many 
modern  cottages. 

This  house  is  in 
the  Rural  Gothic 
style,  a  style 
which,  with  its 
broken  outline,  its 
verandas  and  bay 
windows,  ex- 
presses no  small 
amount  of  domestic  and  home  feeling. 


A  RURAL   GOTHIC   FARM-HOUSI. 


monotonous  ap- 
pearance of  that 
side  of  the  build- 
ing, and  balancing 
in  a  degree  the 
mass  of  the  other 
side. 

The  main  roof 
rises  at  an  angle  of 
45°;  the  wood- 
house  part  is  one- 
story  ;  root,  one- 
fourth  pitch.  The 
inside  is  finished 
appropriately, 
plain  and  neat. 
The  lower  story  is 
nine  feet  high  in 
the  clear;  the  up- 
per story,  finished 
to  collar-beams,  is 
eight  feet  six 
inches.  The  cellar 
under  kitchen  and 
dining-room  is 
well  lighted,  and 


FIRST   FLOOR. 

P,  Parlor;  D,  Dinlng-Room;  K,  Kitchen;  B,  B,  Bed-Rooms;  C, 
Closet;  £,  Bath;  /•,  Pantry;  V,  V,  Verandas;  W,  Wood  -house. 

The  house  was  planned  for  a  family  who  aim  to  do  their  own 
work ;  therefore  utility,  compactness  and  economy  of  labor  were 
first  cons'dered.  Yet  the  external  appearance  is  quite  picturesque 
and  truthful.  The  part  containing  the  two  bed-rooms,  bathing 
and  clothes-room  is  quite  economically  obtained,  it  being  a  lean- 
to  addition,  one  story  high,  with  a  (lattish  roof.  Above  this  is  a 
gabled  window,  with  its  stool  resting  on  this  roof.  This  gable 
rises  to  the  height  of  the  main  roof,  thus  breaking  the  otherwise 


SECOND  FLOOR 

B,B,B,  Bed- Rooms;  C, Chamber,  c,c,  Closcti;  P,  Pauafe. 
the  chimney,  standing  in  the  centre,  is  furnished  with  open- 
ings for  ventilation.  With  this  arrangement  the  cellar  can  be 
kept  sweet  and  wholesome.  The  rooms  are  wanned  by  stoves. 
Fire-places  may  be  easily  built  in  the  dining-room  and  kitchen, 
if  desired.  The  bathing-room  is  easily  accessible,  it  being  con- 
nected with  the  kitchen  bed-room,  which  renders  it  a  convenient 
and  useful  apartment. 

The  cost  of  this  house,  with  a  light  timber  frame,  clapboarded, 
lined  on  the  inside  with  inch  lumber,  then  furred  with  strip  lath, 
lathed  and  plastered  with  two  coats  finish,  is  about  $1,100. 


/_ 


""• • 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


701 


~7[ 


A  RURAL  GOTHIC  COTTAGE— Design  3. 


RURAL   GOTHIC  COTTAGE. 


This  is  an  admirable  de- 
sign for  internal  conven- 
ience. The  plan  of  the 
first  floor  shows  the  kit- 
chen and  one  bed-room  on 
the  same  floor  with  the 
living-rooms.  The  kitchen 
is  a  wing  added  to  the 
rear,  and  is  one  story  in 
height  The  situation  on 
which  this  dwelling  is 
placed  has  a  prospect  in 
one  direction  only,  and 
the  front,  shown  in  the 
elevation,  commands  this 
view,  the  rear  being  nearly 
hidden  by  trees.  On  this 
front  are  situated  two 
pleasant  apartments,  each 
17  by  20  feet,  opening  from 


GROLSD  FLAM. 


the  vestibule  or  entrance 
hall  by  large  double  doors, 
which,  when  fully  opened, 
will  throw  these  two  rooms 
and  the  vestibule  into  one 
large  apartment.  Some  ele- 
gance is  conferred  on  the 
parlor  by  the  bay-window, 
which  is  balanced  by  a 
double  window  opposite, 
in  the  dining-room.  The 
living-room,  or  library, 
commands  a  pantry  of 
convenient  size,  in  the  rear 
of  which  is  a  closet  open- 
ing into  the  hall.  This 
hall  is  of  ample  size  to 
serve  as  a  dining-room. 
There  is  a  glazed  back 
door  opening  to  the  rear 


/ 


K" 


^ 


702 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


of  the  house,  and  a  door  opening  into  the  kitchen  passage,  b,  on 
the  right  The  hall  also  receives  light  from  the  window  over 
this  door,  in  the  second  story.  This  passage  is  formed  by  run- 
ning a  solid  partition  across  the  kitchen  building,  so  as  to  admit 
of  two  doors,  in  order  to  prevent  smells — one  an  ordinary  door 
opening  into  the  hall,  and  the  other  a  fly  or  spring  door  opening 


into  the  kitchen.  This  partition  also  gives  room  for  two  closets, 
one  for  the  kitchen  and  another  for  the  bed-room.  The  eleva- 
tion of  this  cottage  will  admit  of  great  irregularity  and  pictur- 
esqueness  of  outline,  and  is  productive  of  beautiful  effects.  A 
very  pleasing  mode  of  covering  the  roof  is  shown  in  the  eleva- 
tion.   This  cottage  should  be  built  of  brick. 


RURAL  COTTAGE —Design  4. 


The  accom- 
panying plan  of 
a  rural  cottage 
was  awarded  a 
premium  which 
was  offered  some 
few  years  ago. 
The  ouiside  ap- 
pearance is  at- 
tractive, light 
and  pleasant, 
and  is  not  over- 
ornamental,  a 
great  fault  with 
many  modern 
houses.  The 
rooms  are  large 
and  most  con- 
veniently arrang- 
ed, every  room  of 
the  ground  floor 
being  pleasant 
enough  for  a 
parlor  or  a  liv- 
ing-room. 

GROUND   PLAN. 

D.  R.,  dining-room,  1 8  feet  9  inches  by  15  feet;  Parlor, 


inches  by  14  feet 
6  in.  ;  Library, 
1 5  feet  by  14  feet 
6  inches ;  Kitch- 
en, 12  feet  6 
inches  by  1 3  feet 
6  inches ;  IVash- 
Room,  1 2  feet  by 

8  feet;  Hall,  6 
feet  5  inches  in 
width. 

SECOND   STORY. 

A,  bed -room, 
14  feet  5  inches 
by  II  feet  9 
inches ;  B , 
chamber,  18  feet 

9  inches  by  15 
feet;  C,  C, 
halls;  D,  bed- 
room, 9  feet  6 
inches  by  1 1  feet; 
B,  bed  -  room, 
14  feet  6  inches 


by  11  feet;  F,  servants'  bed-room,  12  feet  6  inches  by  14  feet 
18  feet  9  I  6  inches ;  G,  passage,  3  feet  6  inches  in  width. 


GROUND    l-LAM. 


src  ORB  .story. 


s 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


7°3 


A  SOUTHERN  COTTAGE.-Design  5. 


A  SOUTHERN  COTTAGE. 


This  design  is  intended  to  be  built  of  frame,  and  the  roof  to  be  shingled.  It  should  stand  at  such  a  distance  from  the  road  as 
to  afford  sufficient  space  for  ornamental  shrubbery,  walks,  etc.  The  cost  of  the  building  should  fall  within  the  limits  of  $2,000. 
Upon  the  principal  floor  the  porch  gives  access  to  the  hall,  which  opens  into  the  parlor  and  dining-room ;  the  kitchen  is  well 
placed,  and  ample  in  size.  The  second  floor  contains  a  hall  and  three  liberal-sized  chambers.  First  floor :  /,  porch ;  2,  hall, 
loj  by  15  feet;  3,  parlor,  124  by  20  feet;  4,  dining-room,  15  by  18  feet;  3,  kitchen,  12  by  12  feet;  6,  back  porch.  Second  floor— 
7,  hall,  ioi  by  15  feet;  <?,  chamber,  124  by  20  feet;  9,  chamber,  15  by  18  feet;  10,  chamber,  12  by  12  feet 


3    ; 

.,    4     J 

a                  1 

linni: . 

5 

1       2       m 
1 

• 
• 

FIRST   FLOOR. 

SECOND    FLOOR. 


ki 


A 


K 


704 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


AN  ORNAMENTAL  COTTAGE -Design  6. 


Iliis  is  4  good  design  for  a  lodge  or  a  seaside  or  summer  cottage,  and  looks  extremely  well  among  the  trees  of  a  camp-ground. 
The  porch  is  terge  and  roomy;  the  living-room  is  of  good  size,  well  lighted  by  a  square  bay  window.  The  kitchen  is  well  supplied 
with  closets.  The  second  floor  contains  three  bed-rooms,  very  conveniently  arranged,  and  each  provided  with  a  closet  The  two 
down-stairs  looms  and  the  large  front  bed-room  are  supplied  with  open  fire-places.  The  estimated  cost  is  from  $1,200  to  $I,600i 
according  to  locality  and  style  of  finish. 


GROUND   FLOOK. 


^^r- 


# 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


7°5 


COTTAGE —Design  7. 


COTTAGE. 


The  elevation  and  ground  plan  here  given  of  this  cottage  fully  explain  it  The  upper  story  consists  of  four  bed-rooms  and  a 
bath-room.  Cost,  $1,800.  Ground  plan:  1,  porch;  2,  lobby;  3,  drawing-room;  4,  library  or  boudoir ;  J,  outside  porch ;  6, 
dining-room ;  7,  kitchen ;  8,  scullery.    Note — No.  J  might  be  used  as  a  conservatory. 


* 


l-M 


W> 


ID 


W 


e 

«*-^i 


J. 


N 


k»   i 


GROUND   FLOOR. 


J- 


K 


706 


"71 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


A  CHEAP  FARM  COTTAGE- Design  8. 


This  plan  is  appropriate  for  a 
hilly  or  mountainous  region.  It  is 
in  the  French  style  of  roof,  and  al- 
lied to  the  Italian  in  its  brackets 
and  gables  and  half-terraced  front. 
The  body  of  the  cottage  is  22  by 
20  feet,  with  12-foot  posts ,  the  roof 
has  a  pitch  of  500  from  a  horizon- 
tal line,  in  its  straight  dimensions, 
curving  horizontally  towards  the 
eaves,  which,  together  with  the 
gables,  project  3  feet  over  the 
walls.    The  terrace  in  front  is  5 


■ 
x 


INTERIOR  AKKAMt.IMI.MT. 


feet  wide.  On  the  rear  is  a  wood- 
house  18  by  16  feet  in  area,  open 
at  the  house  end  and  in  front,  with 
a  roof  in  the  same  style  as  the  main 
'house,  and  posts  8  feet  high, 
standing  on  the  ground,  2  feet  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  cellar-wall, 
which  supports  the  main  building. 
The  plan  of  the  interior  arrange- 
ment any  builder  can  follow.  The 
construction  of  this  cottage  may  be 
of  stone,  brick  or  wood,  either 
producing  a  fine  effect 


_M 


N~ 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


707 


A  SUBURBAN  COTTAGE— Design  9. 


A  SUBURBAN  COTTAGE. 


A,  front  veranda,  10  by  16  feet; 

B,  hall,  7  by  20  feet ;  C,  parlor, 
12  by  18  feet,  with  bay  window,  4 
by  9  feet;  D,  dining-room,  15  by 
20  feet;  E,  library,  12  by  15  feet, 
with  square  bay  window,  4  by  8 
feet;  F,  kitchen,  11  by  12  feet;  G, 
pantry,  8  by  8  feet ;  H,  store-room, 
10  by  12  feet;  /,  coal-room,  7i  by 

8  feet;  K,  wash-room,  71  by  8 
feet;  L,  veranda,  8  by  16  feet;  M, 
veranda,  4  by  30  feet;  N,  cistern, 

9  feet  in  diameter ;  O,  well ;  c,  c, 
closets ;  s,  s,  shelves;  />,  bath ;  f, 
back  stairs;  t,  sink;  p,  pump. 
Second  floor — Hall,    7  feet  wide ; 

C,  C,  C,  C,  closets;  D,  linen 
closet;  E,  attic  stairs;  F,  ser- 
vants' bed-room,  11  by  20  feet; 
G,  garret;  B,  bed-room,  15  by  15 
feet;  H,  bed-room,  12  by  15  feet; 
K,  bed-room,  12  by  18  feet  Cost 
of  this  building,  $2,500. 


FIRST   FLOOR. 


SECOND   FLOOR. 


_M 


^ 


K 


708 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


"71 


HORSE  AND  CARRIAGE  HOUSE— Design  10. 


This  is  to  be  built  of  brick,  with  stone  basement  eight  feet 
deep.  It  is  therefore  designed  for  a  side  hill,  unless  the  base- 
ment is  dispensed  with,  which  would  be  poor  economy, 

S  is  the  stable  part,  with  double  stalls  for  six  horses.  C  is 
carriage-room  for  three 
or  four  light  wagons  or 
carriages.  D  is  a  cir- 
cular drive  eight  feet 
wide.  F  is  an  octagonal 
fountain  eight  feet  in 
diameter.  H,  H,  are 
harness-rooms.  C  L. 
C  L,  closets.  /.  is  lad- 
der to  loft. 

The  hay  is  cut  and 
fed  from  the  second 
story.  A  circular  pine 
cistern,  surrounded  by 
sawdust,  occupies  one  corner  of  the  second  story,  and  supplies 
the  fountain  through  a  small  iron  pipe.  The  orifice  of  this 
should  be  drawn  down  to  a  minute  hole  in  order  to  save  the 
water  and  yet  keep  it  changing  continually.    There  should 


FIRST    FLOOR. 


also  be  a  stop-cock  near  the  cistern  to  shut  off  the  water  in 
cold  weather. 

The  dimensions  are:  Main  part,  24  by  26  feet;  wings,  1 6  by  24 
feet j  height  of  basements,  8  feet;  first  story,  10  feet;  second 

story,  8  feet  to  plates.  A 
cupola  with  double  win- 
dows and  flat  roof,  with 
staff  in  the  centre,  will 
be  an  elegant  feature. 
Eaves  should  project 
two  and  a  half  feet. 
Roof  not  more  than 
quarter  pitch.  Cost, 
about  $1,000. 

This  is  designed  more 
especially  for  city  resi- 
dents, and  those  farmers 
in  villages  and  near 
large  towns  who  can  af- 
ford ample  accommodations  for  man  and  beast  Many  would 
object  to  the  drive  and  fountain,  and  yet  the  small  space  on  a 
single  floor  that  they  occupy  does  not  make  them  a  costly  luxury, 
while  the  air  of  elegance  that  they  convey  could  ill  be  dispensed 
with  by  one  who  has  a  generous  regard  for  taste. 


^>*z 


K 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


709 


=7f 


£- 


A  SUBSTANTIAL  FARM  BARN.— Design  1 1 


A  SUBSTANTIAL  FARM    BAKN. 


This  plan  is  a  convenient  as  well  as  a  substantial  one.   As  seen 
in  the  elevation,  the  barn  is  built  upon  a  side  hill  which  slopes 


to  the  east.  There  are  three 
distinct  floors.  The  main 
building  is  50  by  80  feet,  and 
one  wing  40  by  40  feet.  The 
basement  floor  is  divided  in- 
to several  departments,  each 
well  furnished  for  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  designed. 
B  is  the  manure  pit ,  C,  a 
small  cistern  ;  D,  a  root  cel- 
lar ;  E,  a  pen  for  calves ;  F. 
under  the  wing  at  the  south 
end  of  the  main  building,  is 
fitted  up  with  a  number  of 
roomy  stalls  for  cows.  Each 
of  the  departments  has  a 
door,  g,  g,  g,  gt  opening  to 
the  stock  yard. 


nr-*y 


B 
26X50 


PLAN 

This  is  used  for  horses, 

■*|YT 1  B  ► 

12x12? 


D 

21X50 


PLAN  OF  BASEMENT  FLOOR. 


pTrrTTTTTTnfrn 


"as 

zox/o 


7- 


L     „ 


30X/0         jinn 


PLAN  Or  SECOND  STORY. 


OF  SECOND  FLOOR. 

vehicles,  etc  Along  the  whole  length  of 
the  east  side  are  stalls  for 
horses  provided  with  hay- 
racks, K,  K,  K,  K,  K.  L,L, 
are  two  finished  rooms,  which 
are  used  as  harness-rooms; 
M,  a  large  room  for  putting 
away  all  the  machinery  and 
tools  used  about  the  farm; 
O,  P,  loose  horse-boxes ;  R, 
a  stairway  leading  to  the 
basement  or  ground  floor; 
S,  a  stairway  leading  up  to 
thiid  story ;  T,  V,  trap  doors. 
The  structure  is  well  sup- 
plied with  windows,  and  is 
light  and  comfortable  for 
both  man  and  beast. 


4^ 


4~ 


710 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE. 


GRAIN  AND  STOCK  BARN— Design  12. 


GRAIN  AND   SUKK  BAKN. 

This  plan  is  a  combined  grain  and  stock  barn.  The  grain  bins  are  next  north  of  the  stables  and  form  part  of  the  partition 
between  the  stables  and  main  floor.  They  are  four  feet  in  width  and  have  a  capacity  for  500  bushels.  The  bottom  of  the  bins  slopes 
towards  the  main  floor,  and  is  ten  inches  above  it.  The  bins  have  a  free  circulation  of  air  on  every  side.  The  excavation  for  the 
structure,  including  that  in  the  yard,  is,  at  the  southwest  corner,  about  three  feet  in  depth,  and  graded  to  a  slope  of  one  foot 
in  forty  feet,  the  natural  slope  being  one  in  ten.  A  trench  is  dug  three  feet  wide  and  one  foot  below  the  grade,  and  filled  with 
broken  stone,  that  serves  as  a  drain,  upon  which  the  foundation  rests.  The  foundation  walls  are  built  of  stone.  The  first  floor  is 
divided  into  stables.  A  stairway  leads  to  floor  above,  and  there  is  also  a  place  for  harness.  The  forage  for  horses  is  put  into 
tubes  above.  The  floor  is  double  and  is  made  tight.  The  manure  is  dropped  through  a  trap-door  to  shed.  The  cost  of  the  en- 
tire structure  is  about  $1,200. 


£ 


7  r 
t 


DESIGN  IJ-*  CONVENIENT  BAKN. 


K~ 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 


7" 


A  CONVENIENT  BARN. -Design   13. 

This  is  the  plan  of  a  very  convenient  barn.  The  stone  wall  is  laid  in  mortar  and  painted.  The  frames  are  all  made  of  square 
timber  and  joists.  The  basement  is  dry,  sills  two  feet  from  the  ground.  Grain  bins  so  arranged  that  you  can  get  to  anyone  of  them, 
capable  of  storing  over  3,000  bushels,  and  four  root  bins,  which  will  store  800  bushels,  where  they  can  be  seen  at  any  time.  The 
basement  story  is  8  feet;  barn  posts  18  feet  long.  The  long  shed  is  25  feet  wide  and  64  feet  long ;  posts,  20  feet  East  shed  posts 
9  feet  long.    Enter  the  barn  from  the  north,  with  team  on  upper  floor. 


The  necessity  of 
furnishing  shelter  for 
sheep  in  a  northern 
climate  is,  we  sup- 
pose, universally  ac- 
knowledged, but  how 
much  is  necessary  for 
the  com  fort  and 
health  of  the  ani- 
mals, and  how  this  is 
best  obtained,  is  an 
open  question.  The 
accompanying  en- 
graving of  a  sheep 
barn   is  taken  from 


A  SHEEP  BARN  AND  SHEDS.-Design  (4. 


Randall' s  Sheep 
Hugandry.  With 
those  open  ends 
closed,  it  seems  to  be 
a  very  convenient  ar- 
rangement.  The 
barn  proper  is  used 
mainly  for  storing 
hay,  and  the  wings 
should  be  made  of 
sufficient  size  to  af- 
ford the  necessary 
room. 


^NOTEWORTHY  SUGGESTIONS.*- 


Having  introduced  to  the  reader  the  specific  plans,  etc.,  which 
will  guide  him  in  the  erection  of  a  home,  a  few  general  words 
of  advice  and  suggestion  will  be  in  order. 

It  will  be  well  to  remember  that  no  architect  allows  himself,  when 
planning  a  house,  to  be  guided  by  any  cast-iron  set  of  rules. 

A  house  is  a  good  deal  like  a  suit  of  clothes,  of  which  a  fair  fit  may 
be  obtained  at  the  ready-made  store,  while,  if  close-fitting  and  stylish 
garments  are  wanted,  the  man's  measure  is  taken  and  the  articles 
made  to  order.  In  the  country  care  should  be  taken  not  to  make  the 
house  too  high.  Ground  is  cheap,  and  a  home  in  the  country  which 
spreads  over  a  goodly  extent  of  ground  has  a  certain  air  of  elbow- 
room  and  capacity  about  it  that  the  most  magnificent  four-story  city 
dwelling  fails  to  possess. 

When  building  projections,  window  sills,  etc.,  take  care  to  provide 
a  "deep  molding"  underneath,  so  that  rain-waterwill  drip  off.  Oth- 
erwise it  will  gather  up  the  dust  upon  them  and  run  down  the  walls, 
leaving  mouldy  streaks  behind. 

Where  there  is  no  plumbing  in  the  house,  the  best  place  for  the 
bath-room  is  next  to  the  kitchen.  Have  the  range  placed  against  the 
bath-room  partition  and  place  a  large  tin  boiler  on  the  back  of  the 
range.  From  the  back  of  the  boiler  carry  a  faucet  through  the  parti- 
tion to  open  over  a  bath-tub.  By  this  means  the  carrying  of  water  to 
and  fro  is  dispensed  with.  To  discharge  the  water  from  the  bath,  run 
a  small  pipe  to  a  distance  of  twenty  feet  from  the  house  and  let  it  end 
there  in  a  large  hole  filled  in  with  loose  stones  and  covered  with  earth. 
The  water  when  discharged  into  this  hole  will  soak  away  into  the 
ground  and  do  no  harm,  as  it  is  not  polluted. 

To  avoid  rats  or  fire  spreading  through  a  house  it  is  advisable  to 
put  one  course  of  bricks  in  mortar  at  each  floor  level  in  all  the  fur- 
rings  and  partitions. 

For  the  finest  effect  of  foliage  use  trees  and  shrubbery  as  a  back- 
ground and  flanking  for  the  principal  building  Too  many  large  trees 
in  the  foreground  cut  off  the  view;  besides,  they  keep  out  the  sun- 


shine, prevent  free  atmospheric  circulation,  and  injure  the  house  by 
concentrating  upon  it  dampness  and  shade. 

When  a  low  site  for  a  dwelling  cannot  be  avoided  be  careful  to  have 
a  thorough  system  of  under-draining.  See  that  the  cellar-wall  is 
raised  considerably  above  the  ground  and  that  enough  soil  is  spread 
around  the  house  to  make  a  yard  which  will  shed  the  water  readily. 
In  a  case  of  this  kind  every  sanitary  advantage  offered  by  sun,  soil, 
shelter  and  prospect  should  be  carefully  improved. 

A  square  house  includes  more  space  within  a  given  length  of  wall 
than  any  rectangular  shape. 

Of  the  whole  house  the  front,  and  of  the  front  the  main  entrance, 
should  show  the  most  pains  in  the  direction  of  ornamentation. 

Care  in  the  disposition  of  rooms  will  save  thousands  of  steps  to 
those  who  do  the  house-work.  Kitchen  and  dining-room  should  al- 
ways be  adjoining  apartments.  The  dining-room  is  the  place  for  the 
china  closet.  A  wood-shed  connecting  with  the  kitchen  by  a  covered 
way  is  a  great  convenience  in  inclement  weather. 

A  multiplicity  of  closets  is  an  invaluable  boon  to  the  housewife. 

Frame  houses  exclude  the  cold  much  better  if  the  studding  is 
covered  with  tongued  and  grooved  sheathing,  and  this  in  turn  by 
tarred  paper,  the  weather-boarding  being  placed  over  the  whole.  The 
sheathing  and  weather-boarding  should  be  fitted  closely  around  door 
and  window  frames,  and  the  tarred  paper  allowed  to  lap  over  a  little 
where  a  crack  is  likely  to  occur. 

Where  ingrain  carpets,  usually  a  yard  wide,  are  to  be  used,  the  eco- 
nomical cutting  will  be  helped  by  having  either  the  length  or  breadth 
of  each  room  some  multiple  of  the  width,  as  fifteen  feet,  eighteen  fed , 
etc. 

The  difference  between  slate -roofing  and  shingles  is  about  two  cents 
per  square  foot,  and  where  the  former  is  used  the  difference  in  outlay 
purchases  practically  everlasting  durability,  a  fire-proof  roof,  and 
purer  rain  water  in  the  cistern. 

If  free  from  sap,  shingles  will  last  from  twenty  to  thirty  years. 

An  attic,  running  the  full  length  of  the  house,  with  windows  at  both 
ends,  will  prove  a  fine  drying-room  in  bad  weather. 


YL 


47 


l- 


K- 


712 


THE  LAWS  OF  ETIQUETTE. 


♦HI  5r?€  •  lift^S  g<— 

lllll*IMIIIIHIII>**tlllll««il«tmilllHIIII*<*l1 


^'^i 


-3H  ^.     i   'fi 


5*»- 


"  Gob  ihou  fotai-ufc  Mti»,  tut  atofvtuai&ness  fia» 
no  fozoi'UC.'He-ss  *w  tte&vcn  o-t  cartfi.    — Hawthorne. 


On  manners,  refinement,  good  breeding,  and  even  the  forms 
of  Etiquette,  we  are  forever  talking.  We  judge  our  neighbors 
severely  by  the  breach  of  written  or  traditional  laws,  and  choose 
our  society,  and  even  our  friends,  by  the  touchstone  of  courtesy. 
The  importance,  therefore,  of  a  thoroughly  systematized  code  of 
manners,  in  this  day  of  rapidly  widening  circles  of  society,  can 
scarcely  be  overestimated.  Men  are  continually  rising  from  the 
workshop  to  that  position  of  prominence  which  great  wealth,  in 
this  country  particularly,  invariably  insures.  A  few  words  as  to 
the  value  of  good  manners  may  not  be  out  of  place,  since  it  is 
too  often  the  habit  of  those  who  have  most  need  of  them  to 
undervalue  their  importance. 

The  true  spirit  of  good  manners  is  very  closely  allied  to  that 
of  good  morals.  No  stronger  proof  of  this  assertion  is  required 
than  the  fact  that  the  Messiah  himself,  in  His  great  moral 
teachings,  so  frequently  touches  upon  mere  manners.  He 
leaches  that  modesty  is  the  true  spirit  of  decent  behavior,  and 
openly  rebukes  the  forward  manner  of  His  followers  in  taking 
the  upper  scats  at  banquets  and  the  highest  scats  in  the  syna- 
gogues. In  condemning  the  habits  of  the  Pharisees,  it  was  not 
their  scrupulous  cleanliness  that  He  objected  to,  but  their  attach- 
ing too  much  importance  to  mere  form.  As  to  the  philosopher., 
although  they  were  seldom  distinguished  for  fine  manners  them- 
selves, they  did  not  f.iil  to  teach  the   im|x>rtance  of  them  to 


others.  Socrates  and  Aristotle  have  left  behind  them  a  series  of 
ethics  that  might  easily  be  turned  into  a  "  Guide  to  the  Com- 
plete Gentleman;"  and  Lord  Bacon  has  written  an  essay  on 
manners,  in  which  he  reminds  us  that  a  stone  must  be  of  very 
high  value  to  do  without  a  setting.  Johnson  doubtless  con- 
sidered himself  one  of  these  unset  gems  when  he  made  such  a 
speech  as  "  Sir,  you  are  a  fool,"  and  unfortunately  Johnson  has 
too  many  imitators  among  those  of  greatly  inferior  value. 

The  motive  in  cultivating  good  manners  has  too  often  been 
misrepresented  by  writers  upon  this  subject.  Chesterfield  states 
the  motive  for  politeness  to  be  a  desire  to  shine  or  to  raise  one's 
self  into  a  society  supposed  to  be  better  than  one's  own.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  state  that  Lord  Chesterfield's  good  manners,  fine 
as  they  appear,  have  not  the  ring  of  the  true  metal  about  them. 
Another  and  very  excellent  definition  of  Etiquette  is  :  "A  shield 
against  the  intrusion  of  the  impertinent,  the  improper  and  the 
vulgar."  But  a  man's  best  and  only  right  motUc  in  the  culti- 
vation of  good  manners  should  be  to  make  himself  better  than 
he  is,  to  render  himself  agreeable  to  every  one  with  whom  he 
has  to  do,  and  to  improve,  if  necessary,  the  society  in  which  he 
is  placed.  With  these  objects  in  view,  it  is  plainly  as  much  a 
moral  duty  to  cultivate  one's  manners  as  one's  mind,  and  no  one 
can  deny  that  a  man  is  a  better  citizen  for  being  a  gentleman  in 
the  sense  that  true  courtesy  makes  the  gentleman. 


k- 


7 


THE  ART  OF  CONVERSATION. 


7»3 


■{»■»♦  '»»♦  H» »  • '»  *  »  X  •  il  •» '» it  '1  'l'  I'  1' '» >P  i»  #  '!■ » '»  !■  I. '» 'Ii '» «■  '»■  '!■  'I. '!■■»■  .»■«■■;'  » 't  'i'  'I.  '!■  t  ^1' » '!■  it"!'  i»  'li  J'  *  »  » 'Ii  >»  i»  •  f  » 


*       1 


•••  of  •>  Con\/e/s 


0» 'Ii i| » 0 «' 0 'BOl  >  01  'I'  li 'Ii  l) '» 'I' 'T' '» 'I' 'I' 'I' '1  'T' '!■  'I' 'ti '» ■!' ■»■!' ■» m  'I' '»  I' ^> 'I' '* 'I  1  'I  *  'Ii  1  Ii  »  «  'I'  'I 'D » 'ji 'i' 't' 'I' 'Ii 'I' » '» » ^< i|< '» » ill i» 


fl 


m 


# 


^IpHS^HE  art  of  expressing  one's  thoughts  in  clear,  simple,  elegant 
English  is  one  of  the  first  to  be  attained  by  those  who  would 
mix  in  good  society.  You  must  talk,  and  talk  fairly  well,  if  you 
J  jT  would  not  altogether  fail  of  producing  some  kind  of  impression 
upon  society.  To  have  something  good  to  say,  and  to  say  it  in 
<n$J>         the  best  possible  manner,  is  to  ensure  success  and  admiration. 

The  first  thing  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  this  valuable  accomplish- 
ment is  a  good  education.  An  acquaintance  with  the  current  literature  of 
the  day  is  absolutely  essential  to  a  good  talker.  A  perfect  familiarity  with 
the  English  language,  its  grammar,  pronunciation,  etc.,  is  indispensable. 
Those  who  have  to  contend  with  a  lack  of  early  advantages  in  this  respect  can 
supply  the  deficiency  by  private  study,  and  close  observance  wherever  good 
English  is  spoken.  Above  all  should  the^  avoid  associating  with  those  who 
express  themselves  incorrectly  and  vulgarly. 

Nothing  is  so  infectious  as  a  bad  accent  or  incorrect  form  of  speech. 

AH  affectations  of  foreign  accent,  mannerisms,  exaggerations  and  slang 
are  detestable. 

Equally  to  be  avoided  are  inaccuracies  of  expression,  hesitation;  and  undue 
use  of  French  or  other  foreign  words,  and  anything  approaching  to  flip- 
pancy, coarseness,  triviality  or  prevarication. 

The  voice  should  never  be  loud,  no  gesticulation  should  accompany  the 
speech,  and  the  features  should  be  under  strict  control.  Nothing  is  more 
ill-bred  than  a  hall-opened  mouth,  a  vacant  stare,  a  wandering  eye  or  a 
smile  ready  to  break  into  a  laugh  at  any  moment.  Absolute  suppression  of 
emotion,  whether  of  anger,  laughter,  mortification  or  disappointment,  is  one 
of  the  most  certain  marks  of  good-breeding. 

Next  to  unexceptionable  grammar,  correct  elocution,  and  a  frank,  easy 
bearing,  it  is  necessary  to  be  genial.  If  you  cannot  be  animated,  sympathetic 
and  cheerful,  do  not  go  into  society.  Dull  and  stupid  people  are  but  so 
many  clogs  to  the  machinery  of  social  life. 

The  matter  of  conversation  is  as  important  as  the  manner.  Tact  and 
good  feeling  will,  in  people  of  sound  sense,  indicate  the  shoals  and  quick- 
sands to  be  avoided  in  conversation,  but  for  safety's  sake  it  will  be  best  to 
enumerate  a  few  of  them. 

Complimentary  speeches  should  be  avoided,  unless,  indeed,  so  delicately 
put  as  to  be  scarcely  discernible.  Flattery  is  suggestive  of  snobbery,  partic- 
ularly if  it  be  paid  to  people  of  great  wealth  and  high  position.  It  induces 
disgust  on  the  part  of  the  receiver,  and  insincerity  on  that  of  the  giver. 

The  habit  of  "  fishing  "  for  compliments  is  notably  vulgar,  and  it  is  one 
in  which  a  certain  class  of  vain  young  people  are  very  apt  to  indulge,  espe- 
cially among  themselves  in  private.  It  indicates  vanity  in  the  angler  and 
begets  contempt  on  the  part  of  the  one  who  from  interested  motives  nibbles 
gently  at  the  bait. 

All  "slang"  is  vulgar.  This  fact  cannot  be  too  forcibly  impressed  upon 
the  minds  of  the  young  people  of  this  day,  as  the  alarming  prevalence  of 
slangy  conversational  phrases  is  enough  to  cause  our  decorous  for«fathers 
and  mothers  to  rise  in  their  graves. 


Many  of  the  daughters  of  our  most  wealthy  and  influential  citizens  have  an 
idea  that  their  position  will  excuse  or  gloss  the  vulgarity  of  a  "  cant"  phrase 
now  and  then.  Nothing  was  ever  more  erroneous.  No  position,  however 
high,  can  excuse  the  vulgarity  of  this  practice,  and  it  is  a  grand  mistake  also 
to  imagine  slang  to  be  a  substitute  for  wit.  I  refer  particularly  to  this  habit 
among  young  ladies,  as  it  is  more  reprehensible  in  them  than  in  the  opposite 
sex,  although  it  indicates  bad  breeding  on  their  part  as  well. 

Scandal  should  be  avoided  above  all  things.  It  is  a  sin  against  morality 
as  well  as  good  taste. 

Punning  is  a  most  objectionable  habit  in  society.  An  inveterate  punster 
is  an  intolerable  bore,  and  unless  a  pun  amounts  to  a  positive  witticism  it 
should  never  be  propounded  in  company. 

Long  arguments  should  be  avoided  in  general  company.  They  become 
tiresome  to  the  hearers.  Always  endeavor  to  change  the  subject  after  it  has 
continued  a  reasonable  length  of  time. 

Religion  and  politics  are  two  subjects  to  be  avoided  in  general  conversa- 
tion. People  usually  have  strong  prejudices  on  both  these  points,  and  it  is  a 
rule  of  good  breeding  to  respect  the  prejudices  of  those  about  you. 

Never  interrupt  the  speech  of  another.  This  is  an  unpardonable  sin 
against  g"od  breeding. 

A  good  listener  is  more  to  be  desired  than  a  good  conversationalist.  In 
order  to  be  a  good  listener  you  must  appear  to  be  interested,  answer  appro- 
priately, briefly  and  to  the  point,  and  give  your  companion  generally  the 
impression  that  you  are  in  perfect  sympathy  with,  and  highly  entertained 
by,  what  he  is  saying. 

Avoid  pedantic  displays  of  learning. 

All  topics  specially  interesting  to  gentlemen,  such  as  the  farm  and  business 
matters  generally,  should  be  excluded  in  general  society. 

The  expression  of  immature  opinions  is  always  in  bad  taste.  Persons, 
young  or  old,  should  not  attempt  to  criticise  books  or  art  unless  positively 
certain  that  their  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  sufficient  to  justify  the  criticism. 

Be  very  careful  of  introducing  long-winded  anecdote  into  the  conversation. 
Nothing  is  more  awkward  than  to  find  an  array  of  bored  faces  when  one  is 
not  more  than  half  through  a  long  story. 

Repartee  should  be  indulged  in  only  moderately.  Otherwise  it  may 
degenerate  into  flippancy,  a  habit  much  to  be  condemned  in  a  certain  class 
of  young  ladies  who  think  themselves  unusually  clever,  or,  as  our  American 
word  goes,  '*  smart." 

In  using  titles,  such  as  "General,"  *'  Doctor,"  etc.,  you  must  always 
append  the  surname  if  you'are  a  stranger  or  any  other  than  a  most  intimate 
friend.  For  example,  you  should  say,  "  What  did  you  observe,  Doctor 
Gray  ?  "  not,  "  What  did  you  observe,  Doctor?"  Names  should  be  used  as 
little  as  possible,  and  never  familiarly.  Few  solecisms  give  greater  offense 
than  a  liberty  taken  with  a  name. 

In  addressing  a  person  of  title  in  England, "  My  Lord  "  and  "  My  Lady  " 
are  seldom  used  except  by  servants.  The  Prince  of  Wales  may  be  addressed 
as  "Sir,"  and  the  Queen  as  "  Madame."  A  Frenchman,  however,  what- 
ever his  rank,  is  addressed  as  "Monsieur,"  and  a  Frenchwoman,  whether 


duchess  or  dressmaker,  as  "Madame."  It  would  be  as  ill-bred  to  omit  to 
say  Monsieur,  Mein  Herr,  and  Signor,  in  France,  Germany  and  Italy, 
respectively,  as  it  would  to  say,  Sir,  Ma'am  and  Miss,  as  the  servants  do  in 
this  country. 

The  great  secret  of  talking  well  is  to  adapt  your  conversation  to  your 
company  as  skillfully  as  may  be. 

People  take  more  interest  in  their  own  affairs  than  in  anything  else  which 
you  can  name.  A  wise'  host  or  hostess  will,  then,  lead  a  mother  to  talk  of 
her  children,  an  author  of  his  book,  an  artist  of  his  picture,  etc.  Having 
furnished  the  topic,  you  have  but  to  listen,  and  acquire  a  reputation  for  being 
amiable,  agreeable,  intelligent  and  well-bred. 

If  you  would  not  be  unpopular,  do  not  always  be  witty,  no  matter  what 
your  natural  abilities  may  be  in  that  line.  People  do  not  like  to  be  always 
outshone. 

Do  not  too  officiously  supply  a  word  or  phrase  if  a  speaker  hesitate  for  a 
moment;  he  will  think  of  the  one  he  wants  or  supply  another  in  good  time. 

Never  correct  a  fault  in  pronunciation  or  in  facts,  in  company  or  in  pri- 
vate, if  you  wish  to  retain  a  friend. 

Avoid  such  colloquialisms  as  "  says  I,"  "you  know,"  and  other  senseless 
repetitions  that  might  be  mentioned.  Never  speak  of  a  person  as  "a  party," 
nor  refer  to  absent  persons  as  "  he  "  or  "  she."  Give  the  name  of  the  lady 
or  gentleman  referred  to. 

In  telling  a  joke,  do  not  laugh  yourself  before  the  point  is  reached.  If  the 
joke  be  original,  do  not  laugh  at  all. 

In  tite-&-t$te  conversation  it  is  ill-bred  to  drop  the  voice  to  a  whisper. 

Egotism  is  always  in  bad  taste.  Allow  others  the  privilege  of  proclaiming 
your  merits.  % 

Never  speak  of  personal  or  private  matters  in  general  company. 

Avoid  as  much  as  possible  beginning  a  conversation  with  stale  common- 
places, such  as,  "  It  is  a  fine  day,"  "  The  weather  is  charmin*:."  etc. 


Do  not  speak  slightingly  of  the  city  or  neighborhood  in  which  you  may  be 
visiting.  By  offending  the  prejudices  of  those  about  you,  you  reader  your- 
self extremely  disagreeable. 

Avoid  all  excitability  and  dogmatism  in  conversation.  Nothing  U  more 
annoying  than  to  converse  with  an  arrogant,  loud-speaking  person. 

Always  yield  the  point  in  conversation  if  you  find  the  argument  is  likely 
to  become  violent. 

Avoid  lavishing  praise  on  the  members  of  your  own  family.  It  is  almost 
as  bad  as  praising  yourself. 

It  is  exceedingly  bad  taste  to  parade  the  fact  that  you  have  travelled  in 
foreign  countries,  or  that  you  are  acquainted  with  distinguished  or  wealthy 
people,  that  you  have  been  to  college  or  that  your  family  is  distinguished  for 
gentility  and  blue  blood. 

In  speaking  of  husband  or  wife,  do  not  use  the  surname  alone.  '  To  say 
"  I  was  telling  Brown,"  is  extremely  vulgar.     Always  prefix  the  Mr. 

Always  endeavor  to  contribute  your  quota  to  the  general  conversation.  It 
is  as  much  your  duty  to  entertain  as  to  be  entertained.  Bashfulness  is  as 
much  to  be  avoided  as  too  much  assurance. 

Never  ask  questions  of  a  personal  nature,  such  as  what  a  certain  article  cost, 
or  why  so-and-so  did  not  go  to  the  opera.     They  are  decidedly  impertinent. 

Look  at  the  person  with  whom  you  are  conversing,  but  do  not  stare. 

Avoid  loud  laughter  in  society. 

If  you  carry  on  the  thread  of  a  conversation  after  the  entrance  of  a  visitor, 
you  should  always  recapitulate  what  has  been  said  before  his  or  her  arrival. 

Remember  that  "  an  excellent  thing  in  woman  is  a  voice  low  but  sweet," 
and  cultivate  a  distinct  but  subdued  tone. 

Emerson  says :  "  You  cannot  have  one  well-bred  man  without  a  whole 
society  of  such."  Elsewhere  he  says  :  "  It  makes  no  difference,  in  looking 
back  five  years,  how  you  have  dieted  or  dressed ;  but  it  counts  much 
whether  we  have  had  good  companions  in  that  time  —  almost  as  much  as 
what  we  have  been  doing." 


-^Bi^ 


Rde^  •:•  of  •:•  expectation 


§Sl 


AT   THE 


White  House,  at  the  English  Court  and  the  Papal  Court. 


HERE  is  very  little  ceremony  about  a  presentation  to  the  Chie 

'      Executive  of  the  United  States.     On  public  occasions  you  will 

simply  be  presented  by  the  master  of  ceremonies,  while  at  any 

other  time,  by  sending  in  your  card,  you  will  secure  the  desired 

interview. 


THE  COURT  OF  ENGLAND. 

The  wives  and  daughters  of  the  clergy,  of  military  and  naval  officers,  of 
physicians  and  barristers,  can  be  presented.  The  wives  and  daughters  of 
general  practitioners,  and  of  solicitors,  of  merchants,  and  of  all  business 
ni' -n,  with  the  exception  of  bankers,  arc  not  entitled  to  be  presented.  No 
divorced  woman  can  be  presented  to  the  Queen. 

A  lady  must  be  presented  by  another  lady,  and  a  gentleman  by  a  gentle- 
man. In  seeking  a  lady  for  a  sponsor,  it  should  be  remembered  that,  the 
higher  her  rank  and  social  standing,  the  better  for  the  one  presented. 

Any  lady  who  has  once  been  presented  at  court  can  present  others. 

All  wraps  arc  left  in  the  carriage  before  entering  the  palace 

Ax  her  name  is  called  by  the  Lord  Chamberlain  the  lady  advances  toward 


the  throne.     If  a  peeress,  the  Queen  kisses  her  forehead;  if 
the  Queen's  hand. 

On  leaving  the  royal  presence,  you  must  back  out. 

A  stranger  must  have  the  credential  of  the  American  Ambassador  in 
to  be  presented  at  the  English  court. 

THE  PAPAL  COURT. 


Foreigners  obtain  access  to  the  Pope  through  their  Ambassador. 

Ladles  very  seldom  have  private  audience  of  the  Pope. 

The  lady's  toilette,  be  the  audience  public  or  private,  must  always  consist 
of  Mack  dress,  long  black  veil  and  white  gloves. 

When  the  Pope  enters  the  gallery  where  those  to  be  presented  arc  collected, 
ihey  fall  on  their  knees,  and  do  not  rise  until  bidden, 

(lentlemtn  RAMI  on  one  knee, and  do  not  rise  until  desired  to  do  so. 

The  proper  form  uf  address  in  English  is  "  Your  Holiness." 

It  is  best  to  consult  some  local  authority  upon  the  etiquette  of  many  petty 
courts,  as  the  rules  arc  frequently  much  complicated. 

The  lady  must  always  be  in  full  dress,  and  the  gentleman  in  black  clothes, 
white  cravat  and  gloves. 


kL 


'. 


A? 


ETIQUETTE  OF  SALUTATION. 


715 


Tf 


^N 


'"N  a  rude  state  of  society  every  salutation  was  an  act  of  worship.  The 
commonest  acts,  phrases  and  signs  of  courtesy  with  which  we  are  now 
familiar,  date  from  those  earlier  times  when  the  inferior  demonstrated 
his  allegiance  by  acts  of  servility.  Our  modern  bow  is  a  modified 
prostration.  Rising  and  standing  are  acts  of  homage.  Removing  the 
^y^    glove  on  shaking  hands  is  a  custom  handed  down  from  feudal  times. 

FORMS  OF  SALUTATION. 

Theforms  of  salutation  common  in  America  are  bowing,  hand-shaking,  kiss- 
ing, and  words  of  address. 

Acquaintances  of  every 
degree  of  intimacy,  from 
the  closest  to  the  slightest, 
are  entitled  to  a  bow. 
It  is  an  act  of  discourtesy 
to  refuse  any  one,  no  mat- 
ter how  lowly  his  station, 
the  recognition  of  a  bow. 

When  recognizing  their 
gentlemen  acquaintances, 
ladies  should  make  a 
graceful  inclination.  It  is 
the  privilege  of  a  lady  to 
recognize  the  gentleman 
first. 

To  a  casual  acquaint- 
ance it  is  not  necessary 
to  do  more  than  bow,  but 
an  intimate  friend  should 
be  more  cordially  greeted. 

Never  fail  to  return  a 
bow.  It  is  extremely  rude 
to  refuse  to  recognize  a 
salutation  of  this  kind. 

A  pleasant,  cordial  man- 
ner, without  undue  fa- 
miliarity, in  recognizing 
acquaintances,  conduces 
greatly  toward  a  genial 
and  friendly  feeling,  and 
is  therefore  worthy  of  cul- 
tivation. The  custom  of 
nodding  to  every  one  you  meet,  in  thinly  settled  neighborhoods,  is  a  very 
pleasant  one,  as  it  evinces  kindliness  of  feeling,  and  should  be  generally 
followed  out. 

If  a  gentleman  is  smoking  when  he  meets  a  lady,  he  should  remove  the 


SALUTATION  IN  THE  STREET. 


cigar  from  his  mouth   in  bowing.     None  but  a   boor  will  puff  a  cloud  of 

tobacco  smoke  in  the  face  of  a  lady  who  is  honoring  him  with  a  salutation. 
Etiquette  requires  a  gentleman  to  raise  his  hat  from  his  head  in  bowing  to 

a  lady.     If  passing  on  the  street,  the  hand  farthest  from  the  lady  should  be 

used  in  removing  the  hat. 

If  on  horseback,  the  gentleman   seizes  whip  and  reins  in  the  left  hand 

and  uses  the  right  for  making  the  salute. 

When  a  gentleman,  accompanied  by  a  friend,  meets  a  lady  acquaintance, 

the  friend  should  bow  also,  whether  acquainted  with  the  lady  or  not. 
A  gentleman  should  return  a  bow  made  him  on  the  street,  even  if  he  does 

not  recognize  the  person 
saluting  him.  It  maybe 
a  mistake,  but  it  is  only 
courteous  to  spare  the  per- 
son saluting  as  much  em- 
barrassment as  possible. 

On  meeting  a  number 
of  persons  together,  with 
some  of  whom  you  are 
slightly,  with  others  inti- 
mately, acquainted,  you 
should  greet  all  alike.  To 
gush  exuberantly  over  one 
and  bow  stiffly  to  another, 
would  be  making  a  dis- 
tinction that  could  not  fail 
to  be  remarked,  and  might 
wound  the  feelings. 

A  gentleman  should  not 
bow  from  a  window  to  a 
lady,  but  if  a  lady  recog- 
nize him  from  a  window, 
he  should  return  the  salu- 
tation. It  is  best,  how- 
ever, for  a  lady  to  avoid 
such  recognitions  as  much 
as  possible.  It  is  not  in 
the  best  taste  for  a  lady  to 
sit  sufficiently  near  her 
windows  to  recognize  and 
be  recognized  by  those 
passing  on  the  street, 
A  gentleman,  if  brought 

into  close  proximity  with  a  lady  in  a  hallway,  on  a  stairway,  or  anywhere 

of  the  kind,  should  recognize  her  presence  by  a  bow.     In  going  up  stairs, 

the  gentleman  should  precede  the  lady.     In  coming  down,  the  gentleman 

should  give  the  lady  precedence  with  a  bow. 


•fe 


"8  V 


IV 


716 


CARDS  — WHEN,  WHERE  AND  HOW  TO  USE  TIII'.M. 


x-fx+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+xx+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+x 


h»i  *  c-ei-R-p- 


/l\ 


x+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+xx+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+x+x 

* —% 


©y/fien,  ©y/Rere  arjo  JToco  fo  LUe  Iftem, 


|0  a  refined  and  cultivated  person  the  visiting-card  is  indicative  of 
the  personal  characteristics  of  the  person  whose  name  it  bears. 
Its  quality  should  be  of  the  finest ;  in  color  white  (not  cream'), 
and  in  shape  it  should  be  long  and  narrow.      Gilt  bevel  and  col- 
ored designs  are  never  used  by  refined  society. 

The  visiiing  card  of  a  married  lady  should  be  in  size  a  little 
larger  than  that  of  "  Miss,"  and  engraved  in  pure,rich  script : 

Or,  with  reception  days: 

For  young  ladies  the  cards  should  be  engraved  in  a  lighter  script  than  that 
of  "  Mrs."     For  the  eldest  daughter  the  last  name  only  should  be  used ; 


With  or  without  the  address. 
For  other  than  the  eldest  daughter,  the  full  name;  as  : 

XvlA   Q^VWA/   ^A/iAfy. 

Mother  and  daughters  calling  together,  the  engraving  is  on  a  card   in  size 
between  the  "Mr.  and  Mrs."  and  "Mist": 


Or: 


The  form  "  Mr.  and  Mrs."  is  used  only  a  short  time  alter  marriage. 
The  engraving  should  be  in  bold,  rich  script : 

3tar.  b  &M>.  ^cvqaU&  ^>Maj|s 

On  all  formal  occasions,  married  ladies  should  leave  their  husbands*  card* 
with  their  own  when  calling. 

The  handsomest  style  of  cards  is  that  which  is  engraved,  but  H  h  p— ^**- 
sible  for  persons  to  write  their  own  cards  if  they  can  write  prettily. 

A  gentleman's  cards  should  be  small,  fine  in  texture,  and  of  five  or  six  ply, 
and  always  white  in  color.  The  "Mr."  should  be  prefixed  in  every 
instance ;   as  : 


Or,  with  club  address: 


vv§  ^W  ty. 


Xr.  ^cvoaU^  <S(0\U|. 


Or: 


A  physician  may  have  his  professional  title;  as : 
Officers  of  the  army  and  navy  may  have  their  titles  : 


-\ 


a_ 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  TABLE. 


717 


"71 


sl@3^S 


Ehi^uethe  *  of •> t^e  *  (©able  * 


*** 


If'HE  etiquette  of  the  dinner-table  should  be  mastered  by  all  who 
aspire  to  the  entrie  of  good  society. 

Ease,  savoir-faire    and  good  breeding  are   nowhere    more 
indispensable  than  at  the  dinner-table,  and  the  absence  of  them 
is  nowhere  more  apparent.     How  to  eat  soup  and  what  to  do 
with  cherry-stones  are  weighty  considerations  when  taken  as  the 
Index  of  social  status. 

No  greater  test  of  the 
culture,  refinement  and 
good  breeding  of  a  person 
can  be  found  than  the 
dinner  hour.  In  the  fol- 
lowing rules,  therefore, 
will  be  found  a  brief  com- 
pendium of  the  most  ap- 
proved etiquette  of  the 
table,  which  those  who 
have  not  had  the  educa- 
tional advantages  of  po- 
lite society  will  do  well 
to  read  and  **  inwardly 
digest." 


OF — 

Conduct  at  TaMe. 


EAT  yourself  in 

an  upright  posi- 

l  tion— not  too  close 

to  nor  yet  too  far 

from  the  table. 

Take  your  napkin,  par- 
tially unfold  it  and  lay  it 

across  your  lap.    It  is  not  the  correct  thing  to  fasten  it  in  your  button- 
hole or  spread  it  over  your  breast. 

Do  not  trifle  with  your  knife  or  fork,  or  drum  on  the  table,  or  fidget  in 
any  way,  while  waiting  to  be  served. 


CORRECT  DINNER  TABLE 


Keep  your  hands  quietly  In  your  lap,  your  mind  composed  and  pleasantly 
fixed  upon  the  conversation.  Let  all  your  movements  be  easy  and  delib- 
erate.    Undue  haste  indicates  a  nervous  lack  of  ease. 

Should  grace  be  said,  you  will  give  the  most  reverent  attention  in  respect- 
ful silence  during  the  ceremony. 

Exhibit  no  impatience  to  be  served.     During  the  intervals  between  the 

courses  is  your  opportu- 
nity for  displaying  your 
conversational  abilities  to 
those  sitting  near  you. 
Pleasant  chat  and  witty 
remarks  compose  the  best 
possible  sauce  to  a  good 
dinner. 

Eat  slowly  ;  it  will  con- 
tribute to  yourgood  health 
as  well  as  your  good  man- 
ners. Thorough  mastica- 
tion of  your  food  is  neces- 
sary to  digestion.  An 
ordinary  meal  should  oc- 
cupy from  thirty  minutes 
to  an  hour. 

You  may  not  desire  the 
soup,  which  is  usually 
the  first  course,  but  you 
should  not  refuse  to  take 
it.  You  can  eat  as  much 
or  as  little  as  you  please, 
but  you  would  look  awk- 
ward sitting  with  nothing 
before  you  while  the  others 
are  eating. 

When  eating  soup,  take 
it  from  the  side  of  the 
spoon,  and  avoid  making 
any  noise  in  so  doing. 
Should  you  be  asked  by 
the  host  what  part  of  the  fowl  you  prefer,  always  have  a  choice,  and 
mention  promptly  which  you  prefer.  Nothing  is  more  annoying  than  to 
have  to  serve  two  or  three  people  who  have  no  preferences  and  will  take 
"anything." 


/_ 


_M 


rr 


yi8 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  TABLE. 


~ 


Never  place  waste  matter  on  the  table-cloth.     The  side  of  your  plate,  or 
hes  that  have  contained  sauces  or  vegetables,  will  answer  as  a  recep- 
tacle for  bones,  potato  skins,  etc. 

Vou  will  use  your  fork  to  convey  all  your  food  to  your  mouth,  except  it 
may  be  certain  sauces  that  would  be  more  conveniently  eaten  with  a  spoon. 
For  instance,  you  should  not  attempt  to  eat  peas  with  a  fork.  If  you  are 
not  provided  with  a  spoon,  ask  for  one. 

knife  is  used  only  for  cutting  meat  and  other  articles  of  food,  for 
spreading  butter  upon  the  bread,  etc. 


-Hie HOW  TO  SET  THE  TABLE*-*- 

OUR  dining-table  should  be  round  or  oblong. 

Use  only  the  whitest  and  finest  of  linen.      Let  your  silver  and 
cutlery  be  highly  polished,  and  your  glass  and  china  rubbed  until 
they  fairly  shine.     Your  table  will  then  present  a  brilliant  and  ele- 
gant appearance. 

For  ordinary  home  oc- 
ifll  you  will  put  at 
each  person's  place  a 
knife  and  fork,  napkin, 
salt-cup  and  goblet.  The 
order  of  arrangement  is 
according  to  one's  taste. 

The  plates,  if  not 
brought  in  afterward  by 
a  servant,  are  piled  up 
at  the  right  hand  of  the 
host.  The  gentleman  of 
the  house  occupies  the 
seat  at  the  side  of  the 
table  in  the  center;  op- 
posite him  is  seated  his 
wife  or  whatever  lady 
occupies  the  position  as 
head  of  hU  household. 
In  front  of  paterfamilias 
is  placed  the  joint  for 
carving.  In  front  of  the 
mistress  of  the  house  is 
the  tray  containing  the 
tea  and  coffee  cups.  The 
stde-dishes  arc  disposed 
i. id  the  tabic  accord- 
ing to  taste. 

In  the  contra  is  usually 
placed  the  carter,  con- 
taining bottles  filled  with 
various  condiments,  such 
as  red  and  black  pepper, 
vinegar,  oil,  etc.   A  good 


acquired  only  by  practice.  It  would  be  well,  therefore,  if  young  ladies  and 
gentlemen  were  more  frequently  initiated  into  the  art  while  at  home,  so  that 
they  might  find  it  less  awkward  when  obliged  to  do  it  at  their  own  tablet. 


-#23+  DINNER-GIVING  «==§*■ 


A 


v.\  \  \  \ 


INCORRECT  DINNER  TABLE. 


housekeeper  will  tee  that  these  bottles  are  always  kept  well  filled. 

FsabJoii,  however,  who  Ik  at  best  but  a  fickle  jade,  has  decreed  of  late 
that  the  old-time  caster  be  abolished,  and  in  place  thereof  you  shall  stand 
porton'l  pi  u:e  a  small  ornamental  pepper-bottle  in  addition  to  the 
and  other  articles,  while  the  oil  and  vinegar  shall  be  placed  in 
handsome  pitcher-shaped  bottles  of  cut-glass  and  disposed  at  each  end  of 
■  Me. 
la  arranging  the  table,  too,  whether  for  the  family  alone  or  for  ceremonial 
occasions,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  individual  taste  of  the  lady  of 
tM  may  be  brought  into  play  with  excellent  effect.     General  rides,  of 
course,  will  be  followed ;  but  results  of  one  who  has  naturally  an  anistic 
eye  for  those  things  will  be  very  different  from  the  work  of  one  wt> 
has  never  been  trained  to  harmonising  Una  and  colors. 

As  it  is  customary  at  the  mere  family  dinner  to  have  the  carving  done 
upon  the  table,  it  is  very  essential  that  the  master  of  the  house  should  thor- 
oughly understand  how  to  carve  meat ;   and  expeditious  carving  may  be 


N  invitation  to  dinner  is  the  highest  social  compliment,  and  should 
be  so  received  and  treated. 

While  nearly  all  other  social  invitations  are  given  in  the  i 
the  hostess  alone  the  invitation  to  dinner  is  given  in  the  joint  n 
of  host  and  hostess. 

The  host,  in  this  case,  occupies  the  position  of  chief  entertainer.     It  is 

his  duty  to  go  first  to  the  dining-room,  taking  the  principal  lady  guest  on 

his  right  arm  and  giving  her  the  seat  of  honor  on  his  right  hand.     He  is 

expected,  too,  to  contribute  much  to  the  entertainment  of  the  guests. 

A  good  dinner  does  not  consist  alone  of  the  meat  and  drinks,  although 

they  must  also  be  con- 
sidered, but  of  the  prop- 
er seating  of  the  guests 
at  table,  of  the  etiquette 
to  be  observed  toward 
them,  and  the  perfection 
of  arrangement  in  gen- 
eral. 

Many  ladies  who  give 
dinners  observe  the  habit 
of  keeping  a  book  in 
which  they  record  the 
name  of  every  guest 
whom  they  have  dined, 
the  names  of  their  neigh- 
bors at  other  dinner  par- 
ties, and  the  names  of 
hosts  to  whom  they  owe 
return  dinners  ;  for  this 
is  an  attention  which 
must  be  returned  by  those 
who  pretend  to  go  in 
society.  This  record  is 
convenient  for  reference 
in  arranging  for  guests  at 
another  dinner. 

The  hostess  attends  to 
the  writing  and  sending 
out  of  invitations.  The 
form  of  invitation,  which 
should  be  printed  from 
engraved  plates  on  square 
cards  with  stamped  or 
illuminated  crest  on  the 
top  centre,  is  as  follows : 


\   \   \   \   \ 


\ 


K 


ETIQUETTE   OP   THE  TABLE. 


719 


i5— 1 


"7f 


The  spaces  containing  guest's  name  and  date  are  left  blank  on  the 
engraved  card  and  are  filled  out  in  writing.  When  the  dinner  is  given  in 
honor  of  some  distinguished  guest,  the  fact,  with  the  guest's  name,  is  also 
placed  upon  the  card  of  invitation. 

Invitations  to  dinner  should  be  accepted  or  declined  immediately.  Never 
let  more  than  a  day  pass  before  writing  a  note  of  reply,  in  which  you  posi- 
tively accept  or  decline  the  invitation.  There  is  no  greater  rudeness  than 
neglecting  to  observe  this  rule.  The  form  of  acceptance  ot  an  invitation  to 
dinner  is  : 


>wJoX>    ^^UyJ^-,  XowW>|    vav^vvi^., 

Or,  declining,  the  form  is : 

K&  Skwvwr.,  >)K/Oam1qav  va-wwwo/.,  y^w- 
-\wxAajjj  <i>wyvv&- 


These  should  be  written  on  square  cards,  with  monogram  or  crest  stamped 
on  the  top  centre. 

The  hostess  having  selected  the  ladies  whom  the  gentlemen  are  to  escort 
to  dinner,  their  names  are  written  on  a  small  card,  with  crest  or  monogram 
in  the  upper  left-hand  corner;  the  card  is  enclosed  in  envelope  of  appropri- 
ate size,  and  superscribed  with  the  gentleman's  name  who  is  to  be  the  lady's 
escort.  These  cards  are  placed  on  a  table  in  the  gentlemen's  dressing-room. 
*  Dinner  cards,  with  guest's  name  placed  at  each  plate,  designate  the  seats 
at  the  table. 

The  dinner  card  is  kept  as  a  souvenir  of  the  occasion,  and  each  hostess 
endeavors  to  procure  the  most  unique  and  beautiful  designs  in  decoration. 
Hand-painted  cards  are  very  popular.  There  should  be  no  two  alike,  and 
each  should,  as  near  as  possible,  represent  some  personal  characteristic  of 
the  guest  whose  name  it  bears. 

The  invitations  should  be  sent  a  fortnight  in  advance.  Many  ladies  drive 
to  the  houses  of  the  guests  and  have  the  footman  deliver  the  invitations,  to 
be  certain  that  they  reach  their  destination  properly.  The  English  transmit 
theirs  through  the  mail,  but  that  plan  is  not  usually  adopted  on  this  side 
of  the  water. 

It  is  not  best  to  invite  too  many  members  of  one  family,  but  It  is  highly 
improper  to  ask  the  husband  without  the  wife,  or  the  wife  without  the  hus- 
band. 

Punctuality,  always  a  necessary  courtesy,  is  specially  required  at  a  dinner 
party.  One  author  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  if  you  do  not  reach  the  house 
until  dinner  is  served,  it  is  better  to  retire  and  send  an  apology  than  to 
interrupt  the  harmony  of  the  courses  by  awkward  excuses  and  cold  accept- 
ance. 

Within  five  minutes  of  the  dinner  hour  is  a  good  time  for  arriving. 


Husband  and  wife  should  not  enter  the  reception-room  arm-in-arm,  as 
that  is  considered  vulgar.  The  wife  should  go  first,  and  the  husband  follow 
her  into  the  room.  A  servant  is  stationed  near  the  door  to  open  it  for  the 
lady  and  announce  her  to  the  host  and  hostess,  who  stand  near  each  other 
ready  to  receive  their  guests.  If  necessary  the  host  introduces  the  guests  to 
his  wife,  as  it  often  happens,  particularly  at  official  dinners  at  Washington, 
that  she  is  not  acquainted  with  them. 

The  gentleman,  having  read  on  his  card  the  name  of  the  lady  whom  he  is 
to  escort,  if  he  does  not  know  her,  will  request  the  hostess  to  introduce  him, 
and  will  begin  a  little  conversation  with  her  before  dinner  is  announced. 

"The  hostess  will  shake  hands  with  each  guest  upon  his  or  her  arrival. 

As  there  is  no  question  of  rank  to  determine  precedence  in  America,  the 
lady  to  be  taken  in  first  is  the  one  to  whom  the  dinner  is  given.  In  case 
there  is  no  guest  of  honor,  the  oldest  lady  in  the  room  is  the  one  chosen  for 
the  honor. 

If  a  dinner  party  be  short  of  gentlemen,  there  should  be  no  effort  to  go  in 
in  order;  but  the  host,  offering  his  arm  to  some  lady,  will  request  the  others 
to  follow,  which  they  will  do  without  regard  to  order,  the  hostess  bringing 
up  the  rear. 


♦#  The  Duties  of  a  Hostess  at  a  Dinner*-*- 

HE  should  use  a  woman's  tact  in  placing  her  guests  so  that  those 
who  may  prove  agreeable  to  each  other  shall  be  placed  in  the  same 
neighborhood.  She  shall  also  adroitly  start  the  conversation  for 
them,  and  by  well-directed  remarks  assist  the  diffident  and  remind 
the  selfish  glouton  that  she  is  observant  of  him.  The  hostess'  man- 
ner should  present  a  simple  dignity  and  an  equal  interest  in  all  her  guests. 
If  she  observe  some  one  lingering  over  his  plate,  she  shall  appear  to  be 
eating,  so  that  he  may  not  make  the  mortifying  discovery  that  he  is  the  last 
to  be  eating. 

A  ready  wit  and  a  merry  laugh  are  great  aids  to  a  hostess  in  entertaining 
a  party  of  this  description. 

Ceremonious  dinners  in  the  large  cities  are  all  served  nowa  la  Russe;  that 
is,  nothing  is  put  on  the  table  but  the  dessert,  and  all  the  other  viands  are 
served  in  courses  by  waiters.  This  mode  has  a  decided  advantage  over  the 
old  method  of  putting  the  meats  and  vegetables  on  together,  as  it  does  away 
with  the  awkwardness  and  confusion  of  carving  and  serving,  and  keeps  the 
table  in  a  much  neater  condition. 

The  modern  dinner  table  is  made  very  attractive  by  an  elaborate  display 
of  cut-flowers,  which,  taken  with  the  requisite  cut-glass  and  beautifully 
decorated  china  now  in  use,  give  an  aesthetic  aspect  to  what  might  be  other- 
wise merely  the  gratification  of  a  sensual  appetite. 


^^  Habits  to  be  Avoided  at  Table  p^>, 

O  not  eat  fast. 

Do  not  make  noise  with  mouth  or  throat. 
Do  not  fill  the  mouth  too  full. 
Do  not  open  the  mouth  in  masticating. 
Do  not  leave  the  table  with  food  in  your  mouth. 
Be  careful  to  avoid  soiling  the  cloth. 
Never  carry  anything  like  food  with  you  from  the  table. 
Never  apologize  to  the  waiters  for  making  them  trouble ;  it  is  their  busi- 
ness to  serve  you.     It  is  proper,  however,  to  treat  them  with  courtesy,  and 
say  "  No,  I  thank  you,"  or  "  If  you  please,"  tn  answer  to  their  inquiries. 
Do  not  introduce  disgusting  or  unpleasant  topics  of  conversation. 
Do  not  pick  your  teeth  or  put  your  finger  in  your  mouth  at  the  table. 
Do  not  come  to  table  in  your  shirt-sleeves,  or  with  soiled  hands  or  tousled 
hair. 

Do  not  cut  your  bread  ;  break  it. 

Do  not  refuse  to  take  the  last  piece  of  bread  or  cake ;  it  looks  as  though 
you  imagined  there  might  be  no  more. 

Do  not  express  a  preference  for  any  part  of  a  dish  unless  asked  to  do  so. 


*r 


"rr 


720 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  BALL  AND  PARTY. 


yf 


[♦♦HlllllimilllllMIIMtHIIIIMIIIIIIIIHHIIIMIIW* 

!|  Eti®jaette of  t^e^all  ^<^ai®ty. 


£->;' 


* 


liit>i< 


,*>«'2*3']j['t'SMt'> 


N  invitation  to  a  ball  signifies  that  the  entertainment  is  exclusively 
fl-j^  -°r  dancing. 

The  invitations  to  a  ball  should  be  delivered  by  a  footman  at 
B  f£A  X&   least  two  weeks  before  the  evening  appointed,  and  should  receive 
I  >t-    i   ,ni  imnwdfata  umrcr, 
**p-  These  invitations  are  from  engraved  plates,  on  note  sheets,  and 

white  in  color.    They  are  worded  thus  : 

ox 

The  form  of  acceptance  or  declination  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  dinner 
invitations,  substituting  "  ball  "  for  "  dinner." 

The  first  requisites  for  a  pleasant  ball  are  good  rooms,  good  music  and 
plenty  of  good  company.  No  one  should  attempt  to  give  an  entertainment 
of  this  sort  without  being  fully  prepared  for  considerable  expenditure  of 
time,  money  and  patience.  If  you  wish  your  friends  to  enjoy  the  dancing, 
you  must  give  them  good  music,  a  good  floor,  and  plenty  of  good  and  suit* 
able  partners.  The  supper,  to  be  enjoyable,  must  be  well  served  and  , 
abundant  in  quantity. 

As  you  wish  your  ball  to  be  the  event  of  the  season,  you  must  have  your 
rooms  handsomely  decorated.  An  abundance  of  cut  flowers  should  be 
artistically  scattered  around,  with  here  and  there  a  tropical  plant  in  hall  and 
ball-room,  on  the  stairs,  in  recesses,  and  wherever  they  can  conveniently  be 
pi. 1.  td  with  good  effect  and  not  be  in  the  way.  The  fire-places  should  be 
screened  by  flowers  In  summer  and  by  guards  in  winter,  unless  heaters  are 
in  use,  in  which  case  the  latter  precaution  is  unnecessary.  By  the  help  of 
screens  and  flowers  it  is  easy  to  arrange  a  small  gallery  for  the  musicians,  so 
that  they  shall  be  heard  and  not  seen. 

A  refreshment-room,  a  dressing-room  for  the  ladies,  and  one  for  the  gentle- 
men, should  be  provided. 


Ladies  will  attend  a  ball  in  elegant  and  elaborate  evening  dress.  Gentle- 
men will  appear  in  full  evening  dress. 

A  prudent  hostess  will  limit  her  invitations  to  the  size  of  her  ball-room,  in 
order  not  to  overcrowd  her  rooms  and  spoil  the  pleasure  of  the  dancers.  It 
Is  safe  to  issue  a  few  more  invitations  than  you  can  accommodate,  on  the 
chance  of  a  number  not  appearing  on  the  arrival  of  the  evening. 

The  most  favorable  room  for  dancing  is  one  which  is  near'.y  square,  but 
rather  longer  than  wide.  Such  a  room  will  admit  of  two  quadrille  parties 
at  once. 

The  top  of  a  ball-room  is  the  part  nearest  the  orchestra.  It  is  well  to 
know  this,  as  in  dancing  the  top  couples  always  lead  off. 

A  good  floor  is  highly  important.  In  private  houses  nothing  is  better  than 
a  good  Holland  floor-cloth  well  stretched  over  the  carpet. 

I  .ct  there  be  an  abundance  of  light  and  good  ventilation  in  your  ball-room. 

Good  music  is  as  essential  at  a  ball  as  good  wine  at  dinner,  and  no  hottana 
should  tax  her  guests  for  this  entertainment.  Very  few  amateurs  can  play 
dance  music  well.  Besides  that,  no  one  wants  to  be  tied  to  the  piano  all  the 
evening  playing  while  others  are  dancing.  For  this  reason,  a  hostess  should 
provide  skilled  musicians  to  play  for  her  guests. 

It  is  customary  to  provide  three  pieces  for  dancing:  a  piano  and  two 
violins,  or  piano,  cornet  and  violin.  Sometimes  the  harp  and  violins  only 
arc  used. 

The  ladies"  toilet-room  should  be  well  supplied  with  mirrors,  pins,  needles 
and  thread  for  repairing  rents,  and  plenty  of  attendants  to  assist  the  fair  ones 
at  their  toilets.  It  is  well  to  check  wraps  and  give  a  duplicate  check  to  each 
lady. 

The  supper  hour  is  usually  from  12  to  1  o'clock,  and  the  hour  of  departing 
from  a  to  3  a.m.  The  style  of  the  supper  is  apt  to  be  regulated  by  the 
wealth  of  the  host.  If  he  have  ample  means  it  is  customary  to  put  the 
whole  thing  in  the  hands  of  a  caterer,  and  have  it  served  up  in  good  style, 
with  all  the  extra  appliances  of  salads,  oysters,  fancy  ices,  coffees,  wines 
and  fruits,  and  cakes  of  every  description. 

If  the  supper  be  home-made,  coffee  and  sandwiches,  with  fniit.  and  two  or 
three  kinds  of  ices  and  cake,  are  all-sufficient.  There  should  always  be  an 
abundance  provided,  however,  as  dancers  are  usually  hungry  people. 

No  one  sits  down  to  a  ball  supper.  If  seats  are  ranged  around  the  room 
for  the  ladies,  the  gentlemen  stand. 

Carpet  should  be  laid  from  the  edge  of  the  pavement  to  the  doorway,  and 
if  the  evening  be  wet,  a  temporary  covering  should  be  erected  tor  the  protec- 
tion of  the  ladies  in  passing  from  their  carriages  to  the  house. 

A  gentleman  should  not  accept  an  invitation  to  a  ball  if  he  does  not  dance, 
as  it  Is  an  act  of  positive  neglect  for  gentlemen  to  hold  themselves  aloof  when 
ladies  are  waiting  anxiously  for  an  invitation  to  dance,  and  attempt  to 
dance  without  a  knowledge  of  the  art  is  not  only  to  make  yourself  ridku- 
lous,  but  your  partner  as  well. 


<  « -*■ 


\ 


7? 


^v 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  GERMAN,  RECEPTIONS,  ETC. 


721 


■He  GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  #<- 

IT   is   folly  to  attempt  to  dance  a  figure  with  which  you  are  unac- 
quainted.    In  round  dances,  hold  the  lady's  hand  easily  at  the  side, 
but  do  not  place  it  behind  you,  nor  raise  it  high  in  the  air.     In  quad- 
rilles, a  knowledge  of  the  French  terms  employed   is  necessary  in 
only  the  very  choicest  circles.    These  are  : 
Balancez. — Swing  partners. 
Balancez  aux  coins. — Swing  corners. 
Balancez  quatre  en  ligne. — Set  four  in  a  line. 
Chaine  Anglaise.—  Head  couples  right  and  left. 
Ckaine  Anglaise  double.—  Double  right  and  left. 
Chaine  Anglaise  demi.—  Half  right  and  left. 
Chaine  des  dames, —  Ladies'  chain. 
•  Chaine  des  dames  double. —  Ladies'  chain  beginning  together. 
Chaine  la  grande. — Grand  right  and  left. 


Chassez. —  Move  to  right  and  left  or  to  left  and  right. 

Chassez  croisaz, —  Ladies  and  gentlemen  chassez  in  opposite  directions. 

Cavalier  seul. —  Gentlemen  advance  alone. 

Demi  Promenade. —  All  half  promenade. 

Dos  ados. —  Back  to  back. 

Glissade. —  A  gliding  step. 

La  grande  ronde. —  All  join  hands  and  advance  and  retire  twice. 

La  grande  tour  du  rond. —  Join  hands  and  dance  round  figure. 

La  grande  promenade . —  All  promenade  round  figure. 

Le  moulinet. —  Hands  across. 

Demi-moulinet. —  Ladies  advance  to  center,  give  right  hand  and  retire. 

Traversez. —  Opposite  persons  change  places. 

Re-traversez. —  Cross  back  to  place. 

Vis-a-vis. —  Face  to  face. 

Be  not,  while  dancing,  confined  to  observations  concerning  the  weather 
or  the  number  of  people  present ;  but  having  asked  a  lady  to  dance,  be  at 
agreeable  to  her  as  possible. 


4^B&- 


Etiquette  of  (©he  German,  Receptions 


— s- 


AND  PARTIES  IN  GENERAL. 


THE  GERMAN 

||USTOM  decides  that  no  lady's  series  ot  entertainments  are  com- 
plete without  "  the  prime  favorite." 

Young  ladies  are  now  much  accustomed  to  forming  social  clubs, 
with  pretty,  suggestive  names,  which  meet  at  the  houses  of  the 
different  members. 
The  informalities  of  the  German  necessitate  great  care  in  the 
inviting  of  the  guests.  It  is  necessary  that  all  shall  have  been  formally  in- 
troduced, as  no  lady  can  refuse  to  dance  with  a  gentleman  whom  she  may 
have  received  as  a  partner  so  long  as  she  remain  in  the  circle. 

Favors  are  given  in  most  of  the  figures,  some  of  them  being  very  elegant 
and  expensive,  while  others  are  comparatively  inexpensive,  but  unique  in 
design.  The  principal  point  is  to  have  a  set  of  favors  differing  in  design 
from  those  presented  at  any  other  entertainment. 

Invitations  to  the  German  should  be  sent  at  least  ten  days  in  advance. 
They  should  be  from  engraved  plates,  and  in  the  following  form : 


3W  ^w^jo^r      <^s^  s^m.  ty. 


^RECEPTIONS  or  AT  HOMES  4*- 

HE  full-dress   reception  is  an  event  of  considerable  importance  in 
the  social  world. 

Invitations  should  be  issued  at  least  two  weeks  beforehand,  as 
for  balls  or  dinners.    It  prevents  previous  engagement.  They  should 
be  engraved  on  heavy  white  card  of  the  finest  texture.    The  form  is : 


The  invitations  should  be  delivered  by  the  footman,  as  are  wedding  and 
dinner  invitations,  etc. 

A  serving-man  should  be  provided  to  open  the  carriage  door,  another  to 
receive  the  cards  and  show  the  guests  to  their  dressing-room. 

The  gentlemen  escort  their  ladies  to  the  host  and  hostess.  If  there  is  to 
be  dancing  it  is  mentioned  on  the  card  of  invitation. 


A 


c 


"71 


722 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  GERMAN,  RECEPTIONS,  ETC. 


In  New  York  it  is  quite  the  custom  to  present  each  guest  with  some  ele- 
gant little  souvenir  of  the  occasion,  something  similar  to  the  favors  of  the 
"German." 

When  the  daughter  is  receiving  with  her  mother,  her  name  is  placed  on  the 
card  of  invitation  below  her  mother's,  thus : 

5/wio/jv  'WvwiW|,  W*v*uoA/jy  §$cv„ 

Young  ladies  are  permitted  to  dance  during  the  evening,  the  mother 
remaining  at  her  post  of  reception;  but  the  daughter  should  return  to  her 
place  as  soon  as  the  dance  is  over. 

A  young  lady  should  not  dance  more  than  once  with  the  same  gentleman 
at  her  own  reception. 

You  should  attend  receptions  in  full  evening  dress,  and  good  breeding 
demands  that  you  do  not  present  yourself  at  the  beginning,  nor  remain  until 
the  close  of  the  evening. 

When  your  name  is  announced,  look  for  the  lady  of  the  house  and  pay 
your  respects  first  to  her.  She  will  usually  be  found  stationed  near  the  door, 
particularly  if  the  party  be  large.  You  are  at  liberty,  however,  to  salute 
such  friends  and  acquaintances  as  you  may  meet  in  making  your  way 
through  the  crowd. 

It  is  well  to  throw  open  as  many  rooms  as  possible,  and  to  have  tables 
scattered  around  here  and  there,  covered  with  choice  engravings,  photo- 
graphic views,  valuable  scrapbooks,  etc.,  for  the  entertainment  of  the  guests. 

If  some  eminent  person  be  among  the  company,  it  is  not  in  good  taste  for 
every  one  to  follow  him  around,  hanging  on  his  words  and  striving  for  an 
Introduction. 

The  hostess  should  see  that  her  company  does  not  break  up  into  cliques  of 
twos  or  threes,  as  such  a  plan  leaves  a  number  out  who  do  not  possess  any 
great  conversational  powers. 

Shoidd  any  guest  be  invited  by  the  hostess  to  play  the  piano,  she  should 
not  wait  to  be  urged,  offering  excuses,  but  rise  quietly,  proceed  to  the  piano 
and  play  something  short  and  suitable  to  the  gathering. 

A  natural  tact  will  suggest  what  to  play.  In  a  company  of  musical  con- 
noisseurs a  sonata  of  Beethoven  would  not  be  out  of  place,  but  in  a  general 
company  something  lighter  and  shorter  would  be  more  appropriate. 

Never  play  upon  the  invitation  of  any  one  but  the  hostess.  Should  any  one 
else  make  the  request,  turn  it  off  as  gracefully  as  you  can ,  but  do  not  comply. 


-He  PARTIES  IN  GENERAL  *+ 

THE  guests  should  be  more  intimate  acquaintances  than  at  a  ball  or 
full-dress  reception.     The  hours  before  supper  are  spent  In  social 
conversation.     After  supper,  which  is  served  much  earlier  than  at 
a  ball,  dancing  is  usually  the  order  of  the  evening. 
The  time  for  departure  is  not  later  than  i  o'clock. 

A  call,  or  leaving  of  the  card,  should  always  precede  an  Invitation  to  a 
party. 


A  call  tn  person  or  by  card  is  required  by  etiquette  after  the  party,  from  all 
those  who  have  been  the  recipients  of  invitation. 

The  same  general  rules  of  etiquette  apply  in  the  case  of  parties  as  at  full- 
dress  receptions  and  balls. 

The  laws  of  courtesy  and  good  breeding  will  be  observed  by  gentlemen 
and  ladies  wherever  they  may  be,  whether  on  the  croquet  ground,  at  the 
informal  picnic,  or  at  the  formal  dinner  party.  And  the  code  is  much  the 
same. 


-•HfcJUYHNILH  PARTIES:®^ 

IT  is  now  quite  fashionable  to  give  entertainments  for  the  younger 
members  of  the  family.  These  birthday  and  doll  parties  are  fre- 
quently the  source  of  as  much  amusement  to  the  elders  as  to  the  little 
ones  who  attend  them.  A  regularly  engraved  card  is  sent  out  after 
this  design : 

<^vai^vr  (^cvoaW'  ^oaw/A^ 
3*M/i><ia\v  vavvwvu*.,  £)vw/>Jsvr  VO^cv., 


Another  form  is  : 


aaoaw^^  Khj(j  \>Iao^W\A/  o^  wyw 

3\*/ck<io/j|(  vWft,  £)uaajjA&W  KwJJjh,^ 
Wyw*  lovA/  WbK/X  W*V*V. 


:_- 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  GERMAN,  RECEPTIONS,  ETC. 


723 


-#eee*BAL  MASQUE 

Invitations  to  a  bal  masque  should  be  elegant  in  design  and  read  as 
follows : 


TWENTY-FIRST  BIRTHDAY  PARTIES. 

A  grand  celebration  is  usually  given  in  honor  of  a  son's  attainment  to  his 
majority.    The  form  of  invitation,  on  engraved  cards,  is  : 

3\Vl^lo/Jv   /i^OVWW^.,  Wv*UA*VJy   S^CV., 

ol  vcvwr  /i>o-v^ 


-fe+ BREAKFASTS 


Invitations  to  breakfasts  and  suppers  should  be  informal  and  written 
on  correspondence  cards,  with  crest  or  monogram  on  top  left  corner.  The 
form  is : 

%  Is.  ^>_  <^>5V  3^  fy. 


^  AFTERNOON  RECEPTIONS  K=» 

VERY  popular  entertainment  for  ladies  exclusively  is  the  tea  or 

afternoon  reception.       The  hours   are  from   4  to  6  p.m.,  and  if 

continued  later  these  affairs  partake  of  the  nature  of  more  formal 

entertainments.      The  refreshments  are  light,  and  all  ostentatious 

display  is  avoided. 

The  hostess  receives  her  guests  at  the  table,  and  dispenses  tea  and  the 
other  delicacies  to  them,  which  they  receive  from  the  tray  borne  by  domes- 
tics, and  eat  or  drink  standing.  On  leaving  they  can  dispense  with  the  for- 
mality of  bidding  the  hostess  adieu.  The  form  of  invitation,  printed  on 
large-sized  visiting  cards  from  engraved  plates,  is  : 


•~*-4-  YOUNG  LADIES'  DEBUT 


TIQUETTE    decides   that  in  this  country,  as  in  England,  young 
ladies  shall  seldom  be  seen,  except  at  family  gatherings,  until  their 
school  life  shall  be  terminated,  and  then  they  shall  be  formally  in- 
troduced into  society. 
Three  weeks  previous  to  their  debut,  cards  are  left  for  those  acquaintances 
who  are  to  receive  invitations.    A  week  or  ten  days  previous  engraved  invi-x 
tations  are  sent. 

During  the  reception  the  young  lady's  position  is  to  the  right  of  her 
mother  or  chaperon,  where  she  receives  the  congratulations  of  her  friends. 
The  guests  should  make  their  congratulations  brief,  and  pass  on  to  make 
room  for  others. 

The  first  dance  should  be  accorded  only  to  some  intimate  friend  of  the 
family,  and  the  debutante  should  dance  but  once  with  the  same  gentleman 
in  the  course  of  the  evening. 

For  one  year  the  young  lady  is  allowed  to  make  calls  only  with  her 
mother  or  other  suitable  chaperon.  After  that  time  she  can  receive  or  call 
at  her  pleasure. 


FT 


724 


ETIQUETTE  OF  RIDING  AND  DRIVING. 


A 


®mtfmmm?mm®$m 


-<i)       J  (h- 


Etiquette  •  of  •  Ridinf  •  and  •  Driving 


•^-D*G-^ 


;m$mm 


f  IDING  is  an  accomplishment  in  which  all  ladies  and  gentlemen 
1  should  be  proficient.  Riding,  like  swimming,  cannot  be  taught 
by  precept ;  it  must  be  taught  early  and  practiced  constantly— as 
little  in  the  school  and  as  much  upon  the  road  as  possible. 
A  lady's  riding-habit  should  be  simple,  close-fitting,  and  made 
j  by  a  first-rate  tailor.  The  later  habit  is  much  shorter  and  nar- 
rower than  the  old  style, 
and  is  always  worn  with 
pantaloons  of  the  same 
material  underneath. 

A  lady  can  indulge  her 
love  of  luxury  only  in  her 
riding-whip.  This  may 
be  jewelled,  and  as  ele- 
gant as  she  may  wish. 
Her  gloves  must  always 
be  unexceptionable. 

The  art  of  mounting 
must  be  properly  acquired, 
since  in  riding,  as  in  other 
things,  tt  is  proficiency  in 
trifles  that  proclaims  the 
artist. 

The  lady,  having  mount- 
ed the  riding-steps,  places  |= 
her  left  foot  in  the  stirrup, 
rises  into  her  seat  ami  lifts 
the  right  leg  into  h 
taking  care  to  let  the  habit 
fall  properly. 

If  no  riding-steps  are 
at  hand,  her  escort  or 
groom  must  assist  her  to 
mount.  Hence  she  must 
learn  to  mount  in  both 
ways.  In  the  latter  case 
she  places  her  left  foot 
in  the  right  hand  of  the 
gentleman  e-r  servant ;  he 
lifts  it  vigorously  but  gen- 
tly, and  she  springs  lightly  into  the  saddle. 

A  lady  who  rides  much  and  wishes  to  keep  her  figure  straight   should 
have  two  saddles,  and  cnange  from  one  to  the  other. 


LADY  AND  CI  Ml  1  M  \N   RIDING 


The  great  point  in  riding  is  to  sit  straight  in  the  middle  of  your  saddle,  to 
know  the  temper  of  your  horse,  and  to  be  able  to  enjoy  a  good  galop  in 
moderation. 

Ladies  should  not  lean  forward  in  riding. 

They  should  not  rise  in  the  saddle  in  trotting.  f 

They  should  know  how  to  hold  the  reins  and  the  different  uses  of  each, 

A  gentleman,  in  riding, 
as  in  walking,  gives  the 
lady  the  wall. 

In  assisting  a  lady  to 
mount,  hold  your  hand 
at  a  convenient  distance 
from  the  ground,  that  she 
may  place  her  foot  in  it. 
As  she  springs,  assist  her 
with  the  impetus  of  your 
arm.  Practice  only  will 
enable  you  to  do  this 
properly. 

A  gentleman  should  be 
able  to  mount  on  either 
side  of  his  horse.  He 
places  his  left  foot  in  the 
stirrup,  his  left  hand  on 
the  saddle,  and  swings 
himself  up,  throwing  hit 
right  leg  over  the  horse's 
back.  Nothing  ts  more 
awkward  than  to  see  a 
man  climb  into  a  saddle 
with  both  hands. 

The  correct  position  Is 
to  sit  upright  and  well 
back  in  the  saddle:  to 
keep  the  knees  nreassd 
well  in  against  the  sides 
of  the  saddle,  and  the  feet 
parallel  to  the  horse's 
body ;    to  turn  the  toct 

in  rather  than  out.     The  foot  should  be  about  half-way  in  the  stirrup. 
The  great  desideratum  in  the  art  of  riding  is  plenty  of  confidence,     A 

timid  person  can  never  be  a  good  rider. 


ETIQUETTE  OF  RIDING  AND  DRIVING. 


725 


When  escorting  a  lady  be  sure  that  her  horse  is  quite  safe,  every  part  of. 
its  harness  in  perfect  condition,  and  keep  on  the  alert  to  assist  her  on  the 
slightest  sign  of  danger. 

A  gentleman  riding  with  two  ladies  will  keep  to  the  right  of  both,  unless  it 
be  necessary  for  him  to 
ridebctwcenthcminorder 
to  render  some  assistance. 

In  dismounting,  the  gen- 
tleman will  take  the  lady's 
left  hand  in  his  right,  re- 
move the  stirrup  and  place 
her  foot  in  his  left  hand, 
lowering  her  gently -to  the 
ground. 

Keep  on  the  right  or  off 
side,  and  never  presume 
to  touch  her  mount  any 
more  than  you  would  that 
of  a  gentleman  friend. 


ETIQUETTE 

OX" 

\  HE  art  of  driving 
is  simple  enough, 
but  requires  prac- 
tice. No  one 
should  pretend  who  does 
not  understand  every  part 
of  the  harness  and  be  able 
to  harness  or  unharness  a 
horse  himself. 

A  good  driver  will  use  his  horse  well,  whether  it  be  his  own  or  another's. 
He  will  turn  corners  gently,  and  know  when  to  drive  fast  and  when  to 
ease  him  up. 

In  the  carriage,  a  gentleman  places  himself  with  his  hack  to  the  horses, 
leaving"  the   best  seat   for  the  ladies.      Only  very   elderly  gentlemen  arc 


LADY  ALIGHTING. 


privileged  to  take  the  backseat  to  the  exclusion  of  young  ladies.  No  gentle- 
man driving  alone  with  a  lady  should  sit  beside  her,  unless  he  is  her  hus- 
band, father,  son  or  brother.  Even  an  affianced  lover  should  remember  this 
rule  of  etiquette. 

To  get  in  and  out  of 
a  carriage  gracefully  is 
quite  an  accomplishment. 
If  there  is  but  one  step, 
and  you  are  going  to  face 
the  horses,  put  your  left 
foot  on  the  step  and  the 
other  in  the  carriage,  so 
that  you  can  drop  at  once 
into  your  seat.  If  you 
are  to  sit  the  other  way, 
reverse  the  process.  Be 
careful  to  turn  your  back 
the  way  you  intend  sitting, 
so  as  to  avoid  turning 
around. 

A  gentleman  should  be 
careful  to  avoid  stepping 
on  the  lady's  dress  in  get- 
ting into  the  carriage.  He 
should  be  careful  also  not 
to  catch  it  in  the  door  as 
he  closes  it. 

A  gentleman  should  al- 
ways get  out  of  a  carriage 
first,  in  order  to  assist  the 
lady  in  alighting. 

When  a  gentleman  in- 
tends taking  a  lady  driv- 
ing in  aone-seated  vehicle, 
he  should  always  be  sure 
his  horse  is  a  safe  one  be- 
fore trusting  himself  with 
it,  as  he  is  obliged  to  get 
out  to  assist  the  lady  in  and  out  of  the  vehicle.     When  helping  her  in  he 
should  be  careful  always  to  hold  the  reins  so  that  he  can  check  the  animal 
in  case  it  should  start  suddenly. 

The  dress  should  never  be  lifted  in  alighting  from  a  carriage,  but  left  to 
trail  upon  the  ground. 


""* V  ^ 


726 


V 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  STREET. 


$ — -f-g.-* •+-«- 


:•  Etiquette  *  of  *  Vqe  •>  ©t^eet  •> 


P^*  ' '"  *"^t^r^gr^ 


-^H*- >+-*. 


*S* 


—  'M>  ■<*n,'t*^' 


LADY  will  bow  first  if  she  meets  a  gentleman  acquaintance  on 
the  street. 

A  lady  will  not  stop  on  the  street  to  converse  with  a  gentle- 
man. If  he  wishes  to  chat  with  her  he  will  turn  and  walk  by 
her  side  until  he  has  finished  his  conversation,  then  raise  his  hat 
and  leave  her. 

It  is  not  etiquette  for  a 
lady  to  take  the  arm  of  a 
gentleman  on  the  street 
in  the  day  time,  unless  he 
bea  lover  or  husband,  and 
even  then  it  is  seldom 
done  in  America. 

In  England  it  is  per- 
missible for  a  lady  to  ac- 
cept the  arm  of  even  an 
ordinary  acquaintance  on 
the  street.  In  foreign 
cities  it  is  not  commt  it 
faut  for  ladies  to  appear 
on  the  street  at  all  with- 
out a  gentleman. 

A  gentleman  escorting 
two  ladies  may  offer  each 
an  arm,  but  a  lady  should 
never  under  any  circum- 
stances walk  between  two 
gentlemen  holding  an  arm 
of  each. 

On  meeting  friends  or 
acquaintances  on  the  street 
or  in  public  places,  you 
should  be  careful  not  to 
call  their  names  so  loudly 
as  to  attract  the  attention 
of  those  around. 

Never  call  across  the 
street,  and  never  carry  on 
a  conversation  in  a  public 
vehicle  unless  you  are  seated  side  by  side. 

Gentlemen  should  never  stare  at  ladies  on  the  street. 

In  walking  with  a  lady  a  gentleman  should  take  charge  of  any  small  par- 
cel, book,  etc.,  with  which  she  may  be  burdened. 


STREET  PROMENADE  SCENE. 


Never  recognize  a  gentlemen  unless  you  are  perfectly  sure  of  his  Identity. 
Nothing  is  more  awkward  than  a  mistake  of  this  kind. 

A  well-bred  man  must  entertain  no  respect  for  the  brim  of  his  hat.  True 
politeness  demands  that  the  hat  be  removed  entirely  from  the  head.  Merely 
to  nod  or  to  touch  the  brim  of  your  hat  is  a  lack  of  courtesy.    The  body 

should  not  be  bent  at  all' 
in  bowing.  % 

A  gentleman  will  always 
give  a  lady  the  inside  of 
the  walk  on  the  street. 

Ladies  should  avoid 
walking  rapidly  on  the 
street,  as  it  is  ungraceful. 
.  A  gentleman  walking 
with  a  lady  should  ac- 
commodate his  step  to 
hers.  It  looks  exceedingly 
awkward  to  see  a  gentle- 
man two  or  three  paces 
ahead  of  a  lady  with 
whom  he  is  supposed  to 
be  walking. 

Staring  at  people*  ex- 
pectorating, looking  back 
on  the  street,  calling  in  a 
loud  voice,  laughing,  etc., 
are  very  bad  manners  on 
the  street. 

A  gentleman  attending 
a  lady  will  hold  the  door 
open  for  her  to  pass.  He 
will  also  perform  the 
same  service  for  any  lady 
passing  in  or  out  unat- 
tended. 

A  gentleman  may  assist 

a  lady  from  an  omnibus, 

or  over  a  bad  crossing, 

vMsUUI   the  formality  of 

an  introduction.     Having  performed  the  service,  he  will  bow  and  retire. 

No  gentlem.cn  will  smoke  when  standing  or  walking  with  a  lady  on  the  street. 

A  quiet  and  unobtrusive  demeanor  upon  the  street  is  the  sign  of  a  true 

lady,  who  goes  about  her  own  affairs  in  a  business-like  way  and  has  always 

a  pleasant  nod  and  smile  for  friends  and  acquaintances. 


**$ 


' 


jy 


!  L. 


ETIQUETTE  OF  TRAVELLING. 


727 


v  v  Eti^aehte  •>  of*  (©paVellir^  •>  *  -J? 


aO  class  of  people  carry  with  them  so  many  distinguishing  marks 

1  as  the  experienced  and  the  inexperienced  traveller.     The  former 

is  always  cool  and  collected,  occupies  the  best  seat  in  the  middle 

of  the  car  on  the  shady  side  and  next  to  the  window,  and  is 

especially  remarkable  for  a  total  lack  of  flurry  and  anxiety. 

All  this  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  has  had  a  long  and  varied 

experience  as  a  traveller,  and  in  that  way  gained  a  knowledge  of  the  minor 

points  in  travelling  which  go  far  toward  begetting  that  state  of  peaceful  con- 
fidence which  is  the  source  of  much  envy  to  the  uninitiated. 

The  experienced  traveller  is  always  on  time  ;  he  keeps  a  time-table  of  the 

trains  at  hand   for   refer-  ,»-»,«- 

ence    and   never   fails   to  *  •   2q_, 

have  his  watch  going  cor- 
rectly.     His   baggage   is 

always  properly  checked 

and  his  ticket  safely  stowed 

away  in  his  inside  pocket. 

Being   certain   that  he  is 

on   the  right   train,   with 

everything   in  order,  his 

mind  is  serene  and  a  smile 

of  benignant  complacency 

illumines  his  countenance 

as  he  unfolds  his  evening 

paper  or  reviews  the  faces 

of  his  fellow  passengers. 
The  inexperienced  travel- 
ler comes  hurrying  on  the 

train  at  the  last  moment, 

all  in  a  heat  and  flurry, 

and  is  scarcely  seated  on 

the  last  seat   in   the  car, 

where  he'll  catch  all   the 

drafts   from   the    opening 

door,  when    he   discovers 

that  he  has  lost  his  ticket 

or  forgotten  to  check  his 

baggage.     Then  ensues  a 

storm  of  anxious  enquiries 

and  querulous  complain- 
ings,  and  before   he  has 

reached  his  destination  he 

is  voted  a  bore  by  all  his 

fellow  passengers. 

♦^SUGGESTIONS  TO  TRAVELLERS** 

CONSIDER  what  route  you  intend  taking  when  you  are  contemplat- 
ing a  journey,  and  decide  definitely  upon  it.     Go  to  the  ticket-office 
of  the  road  and  procure  a  time-table,  where  you  will  find  the  hour 
for  leaving,  together  with  names  of  stations  on  the  road,  etc. 
When  you  intend  taking  a  sleeping-berth,  secure  your  ticket  for  same  a 
day  or  two  before  you  intend  starting,  so  as  to  obtain  a  desirable  location. 


RAILWAY  CAR  SCENE,  PROPER. 


A  lower  berth  in  the  centre  of  the  car  is  always  the  most  comfortable,  as 
you  escape  the  jar  of  the  wheels  and  drafts  from  the  opening  door. 

Take  as  little  baggage  as  possible,  and  see  that  your  trunks  are  strong  and 
securely  fastened.  A  good,  stout  leather  strap  is  a  safeguard  against  bursting 
locks. 

In  checkiijg  your  baggage,  look  to  the  checks  yourself,  to  make  sure  the 
numbers  correspond.     Having  once  received  your  check,  you  need  not  con- 
cern yourself  further  about  your  baggage.     The  company  is  responsible  f«r 
its  safe  delivery. 
It  is  a  wise  precaution  to  have  your  name  and  address  carefully  written 

upon  any  small  article  of 
baggage,  such  as  satchel, 
umbrella,  duster,  etc.,  so 
that  in  case  you  leave 
them  in  the  car  the  rail- 
way employes  may  know 
where  to  send  them. 

An  overcoat  or  package 
lying  upon  a  seat  is  an 
indication  that  the  seat  is 
taken  and  the  owner  has 
only  left  temporarily.  It 
would,  therefore,  be  rude 
in  you  to  remove  the 
articles  and  occupy  the 
seat. 

It  is  only  courteous  for 
a  gentleman,  seeing  a  lady 
looking  for  a  seat,  to  offer 
the  one  beside  him,  as 
she  scarcely  likes  to  seat 
herself  beside  him  without 
such  invitation,  although 
she  will,  of  course,  if  there 
are  no  entirely  vacant 
seats,  do  so  in  preference 
to  standing. 

A  courteous  gentleman 
will  also  relinquish  his 
place  to  two  ladies,  or  a 
gentleman  and  lady  who 
are  together,  and  seek 
other  accommodations. 
Such  a  sacrifice  always 
receives  its  reward  in  grateful  admiration  of  his  character. 

Ladies  travelling  alone,  when  addressed  in  a  courteous  manner  by  gentle- 
men, should  reply  politely  to  the  remark  ;  and  in  long  journeys  it  is  even 
allowable  to  enter  into  conversation  without  the  formality  of  an  introduction. 
But  a  true  lady  will  always  know  how  to  keep  the  conversation  from  bor- 
dering on  familiarity,  and  by  a  quiet  dignity  and  sudden  hauteur  will  effect- 
ually check  any  attempt  at  presumption  on  the  part  of  her  strange  acquaint- 
ance. 


-^ 


^ 


48 


r- 


« »_ 


7*8 


LADIKS  TRAVELLING  WITHOUT  ESCORT. 


"7(1 


Always  consult  the  comfort  of  others  when  travelling.  You  should  not 
open  either  door  or  window  in  a  railway  coach  without  first  ascertaining  if 
it  will  be  agreeable  to  those  near  enough  to  be  affected  by  it.  Ladies,  in 
particular,  should  remember  that  they  have  not  chartered  the  whole  coach, 
but  only  paid  for  a  small  fraction  of  it,  and  be  careful  not  to  monopolize  the 
dre*sfng-room  for  two  or  three  hours  at  a  stretch,  while  half  a  dozen  or 
more  are  waiting  outside  to  arrange  their  toilets. 


Genteel  travellers  will  always  carry  their  own  toilet  articles,  and  not  depend 
on  the  public  brush  and  comb. 

A  lady  will  avoid  over-dressing  in  travelling.  Silks  and  velvets,  laces  and 
jewelry  are  terribly  out  of  place  on  a  railroad  train.  The  appointments  of 
the  traveller  may  be  as  elegant  as  you  please,  but  they  should  be  distinguished 
by  exceeding  plainness  and  quietness  of  tone.  Some  ladies  have  an  idea 
that  any  old  thing  is  good  enough  to  travel  in,  and  so  look  < 
shabby  on  the  train. 


£*2$M=*%= 


Lfadie^  (©ravelling  Without  E^eopt. 


RN  America  the  liberty  of  action  accorded  women  is  so  much  greater  than 
that  allowed  in  any  other  country  in  the  world  that  a  special  code  of 
etiquette  on  some  points  is  necessary  in  order  to  inform  them  how  to  act 
Under  all  circumstances. 

In  England,  the  land  of  greatest  liberty  after  ours,  no  lady  of  much 
gentility  makes  a  journey  without  a  male  escort  or  at  least  the  company 
of  her  maid.  Here  it  is  quite  common  for  ladies  of  the  best  families  and 
greatest  refinement  to"  make  journeys  of  length  without  the  attendance  of  a 
male  relative.  Very  young  ladies  are  not  allowed  to  travel,  however, 
without  the  attendance  of  some  older  person,  either  male  or  female. 
The  directions  for  travel- 
ling having  been  given 
elsewhere,  we  will  confine 
our  directions  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  an  unattended 
lady  shall  behave  at 


THE  HOTEL 


lk= 


A  LADY  should  en- 

7m      ter   a    hotel    by 

/  »-■  wayoftheladtes* 
^Bau^LWcn trance.  A  ser- 
vant is  always  in  attend- 
ance at  the  door  to  show 
her  to  the  parlor,  where 
she  will  be  waited  tipon 
by  the  proprietor  or  clerk, 
to  whom  she  should  pre- 
sent her  card  and  state 
how  long  she  intends  re- 
maining. 

A  simple  request  to  the 
waiter,  particularly  if  it 
!'■•  backed  by  a  slight  re- 
muneration, will  ensure 
his  meeting  her  at  the 
dining-room  entrance  and 
preceding  her  lo  ba) 
thus  obviating  the  slight 
awkwardness  of  crossing 
a  full  dining-room  with- 
out an  escort. 

All  conversation  at  a  hotel  table  should  lie  conducted  in  a  low  tone  of  voice 
so  as  not  to  attract  attention,  attd  aapai  idly  should  care  be  taken  that  no  re- 
marks ol  a  personal  nature  are  overheard  by  others.  A  lady  will,  of  course, 
not  enter  into  conversation  with  any  but  friends  at  a  public  table. 

While  waiting  to  he  served  it  Is  panplaslMfl  to  rend  a  paper  at  a  hotel 
table.  All  orders  should  be  given  in  a  low  but  clear  and  distinct  tour  of 
voice.  Never  ask  any  one  at  the  table  to  pass  you  anything.  That  is  the 
duty  of  the  u 

Never  point  to  any  aftlok  wanted;  a  glance  at  the  dish,  with  a  quiet  request 
or  a  mere  look  at  the  waiter,  is  usually  sufficient. 


RAILWAY  CAR  SCENE,  IMPROPER 


All  loud  and  ostentatious  dressing  is  out  of  place  in  a  hotel  dining-i 
quiet,  unassuming  dress  of  cloih  or  plain  black  silk  is  the  most  ladylike. 

When  a  lady  is  without  escort  it  would  be  best  for  her  not  to  take  her  sup- 
per in  the  dining-room  late  in  the  evening.  She  can  have  a  meal  sent  to  her 
room  at  a  trifling  extra  cost. 

A  lady  should  never  loiter  in  the  halls,  nor  stand  alone  at  a  hotel  window. 
She  should  never  hum  to  herself  while  going  through  the  halls,  nor  play  on 
the  piano,  nor  sing  in  a  hotel  parlor  unless  invited  to  do  so. 

It  is  desirable  when  stopping  at  a  hotel  to  secure  a  pleasant,  comfortable 
room,  with  plenty  of  air  and  sunshine  and  a  good  outlook. 

Be  sure  to  lock  your 
trunk  and  the  door  of  your 
room  whenever  leaving  it. 
If  your  have  valuables, 
such  as  diamonds  and 
much  money,  it  is  safer  to 
leave  them  with  the  pro- 
prietor to  be  locked  in  the 
safe.  They  can  easily  be 
obtained  whenever  wanted 
by  ringing  for  them. 

It  is  never  the  act  of  a 
lady  or  gentleman  to  be 
scolding  at  servants.  If 
their  conduct  gives  yon 
dissatisfaction,  complain 
to  the  proprietor.  Always 
tender  your  requests  in  a 
pleasant  and  courteous 
manner,  and  you  will  usu- 
ally find  them  promptly 
attended  to. 

As  a  lady  without  escort 
Is  apt  to  require  more 
service  than  one  who  has, 
it  is  only  right  to  tender 
a  little  extra  fee  to  the 
servant  who  has  been  es- 
pecially attentive.  A  re- 
taining fee,  that  is,  a  small 
sum  given  at  the  outset,  is 
very  apt  to  secure  all  the  at- 
tention that  can  be  desired. 


A  lady  should  always  avoid  all  hurry  and  bustle  in  travelling  by  securing 
her  ticket  beforehand  and  having  her  trunk  packed  and  ready  to  express  in 
good  time. 

In  order  to  secure  herself  positively  against  all  impertinence  and  intrusion 
when  unattended,  a  lady  has  need  of  a  great  deal  of  dignity  and  quiet  re- 
I  f  she  Ik:  naturally  of  a  lively  and  chatty  disposition ,  she  must  beware 
how  she  indulge  these  innocent  propensities,  lest  they  be  misunderstood. 
An  intelligent  and  thoroughbred  lady,  however,  can  travel  alone  anywhere 
in  America  without  experiencing  the  slightest  lack  ol*  respect  or  courteous 
attention. 


HOME   ETIQUETTE. 


A 


729 


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Home  •>  EtHaehte. 


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++*>&«4+4- 


HILDREN  should  speak  respectfully  to  parents  and  obey  the 
slightest  command  immediately. 

Parents  should  address  a  child  in  a  mild,  pleasant,  but  firm 
manner.  Issue  no  orders  but  those  of  a  just  and  reasonable 
nature,  and  then  see  that  they  are  obeyed. 

Govern  with  justice  and  kindness  and  home  will  be  indeed  a 


little  heaven  on  earth. 


-•f 


-8r> 


pTHS  LADY'S  TOILET  g| 


4-3- 


Cleanliness  is  the  outward  sign  of  inward  purity.  Cleanliness  is  health, 
and  health  is  beauty. 

The  first  business  of  the  dressing-room  is  the  bath,  and  this  should  be  a 
complete  bath,  and  not  simply  a  hasty  washing  of  the  face.  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  a  lady  washes  to  become  clean,  but  simply  to  remain  clean. 
A  bathing  of  the  entire  body  at  least  once  a  day  is  essential  to  health.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  have  a  bath  tub  for  this  purpose,  but  merely  an  ordinary 
basin  of  tepid  water,  with  soap,  sponge  and  clean  towels. 

The  whole  body  may  be  quickly  sponged  off,  or  the  sponge  may  be  dis- 
pensed with  and  the  hands  alone  used  to  convey  the  water  to  the  body, 
after  which  dry  the  body  thoroughly  with  a  soft  towel,  and  then  use  a  coarse 
Turkish  towel  vigorously  until  the  skin  is  red  from  the  friction.  In  lieu  of 
the  coarse  towel,  a  liberal  use  of  the  flesh-brush  may  be  made,  but  either 
one  or  both  must  be  regularly  used,  as  nothing  tends  to  keep  the  complexion 
in  good  condition  so  much  as  the  daily  use  of  the  flesh-brush. 

Persons  living  in  cities  where  Turkish  baths  are  established  will  find  a 
bath  of  this  kind  once  a  week  very  beneficial  to  their  health.  Oftener  than 
this  the  baths  would  be  apt  to  have  an  enervating  effect.  But  an'  occasional 
Turkish  bath  is  the  most  effectual  cleanser  in  the  world. 

Early  rising  contributes  not  only  to  the  preservation  of  health,  but  the 
proper  condition  of  the  mental  faculties.  Too  much  sleep  induces  minor 
ailments  both  of  the  body  and  mind.  Fresh  air,  moderate  exercise  and 
good  ventilation,  together  with  the  daily  bath,  are  the  great  health-preservers. 

THE  TEETH. 

Scrupulous  care  is  necessary  to  the  preservation  of  the  teeth.  The  teeth 
should  be  carefully  brushed,  not  only  every  night  and  morning,  but  after 
every  meal. 

The  best  and  only  needful  tooth  powder  is  a  simple  preparation  of  chalk. 
The  numerous  dentifrices  advertised  are  most  of  them  worthless  and  many 
of  them  positively  injurious. 

A  ^good  tooth-brush,  not  too  stiff,  is  necessary.  Very  hot  and  very  cold 
things  and  a  great  deal  of  sweets  are  injurious  to  the  teeth. 


Upon  the  first  indication  of  decay,  a  good  dentist  should  be  consulted  j 
cheap  dentistry  is  bad  economy. 

THE  BREATH. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  a  sweet  breath  is  one  of  the  essentials  of  happi- 
ness, and  should  therefore  be  carefully  looked  to.  The  principal  causes  of 
a  bad  breath  are»a  disordered  stomach,  decaying  teeth  and  catarrhal  affec- 
tions. In  the  latter  case  a  good  specialist  should  be  consulted.  When  it 
arises  from  digestive  difficulty,  the  diet  should  be  changed  to  one  better 
suited  to  the  system. 

The  eating  of  anything  that  will  give  an  unpleasant  odor  to  the  breath  is 
to  be  avoided. 

THE  NAILS. 

Much  care  and  attention  is  given  to  the  nails  by  those  who  are  particular 
in  matters  of  the  toilet.  Of  late  years  the  care  of  the  nails  has  been  elevated 
to  a  profession,  and  persons  calling  themselves  "  manicures  "  make  it  their 
business  to  dress  the  nails  of  ladies  of  fashion. 

It  is  sufficient,  however,  if  you  keep  the  nails  carefully  and  evenly  trimmed 
— great  care,  however,  being  required  to  preserve  the  correct  shape,  and 
keep  all  superfluous  skin  entirely  removed.  Plenty  of  warm  water,  Windsor 
soap  and  a  nail-brush  are  all  that  is  required  to  keep  the  hands  in  good 
condition. 

THE   HAIR. 

The  hair  should  be  regularly  brushed,  morning  and  evening,  with  a  clean 
hair-brush.  It  is  important  that  the  brushing  be  frequent;  it  is  also  im- 
portant that  the  brush  be  quite  clean. 

The  brush  should  be  washed  every  day  with  hot  water  and  soda,  in  order 
to  preserve  a  glossy  appearance  to  the  hair.  Occasionally  the  hair  may  be 
cleansed  with  a  mixture  of  glycerine  and  lime  juice.  Pomades  and  oil 
should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Never  attempt  to  change  the  color  of  your  hair  by  means  of  dyes  and 
fluids.  Your  own  hair,  as  nature  colored  it,  is  apt  to  be  the  only  shade  that 
will  correspond  with  your  eyes,  eyebrows  and  complexion.  Practices  of 
this  kind  are  much  to  be  condemned.  They  indicate  a  senseless  desire  for 
fashion,  and  an  equally  unladylike  desire  to  attract  attention.  The  use  of 
hair  dyes,  false  hair,  etc.,  is  almost  as  much  to  be  condemned  as  painted 
cheeks  and  pencilled  brows. 

THE  COMPLEXION. 

As  to  the  art  of  obtaining  a  good  complexion,  all  the  recipes  in  the  world 
can  have  but  little  effect  compared  with  the  excellence  of  early  rising, 
regular  habits,  careful  diet  and  absolute  cleanliness.  The  various  lotions 
recommended  by  Madame  Rachel,  and  others  of  her  ilk,  the  milk  bath,  pearl 
powders  and  washes  of  every  kind,  would  never  be  needed  if  ladies  were 
always  careful  to  take  plenty  of  exercise  in  the  open  air,  wear  broad-brimmed 
hats  in  the  sun  and  veils  in  the  wind. 

The  face  should  never  be  washed  when  heated  from  exercise.  Wipe  the 
perspiration  from  the  skin  and  wait  until  it  is  sufficiently  cool  before  you 
bathe  even  in  warm  water.  Rain-\va?=r  is  the  best  for  bathing  purposes.  If 
an  eruption  break  out  on  the  skin,  consult  a  physician. 


-*• &  v  * 


730 


HOME    ETIQUETTE. 


DRESS 


^ 


IN  dress,  as  in  other  things,  society  has  passed  under  that  wave  of  new 
impulse  which  has  so  much  changed  the  appearance  of  our  houses, 
the  arrangement  of  our  interiors,  and  even  the  texture  and  fashion  of 
manufactures. 

That  which  we  wore  placidly,  and  even  with  a  little  complaisance  and  sense 
of  superior  good  taste,  twenty  years  ago,  would  fill  us  with  alarm  and  horror 
now.  The  change  which  has  taken 
place  is  more  than  a  change  of  fash- 
ion :  it  is  a  change  of  principle.  The 
differences  of  shape  and  form ,  which 
vary  from  one  three-months  to  an- 
other, are  but  fluctuations  of  the 
standard,  but  the  alteration  which 
we  have  recently  arrived  at  is  fun- 
damental. It  has  affected  not  only 
the  cut,  but  the  color,  the  fabric,  the 
kind  of  our  garments,  and  has  re- 
lieved the  severity  of  rule  and  left 
such  a  margin  for  individual  fancy 
as  was  not  dreamed  of  twenty  years 
ago. 

The  change  is  chiefly  visible  In 
feminine  apparel  Where  are  now 
the  fine  full  tones  of  blue  and  of 
green,  the  bright  pinks,  the  orange 
yellow,  in  which  we  once  flaunted  in 
happy  ignorance,  knowing  no  better 
and  believing,  with  some  show  of 
.  iliat  we  were  imitating  the 
tints  (.fnature,  the  color  of  the  flowers 
and  of  the  birds?  Where  are  now 
our  apple-green  gowns  and  our  silk 
shawls  "shot"  with  blue  and  yellow? 

The  world  has  paled  since  those 
favored    days ;     even    the   vaporous 
tarlatan  of  the   ball-room   has  sunk 
into  softer  tints,,  and  in  daylight  no  color  affronts  the  eye  of  heaven  that  is 
not  ncutr.il. 

The  result  of  the  new  impulse  is  to  make  Art  the  guide  in  matters  of  dress; 
but  with  all  due  respect  to  that  divine  Priestess  of  the  Beautiful,  we  cannot 
but  believe  that  she  would  prove  a  dangerous  guide  in  a  matter  that  involves 
so  many  practical  features  and  so  many  individual  peculiarities. 

Whatever  painters  may  think,  there  are  many  costumes  effective  in   a 
picture  which  would  not  be  at  all  beautiful  upon  a  living  woman,  and  indis- 
criminate following  of  the  fancies  of  Art  would  not  be  much  less  fatal  than 
111  criminate  following  of  fashion. 

Me  dnaa  can  be  good  which  is  not  useful  and  into  which  the  elements  of 
i  ility  do  not  enter.     The  garments  adapted  for  the  slim  and  the  tall 
Md  the  graceful  will  neverv  however  admirable  in  themselves,  agree  with  the 
dowdy,  the  dumpy  or  the  ordinary. 

Fashion,  Indaad,  tfuooghoul  all  its  vagaries,  has  this  one  principle  of 
humanity  in  it,  that  it  is  almost  always  designed  to  help  those  who  tud 
in  lp,  to  cover  deficiencies  of  nature,  to  conceal  the  evils  wrought  by  time, 
ajtd  to  make  those  look  their  l>cst  to  whom  no  special  charms  have  been 

pv<  II. 

l'.<  .nitifiil  persons  are  free  of  all  such  bonds.  Whatever  they  wear  becomes 
them  — they  confer  grace,  they  do  B  ;  therefore  fashion  is  imma- 

i<n..l  to  tin  in  Th*  time  has  never  been  when  they  were  not  allowed  to 
limit  it  at  their  will.  What  saying  fs  more  general  than.  "She  can  wear 
anything:?"  It  is  said  In  admiration,  in  enthusi asm,  in  envy,  and  in  spile, 
but  still  it  (aaald  of  thou  favorites  of  Nature.     And  youth,  even 

when  not  beautiful,  has,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  same  privilege, 

A  .  >  ;  t,draattaby  aoMui  en  aafanportajit  item  In  human 

well-being,  and  it  nay  i.mi\  i  I.nm  to  be  considered  in  the  light  of  a  fine  art. 

To  dress  well  require*  something  more  than  a  full  purse  and  a  pretty  figure. 
It  ir.pircs  taste,  good  sense  and  refinement. 


A    NKATLY   DKBSSED   LADY. 


A  woman  of  taste  and  good  sense  will  neither  make  dress  her  first  nor  her 
last  object  in  life.  She  will  remember  that  it  is  her  duty  to  her  husband  and  to 
society  to  always  appear  well  dressed. 

Dress,  to  be  in  perfect  taste,  need  not  be  costly,  and  no  woman  of  right 
feeling  will  adorn  her  person  at  the  expense  of  her  husband's  comfort  and 
her  children's  education. 

The  toilet  of  a  well-dressed  woman  will  be  as  well-chosen  at  the  breakfast- 
table  as  at  ball  or  reception. 

If  she  loves  bright  colors  and  can  wear  them  with  impunity,  she  will  com- 
bine them  as  harmoniously  as  an  artist  does  his  colors.  If  she  is  young  her 
dress  will  be  beautiful ;  if  she  is  old  she  will  not  affect  simplicity. 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  ON  DRESS. 

The  golden  rule  in  dress  is  to  avoid  extremes. 
Always  follow  rather  than  lead  the  prevailing  fashion  in  dress. 
Do  not  be  so  original  in  dress  as  to  be  peculiar,  and  do  nor  affect  fashions 
that  are  radically  unbecoming  to  you. 

Ladles  who  are  neither  very  young  nor  very  striking  should  wear  quiet 
OoiOfa, 

It  is  not  necessary  to  be  rich  in  order  to  dress  well.  A  little  care  in  the 
choice  and  arrangement  of  materials  is  all  that  is  necessary. 

Be  sure  that  your  dressmaker  is  a  woman  of  taste  and  perfectly  mistress  of 
her  art.  Do  not  trust  to  any  ordinary  sewing-woman  who  may  know  nothing 
about  harmony  of  colors  and  grace  of  outUnes, 

A  faultless  morning  toilet  in  summer' should  consist  of  the  freshest  of  mus- 
lins, white  or  of  delicate  tints,  with  a  tasteful  arrangement  of  fresh,  new 
ribbons,  and  plain  linen  collar  spotlessly  laundered.  These,  however,  are 
better  suited  to  young  unmarried  or  married  ladies. 

Ladies  of  more  advanced  years  may  wear  dark  silks  in  the  morning,  but 

all  jewelry,  hair  ornaments  and 
fine  laces  should  be  eschewed  for 
morning  wear. 

Street  costumes  should  always 
be  quiet  in  tone.  Fine  woolen 
materials,  in  some  shade  of  brown, 
gray,  olive,  dark  green  or  dark 
blue,  make  the  most  suitable  and 
natty  street  costumes.  Any  lady 
of  taste  who  has  once  seen  herself 
in  some  such  costume,  well-made 
and  fitting  to  perfection,  with  hat 
and  gloves  to  correspond,  will 
never  sigh  for  anything  richer  or 
more  expensive  for  street  wear. 

A  lady  of  refinement  will  never 
wear  a  very  expensive  toilet  of 
velvet  or  of  silk  or  brocade  of  any 
light  and  conspicuous  shade  upon 
the  street.  Such  costumes  are  ex- 
clusively for  the  carriage,  for  call- 
ing or  for  receptions. 

Much  jewelry  is  out  of  place  in 
the  daytime,  whether  on  the  street 
or  for  indoor  wear.  It  is  particu- 
larly out  of  place  in  church.  A 
handsome  brooch  and  small,  un- 
pretending ear-rings  arc  the  only 
jewelry  permissible  inthe  daytime. 
Heavy  bracelets,  necklaces,  a  pro- 
fusion of  diamonds  and  fiiurer-rinfi 
should  be   reserved    for 


an  ovaa-DRRSsaD  pasfALB.  wear. 

English  ladies  arc  much  snort 
strict  in  this  matter  than  American  ladies.  According  to  their  code  It  is 
never  allowable  to  woar  diamonds,  pearls  and  other  precious  stones  in  the 
daytime.  Custom,  however,  supports  the  wearing  of  a  pair  of  solitaires  in 
the  ears  at  any  time  and  in  any  place  in  America. 
Young  ladies  should  not  wear  much  jewelry*  at  any  time. 


\ 


HOME  ETIQUETTE. 


731 


Merc  costliness  in  jewelry  is  not  always  the  best  test  of  value.  A  rare 
intaglio  or  finely-wrought  cameo,  being  a  work  of  art,  b  a  more  desirable 
possession  than  a  targe  diamond  which  any  one  might  purchase. 

A  stone  of  exquisite  loveliness  and  by  no  means  common  is  the  opal. 

Hall  dresses  may  be  composed  of  any  rich  materials,  either  silk  or  satin, 
cashmeres,  velvets  or  diaphanous  materials,  but  they  are  usually  of  some 
light  shade.  It  is  not  customary  in  America  to  go  decoletti  to  balls.  In 
England  court  etiquette  prescribes  bare  neck  and  arms  for  full-dress. 

Dinner  and  reception  dresses  should  be  as  rich  and  elegant  as  you  can 
afford.     Natural  flowers  are  appropriate  for  dinners  ;  artificial  ones  for  balls. 

In  dressing  the  hair,  be  careful  not  to  adhere  too  closely  to  the  prevailing 
fashion  if  it  is  not  becoming  to  you. 
Considerable    latitude    is    always   al- 
lowed in  this  respect. 

The  dressing  of  the  neck  affords 
much  opportunity  for  the  display  of 
taste.  If  the  shoulders  are  broad, 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  enlarge  the 
effect  by  too  much  trimming. 

Short  persons  should  be  careful  not 
to  diminish  their  height  by  numerous 
flounces,  horizontal  stripes  or  much 
trimming  of  any  description.  Stripes 
(perpendicular)  have  a  tendency  to  in- 
crease the  height  and  should  therefore 
be  worn  by  short  and  avoided  by  tall 
people. 

Every  lady  will  pay  especial  atten- 
tion to  her  gloves  and  shoes.  Nothing 
more  emphatically  marks  the  lady 
than  to  be  well  shod  and  immaculately 
gloved.  Both  gloves  and  shoes  should 
fit  closely,  but  not  be  too  tight.  For 
evening  wear  the  gloves  cannot  be  too 
light,  nor  for  street  wear  too  dark. 
Slippers  should  never  be  worn  upon 
the  street.  Black  boots  of  soft  French 
kid  are  the  most  genteel  for  all  oc- 
casions except  parties  and  balls. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  a  refined 
lady  will  give  as  much  attention  to  the 
quality  and  finish  of  those  garments 
which  are  not  visible  as  to  those  which  are. 

Dark  shades  are  best  adapted  to  stout  people. 

Light  shades  and  delicate  tints  are  suited  to  the  thin  blonde  type. 

The  complexion,  however,   must  always  decide  the  question  of  color. 


THE  BRUNETTE'S  COLORS. 

Scarlet,  orange  and  yellow  are  the  brunette's  colors  par  excellence,  but 
she  also  looks  well  in  glossy  black  and  white.  The  tasteful  brune  will  always 
manage  to  have  a  scarlet  blossom  deftly  twisted  in  her  dark  hair,  or  an 
orange  knot  looped  at  her  throat.  Dark  green  also  sets  off  a  dark  com- 
plexion. 

Dark  green  and  red  will  improve  a  sallow  complexion,  while  those  rich, 
creamy  complexions  one  sees  occasionally  are  set  off  by  a  reflection  of 
yellow. 

THE  BLONDE'S  COLORS. 

The  golden-haired  blonde  is  charming  in  a  setting  of  dark  violet  which  may 
shade  off  into  lilac  or  blue.  Either  light  or  dark  shades  of  green  look  well 
with  the  ruddy  face  of  the  blonde,  but  the  delicate,  shell-pink  complexion 
and  fair  hair  of  the  very  light  blonde  are  exquisite  in  a  dress  of  pale  Nile 
green. 

The  blonde  may  also  wear  all  the  neutral  colors,  such  as  gray,  drab,  fawn, 
and  the  russets  and  browns  as  well ;  in  fact,  there  is  very  little  except  bright 
reds  that  blondes  cannot  wear. 


NEATLY    DRESSED   GENTLEMAN. 


CONTRAST  AND  HARMONY  IN  COLORS. 

Ladies  should  be  particularly  careful  in  selecting  contrasting  colors  for  the 
same  costume  that  they  will  harmonize  as  well ;  else  the  beauty  of  the  gar- 
ment is  utterly  destroyed.  We  iiave  often  heard  it  said,  "  The  color  of  that 
feather  absolutely  kills  the  rest  of  the  dress."  This  is  when  the  wearer 
knows  nothing  of  the  rules  which  govern  the  harmony  of  colors,  and  for 
the  benefit  of  such  we  affix  the  following  brief  table  of  harmonizing  colors  : 

Black  and  orange ;  black  and  white  ;  black  and  maize;  black  and  scarlet ; 
black  and  lilac;  black  and  pink;  black  and  slate  color;  black  and  buff; 
black,  white,  yellow  and  crimson  ;  black,  orange,  blue  and  yellow. 

Green  and  gold  ;  green  and  yellow ;  green  and  orange ;  jjieen  and  crimson  ; 
green,  yellow  and  scarlet ;  green,  yellow  and  crimson. 

Blue  and  gold ;  blue  and  orange  ;  blue  and  salmon  color ;  blue  and  drab  ; 
blue  and  stone  color ;  blue  and  white  ;  blue  and  gray  ;  blue  and  straw  color ; 
blue  and  maize  ;  blue  and  chestnut ;  blue  and  brown  ;  blue  and  black. 

Crimson  harmonizes  with  purple,  with  gold,  with  orange,  with  maize,  with 
black  and  with  drab. 

Lilac  harmonizes  with  gold,  with  maize,  with  cherry,  with  scarlet,  with 
crimson. 

Purple  harmonizes  with  gold,  with  orange  and  with  maize. 

Yellow  harmonizes  with  red,  with  brown,  with  chestnut,  with  violet,  with 
crimson  and  with  black. 

Red  harmonizes  with  gold,  with  green  and  orange,  with  black  and  yellow, 
with  white  or  gray,  and  with  yellow,  black  and  white. 


PERFUMERY 


IN  the  use  of  perfumery  ladies  must  be  extremely  moderate. 
Perfumes  should  properly  be  used  only  in  the  evening,  and  then 
they  should  be  of  the  most  recherchi  kind. 
Many  ladies  have  a  special  perfumery,  such  as   violet,  or  white 
rose,  which  they  use  invariably  in  a  very  delicate  manner,  so  that  it  becomes 

individualized,  and  their  friends 
come  to  associate  them,  insensibly, 
with  the  flower  whose  perfume, 
they  exhale. 


THE  GENTLEMAN'S 

DRESSING-ROOM. 

HE  first  requisite  of  the 
male  toilet  is,  of  course, 
the  bath,  and  this  should 
be  as  bracing  as  the  con- 
stitution will  allow. 

The  cold-water  bath  the  year 
round  is  the  best  where  the  con- 
stitution will  endure  it,  but  there 
are  very  few  physiques,  espe- 
cially among  Americans,  that  will 
admit  of  it. 

A  sponge  bath  once  a  day,  with 
a  liberal  use  of  the  flesh-brush  and 
a  coarse  huckaback  towel,  will 
answer  every  purpose. 

A  sun   and  air  bath   after   the 
water  bath  is  an  excellent  thing, 
and  is  frequendy  recommended  by 
physicians.     A  fresh-water  bath 
should  always  be  taken  after  bathing  in  the  sea. 

The  teeth  should  be  cleaned  at  least  twice  a  day,  and  smokers  should  rinse 
the  mouth  well  after  smoking. 


THE    DUDE. 


lKT 


732 


ETIQUETTE  OF  ENGAGEMENTS  AND  MARRIAGE. 


Keep  the  nails  clean  and  short.     I-ong  nails  are  vulgar. 

The  beard  should  be  kept  well-trimmed  and  well-combed,  and  plenty  of 
warm  water  and  soap  are  necessary  to  keep  them  thoroughly  clean. 

Do  not  indulge  in  lung  hair,  thinking  it  gives  you  an  artistic  look.  Painters 
and  poets  of  eminence  may  be  excused  for  wearing  flowing  locks,  but  in  men 
of  less  degree  it  is  a  ridiculous  affectation. 

The  mustache  should  be  neat  and  not  over-large.  A  mustache  d  V Em- 
pertur  is  absurd  and  smacks  of  the  fop. 

The  dress  of  a  gentleman  should  be  perfectly  unobtrusive,  In  entire  bar- 
mony  and  becoming. 

Above  all  things  should  he  avoid  the  extremes  of  fashion,  such  as  wearing 
his  coat  extremely  or  absurdly  short.  When  fashion  dictates  tight  pantaloons 
let  him  not  have  his  so  tight  that  he  cannot  bend  in  them  ;  nor,  if  broad 
onri  be  the  mode,  shall  he  have  them  so  wide  as  to  resemble  bis  wife's  gown. 

Loud  patterns  in  cloth  and  glittering  trinkets  on  the  watch-chain  are  indi- 
cations rather  of  the  gambler  than  the  gentleman. 


A  gentleman  will  have  his  clothes  made  by  a  good  tailor,  easy  of  fit  sod 
excellent  in  quality,  but  subdued  and  quiet  in  tone,  and  neither  too  much  ia 
nor  too  far  behind  the  prevailing  style.  Bulwer  says,  "  A  gentleman's  coat 
should  not  fit  too  well,"  and  he  is  right,  as  no  self-respecting  nun  wants  to 
be  taken  for  a  tailor's  dummy. 

The  regulation  dress  for  evening  wear— but  it  should  never  be  worn  before 
sundown,  no  matter  how  ceremonious  the  occasion — is  black  swallow-tail 
coat,  black  trowsers,  black  vest,  cut  low  to  show  the  shirt-front,  thin  patent- 
leather  boots,  a  white  cravat,  and  light  kid  gloves. 

A  gentleman  should  wear  no  jewelry  but  such  as  has  a  use,  except  it  may 
be  a  handsome  ring.  His  sleeve-buttons  and  collar-studs  should  be  of  plain 
gold,  but  genuine.  False  jewelry  is  vulgar,  and  elaborate  ornamentation  is 
foppish.  It  is  more  genteel  even  to  dispense  with  a  gold  watch-chain  and 
wear  only  a  plain  black  guard. 

If  a  ring  is  worn,  good  taste  would  suggest  that  it  be  a  fine  antique  intaglio 
rather  than  an  expensive  diamond. 


En^ement^  *  and  *  CQar^^ia^e. 


P'O  lay  down  a  set  ot  rules  for  the  regulation  of  courtship  would 
prove  as  hopeless  a  task  as  Mrs.  Partington's  attempt  to  mop  up 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  best  and  only  reliable  counsellors  at 
this  crisis  of  a  young  man's  or  young  woman's  life  are  feeling 
and  good  sense. 

No  wise  man  will  intrude  himself  upon  the  presence  of  a  lady, 
nor  risk  being  regarded  as  a  bore,  neither  will  a  modest  woman  receive  the 
attentions  of  a  man  too  eagerly,  however  agreeably  she  may  regard  them. 

A  woman  of  tact  can  let  a  gentleman  see  that  his  attentions  are  not  dis- 
agreeable to  her  without  actually  encouraging  him.  It  is  equally  possible  for 
a  man  to  be  quite  drvott  without  becoming  a  lover. 

Unless  a  woman  is  a  downright  coquette,  a  man  of  sense  ought  to  be  able 
to  judge  whether  his  proposal  will  be  favorably  received  or  not.  It  is 
exceedingly  dishonorable  for  either  a  man  or  a  woman  to  trifle  with  the  affec- 
tions of  the  other. 


The  manner  of  making  the  offer  of  marriage  must  always  be  regulated 
by  circumstances.  If  the  case  be  a  genuine  love  affair,  the  time  and  place 
and  language  of  the  proposal  arc  apt  to  be  the  result  of  chance  and  impulse, 
rather  than  of  premeditation  on  the  part  of  the  lover. 

If  the  gentleman  1m-  ramify  of  speech  and  attractive  in  person,  it  is  best  for 
him  to  plead  his  cause  in  pirspna  propria  %  and  receive  his  acceptance  with 
the  added  sweetness  of  smile  and  Mu-h  fc&d  Ive-lit  glance,  or  his  rejection, 
If  such  it  must  be,  with  the  tender,  saving  grace  of  sadly-murmured  regrets. 

If  the  suitor,  however,  be  of  a  nervous  temperament,  or  "  fears  his  cause 
too  much'*  to  risk  a  personal  interview,  he  should  make  his  proposal  in 
writing. 

In  making  his  offer  of  marriage,  however,  a  man  should  always  bear  In 
.nind  that  he  Is  a  petitioner,  that  he  is  begging  of  the  woman  to  grant  him 


her  liberty,  her  obedience,  her  very  life,  and  he  should  comport  himself  with 
suitable  humility  and  accept  her  acquiescence  with  becoming  gratitude. 


DEPORTMENT  OF  THE  ENGAGED. 

CPON  the  conduct  of  both  parties  during  the  preparatory  stage  of 
the  engagement  depends  in  a  great  measure  the  probability  of  its 
being  carried  to  the  desired  consummation  of  marriage.  The 
gentleman  in  particular  should  be  careful  to  observe  the  following 
directions: 

He  should  be  tender  and  devoted  to  his  bride-elect. 

He  should  treat  her  family  with  the  greatest  respect. 

He  should  particularly  guard  against  acting  as  though  he  were  already  a 
member  of  the  family  by  taking  hlx-rties  that  he  is  not  justified  in  taking. 

He  should  be  always  on  the  alert  to  do  any  member  of  his  fiancie  t  family 
a  service;  in  fact  he  should  play  the  devoted  friend  to  his  betrothed  and 
all  her  relatives. 

llr  should  conform  to  all  the  rules  of  the  household,  being  punctual  at 
meals ,  never  intruding  at  unseemly  hours  j  kind  to  the  children  and  courteous 
toward  the  servants. 

He  should  not  compromise  the  reputation  of  his  future  wife  by  keeping  her 
up  until  a  late  hour.  His  visits  may  be  as  frequent  as  he  pleases,  but  should 
always  be  short.  The  custom  of  lovers  staying  until  a  late  hour  of  the 
night  is  no  longer  permitted  in  genteel  WChfy. 

He  should  be  attentive  and  gallant  toward  other  ladies,  but  not  sufficiently 
so  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  his  betrothed. 

He  should  not  monopolize  her  company  la  general  society,  but  should 
always  be  accorded  the  first  place  as  her  escort  by  the  lady,  and  should  be 
watchful  of  all  her  wants. 


' 


•. 


ETIQUETTE  OF  ENGAGEMENTS  AND  MARRIAGE. 


733 


He  may  send  her  few  or  many  presents,  as  she  seems  disposed  to  accept 
them.  If  the  lady  or  her  family  object  to  her  receiving  costly  gifts  he  may 
keep  her  supplied  with  flowers,  with  books,  and  with  sweetmeats  if  she 
have  a  taste  for  bon-bons. 

An  engagement  is  usually  sealed  by  the  wearing  of  a  ring.  If  the  accepted 
lover  be  wealthy  a  brilliant  of  rare  value  is  the  correct  thing  for  the  engage- 
ment ring,  and  should  be  worn  upon  the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand.  If, 
however,  his  means  are  limited,  a  less  expensive  ring  will  answer  the 
purpose. 

In  the  matter  of  gifts,  too,  a  sensible  man  will  not  give  more  than  he  can 
afford,  nor  run  into  debt  in  order  to  procure  them. 

The  lady  must  be  careful  not  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  her  lover  by  flirting 
with  other  men. 

She  must  carefully  avoid  any  undue  familiarity  and  effectually  check  any 
attempt  toward  such  on  his  part. 

She  should  remember  that  nothing  so  soon  disgusts  a  man  with  a  woman 
as  any  indications  of  untidiness  or  uncleanliness  on  her  part.  She  should 
therefore  be  exceedingly  neat  and  clean  in  his  presence,  and  have  her  dress 
always  chosen  with  taste. 

Let  their  conduct  generally  toward  each  other  be  such  as  to  inspire  con- 
fidence, and  in  case  of  a  misunderstanding  let  her  not  hesitate  to  make  the 
advance  toward  reconciliation. 


g-^V- 


-zB^e 


*->^ 


IT  is  not  usual  for  the  lady  to  visit  any  but  her  intimate  friends  after 
the  announcement  of  the  engagement.     She  should,  however,  leave 
her  visiting-card  at  the  residence  of  her  friends  just  previous  to  the 
sending  of  the  invitations,  which  should  be  sent  at  least  two  weeks 
prior  to  the  wedding. 

The  invitations  should  be  engraved  in  a  rich,  heavy  script,  and  should  be 
of  such  shape  as  to  fold  in  a  long,  narrow  envelope,  not  square,  for  the  latter 
shape  is  now  somewhat  out  of  date. 

The  quality  and  tint  of  the  invitations,  "At  Home"  and  church  cards 
should  be  uniform  with  the  envelopes,  as  the  slightest  difference  would 
spoil  their  beauty. 

The  invitations,  the  "At  Home"  cards  and  the  church  cards  are  all 
placed  in  one  envelope,  bearing  the  name  only  of  the  parties  to  whom  sent. 
The  full  address  is  placed  on  the  outside  envelope. 

Invitations  should  be  delivered  by  the  footman  at  the  residence  of  the 
parties  for  whom  intended.  The  footman,  too,  should  always  be  in  full  livery. 
The  invitation  should  be  in  this  form  : 

&/r.  b  3kv>.  ^cvo^W  ^wjjj 
oX  Ma  uj/xWvacvv  ov  'Vcvwr  3/JA^oAXvr ., 


/* 


If  a  reception  be  given  at  the  residence  of  the  bride's  parents,  a  card  to 
those  whose  presence  is  desired  should  be  enclosed  in  the  envelope  with  the 
invitation:  thus: 

^r.  b  ^A/fc.  (^cvoaW  %&w^^ 
OX  ^o-uxv., 

^S§Q  ^Uam,  ^X_ 

Or: 

byyw  ^cvoAX  -oXWr  Lyu/r  a^vXw  'W 

It  is  quite  customary  at  large  weddings  to  issue  usher  or  church  cards, 
thus  avoiding  the  crowd  of  curious  sight-seers  who  cause  much  annoyance 
by  filling  all  the  best  seats.  This  card  should  be  small  and  engraved  in 
script,  with  crest  or  monogram.     In  form  : 

^X.  ^-tOV^Vty  ^WaJcV., 
^WOMyw\V  <oX  fyyWV  O-^W^R/- 

In  case  of  the  reception  being  given  on  the  return  of  the  bridal  party  the 
card  should  read  : 

OX    jta^VJtf/., 

<^Q   ^)W  ^X. 

Should  the  bride's  parents  decide  to  give  her  a  reception  on  her  return  to 
the  city,  the  "At  Home  "  card  will  contain  the  bride's  name  below  her 
mother's ;  in  all  other  respects  the  same  as  model  given. 

When  the  wedding  is  at  the  house,  the  form  of  invitation  is  same  as  at 
church,  except  that  the  number  of  residence  is  substituted  for  name  of 
church. 

For  "At  Home  "  weddings,  combining  ceremony  and  reception,  the  form  is: 

^a~.  b  ^bvty.  ^WW  §&w^ 

AA/^\M/iX  V(W  A^W^iAXA/v  /ol   Ajxyjvr 
wu^>awu  qX  *vKv 

1a-.  b  >}Ka^.  ^Iomw  \xyXiv, 

<X  AVO/X  ^OviX  loAJA,., 


\ 


FT 


734 


GENERAL  HINTS  ON  ETIQUETTE. 


/ 


•VMawctx&YE"  Qj,cfcQk'3>QktfcOka^kTai,3fct»a>MitAT*aiktA»fa,Qka 


■'V  TV  VYV  VTV  V  V  V  V  VUg—^ 


General  •eHint^-  on-  Etiquette. 


THERE  are  a  number  of  the  minor  points  of  etiquette  which,  not 
coming  directly  under  any  nf  the  preceding  heads,  might  othcr- 
]>e  omitted, and  which,  therefore,  wc  propose  touching  upon 
in  this  chapter. 
g'.Vi  Jt  The  art  of  giving  and  receiving  presents  is  not  always  an  in- 

C1&*  tuition.  A  generous  person  may  unwittingly  wound  where  he 
intends  to  please,  while  a  really  grateful  person  may,  by  want  of  tact, 
appear  to  deprecate  the  liberality  of  his  (Hands, 

A  gift  should  always  be  valuable  for  something  besides  its  price.  It  may 
have  been  brought  by  the  giver  from  some  famous  place;  it  may  have  a 
valuable  association  with  genius,  or  it  may  be  unique  in  its  workmanship. 
An  author  may  offer  his  book  or  an  artist  his  sketch,  and  any  one  may  offer 
flowers,  which  are  always  a  delicate  and  unexceptionable  gift. 

A  rich  person  should  be  careful  how  he  gives  ts  the  poor,  lest  he  hurt  their 
pride,  while  a  poor  person  can  only  give  to  those  of  greater  wealth  some- 
thing that  has  cost  only  affection,  time  or  talent. 

Never  allude  to  a  present  which  you  have  given  ;  do  not  even  appear  to 
see  it  if  you  are  where  it  is. 

Do  not  give  a  present  in  hopes  of  a  return. 

If  you  present  a  book  to  a  friend,  do  not  write  the  name  in  it  unless  it  is 
requested.  By  doing  so  you  are  taking  for  granted  that  your  present  will  be 
accepted,  and  also  that  a  specimen  of  your  penmanship  will  give  additional 
value  to  the  gift. 

It  is  in  bad  taste  to  undervalue  a  gift  which  you  have  yourself  offered.  If 
it  is  valueless,  it  is  not  good  enough  to  give  to  your  friend  ;  and  if  you  say 
you  do  not  want  It  yourself,  or  that  you  would  only  throw  it  away  if  they 
did  not  take  it,  you  are  insulting  the  person  whom  you  mean  to  benefit. 

Married  ladJasj  may  occasionally  accept  a  present  from  a  gentleman  who 
rquently  at  the  house,  and  desires  to  express  his  gratitude  in  that 
way. 

An  unmarried  lady  should  not  accept  presents  from  any  gentleman  to 
whom  she  is  not  engaged,  or  who  is  not  a  relative. 

Never  refuse  a  gift  unless  you  have  a  very  good  reason  for  so  doing.  How- 
ever poor  the  gift,  you  should  show  your  appreciation  of  the  kindness  of 
heart  which  prompted  it.  All  such  deprecatory  phrases  as  "I  fear  I  rob 
you,"  or  "  I  am  really  ashamed  to  take  it,"  etc.,  arc  in  bad  taste,  as  they 
s.-.-ni  n>  imply  that  you  think  the  giver  cannot  afford  It. 

Do  not  quickly  follow  up  a  present  by  a  return.  It  looks  too  much  like 
payment.  Never,  however,  fail  to  make  an  immediate  acknowledgment  of 
the  receipt  of  a  gift. 

Remember,  when  you  arc  prone  to  give  in  charity  to  the  sick  or  the  needy, 
that  "  he  who  gives  quickly  gives  double" 

Never  Indulge  in  egotism  in  the  drawing-room.     The  person  who  makes 
Uy,  his  wealth,  his  affairs  or  his  hobby  the  topic  of  conversation  is 


not  only  a  bore  but  a  violator  of  good  taste.  We  do  not  meet  in  society  to 
display  ourselves,  but  to  give  and  take  as  much  rational  entertainment  a* 
our  own  accomplishments  and  those  of  others  will  afford. 

The  man  or  woman  who  engrosses  the  conversation  is  unpardonably 
selfish. 

We  should  not  neglect  very  young  people  in  our  drawing-rooms.  If  we 
wish  our  children  to  have  polished  manners,  and  to  express  themselves  well, 
wc  must  lead  them  to  enter  into  the  conversation  that  is  going  on. 

All  irritability  and  gloom  must  be  thrown  off  when  we  enter  society. 

It  is  ■  duty  to  always  look  pleased.  It  is  likewise  a  duty  to  appear  inter- 
SStsd  Ifl  ■  story  that  you  may  have  heard  a  dozen  times  before,  to  smile  on 
the  most  inveterate  proscr  ;  in  short,  to  make  such  minor  sacrifices  of  sin- 
cerity as  one's  good  manners  and  good  feelings  may  dictate. 

In  conversation  the  face  must  be  pleasant,  wearing  something  that  almost 
approaches  to  a  smile. 

Always  look  at  the  person  who  is  conversing  with  you,  and  listen  respect- 
fully. In  answering  try  to  express  your  thoughts  in  the  best  manner.  A 
loose  manner  of  expression  injures  ourselves  much  more  than  our  hearers, 
since  it  is  a  habit  which,  once  acquired,  is  not  easily  thrown  off,  and  when  wc 
wish  to  express  ourselves  well  it  is  not  easy  to  do  so. 

A  good  hit  of  .ulvi>  c  is  the  saying,  "  Think  twice  before  you  speak  once," 
as  thus  only  can  you  learn  to  always  speak  to  the  point. 

The  young  of  both  sexes  would  find  it  an  inestimable  advantage  through 
life  to  cultivate  from  the  outset  a  clear  intonation,  a  well-chosen  phraseology, 
a  logical  habit  of  thought,  and  a  correct  accent. 

A  well  educated  person  proclaims  himself  by  his  simple  and  terse  lan- 
guage. Good  and  clear  Saxon  is  much  to  be  prrlerred  to  high-sounding 
phrases  and  long  words;  it  is  only  the  half-educated  who  imagine  such  a 
style  is  elegant. 

Never  employ  extravagance  in  conversation.  Always  employ  the  word 
that  will  express  your  precise  meaning  and  no  more.  It  is  absurd  to  say  it 
>s  "immensely  jolly,"  or  "disgustingly  mean."  Such  expressions  show 
neither  wit  nor  wisdom,  but  merest  flippancy. 

Avoid  awkwardness  of  attitude  as  well  as  awkwardness  of  speech. 

No  man  or  woman  is  well-bred  who  is  continually  lolling,  gesticulating  or 
fidgeting  in  company. 

No  lady  of  good  breeding  will  sit  sideways  on  her  chair,  or  with  her  legs 
crossed  or  stretched  apart,  or  hold  her  chin  in  her  hands,  or  twirl  her 
watch  chain,  while  she  is  talking  ;  nor  does  a  well-bred  gentleman  sit  astride 
of  his  chair,  or  bite  his  nails,  or  nurse  his  leg.  A  man  is  always  allowed 
more  freedom  than  a  woman,  but  both  should  be  graceful  and  decorous  In 
their  deportment. 

Never  indicate  an  object  by  pointing  at  it.  Move  the  head  or  wave  the 
whole  hand. 


_ 


Sneezing,  coughing  and  clearing  the  throat  must  he  done  quietly  when  it 
cannot  possibly  be  avoided ;  but  sniffling  and  expectorating  must  never  be 
indulged  in  in  decent  society. 

Physical  training  is  necessary  to  both  men  and  women  who  aspire  to  be  of 
the  best  society.  Every  gentleman  should  know  how  to  fence,  to  box,  to 
shoot,  to  swim,  to  ride,  to  dance,  and  how  to  carry  himself.  Calisthenic 
exercises  and  dancing  should  be  taught  every  young  woman.  Even  though 
she  may  not  intend  to  dance,  the  acquirement  of  the  art  tends  to  produce 
that  grace  of  movement  which  is  so  beautiful  in  woman.  Swimming,  rid- 
ing, driving,  archery  and  all  suitable  outdoor  amusements  strengthen  the 
muscles  and  give  beauty  and  suppleness  to  the  human  form  divine. 

A  good  memory  for  names  and  faces,  and  a  self-possessed  manner,  are 
necessary  to  every  one  who  would  make  a  good  impression  in  society. 
Nothing  is  more  delicately  flattering  to  another  than  to  find  you  can  readily 
call  his  or  her  name,  after  a  very  slight  acquaintance.  The  most  popular  of 
great  men  have  gained  their  popularity  principally  through  the  possession  of 
this  faculty. 

Shyness  is  very  ungraceful,  and  a  positive  injury  fo  any  one  afflicted  with 
it.  It  is  only  allowable  in  very  young  people.  A  person  who  blushes,  stam- 
mers and  fidgets  in  the  presence  of  strangers  will  not  create  a  very  good 
impression  upon  their  minds  as  to  his  personal  worth  and  educational  ad- 
vantages. Shyness  may  be  overcome  by  determined  mixing  in  society. 
Nothing  else  will  have  an  effect  upon  it. 

In  conversing  with  a  person,  do  not  repeat  the  name  frequently,  as  it  im- 
plies one  of  two  extremes,  that  of  familiarity  or  haughtiness. 

If  you  are  talking  to  a  person  of  title,  do  not  keep  repeating  the  title. 
You  can  express  all  the  deference  you  desire  in  voice  and  manner  ;  it  is  un- 
necessary and  snobbish  to  put  it  in  words. 

A  foreigner  should  always  be  addressed  by  his  full  name ;  as,  Monsieur  de 
Montmorcnci,  never  as  Monsieur  only.  In  speaking  of  him,  give  him  his 
title,  if  he  have  one.  For  example,  in  speaking  to  a  nobleman  you  would 
say,  Monsieur  le  Marquis  ;  in  speaking  of  him  in  his  absence,  you  would 
say,  Monsieur  le  Marquis  deMontmorenci.  Converse  with  a  foreigner  in  his 
own  language.  If  you  are  not  sufficiently  at  home  in  the  language  to  do  so, 
apologize  to  him,  and  beg  permission  to  speak  English. 

Married  people  are  sometimes  guilty  of  the  vulgar  habit  of  speaking  of 
each  other  by  the  initial  letter  of  their  first  name,  or  the  wife  of  her  husband 
as  "Jones,"  omitting  the  "Mr."  This  denotes  very  ill  breeding,  and 
should  be  strenuously  avoided. 

Never  speak  of  absent  persons  by  their  Christian  names  or  their  sur- 
names ;  always  refer  to  them  as  Mr. or  Mrs. , 

Gentlemen,  when  with  ladies,  are  expected  to  defray  all  such  expenses  as 
car  fares,  entrance  fee  to  theatre,  refreshments,  etc. 

In  entering  an  exhibition  or  public  room  where  ladies  are  present,  gentle- 
men should  always  lift  their  hats.  In  France  a  gentleman  lifts  his  hat  on 
entering  a  public  omnibus,  but  that  is  not  necessary  according  to  the  English 
code  of  etiquette. 

To  yawn  in  the  presence  of  others,  to  put  your  feet  on  a  chair,  to  stand 
with  your  back  to  the  fire,  to  take  the  most  comfortable  seat  in  the  room,  to 
do  anything  in  fact  that  displays  selfishness  and  a  lack  of  respect  for  those 
about  you,  is  unequivocally  vulgar  and  ill-bred. 

If  a  person  of  greater  age  than  yourself  desire  you  to  step  into  a  carriage 
or  through  a  door  first,  it  is  more  polite  to  bow  and  obey  than  to  decline. 
Compliance  with,  and  deference  to,  the  wishes  of  others,  is  always  the 
finest  breeding. 

A  compliment  that  is  palpably  insincere  is  no  compliment  at  all. 

Boasting  is  one  of  the  most  ill-bred  habits  a  person  can  indulge  in. 
Travelling  is  so  universal  a  custom  now  that  to  mention  the  fact  that  you 
have  been  to  Europe  is  to  state  nothing  exceptional.  Anybody  with  wealth, 
health  and  leisure  can  travel ;  but  it  is  only  those  of  real  intelligence  that 
derive  any  benefit  from  the  art  treasures  of  the  Old  World. 

When  in  general  conversation  you  cannot  agree  with  the  proposition  ad- 
vanced, it  is  best  to  observe  silence,  unless  particularly  asked  for  your 
opinion,  in  which  case  you  will  give  it  modestly,  but  decidedly.  Never  be 
betrayed  into  too  much  warmth  in  argument ;  if  others  remain  uncon- 
vinced, drop  the  subject. 

Gentlemen  precede  a  lady  in  going  up  stairs,  but  follow  her  in  going  down. 

In  walking  with  a  lady  through  a  crowd,  precede  her,  in  order  to  clear  the 
way. 


In  walking  on  a  public  promenade,  if  you  meet  the  same  friends  and  ac- 
quaintances a  number  of  times,  it  is  only  necessary  to  salute  them  once  in 
passing. 

Never  speak  of  your  own  children  as  "  Master  **  and  "  Miss  "  except  to 
servants. 

Never  correct  any  slight  inaccuracy  in  statement  or  feet.  It  is  better  to 
let  it  pass  than  to  subject  another  to  the  mortification  of  being  corrected  in 
company. 

No  one  can  be  pulitt  who  does  not  cultivate  a  good  memory.  There  is  a 
class  of  absent-minded  people  who  are  to  be  dreaded  on  account  of  the 
mischief  they  are  sure  to  create  with  their  unlucky  tongues.  They  always 
recall  unlucky  topics,  speak  of  the  dead  as  though  they  were  living,  talk  of 
people  in  their  hearing,  and  do  a  hundred  and  one  things  which,  in  slang 
parlance,  is  "  treading  on  somebody's  toes."  Carelessness  can  be  carried  to 
such  a  pitch  as  to  almost  amount  to  a  crime.  Cultivate  a  good  memory, 
therefore,  if  you  wish  to  say  pleasant  things  and  to  avoid  disagreeable  ones. 

People  must  remember  that  they  must  give  as  well  as  take  in  this  life,  and 
that  they  must  not  hesitate  to  go  to  a  little  trouble  in  those  small  observ- 
ances which  it  is  so  pleasant  to  accept. 

When  entrusted  with  a  commission,  do  not  fail  to  perform  it.  It  is  rude  to 
"forget." 

On  entering  a  room  filled  with  people,  do  not  fail  to  bow  slightly  to  the 
general  company. 

If  you  accept  favors  and  hospitalities,  do  not  fail  to  return  the  same  when 
the  opportunity  offers. 

The  most  contemptible  meanness  in  the  world  is  that  of  opening  a  private 
letter  addressed  to  another.  No  one  with  the  slightest  self-respect  would  be 
guilty  of  such  an  act. 

Never  betray  a  confidence. 

Never  question  a  child  or  a  servant  about  the  private  affairs  of  the  family 

Do  not  borrow  money  and  neglect  to  pay.  If  you  do,  you  will  soon  find 
that  your  credit  is  bad. 

When  offered  a  seat  in  the  street  car,  accept  the  same  with  audible  thanks. 

It  is  very  awkward  for  one  lady  to  rise  and  give  another  lady  a  seat  in  a 
streetcar,  unless  the  lady  standing  be  very  old,  or  evidently  ill  and  weak. 

Never  fail  to  answer  an  invitation,  either  personally  or  by  letter,  within  a 
week  after  its  receipt. 

Do  not  fail  to  return  a  friend's  call  in  due  time. 

Never  play  practical  jokes.  The  results  are  frequently  so  serious  as  to 
entail  life-long  regret  on  the  joker. 

Avoid  any  familiarity  with  a  new  acquaintance.  Vou  never  know  when 
you  may  give  offence. 

Always  tell  the  truth.  Veracity  is  the  very  foundation  of  character. 
Without  it  a  man  is  a  useless  and  unstable  structure. 

When  writing  to  ask  a  favor  or  to  obtain  information,  do  not  fail  to  enclose 
postage  stamp  for  a  reply. 

When  an  apology  is  offered,  accept  it,  and  do  so  with  a  good  grace,  not  in 
a  manner  that  implies  you  do  not  intend  changing  your  opinion  o.  the 
offence. 

It  is  rude  to  examine  the  cards  in  a  card-basket  unless  you  have  an  invita- 
tion to  that  effect. 

Never  look  at  the  superscription  on  a  letter  that  you  may  be  requested  to 
mail. 

Never  seal  a  letter  that  is  to  be  given  to  a  friend  for  delivery.  It  looks  as 
though  you  doubted  his  or  her  honor  in  refraining  from  examining  the  con- 
tents 

When  walking  with  a  lady,  it  is  etiquette  to  give  her  the  wall,  but  tf  she 
have  your  arm  it  is  quite  unnecessary  to  be  changing  at  every  corner  you 
come  to.     After  one  or  two  changes  the  habit  becomes  ridiculous. 

Always  adopt  a  pleasant  mode  of  address.  Whether  you  are  speaking  to 
inferiors  or  to  your  equals,  it  will  alike  give  them  a  kindly  and  happy  im- 
pression of  you. 

Long  hair  and  a  scrawling  signature  do  not  constitute  genius.  Be  careful, 
then,  how  you  draw  upon  yourself  the  ridicule  of  being  a  shallow  pretender 
by  adopting  either  or  both. 

Never  fail  to  extend  every  kindly  courtesy  to  an  elderly  person  or  an 
invalid. 

Never  ridicule  the  iame,  the  halt  or  the  blind.  You  never  know  when 
misfortune  may  be  your  own  lot. 


V- 


^fr 


K 


736 


"71 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  HOUSE. 


Do  not  make  promises  that  you  have  no  intention  of  fulfilling.  A  person 
who  is  ever  ready  with  promises,  which  he  fails  to  execute,  is  soon  known 
as  a  very  unreliable  party. 

Punctuality  is  a  most  admirable  quality.  The  man  or  woman  who  pos- 
sesses it  is  a  blessing  to  his  or  her  friends.  The  one  who  lacks  it  is  wanting 
in  one  of  the  first  requisites  of  good -breeding. 

It  is  extremely  rude  to  look  over  the  shoulder  of  one  who  is  reading  or 
writing.  It  is  also  rude  to  persist  in  reading  aloud  passages  from  your  own 
book  or  paper  to  one  who  is  also  reading. 

Do  not  appear  to  notice  any  defect,  scar  or  peculiarity  of  any  one.  It  it 
the  height  of  rudeness  to  speak  of  them. 

Never  presume  to  attract  the  attention  of  an  acquaintance  by  a  touch, 
unless  you  are  extremely  intimate.  Recognition  by  a  simple  nod  or  spoken 
word  is  all  that  can  be  allowed. 

Do  not  be  quick  to  answer  questions,  in  general  company,  that  arc  put  to 
others. 

You  should  not  lend  an  article  that  you  have  borrowed  without  first  ob- 
taining permission  from  the  owner. 

Avoid  all  exhibition  of  excitement,  anger  or  impatience  when  an  accident 
happens. 


Neither  a  gentleman  nor  a  lady  will  boast  of  the  conquests  he  or  she  has 
made.  Such  a  course  would  have  the  effect  of  exciting  the  most  profound 
contempt  for  the  boasters  in  the  breasts  of  all  who  heard  them. 

If  you  cannot  avoid  passing  between  two  persons  who  are  talking,  never 
fail  to  apologize  for  doing  so. 

Never  enter  a  room  noisily.  Never  enter  the  private  bed-room  of  a  friend 
without  knocking.     Never  fail  to  close  the  door  after  you,  and  do  not  slam  it. 

Temper  has  much  more  to  do  with  good-breeding  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed. The  French  are  allowed  to  be  the  most  polite  people  in  the  world, 
when  they  are  really  only  the  most  amiable. 

Learn  to  make  small  sacrifices  with  a  good  grace  ;  to  accept  small  disap- 
pointments in  a  patient  spirit.  A  little  more  of  self-control,  a  little  more 
allowance  for  the  weaknesses  of  others,  will  oftentimes  change  the  entire 
spirit  of  a  household. 

We  are  not  to  be  polite  merely  because  we  wish  to  please,  but  because  we 
wish  to  consider  the  feelings  and  spare  the  time  of  others — because  we 
wish  to  carry  into  daily  practice  the  spirit  of  the  precept,  "  D*  unto  others 
as  you  would  have  others  do  unto  you." 


-e^fe 


•:•  Etiquette  *  of  *  t^e  *  Hcxi^e.  * 


l& 19* 

MANAGEMENT  OF  SERVANTS. 

-&$&*• 


llVERY  mistress  of  a  house  is  a  sovereign  queen,  whose  court  is 
the  home  circle,  which  is  dependent  entirely  upon  her  grace  and 
executive  ability  for  happiness,  comfort  and  refinement. 

In  a  well-ordered  household  the  machinery  is  always  in  order, 
and  always  out  of  sight,  and  it  Is  the  special  care  of  the  mis- 
tress thereof  to  secure  servants  so  reliable,  so  efficient  and  so 
well  trained  that  this  machinery  shall  run  quite  noiselessly,  and  with  the 
most  perfect  satisfaction. 

No  well-bred  woman  talks  of  her  servants,  her  dinner  arrangements,  or 
of  her  housekeeping  affairs  generally,  to  her  visitors  in  the  drawing-room, 
nor  yet  to  her  husband  in  the  privacy  of  the  domestic  circle. 

No  lady,  however  gifted,  can  afford  to  neglect  the  management  of  her 
household.  If  she  be  possessed  of  immense  wealth,  she  may  afford  to  hire 
an  efficient  housekeeper,  but  even  then  the  final  responsibility  rests  upon 
her.  No  tastes  and  no  pleasures  should  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  way  of 
this  important  duty. 

The  moment  you  enter  a  house,  the  personality  of  the  mistress  Is  betrayed 
by  the  atmosphere  which  seems  to  pervade  it.  If  she  be  a  good  and 
efficient  ruler,  the  servants  wear  a  cheerful  air,  the  children  are  obedient  and 
courteous,  the  rooms  are  tastefully  furnished  and  spotlessly  clean  and  neat. 
The  unexpected  guest  receives  a  cordial  welcome,  and  is  conducted  to  a 
well-appointed  table.  In  such  a  home  scandal  and  gossip  are  never  heard, 
and  peace  and  contentment  are  the  household  gods. 

The  first  and  most  important  rule  for  the  governing  of  the  household  Is 
to  regulate  the  expenditure  so  that  It  shall  come  easily  within  the  Income. 

Elegance  adds  greatly  to  the  enjoyment  of  life,  but  if  it  is  to  be  purchased 
at  the  expense  of  all  peace  of  mind,  you  had  better  do  without  it  altogether. 
If  you  cannot  lie  elegant,  you  can  at  least  be  clean,  and  the  true  gentle- 
woman will  Ik-  discovered  as  soon  in  the  cottage  as  in  the  palace  by  her  sur- 
roundings.    Shabby  gentility  is  one  of  the  most  objectionable  forms  of 


snobbishness.  To  affect  a  better  income  than  you  have,  to  ape  the  manners 
of  your  richer  neighbors,  proclaims  you  vulgar  and  ill-bred  in  the  highest 
degree.  Shams  of  every  description  arc  contemptible,  and  every  young 
housekeeper  should  build  her  house  upon  a  superstructure  of  sincerity,  and 
then  she  will  never  have  to  blush  at  awkward  discoveries. 

Your  house  may  have  the  appearance  of  refinement  without  any  great 
expense  if  good  taste  be  exercised  in  its  arrangement.  The  rooms  must  be 
furnished  with  an  artistic  eye  for  colors,  and  a  careful  eye  for  comfort. 
Whatever  pictures  or  works  of  art  there  are  should  be  good.  One  good  en- 
graving is  better  than  half  a  dozen  cheap  chromos. 

A  house  without  books  is  a  house  without  a  soul.  Be  sure,  therefore,  to 
have  plenty  of  books  around.  You  may  not  be  able  to  have  a  whole  library, 
but  you  can  at  least  collect  a  few  shelves  of  well-chosen  works.. 

Thorns  and  ferns  are  ornamental  and  tasteful,  and  may  he  obtained  at  a 
very  slight  expenditure  ;  all  that  they  require  is  a  little  care  and  thought  in 
their  cultivation  and  arrangement. 

Be  careful  not  to  overload  your  rooms  with  cheap  knick-knacks  and 
gaudy  tidies  of  crochet  or  knitted  work.  Any  one  having  a  taste  for  the 
higher  style  of  embroider)'.  *uch  as  the  Kensington  and  Arrasene  work, 
may  produce  very  artistic  effects,  at  but  flight  expense. 

The  walls  of  your  rooms  are  a  very  important  subject,  and  as  you  cannot 
expect  to  change  the  papering  thereof  with  every  fluctuation  of  fashion,  it 
is  essential  th.tt  J  OH  exercise  good  taste  at  the  outset,  paying  but  little  atten- 
tion tn  the  prevailing  style. 

The  walls  of  a  n>om  should  always  be  of  some  sober  color.    Your  carpets 

may  be  bright  as  you  please,  hut  the  pattern  must  be  small,  and  the  colors 

well  blended.     Set  figures  are  very  wearisome  to  the  eye,  either  in  a  carpat 

or  on  wall-paper,  and  as  both  are  likely  to  be  worn  a  long  time,  it  h  best 

k  out  for  that  at  the  beginning. 


V    6 »" 


^ 


ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  HOUSE. 


# 


737 


In  this  day  of  artistic  furniture,  art  magazines,  and  art  crazes  generally, 
there  need  be  no  excuse  for  bad  taste  in  furnishing.  The  day  of  one  stiff 
sofa,  six  stiff  chairs,  and  one  straight  table,  all  placed  rigidly  against  the 
wall,  and  forming  right  angles  with  it,  is  over,  the  gods  be  thanked ;  and 
a  person,  be  he  ever  so  uncultured,  can  form  some  conception  of  what  is 
suitable  and  beautiful  in  the  house  to  make  it  a  home. 

Plenty  of  fresh  air,  cleanliness  and  quiet,  are  all  indications  of  a  well- 
ordered  home. 

The  servant  question  is  the  most  difficult  one  that  housekeepers  have  to 
contend  with  in  America.  The  independent  spirit  of  our  republic  is  inim- 
ical to  anything  that  looks  like  servitude  ;  hence  our  young  women  of  the 
poorer  classes  would  much  rather  go  into  factories,  or  bend  over  sewing- 
machines,  than  go  into  pleasant,  cultivated  families,  where  the  varied  labor, 
better  fare  and  purer  atmosphere  would  contribute  immeasurably  to  the 
preservation  of  their  health  and  happiness. 

American  ladies  are  largely  dependent,  therefore,  upon  the  poor  emigrant 
population  of  Germany  and  Ireland  for  their  servants,  and  this  will  account 
for  the  main  part  of  the  difficulties  in  housekeeping  here.  It  would  be  task 
enough  to  instruct  a  native-born  girl  in  the  varied  mysteries  of  dusting  and 
dish-washing,  of  waiting  on  the  table  and  answering  the  door-bell ;  but 
when  it  comes  to  wrestling  with  the  vernacular  of  the  Fatherland  as  well, 
it  is  discouraging  in  the  highest  degree. 

The  best  way,  however,  is  to  offer  good  wages,  take  only  such  a  girl  as  is 
well  recommended,  and  then,  by  firm,  patient  and  just  measures,  endeavor 
to  have  her  do  your  work  in  your  own  way,  and  to  your  perfect  satisfaction. 

Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  mistress  must  ever  be  on  the  alert.  She  must  be 
quick  to  observe  any  neglect  of  orders  and  carelessness  in  the  execution  of 
them.  She  must  remind  repeatedly,  but  always  kindly  and  firmly.  Let  your 
servant  see  that  you  will  be  obeyed,  but  never  let  her  see  you  out  of  temper, 
and  you  will  soon  acquire  such  an  ascendancy  over  her  that  everything  will 
go  as  smoothly  when  you  are  absent  as  when  you  are  present.  If  you  will 
keep  a  good  servant,  yoi:  must  treat  her  properly.  A  good  mistress  will  give 
as  much  attention  to  the  comfort  and  happiness  of  her  servants  as  she  will 
to  that  of  her  husband  and  her  children. 

If  she  have  but  one  servant,  she  must  be  careful  not  to  put  too  much  work 
upon  her.  No  one  is  willing  to  drudge  all  the  time,  nor  should  any  one  ask 
it.  If  there  are  several  servants,  their  duties  must  be  distinctly  understood 
and  rigidly  enforced.  One  must  not  be  expected  to  help  another  out,  as 
that  would  be  injustice  to  the  industrious  one. 

The  mistress  must  give  personal  supervision  if  she  would  have  her  work 
well  done.  Only  after  a  long  and  tried  period  of  service  can  she  afford  to 
relax  her  vigilance.  A  good  house-mistress  will  never  be  afraid  of  a  little 
trouble.     The  constant  care  pays  in  the  end. 

Avcid  a  fault-finding  and  scolding  manner.  When  a  thing  does  not  suit 
you,  say  so  quietly  to  your  servant.  A  display  of  temper  only  loses  you 
the  respect  of  your  servant,  and  gains  you  nothing  in  the  way  of  obedience. 


Servants  should  be  treated  as  though  they  were  human  beings,  with 
human  weaknesses,  and  not  as  if  they  were  mere  working  machines.  You 
should  endeavor  to  correct  their  faults,  not  to  aggravate  them  ;  and  you 
should  treat  them,  and  have  your  children  treat  them,  with  invariable  kind- 
ness and  civility. 

You  should  interest  yourself  in  the  amusements  of  your  servants.  If  they 
have  a  taste  for  reading,  provide  them  with  good  books.  See  that  they 
occasionally  have  an  opportunity  to  attend  a  place  of  amusement.  Do  not 
restrict  their  hours  of  amusement,  or  endeavor  to  curtail  their  personal 
liberty.  A  good,  devoted  servant  is,  particularly  in  this  country,  where  the 
sense  of  equality  is  felt  and  tacitly  admitted,  as  much  a  part  of  the  family 
as  any  member  thereof.  She  is  the  trusted  confidante  in  family  troubles  ; 
she  is  the  recipient  of  all  the  joyful  secrets  of  the  various  members  of  the 
family  ;  she  is,  in  short,  more  friend  than  servant,  without  presumption  on 
the  one  hand  or  undignified  condescension  on  the  other. 

Punctuality  is  one  of  the  chief  requirements  of  a  well-ordered  household. 
The  good  temper  and  consequent  comfort  of  the  whole  family  depend  upon 
the  regularity  of  the  meals,  to  say  nothing  of  the  health,  which  is  almost  as 
largely  dependent  upon  the  meal  being  served  on  time  as  upon  the  quality  of 
the  food.  The  breakfast  and  dinner  bell  should  be  as  punctual  as  the  church  bell. 

The  mistress  must  look  well  to  the  quality  and  preparation  of  the  food. 
Badly  cooked  food,  monotonous  food  or  insufficient  food  are  all  injurious 
to  the  health,  and  no  lady  should  let  other  and  more  agreeable  occupations 
engage  her  attention  until  she  has  attended  to  her  marketing,  ordered  her 
meals,  and  made  sure  of  their  being  properly  prepared  and  neatly  served. 

Unless  she  have  a  dining-room  maid,  upon  whom  she  can  thoroughly 
depend,  it  is  better  for  the  lady  of  the  house  to  go  into  her  dining-room  a  few 
moments  before  meals  are  served,  to  see  that  all  is  in  order,  the  table  properly 
arranged,  etc.  There  are  very  few  servants  in  this  country  well  trained 
enough  to  be  depended  upon  without  close  supervision. 

A  good  housekeeper  will  also  attend  carefully  to  her  daily  accounts. 
Entries  of  expenditures  should  be  made  every  day,  ard  the  amount  cast  up 
at  the  end  of  the  week.  If  a  book  is  kept  with  the  butcher  and  the  grocer, 
it  is  always  best  to  have  a  weekly  settlement.  A  monthly  or  a  quarterly  set- 
tlement may  of  course  be  made,  but  the  shorter  time  accounts  are  allowed  to 
run,  the  easier  it  is  to  untangle  any  little  knot  in  the  skein.  It  is  best  for  the 
mistress  to  do  all  her  own  ordering  for  the  domestic  commissariat  than 
to  depute  any  part  of  the  task  to  her  cook.  Where  servants  are  allowed  to 
run  and  order  this  or  that  article,  there  is  always  trouble  with  the  tradesmen 
when  the  monthly  bill  comes  in. 

While  every  woman  should  do  all  in  her  power  to  enlarge  her  views,  cul- 
tivate her  mind,  and  improve  her  social  position,  she  should  bear  in  mind 
that  "  home  "  is  first  and  forever  her  special  heritage,  and  that  to  embellish 
and  beautify  it,  and  to  so  order  it  that  it  shall  be  a  haven  of  rest  to  her  dear 
ones,  is  her  highest  and  noblest  duty,  to  which  everything  else  should  be 
subservient. 


/_ 


a 


73» 


—■ 


THE  ART  OF  CARVING. 


4^1^ 


^e-^pt-of-CarVir^. 


•-i-- 


-*«t  ll*&&%f  ic»> 


THE  importance  of  the  art  of  carving  has  been  referred  to  under 
the  head  of  Dining,  and  we  propose  here  to  give  a  few  rules 
upon  the  practice  which  may  be  of  benefit  to  the  tyro,  and  help 
him  to  acquire  that  ease  and  dexterity  tn  carving  which  is  so 
conducive  to  peace  and  comfort  around  the  family  board. 

In  carving  a  sirloin  of  beef,  the  upper  cuts  should  be  made 
lengthwise  of  the  beef,  while  the  under  cuts  are  crosswise — the  under  cuts 
being  also  much  thicker  than  the  upper  cuts.  As  there  is  much  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  which  is  the  choice  piece,  it  is  best  for  the  carver  to  ask  his 
guests  which  cut  they  prefer. 

Rib  roasts,  rolled,  and  a  round  of  beef  are  always  cut  in  very  thin  hori- 
zontal slices  across  the  whole  surface  of  the  meat.  It  is  essential,  though, 
that  these  slices  be  quite  thin. 

The  leg,  the  loin,  the  shoulder  and  the  saddle  are  the  four  pieces  of  mut- 
ton usually  brought  to  the  table  to  be  carved.  First,  as  to  the  leg.  This 
must  be  placed  on  the  table  with  the  knuckle  toward  the  left  hand.  Then 
cut  into  the  side  farthest  from  you  toward  the  bone,  helping  thin  slices 
from  the  right  and  thick  slices  toward  the  knuckle.  Always  divide 
the  little  bunch  of  fat  near  the  thick  end  among  your  guests,  as  it  is  a 
great  delicacy. 

A  saddle  of  mutton  is  often  ordered  for  a  small  dinner  party.  It  is  cut  in 
very  thin  slices,  close  to  the  back-bone,  and  then  downward. 

Place  a  "shoulder  "  with  the  knuckle  toward  the  right  hand,  the  blade 
bone  toward  the  left.  Place  your  fork  firmly  in  the  middle  of  the  edge 
farthest  from  you,  and  cut  dexterously  from  the  edge  to  the  bone.  This 
causes  the  meat  to  fly  open,  when  you  can  cut  slices  on  each  side  of  the 
opening,  until  there  is  no  more  to  cut,  when  the  meat  should  be  turned 
over  and  slices  cut  from  the  under  side.  Another  method  of  carving  this 
joint  is  to  cut  slices  lengthwise  from  the  end  to  the  knuckle. 

The  loin  of  mutton,  which  is  a  piece  intended  specially  for  family  use, 
should  be  carved  cither  through  the  joints  or  may  be  cut  lengthwise  in  a 
parallel  line  with  the  joints. 

A  fillet  of  veal  Is,  in  shape  and  appearance,  very  similar  to  a  round  of 
beef,  and  is  carved  in  the  same  way  by  cutting  horizontal  iUcm  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  meat.  The  slices,  however,  should  not  be  nearly  so 
thin  as  beef.  A  fillet  of  veal  is  cut  from  the  leg,  the  bone  is  removed  by 
the  butcher,  and  the  pocket  thus  made  is  filled  with  dressing,  which  is  taken 
out  and  helped  with  a  spoon  by  the  carver. 

A  breast  of  veal  may  be  either  roasted  or  stewed.  If  used  as  a  roasting- 
piece,  you  will  have  the  butcher  make  an  opening  or  hole  in  it  forthe  recep- 
tion of  the  dressing.  In  carving  it,  the  ribs  may  be  separated  from  the 
brisket,  and  sent  round. 

A  fore -quarter  of  lamb  consists  of  shoulder,  breast  and  ribs.  The  knife 
must  be  first  placed   upon  the  shoulder,  drawn  through  horizontally,  and 


the  joint  removed,  and  placed  upon  another  dish.  The  ribs  can  then  be 
separated,  and  the  breast  sliced  and  sent  around. 

A  calf's  head,  which  is  by  some  considered  a  delicacy,  must  be  cut  down 
the  centre  in  thin  slices  on  each  side.  A  small  piece  of  the  palate,  of  the 
sweet-bread,  and  of  the  meat  around  the  eye,  must  be  put  on  each  plate  and 
sent  round. 

In  carving  a  haunch  of  venison,  make  a  cut  across  close  to  knuckle,  afjer 
which  cut  slices  by  making  straight  incisions  lengthwise. 

There  are  three  methods  allowed  in  carving  a  ham.  The  most  common 
one  probably  is  to  cut  it  like  a  leg  of  mutton,  beginning  in  the  middle,  and 
cutting  either  way.  You  may,  however,  begin  at  the  knuckle,  cutting  slices 
in  a  slanting  direction,  or  you  may  begin  at  the  thick  end.  The  slices 
must  always  be  as  thin  and  delicate  as  possible,  and  are  the  usual  accom- 
paniment to  fowl  or  veal. 

Tongue  must  always  be  cut  in  thin,  regular  slices.  Make  the  first  cut  a 
short  distance  from  the  tip,  where  a  slice  of  some  size  may  be  attained. 
1'he  tip  is  considered  quite  a  lid-bit  by  some  people. 

In  carving  a  chicken,  first  cut  off  the  wings.  This  is  easily  done  by  learn- 
ing where  to  strike  the  joint.  Then  slice  the  breast,  and  cut  off  the  merry- 
thought and  side  bones.  The  breast  should  always  be  helped  first,  then  the 
wings— the  liver  wing  being  the  better  of  the  two.  It  is  better  to  always 
reserve  a  small  slice  of  the  white  meat  to  be  served  with  the  dark. 

Pigeon,  snipe  and  quail  arc  cut  in  half,  and  a  piece  sent  to  each  guest. 
When  the  birds  are  small,  you  send  a  whole  one. 

Goose  and  turkey  are  helped  by  cutting  slices  off  the  breast,  and  then  the 
wings  and  legs  are  removed.  The  breast  is  considered  the  best  meat,  and 
after  that  the  wtngpb 

Boiled  rabbit  is  carved  thus  :  First  cut  off  the  legs,  then  take  out  the  shoul- 
ders with  a  sharp-pointed  knife,  then  break  the  back  into  three  or  four 
pieces  at  the  joint.  The  back  is  the  choice  help,  especially  the  piece  in  the 
centre.  The  shoulder  is  next  in  order  after  the  back,  and  the  leg  cones 
last.     The  kidney  is  a  delicate  bit. 

It  'iitting  fish  a  regular  silver  fish-slice  is  provided.  Salmon  and  all  fish 
of  that  order  are  cut  in  slices  down  the  middle  of  the  upper  side,  and  then 
in  slices  across  on  the  under  side.  A  piece  of  each  should  be  helped 
to  all. 

Mackerel  divides  among  four  people.  Pass  fish-knife  between  the  upper 
and  under  half  from  head  to  tail,  then  halve  each  side,  and  help  to  a  quarter. 

Cut  cod  crosswise  like  salmon,  then  downward,  and  send  a  small  piece  of 
round  on  each  plate  as  well. 

Large  flat  fish,  as  turbot,  flounders,  John  Dorcy,  etc.,  are  first  cut  down 
the  middle  from  head  to  tail,  then  across  to  the  fin,  in  slices.  The  fin,  being 
considered  a  delicacy  by  some,  should  be  helped,  too. 

Small  fish,  like  smelts,  whiting,  etc.,  are  sent  whole  to  each  guest 


JiJ 


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•»,  Q •_ 


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K" 


HOW  TO  SELECT  MEATS. 


739 


~7f 


sL 


mti&£Etom£& 


Hov/  •:•  to  •:•  ^eleet  *  [Deat^.  * 


^THE*ART*OF*COOKING' 

i  itKl  it  ili 't » ill  X' 8  ilil"li  ft 'H' •  <C 'I1 » I' <' >l 


-i'M  ■'•'■'■  ....-, 


I  CARCELY  a  young  housekeeper,  unless  so  fortunate  as  to  have 
had  a  thorough  course  of  training  by  a  sensible  mother,  but  has 
o-^S§Ko  been  mortified  at  her  own  extreme  ignorance  of  what  before 
(iVcw)  I)  seemea"  unimportant  matters,  but  afterward  proved  themselves 
•j\J^\jf(  very  essential  points  in  the  way  of  doing  the  household  market- 
ing. The  difference  in  kind  and  quality,  and  the  technical 
names  of  the  various  parts  of  edible  animals,  probably  never  occurred  to 
her  until  brought  face  to  face  with  the  matter  in  the  butcher  shop,  which  she 
has  entered  for  the  first  time  to  purchase  her  meat  for  dinner. 

For  the  benefit  of  such  we  give  a  few  general  rules  upon  how  to  select 
meats,  the  names  of  the  different  parts,  appearance  of  good  and  bad  meats, 
etc.  First,  as  to  the  characteristics  of  good  meats.  Meat  of  a  pale  pink 
color  is  likely  to  be  diseased,  while  that  of  a  deep  purple  tint  has  not  been 
slaughtered,  but  has  died  of  acute  fever.  The  proper  color  is  a  bright,  rich 
red. 

It  should  be  firm  and  elastic  in  appearance,  and  scarcely  moisten  the 
fingers.     Bad  meat  is  wet  and  sodden,  while  the  fat  in  it  looks  like  jelly. 

Good  meat  has  little  or  no  odor,  and  is  not  disagreeable.  Bad  meat  has  a 
sickly  odor  that  is  extremely  offensive. 

Good  meat  should  not  shrink  much  in  cooking. 

It  should  not  become  very  wet  on  standing.  It  should  dry  upon  the 
surface. 

Meat  should  be  dried  with  a  clean  cloth  as  soon  as  it  comes  from  the 
butcher's.     Cut  out  fly-blows  if  there  are  any  on  it. 

Never  buy  bruised  joints. 

Meat  will  keep  a  long  time  in  cold  weather,  while  if  frozen  it  will  keep 
for  months.  Always  thaw  frozen  meat  before  attempting  to  cook  it,  by 
plunging  it  in  cold  water  or  setting  it  before  the  fire.  It  will  not  cook  well 
without  this  precaution. 

In  summer  place  your  meat  on  ice,  or  in  the  coldest  place  you  have,  until 
ready  to  cook  it. 

Always  baste  roast  meat  with  its  own  drippings.  You  cannot  baste  it  too 
much. 

In  order  to  retain  the  juices,  your  meat  must  be  cooked  in  a  hot  oven. 

In  boiling  meat,  if  you  wish  to  make  soup  as  well,  put  your  meat  in  cold 
water,  and  bring  it  slowly  up  to  the  boiling  point.  The  juices  then  flavor 
the  water  and  make  soup.  If  you  put  the  meat  in  boiling  water,  the  juices 
remain  in  the  meat,  and  the  liquor  is  worthless. 

Stewing  is  slow  boiling.  Frying  is  cooking  in  a  pan,  in  a  small  quantity 
of  fat.     Broiling  is  cooking  over  a  fire. 

Beef  is  the  flesh  of  the  ox,  and  is  the  principal  meat  eaten  in  this  country 
and  in  England.  Good  beef  should  be  welt  streaked  or  marbled  with  fat, 
and  should  have  plenty  of  loose  fat  or  suet  around. 


The  joints  of  beef  for  roasting  are  ribs,  sirloin,  chump  of  rump,  fillet  of 
sirloin,  mouse  buttock,  top  side  and  heart.  The  choice  roasts  are  sirloin 
and  rib  roasts.  For  a  small  family  a  nice  roast  is  made  of  one  rib,  the  bone 
being  taken  out,  and  the  meat  neatly  rolled  and  skewered  by  the  butcher. 

For  frying  or  broiling  the  best  steak  is  the  "  porterhouse."  After  that 
"tenderloin"  and  "sirloin"  steak,  and  the  "rump"  steak.  The  latter 
should  be  well  beaten,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  toughness.  The  choicest 
thing  for  breakfast  is  a  "porterhouse"  steak,  broiled  quickly  over  a  bright  fire. 

For  beefsteak  puddings  and  pies  coarser  pieces  of  the  meat  may  be  pur- 
chased.    For  soup,  a  good  shin-bone  is  best. 

Beef  is  more  nourishing  roasted  than  boiled,  and  can  be  eaten  more  fre- 
quently than  any  other  meat  without  causing  surfeit. 

Veal  has  but  little  fat,  and  is  of  a  pinkish  white  color.  Good  veal  should 
be  closely  grained  and  small ;  if  it  is  large  and  coarse-grained,  it  is  too  old 
to  be  really  nice.  Do  not  buy  it  if  it  is  moist  and  clammy,  as  it  is  then 
nearing  decomposition.  The  best  pieces  of  veal  for  roasting  are  fillet  and 
best  end  of  the  breast.     For  frying,  cutlets  from  the  shoulder. 

Spring  lamb  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  kinds  of  meat  that  can  be  eaten. 
The  whole  animal  is  usually  divided  into  quarters  by  the  butcher,  and  sold 
at  so  much  a  quarter.  A  hind  quarter  is  usually  rather  more  expensive  than 
a  fore  quarter,  although  the  latter  is  considered  by  some  the  more  delicate 
eating.  It  is  always  rather  an  expensive  meat,  but  a  roast  of  lamb,  with 
mint  sauce,  is  always  a  delicate  dinner. 

Mutton  is  the  meat  of  sheep  upward  of  four  years  of  age.  The  darker 
mutton  is  the  better,  as  it  is  a  sign  of  maturity.  Good  mutton  should  also 
be  f.u. 

The  parts  for  roasting  are  saddle,  haunch,  leg,  best  end  of  loin,  chump 
end  of  loin,  shoulder,  breast  and  others. 

Fur  frying  and  broiling,  chops  and  cutlets  from  loin  and  neck ;  also  cut- 
lets from  leg. 

For  boiling  the  leg  makes  an  excellent  dinner.  It  should  always  be 
accompanied  by  caper  sauce. 

Venison  should  be  fa'..  A  young  deer  may  be  distinguished  by  the  cleft 
of  the  haunch  being  smooth  and  close.  Winter  is  the  season  for  buck  ven- 
ison, while  summer  is  the  time  for  doe  venison.  The  roasting  parts  are 
haunch,  neck  and  breast. 

In  choosing  poultry,  it  is  usual  to  try  the  breast  bone  in  order  to  determine 
whether  the  fowl  be  young  or  old.  If  the  bone  be  pliable — that  is,  easily 
bent  with  the  finger — the  chicken  or  turkey  is  young  and  tender  enough  for 
roasting;  but  if  hard  and  unyielding,  the  fowl  had  better  be  boiled,  and 
plenty  of  time  allowed  for  the  process. 

The  principal  kinds  of  game  eaten  are  grouse,  partridge,  snipes,  quails, 
woodcocks,  ortolans,  pheasants,  wild  duck,  teal,  land-rail,  plovers  and  larks. 


K 


742 


-^ 


FAMILIAR    POEMS. 


William  Cullbn  Bryant. 


VljO  him  who,  in  the  love  of  nature,  holds 

*-*-*  Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 

A  various  language  ;  for  his  gayer  hours 

She  has  a  voice  of  gladness,  and  a  smile 

And  eloquence  of  l>eauty,  and  she  glides 

Into  his  darker  musings,  with  a  mild 

And  gentle  sympathy,  that  steals  away 

Their  sharpness,  ere  he  is  aware. 

When  thoughts 
Of  the  last  bitter  hour  come  like  a  blight 
Over  thy  spirit,  and  sad  images 
Of  the  stern  agony,  and  shroud,  and  pall. 
And  breathless  darkness,  and  the  narrow  house. 
Make  thee  to  shudder  and  grow  sick  at  heart; 
Go  forth  into  the  open  sky,  and  list 
To  nature's  teaching,  while  from  all  around 
Comes  a  still  voice  : 

"  Yet  a  few  days,  and  thee 
The  all-beholding  sun  shall  sec  no  more, 
In  all  his  course;  nor  yet,  in  the  cold  ground, 
Where  thy  pale  form  was  laid  with  many  tears. 
Nor  in  the  embrace  of  ocean,  shall  exist 
Thy  image.     Earth,  that  nourishes  thee,  shall 
Thy  growth,  to  be  resolved  to  earth  again  ; 
And,  lost  each  human  trace,  surrendering  up 
Thine  individual  being,  shalt  thou  go 
To  mix  forever  with  the  elements, 
To  be  a  brother  to  th'  insensible  rock 
And  to  the  sluggish  clod,  which  the  rude  swain 
Turns  with  his  share  and  treads  upon. 

The  oak 
Shall  send  its  roots  abroad,  and  pierce  thy  mold. 
Yet  not  to  thy  eternal  resting-place 
Shalt  thou  retire  alone,  nor  couldst  thou  wish 
Couch  more  magnificent.    Thou  shalt  lie  down 
With  patriarchs  of  the  Infant  world,  with  kings. 
The  powerful  of  the  earth,  the  wise,  the  good, 

DM,  and  hoary  seers  of  ages  past, 
All  in  one  mighty  sepulchre. 

The  hills. 
Rock-ribbed  and  ancient  as  the  sun  ;  the  vales, 
St r.  t.  liing  in  pensive  quietness  between  ; 
The  venerable  woods ;  rivers  that  move 


In  majesty,  and  the  complaining  brooks 

That  make  the  meadows  green ;  and,  poured  round  al 

Old  ocean's  gray  and  melancholy  waste. 

Are  but  the  solemn  decorations  all 

Of  the  great  tomb  of  man.     The  golden  sun, 

The  planets,  all  the  infinite  host  of  heaven, 

Are  shining  on  the  sad  abodes  of  death, 

Through  the  still  lapse  of  ages. 

All  that  thread 
The  globe  are  but  a  handful  to  the  tribes 
That  slumber  in  its  bosom.     Take  the  wings 
Of  morning,  and  the  Barcan  desert  pierce. 
Or  lose  thyself  in  the  continuous  woods 
Where  rolls  the  Oregon,  and  hears  no  sound 
Save  its  own  dashings — yet  —  the  dead  are  there; 
And  millions  in  those  solitudes,  since  first 
The  flight  of  years  began,  have  laid  them  down 
In  their  last  sleep  :  the  dead  reign  there  alone. 

So  shalt  thou  rest ;  and  what  if  thou  shalt  fall 
Unnoticed  by  the  living,  and  no  friend 
Take  note  of  thy  departure  ?     All  that  breathe 
Will  share  thy  destiny.     The  gay  will  laugh 
When  thou  art  gone ;  the  solemn  brood  of  care 
Plod  on  ;  and  each  one,  as  before,  will  chase 
His  favorite  phantom ;  yet  all  these  shall  leave 
Their  mirth  and  their  enjoyments,  and  shalt  come 
And  make  their  bed  with  thee.     As  the  long  train 
Of  ages  glide  away,  the  sons  of  men, 
The  youth  in  life's  green  spring,  and  he  who  goes 
In  the  full  strength  cT  years  matron  and  maid. 
The  bowed  with  age,  the  infant  in  the  smiles 
And  beauty  of  its  innocent  age  cut  off — 
Shall,  one  by  one,  be  gathered  to  thy  side. 
By  those  who  in  their  turn  shall  follow  them. 

So  live,  that  when  thy  summons  comes  to  join 
The  innumerable  caravan  iliat  moves 
To  the  pale  realms  of  shade,  where  each  shall  take 
His  chamber  in  the  silent  halts  of  death, 
Thou  go  not  like  the  quarry-slave  at  night, 
Scourged  to  his  dungeon,  but,  sustained  and  soothed. 
By  an  unfaltering  trust,  approach  thy  grave 
Like  one  who  wraps  the  drapery  of  his  couch 
About  him,  and  lies  down   to  pleasant  dreams. 


^ 


K 


FAMILIAR   POEMS 


_.* 


743 


I  eKiaooaffta'A 


(Sfy/ooi  rtg* 


Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow. 


t 


"s^J 


<L 


••  ^^  S  unto  the  bow  the  cord  is, 

fA*^    So  unto  the  man  is  woman  : 
Though  she  bends  him,  she  obeys  him  ; 
Though  she  draws  him,  yet  she  follows; 
Useless  each  without  the  other." 

Thus  the  youthful  Hiawatha 
Said  within  himself  and  pondered. 
Much  perplexed  by  various  feelings. 
Listless,  longing,  hoping,  fearing, 
Dreaming  still  of  Minnehaha, 
Of  the  lovely  Laughing  Water, 
In  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs. 

"  Wed  a  maiden  of  your  people," 
Warning  said  the  old  Nokomis  ; 
"  Go  not  eastward,  go  not  westward. 
For  a  stranger,  whom  ye  know  not  I 
Like  a  fire  upon  the  hearthstone 
Is  a  neighbor's  homely  daughter ; 
Like  the  starlight  or  the  moonlight 
Is  the  handsomest  of  strangers  !" 

Thus  dissuading  spake  Nokomis, 
And  my  Hiawatha  answered 
Only  this  :  "  Dear  old  Nokomis, 
Very  pleasant  is  the  firelight. 
But  I  like  the  starlight  better, 
Better  do  I  like  the  moonlight !  " 

Gravely  then  said  old  Nokomis  : 
"  Bring  not  here  an  idle  maiden. 
Bring  not  here  a  useless  vromai, 
Hands  unskilful,  feet  unwilling; 
Bring  a  wife  with  nimble  fingers, 
Heart  and  hand  that  move  together, 
Fnet  that  run  on  willing  errands  !  " 

Smiling  answered  Hiawatha : 
"  In  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs 
Lives  the  Arrow-maker's  daughter, 
Minnehaha,  Laughing  Water, 
Handsomest  of  all  the  women. 
I  will  bring  her  to  your  wigwam., 
She  shall  run  upon  your  errands, 
Be  your  starlight,  moonlight,  firelight, 
Be  the  sunlight  of  ray  people  ! '' 

Stilt  dissuading  said  Nokomis  : 
"  Bring  not  to  ray  lodge  a  stranger 
From  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs  ! 
Very  fierce  are  the  Dacotahs, 
Often  is  there  war  between  us. 
There  are  feuds  yet  unforgotten, 
Wounds  that  ache  and  still  may  open  !  " 

Laughing  answered  Hiawatha : 
"  For  that  reason,  if  no  other, 
Would  I  wed  the  fair  Dacotah, 
That  our  tribes  might  be  united, 
That  old  feuds  might  be  forgotten, 
And  old  wotntds  be  honied  forever  !  " 


49 


Thus  departed  Hiawatha 
To  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs, 
To  the  land  of  handsome  women  ; 
Striding  over  moor  and  meadow 
Through  interminable  forests, 
Through  uninterrupted  silence. 

With  his  moccasins  of  magic, 
At  each  stride  a  mile  he  measured  ; 
Yet  the  way  seemed  long  before  him, 
And  his  heart  outran  his  footsteps  ; 
And  he  journeyed  without  resting, 
Till  he  heard  the  cataract's  laughter, 
Heard  the  Falls  of  Minnehaha 
Calling  to  him  through  the  silence. 
"  Pleasant  is  the  sound  ! "  he  murmured, 
"  Pleasant  is  the  voice  that  calls  me  1  " 

On  the  outskirts  of  the  forest, 
'Twixt  the  shadow  and  the  sunshine, 
Herds  of  fallow  deer  were  feeding, 
But  they  saw  not  Hiawatha ; 
To  his  bow  he  whispered,  "  Fail  noj  I  *• 
To  his  arrow  whispered,  "  Swerve  not  I  M 
Sent  it  singing  on  its  errand, 
To  the  red  heart  of  the  roebuck  ; 
Threw  the  deer  across  his  shoulder, 
And  sped  forward  without  pausing. 

At  the;  doorway  of  his  wigwam 
Sat  the  ancient  Arrow-maker, 
In  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs, 
Making  arrow-heads  of  jasper, 
Arrow-heads  of  chalcedony. 
At  his  side,  in  all  her  beauty, 
Sat  the  lovely  Minnehaha, 
Sat  his  daughter,  Laughing  Water, 
Plaiting  mats  of  flags  and  rushes  ; 
Of  the  past  the  old' man's  thoughts  were, 
And  the  maiden's  of  the  future. 

He  was  thinking,  as  he  sat  there, 
Of  the  days  when  with  such  arrows 
He  had  struck  the  deer  and  bison. 
On  the  Muskoday,  the  meadow  ; 
Shot  the  wild  goose,  flying  southward, 
On  the  wing,  the  clamorous  Wawa; 
Thinking  of  the  great  war-parties, 
How  they  came  to  buy  his  arrows, 
Could  not  fight  without  his  arrows. 
Ah,  no  more  such  noble  warriors 
Could  be  found  on  earth  as  they  were  I 
Now  the  men  were  all  like  women, 
Only  used  their  tongues  for  weapons  I 

She  was  thinking  of  a  hunter 
From  another  tribe  and  country, 
Young  and  tall  and  very  handsome, 
Who  on«  morning,  in  the  spring-time, 
Came  to  buy  her  father's  arrows, 
Sat  and  rested  in  the  wigwam, 
Lingered  long  about  the  doorway, 


Looking  back  as  he  departed. 
She  had  heard  her  father  praise  him, 
Praise  his  courage  and  his  wisdom ; 
Would  he  come  again  for  arrows 
To  the  Falls  of  Minnehaha  ? 
On  the  mat  her  hands  lay  idle. 
And  her  eyes  were  very  dreamy. 

Through  their  thoughts  they  heard  a  footstep. 
Heard  a  rustling  in  the  branches. 
And  with  glowing  check  and  forehead, 
With  the  deer  upon  his  shoulders. 
Suddenly  from  out  the  woodlands 
Hiawatha  stood  before  them. 

Straight  the  ancient  arrow-maker 
Looked  up  gravely  from  his  labor. 
Laid  aside  the  unfinished  arrow, 
Bade  him  enter  at  the  doorway. 
Saying,  as  he  rose  to  meet  him, 
"  Hiawatha,  you  are  welcome  !" 

At  the  feet  of  Laughing  Water 
Hiawatha  laid  his  burden. 
Threw  the  red  deer  from  his  shoulders  ; 
And  the  maiden  looked  up  at  him. 
Looked  up  from  her  mat  of  rushes. 
Said  with  gentle  look  and  accent, 
"You  are  welcome,  Hiawatha  !  " 

Very  spacious  was  the  wigwam, 
Made  of  deer-skin  dressed  and  whitened. 
With  the  gods  of  the  Dacotahs 
Drawn  and  painted  on  its  curtains, 
And  so  tall  the  doorway,  hardly 
Hiawatha  stooped  to  enter. 
Hardly  touched  his  eagle-feathers 
As  he  entered  at  the  doorway. 

Then  uprose  the  Laughing  Water, 
From  the  ground  fair  Minnehaha, 
Laid  aside  her  mat  unfinished, 
Brought  forth  food  and  set  before  them, 
Water  brought  them  from  the  brooklet, 
Gave  them  food  in  earthen  vessels, 
Gave  them  drink  in  bowls  of  bass  wood. 
Listened  while  the  guest  was  speaking. 
Listened  while  her  father  answered, 
But  not  once  her  lips  she  opened. 
Not  a  single  word  she  uttered. 

Yes,  as  in  a  dream  she  listened 
To  the  words  of  Hiawatha. 
As  he  talked  of  old  Nokomis, 
Who  had  nursed  him  in  his  childhood. 
As  he  told  of  his  companions, 
Chibiabos,  the  musician, 
And  the  very  strong  man,  Kwasind, 
And  of  happiness  and  plenty 
In  the  land  of  the  Ojibwars, 
In  the  pleasant  land  and  peaceful. 


~ 


"  After  many  years  of  warfare, 
Many  yearn  of  strife  and  bloodshed, 
There  is  peace  between  the  Ojibways 
And  the  tribe  of  the  Dacotafa ;  " 
Thus  continued  Hiawatha, 
And  then  added,  speaking  slowly, 
"  That  this  peace  may  last  forever, 
And  our  hands  be  clasped  more  closely, 
And  our  hearts  be  more  united. 
Give  me  as  my  wife  this  maiden, 
Minnehaha,  Laughing  Water, 
Loveliest  of  Dacotah  women  !  " 

And  the  ancient  Arrow-maker 
Paused  a  moment  ere  he  answered. 
Smoked  a  little  while  in  silence. 
Looked  at  Hiawatha  proudly. 
Fondly  looked  at  Laughing  Water, 
And  made  answer  very  gravely  : 
"  Yes,  if  Minnehaha  wishes  ; 
Let  your  heart  speak,  Minnehaha  !  " 

And  the  lovely  Laughing  Water 
Seemed  more  lovely,  as  she  stood  there. 
Neither  willing  nor  reluctant. 
As  she  went  to  Hiawatha, 
Softly  took  the  seat  beside  him, 
While  she  said,  and  blushed  to  say  it, 
"  I  will  follow  you,  my  husband  1 " 

This  was  Hiawatha's  wooing  ! 
Thus  it  was  he  won  the  daughter 
Of  the  ancient  Arrow-maker, 
I  n  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs  I 
From  the  wigwam  he  departed, 
leading  with  him  Laughing  Water; 
Hand  in  hand  they  went  together, 
Through  the  woodland  and  the  meadow. 
Left  the  old  man  standing  lonely 
At  the  doorway  of  his  wigwam, 
Heard  the  Falls  of  Minnehaha 
Calling  to  them  from  the  distance. 


Crying  to  them  from  afar  off, 

"  Fare  thee  well,  O  Minnehaha  !  * 

And  the  ancient  Arrow-maker 
Turned  again  unto  his  labor. 
Sat  down  by  his  sunny  doorway. 
Murmuring  to  himself,  and  saying: 
"  Thus  it  is  our  daughters  leave  us, 
Those  we  love,  and  those  who  love  us  I 
Just  when  they  have  learned  to  help  us. 
When  we  are  old  and  lean  upon  them. 
Comes  a  youth  with  flaunting  feathers. 
With  his  flute  of  reeds,  a  stranger, 
Wanders  piping  through  the  village. 
Beckons  to  the  fairest  maiden. 
And  she  follows  where  he  leads  her. 
Leaving  all  things  for  the  stranger  !  " 

Pleasant  was  the  journey  homeward 
Through  interminable  forests, 
Over  meadow,  over  mountain. 
Over  river,  hill  and  hollow. 
Short  it  seemed  to  Hiawatha,  # 

Though  they  journeyed  very  slowly. 
Though  his  pace  he  checked  and  slackened 
To  the  steps  of  Laughing  Water. 

Over  wide  and  rushing  rivers 
In  his  arms  he  bore  the  maiden  ; 
Light  he  thought  her  as  a  feather, 
As  the  plume  upon  his  head-gear; 
Cleared  the  tangled  pathway  for  her. 
Bent  aside  the  swaying  branches, 
Made  at  night  a  lodge  of  branches. 
And  a  bed  with  boughs  of  hemlock, 
And  a  fire  before  the  doorway 
With  the  dry  cones  of  the  pine-tree. 

All  the  travelling  winds  went  with  them 
O'er  the  meadow,  through  the  forest ; 
All  the  stars  of  night  looked  at  them. 
Watched  with  sleepless  eyes  their  slumber  ; 


From  his  ambush  in  the  oak-tree 
Peered  the  squirrt.1,  Adjidaumo, 
Watched  with  eager  eyes  the  lovers; 
And  the  rabbit,  the  Wabasso, 
Scampered  from  the  path  before  them. 
Peeping,  peeping  from  his  burrow. 
Sat  erect  upon  his  haunches. 
Watched  with  curious  eyes  the  lovers. 

Pleasant  was  the  journey  homeward  t 
All  the  birds  sang  loud  and  sweetly 
Song*  of  happiness  and  heurt's-east 
San<  the  blue-bird,  theOwaissa, 
*'  Happy  are  you,  Hiawatha, 
Having  such  a  wife  to  love  you  1  " 
Sang  the  robin,  the  Opechee, 
"  Happy  are  you,  Laughing  Water, 
Having  such  a  noble  husband  !  " 

From  the  sky  the  sun  benignant 
Looked  upon  them  through  the  branches. 
Saying  to  them,  "  O  my  children, 
Love  is  sunshine,  hate  is  shadow. 
Life  is  checkered  shade  and  sunshine. 
Rule  by  love,  O  Hiawatha  I " 

From  the  sky  the  moon  looked  at  them. 
Filled  the  lodge  with  mystic  splendors. 
Whispered  to  them,  "  O  my  children. 
Day  is  restless,  night  is  quiet, 
Man  imperious,  woman  feeble; 
Half  is  mine,  although  I  follow; 
Rule  by  patience,  Laughing  Water!  " 

Thus  it  was  they  journeyed  homeward, 
Thus  it  was  that  Hiawatha 
To  the  lodge  of  old  Nokomts 
Brought  the  moonlight,  starlight,  firelight. 
Brought  the  sunshine  of  his  people, 
Minnehaha,  Laughing  Water, 
Handsomest  of  all  the  women 
In  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs, 
In  the  land  of  handsome  i 


<& — ■■■  i,$jfa»^fcg=3) 


I 


~4"      (Ufte   5i>are£oot  &o^/< 


V>LESSINOS  on  thee,  little  man, 
4*~^   Barefoot  boy,  with  cheeks  of  tan  t 
With  thy  turned-up  pantaloons, 
And  thy  merry  whistled  tunes  ; 
With  thy  red  lip,  redder  still, 
Kissed  by  strawberries  on  the  hill ; 
With  the  sunshine  on  thy  face, 
Through  thy  torn  brim's  jaunty  grace, 
From  my  heart  I  give  thee  joy — 
I  was  once  a  barefoot  boy  I 

I  thou  art  —  the  grown-up  man 
Only  is  republii  U. 
Let  the  million-dollared  ride  I 
Barefoot,  trudging  at  his  side, 
Thou  hast  more  than  he  can  buy 
In  the  reach  of  ear  and  eye- 
Outward  sunshine,  inward  joy, 
Blessings  on  thee,  barefoot  boy  1 


(R=*i 


John  Grbknlkap  Whittikk. 

Oh,  for  boyhood's  painless  play, 
Sleep  that  wakes  in  laughing  day. 
Health  that  mocks  the  doctor's  rules, 
Knowledge  never  learned  of  schools, 
Of  the  wild  bee's  morning  chase. 
Of  the  wild  flower's  time  and  place. 
Flight  of  fowl,  and  habitude 
Of  the  tenants  of  the  wood; 
How  the  tortoise  bears  his  shell, 
How  the  woodchuck  digs  his  cell. 
And  the  ground  mole  sinks  his  well: 
How  the  robin  feeds  her  young, 
How  the  oriole's  nest  is  hung ; 
Where  the  whitest  lilies  blow. 
Where  the  freshest  berries  grow. 
Where  the  ground-nut  trails  its  vine. 
Where  the  wood-grape's  clusters  shine ; 
Of  the  black  wasp's  cunning  way, 


Mason  of  his  walls  of  clay. 
And  the  architevtur.il  plans 
Of  gray  hornet  artisans  '  — 
For,  eschewing  books  and  tasks. 
Nature  answers  alt  he  asks  ; 
Hand  in  hand  with  her  he  walks. 
Face  to  face  with  her  he  talks. 
Part  and  parcel  of  her  joy — 
Blessings  on  the  barefoot  boy  t 

Oh,  for  boyhood's  time  of  June, 
Crowding  years  In  one  brief  moon. 
When  all  things  I  heard  or  saw. 
Me,  their  master,  waited  for. 
I  was  rich  in  flowers  and  trees. 
Humming-birds  and  honey-bees; 
For  my  sport  the  squirrel  played. 
Plied  the  snouted  mole  his  spade; 


4^ 


\j 


K 


FAMILIAR  POEMS. 


745 


For  my  taste  the  blackberry  cone 
Purpled  over  hedge  and  stone  ; 
Laughed  the  brook  for  my  delight 
Through  the  day  and  through  the  night, 
Whispering  at  the  garden  wall. 
Talked  with  me  from  fall  to  fall ; 
Mine  the  sand-rimmed  pickerel  pond, 
Mine  the  walnut  slopes  beyond. 
Mine  on  bending  orchard  trees. 
Apples  of  Hesperides  t 
Still,  as  my  horizon  grew, 
Larger  grew  my  riches,  too ; 
All  the  world  I  saw  or  knew 
Seemed  a  complex  Chinese  toy, 
Fashioned  for  a  barefoot  boy  ! 

Oh,  for  festal  dainties  spread. 
Like  my  bowl  of  milk  and  bread/— 


Pewter  spoon  and  bowl  of  wood. 
On  the  door-stone,  gray  and  rude  I 
O'er  me,  like  a  regal  tent. 
Cloudy-ribbed  the  sunset  bent, 
Purple-curtained,  fringed  with  gold, 
Looped  in  many  a  wind-swung  fold, 
While  for  music  came  the  play 
Of  the  pied  frogs'  orchestra  ; 
And,  to  light  the  noisy  choir, 
Lit  the  fly  his  light  of  fire. 
I  was  monarch  ;  — pomp  and  joy 
Waited  on  the  barefoot  boy  I 

Cheerily,  then,  my  little  man, 
Live  and  laugh,  as  boyhood  can  ! 
Though  the  flinty  slopes  be  hard, 
Stubble*speared  the  new-mown  sward. 


Every  morn  shall  lead  thee  through 
Fresh  baptisms  of  the  dew ; 
Every  evening  from  thy  feet 
Shall  the  cool  wind  kiss  the  heat ; 
All  too  soon  these  feet  must  hide 
In  the  prison  cells  of  pride. 
Lose  the  freedom  of  the  sod, 
Like  a  colt's  for  work  be  shod. 
Made  to  tread  the  mills  of  toil 
Up  and  down  in  ceaseless  moil : 
Happy  if  their  track,  be  found 
Never  on  forbidden  ground  ; 
Happy  if  they  sink  not  in 
Quick  and  treacherous  sands  of  sin. 
Ah  I  that  thou  couldst  know  thy  joy. 
Ere  it  passes,  barefoot  boy  I 


..os>o- 


J=^M 


@rft 


*^m 


W^=z 


5i>effA. 


W^ 


Vu'u'ti'ti'VUV'uVb'iinilV 


I. 

HEAR  the  sledges  with  the  bells- 
Silver  bells — 
What  a  world  of  merriment  their  melody  foretells  ! 
How  they  tinkle,  tinkle,  tinkle, 

In  the  icy  air  of  night  I 
While  the  stars  that  oversprinkle 
All  the  heavens  seem  to  twinkle 
With  a  crystalline  delight — 
Keeping  time,  time,  time, 
In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme, 
To  the  tintinnabulation  that  so  musically  wells 
From  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells, 
Bells,  bells,  bells, 
From  the  jingling  and  the  tinkling  of  the  bells. 

II. 

Hear  the  mellow  wedding  bells — 
Golden  bells  1 
What  a  world  of  happiness  their  harmony  foretells  ! 
Through  the  balmy  air  of  night 
How  they  ring  out  their  delight ! 
From  the  molten-golden  notes, 

And  all  in  tune, 
What  a  liquid  ditty  floats 
To  the  turtle-dove  that  listens,  while  she  gloats 
On  the  moon  ! 
Oh,  from  out  the  sounding  cells. 
What  a  gush  of  euphony  voluminously  wells  ! 
How  it  swells  I 
How  it  dwells 
On  the  Future  !  how  it  tells 
Of  the  rapture  that  impels 
To  the  swinging  and  th-:  ringing 

Of  the  bells,  bells,  bells. 
Of  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  l>ells, 
Bells,  bells,  bells— 
To  the  rhyming  and  the  chiming  of  the  bells. 

III. 
Hear  the  loud  alarum  bells— 
Brazen  bells  [ 


Edgar  Allan  Poh. 


What  a  tale  of  terror,  now,  their  turbulency  tells  1 
In  the  startled  ear  of  night 
How  they  scream  out  their  affright ! 
Too  much  horrified  to  speak, 
They  can  only  shriek,  shriek. 
Out  of  tune, 
In  the  clamorous  appealing  to  the  mercy  of  the 

fire, 
In  a  mad  expostulation  with  the  deaf  and  frantic 
fire, 

Leaping  higher,  higher,  higher. 
With  a  desperate  desire, 
And  a  resolute  endeavor, 

Now — now  to  sit  or  never. 
By  the  side  of  the  pale-faced  moon. 
Oh,  the  bells,  bells,  bells, 
What  a  tale  their  terror  tells 
Of  despair ! 
How  they  clang,  and  clash,  and  roar! 
What  a  horror  they  outpour 
On  the  bosom  of  the  palpitating  airl 
Yet  the  ear  it  fully  knows 
By  the  twanging 
And  the  clanging, 
How  the  danger  ebbs  and  flows  ; 
Yet  the  ear  distinctly  tells, 
In  the  jangling, 
And  the  wrangling, 
How  the  danger  sinks  and  swells, 
By  the  sinking  or  the  swelling  in  the  anger  of  the 
bells— 

Of  the  bells— 
Of  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells, 
Bells,  bells,  bells— 
In  the  clamor  and  the  clangor  of  the  bells  1 

IV. 

Hear  the  tolling  of  the  bells— 
Iron  bells ! 
What  a  world  of  solemn  thought  their  monody 
compels  ' 


In  the  silence  of  the  night. 

How  we  shiver  with  affright 
At  the  melancholy  menace  of  their  tonet 
For  every  sound  that  floats 
From  the  rust  within  their  throats 

Is  a*  groan. 
And  the  people — ah,  the  people — 
They  that  dwell  up  in  the  ^steeple, 

Alt  alone, 
And  who  tolling,  tolling,  tolling, 

In  that  muffled  monotone. 
Feel  a  glory  in  so  rolling 

On  the  human  heart  a  stone— 
They  are  neither  man  nor  woman— 
They  are  neither  brute  nor  human— 

They  are  ghouls ; 
And  their  king  it  is  who  tolls; 
And  he  rolls,  rolls,  rolls. 
Rolls, 

A  paean  from  the  bells  ! 
And  his  merry  bosom  swelb 

With  the  pxan  of  the  bells ! 
And  he  dances  and  he  yells  ; 
Keeping  time,  time,  time, 
In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme, 

To  the  pxan  of  the  bells— 
Of  the  bells: 
Keeping  time,  time,  time. 
In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme. 

To  the  throbbing  of  the  bells— 
Of  the  bells,  bells,  bells— 

To  the  sobbing  of  the  bells  ; 
Keeping  time,  time,  time. 

As  ne  knells,  knells,  knells, 
In  a  happy  Runic  rhyme, 

To  the  tolling  of  the  bells — 
Of  the  bells,  bells,  bells, 

To  the  tolling  of  the  bells. 
Of  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells- 
Bells,  bells,  bells— 
To  the  moaning  and  the  groaning  of  the  bells. 


/ 


S^fooa,  S^foao,  (Ufiou 


©y infer  @yinc[. 


Shaksperb. 
From  "At  You  Like  It."— Act  II,  Sc.  7. 


V>  LOW,  blow,  thou  winter  wind, 

£-)  Thou  art  not  so  unkind 

As  man's  ingratitude; 

Thy  tooth  is  not  so  keen 

Because  thou  art  not  seen. 

Although  thy  breath  be  rude. 

Heigh-ho  !  sing  heigh-ho  !  unto  the  green  holly, 

Most  friendship  is  feigning,  most  loving  mere  folly. 

Then  heigh-ho  the  holly. 

This  life  is  most  jolly. 


Freeze,  freeze,  thou  bitter  sky, 

Thou  dost  not  bite  so  nigh 

As  benefits  forgot ; 

Though  thou  the  waters  warp. 

Thy  sting  U  not  so  sharp 

As  friend  remembered  not. 

Heigh-ho  I  sing  heigh-ho  !  unto  the  green  holly. 

Most  friendship  is  feigning,  most  loving  mere  foHy; 

Then  heigh-ho  the  holly, 

This  life  is  most  jolly. 


Alpkkd  Tennyson. 


IIjHF.  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls 
fJL,         And  snowy  summits  old  in  story  ; 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes. 

And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory. 
Blow,  bugle,  blow,  set  the  wild  echoes  flying  ; 
Blow,  bugle ;  answer,  echoes,  dying,  dying,  dying  I 


Oh,  hark  !  oh,  hear !  how  thin  and  cleat , 
And  thinner,  clearer,  farther  going, 
Ob,  sweet  and  far  from  cliff  and  scar. 

The  horns  of  Elfland  faintly  blowing  ! 
Blow,  let  us  hear  the  purple  glens  replying, 
Blow,  bugle ;  answer,  echoes,  dying  dying,  dying  1 


O  love,  they  die  in  yon  rich  sky, 

They  faint  on  hill  or  field  or  river  | 
Our  echoes  roll  from  soul  to  soul. 
And  grow  forever  and  forever. 
Blow,  bugle,  blow,  set  the  wild  echoes  flying, 
And  answer  echoes,  answer,  dying,  dying,  dying  ! 


©Jfti 


i 


YjY  HE  sea !  the  sea !  the  open  sea, 
V-l^T    The  bhie,  the  fresh,  the  ever  free  I 

Without  a  mark,  without  a  bound. 
It  runneth  the  earth's  wide  regions  round. 
It  plays  wih  the  clouds ;  it  mocks  she  ahtos  ; 
Or  like  a  cradled  creature  lies. 

I'm  on  the  sea  1  I'm  on  the  son  1 

1  am  where  I  would  ever  be ; 

With  the  blue  above,  and  the  blur  bclew, 

And  sueooc  whereooe'er  1  go ; 

If  a  stoJtn  shonid  come  and  awake  the  nee?, 

What  ntufcser  ?     1  shnH  nde  and  steep. 


ecu  * 


Barky  Cornwall. 

1  love  (oh,  hour  I  love!)  to  ride 
On  the  fierce,  foaming,  bursting  tide. 
When  every  mad  wave  drowns  the  moon. 
Or  whistles  aloft  his  tempest  tune, 
And  tells  how  goeih  the  world  below. 
And  why  the  southwest  blasts  do  blow. 

I  never  was  oa  the  dull,  tame  shore 
But  I  loved  the  great  sea  more  and  more, 
And  backward  flew  to  her  billowy  breast. 
Like  a  bird  that  seckcth  its  mother's  net! ; 
And  a  mother  she  awsr,  and  is  to  sne  ; 
For  I  was  born  on  the  open  sea. 


The  waves  were  white  and  red  the  mom, 
In  the  noisy  hour  when  I  was  bom  ; 
And  the  whale  it  whistled  and  the  porpoise  roll'd. 
And  the  dolphins  bared  their  backs  of  gold; 
And  never  was  heard  such  an  outcry  wild 
As  wekomed  to  life  the  ocean  child. 

I've  lived  since  then,  in  cairn  and  s»nt  - 

Full  fifty  summers  a  sailor's  life. 

With  wraith  to  spend,  and  a  poorer  to  range, 

But  never  have  sought  nor  sigh'd  I 

And  Death,  whenever  he  cosne  to  me, 

*•.*■  come  on  she  wild,  anbouaded  tea . 


=^ 


748 


"7f 


FAMILIAR     POl  M 


An  Extract  from  ' 
Q'weET  was  the  sound,  when  oft,  at  evening's  close, 
Jl3  Up  yonder  hill  the  village  murmur  rose  j 
There,  as  I  passed  with  careless  steps  and  slow, 
The  mingling  notes  came  softened  from  below  ; 
The  swain  responsive  as  the  milk-maid  sung. 
The  sober  herd  that  lowed  to  meet  their  young  ; 
The  noisy  geese  that  gabbled  o'er  the  pool, 
The  playful  children  just  let  loose  from  school ; 
The  watch-dog's  voice  that  bayed  the  whispering  wind, 
And  the  loud  laugh  that  spoke  the  vacant  mind,— 
These  all  in  sweet  confusion  sought  the  shade, 
And  filled  each  pause  the  nightingale  had  made. 

*  •  •  *  * 

Near  yonder  copse,  where  once  the  garden  smiled. 
And  still  where  many  a  garden  flower  grows  wild. 
There,  where  a  few  torn  shrubs  the  place  disclose. 
The  village  preacher's  modest  mansion  rose. 
A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear. 
And  passing  rich,  with  forty  pounds  a  year; 
Remote  from  towns  he  ran  his  godly  race. 
Nor  e'er  had  changed,  or  wished  to  change  his  place. 
Unskilful  he  to  fawn,  or  seek  for  power, 
By  doctrines  fashioned  to  the  varying  hour; 
Far  other  aims  his  heart  had  learned  to  prize. 
More  bent  to  raise  the  wretched  than  to  rise. 
His  house  was  known  to  all  the  vagrant  train. 
He  chid  their  wanderings,  but  relieved  their  pain  ; 
The  long- remembered  beggar  was  his  guest. 
Whose  beard,  descending,  swept  his  aged  breast ; 
The  ruined  spendthrift,  now  no  longer  proud, 
Claimed  kindred  there,  and  had  his  claims  allowed  ; 

lettl  soldier,  kindly  bade  to  sr.iy. 
Sat  by  his  fin-,  and  talked  the  night  away  ; 
Wept  oVr  iiis  wounds,  or,  tales  of  sorrow  done. 


Oliver  Goldsmith. 

'  The  Deserted  Villager 

Shouldered  his  crutch,  and  showed  how  fields  were  woo 
Pleased  with  his  guests,  the  good  man  learned  to  glow. 
And  quite  forgot  their  vices  in  their  woe ; 
Careless  their  merits  or  *hcir  faults  to  scan. 
His  pity  gave  ere  charity  began. 

Thus  to  relieve  the  wretched  was  his  pride, 
And  e'en  his  failings  leaned  to  virtue's  side, 
But  in  his  duty  prompt  at  every  call, 
He  watched  and  wept,  he  prayed  and  felt  for  all : 
And  as  a  bird  each  fond  endearment  tries, 
To  tempt  its  new-fledged  offspring  to  the  skies, 
He  tried  each  art,  seproved  each  dull  delay. 
Allured  to  brighter  world*,  and  led  the  way. 

Beside  the  bed  where  parting  life  was  laid. 
And  sorrow,  guilt  and  pain  by  turns  dismayed. 
The  reverend  champion  stood.     At  his  control 
Despair  and  anguish  fled  the  struggling  soul : 
Comfort  came  down,  the  trembling  wretch  to  raise. 
And  his  last  faltering  accents  whispered  praise. 

At  church,  with  meek  and  unaffected  grace. 
His  looks  adorned  the  venerable  place  : 
Truth  from  bis  lips  prevailed  with  double  sway. 
And  fools,  who  came  to  scoff,  remained  to  pray. 
The  service  past,  uround  the  pious  mr.n. 
With  steady  zeal,  each  honest  rustic  n 
E'en  children  followed,  with  endearing  wile, 
And  plucked  his  gown,  to  share  the  good  man's  smile. 
His  ready  smile  a  parent's  warmth  expressed. 
Their  welfare  pleased  him,  and  their  cares  distressed* 
To  them  his  heart,  his  love,  his  griefs  were  given, 
But  all  his  serious  thoughts  had  rest  in  heaven  : 
As  some  tall  cliff,  tint  lifts  its  awful  form, 
Swells  from  the  vale,  and  midway  leaves  the  storm  ; 
Though  round  its  breast  the  rolling  clouds  are  spread . 
Eternal  sunshine  settles  on  its  head. 


fte  $v\/  6\reeQ. 


Charles  Dickens. 


OH  !  a  dainty  plant  <<n, 

1  h.ii  i  rcepeth  o'er  ruin-. 
Of  right  choice  food  are  his  meals,  I  ween. 
In  In    i  rdl  M  b  nc  and  cold. 
The  wall  rati  |  .  the  stone*  decayed, 

To  pleasure  his  dainty  whim  . 
And  the  mouldering  dust  that  years  have  made 
Is  a  merry  meal  for  him. 

Creeping  where  no  life  is 

A  rare  old  plant  is  the  Ivy  green. 


Fast  he  stealeth  on,  though  he  wears  no  wings, 

And  .1 
How  closely  he  twineth.  bow  ti^ht  he  clings. 
To  his  friend,  the  hufje  oak  tree  ! 


And  slyly  he  traileth  along  the  ground. 

And  his  leaves  he  gently  waves. 
As  he  joyously  hugs  and  crawleth  round 
The  rich  mould  of  dead  men's  graves. 

Creeping  where  grim  death  has  barm, 
A  rare  old  plant  is  the  ivy  green. 

Whole  ages  have  fled,  and  their  works  decayed. 

And  nations  have  scattered  been  ; 
But  0  v  shall  never  fade 

From  its  hale  and  hearty  green, 
The  brave  old  plant  la  its  lonely  •': 

Shall  '  it) 

ling  man  can  raise 

Is  the  ivy's  food  at  last. 


750 


"7 


FAMILIAR    POEMS. 


John  Milton, 
»<w«  "Parodist  Lost,"  Book  VL 


VF*ICHAEL  bid  sound  the  archangel  tnunpet  ; 
1**y\    Through  the  vast  of  heaven 
It  sounded,  and  the  faithful  armies  rung 
Hosanna  to  the  Highest :  nor  stood  at  gaze 
The  adverse  legions,  nor  less  hideous  joined 
The  horrid  shock.    Now  storming  fury  rose. 
And  clamor,  such  as  heard  In  heaven  till  now 
Was  never;  arms  on  armor  clashing  brayed 
Horrible  discord,  and  the  madding  wheels* 
Of  brazen  chariots  raged  ;  dire  was  the  noise 
Of  conflict ;  overhead  the  dismal  hiss 
Of  fiery  darts  in  flaming  volleys  flew. 
And  flying  vaulted  either  host  with  fire. 
So  under  Sery  cope  together  rushed 
Both  battles  main,  with  ruinous  assault 
Aii'l  inextinguishable  rage.     AH  heaven 
Resounded  ;  and  had  earth  been  then,  all  earth 
Had  to  her  centre  shook. 

Deeds  of  eternal  fame 
Were  done,  but  infinite  :  for  wide  was  spread 
That  war,  and  various  ;  sometimes  on  firm  ground 
A  standing  fight,  then,  soaring  on  main  wing, 
Tormented  all  the  air;  all  air  seemed  then 
Conflicting  fire 

Forthwith  (behold  the  excellence,  the  power 
Which  God  hath  in  his  mighty  angels  placed) 
Their  arms  awav  they  threw,  and  to  the  hilK 


(For  earth  hath  this  variety  from  heaven 

Of  pleasure  situate  in  hill  and  dale). 

Light  as  the  lightning  glimpse  they  ran,  they  flew 

From  their  foundations  loosening  to  and  fro, 

They  plucked  the  seated  hills,  with  all  their  load. 

Rocks,  waters,  woods,  and  by  their  shaggy  tops 

Uplifting  bore  them  in  their  hands  ;  amaze, 

Be  sure,  us  1  terror,  seized  the  rebel  host. 

When  coming  towards  them  so  dread  they  saw 

The  bottom  of  the  mountains  upward  turned, 

•  •  •  •     and  on  their  heads 

Main  promontories  flung,  which  in  the  air 

Came   shadowing,  and    oppressed    whole   legions 

armed ; 
Their  armor  helped   their   harm,  crushed  in  and 

bruised 
Into  their  substance  pent,  which  wrought  them  pain 
Implacable,  and  many  a  dolorous  groan  ; 
Long  struggling  underneath,  ere  they  could  wind 
Out  of  such  prison,  though  spirits  of  purest  light. 
Purest  at  first,  now  gross  by  sinning  grown. 
The  rest,  in  imitation,  to  like  arras 
Betook  them,  and  the  neighboring  hills  uptore: 
So  hills  amid  the  air  encountered  hills. 
Hurled  to  and  fro  with  jaculation  dire. 
That  underground  they  fought  in  dismal  shade. 
Infernal  noise  !  war  seemed  a  civil  game 
To  this  uproar;  horrid  confusion  heaped 
Upon  confusion  rose. 


i/»u*u**j  '» .n*/!^  u»  o » u  nw\ 


■:-    : 


iA  ®y/ife.    | 

{e>—? 


TTARE  thee  well,  and  if  forever, 
1^*  Still  forever,  fare  thee  well ; 
E'en  though  unforgiving,  never 

'Gainst  thee  shall  my  heart  rebel. 

Would  that  breast  were  bared  before  thee 
Where  thy  head  to  oft  hath  lain, 

While  that  placid  sleep  came  o'er  thee 
Win,  b  lilOU  nc'ci  i  an-. l  know  Benin  ; 

Would  that  breast,  by  thee  glanced  over, 

v  inmost  thought  could  show  I 
Then  thou  wouldst  at  last  discover 
'  I  was  not  well  to  spurn  it  so. 

Though  the  wot  Id  for  this  commend  thee— 
Though  it  smile  upon  the  blow. 

E'en  hi  praises  must  offend  thee, 
Founded  on  another's  woe. 

Though  my  many  faults  defaced  me. 

Could  M  other  arm  he  found 
Than  the  one  whii  h  01101  embraced  me 

To  inflict  a  cureless  wound  I 


Lord  Byron. 
Vet,  oh,  yet  thyself  deceive  not : 

Love  may  sink  by  slow  decay ; 
But  by  sudden  wrench,  believe  not 

Hearts  can  thus  be  torn  away  : 

Still  thine  own  its  life  retaineth — 

Still  must  mine,  though  bleeding,  beat. 

And  tii'  undying  thought  whirh  puneth 
Is— that  we  no  more  may  meat. 

These  are  words  of  deeper  sorrow 

lb  t  i  the  wait  above  the  dead  ; 

Both  shall  live,  but  every  morrow 

Wakes  us  from  a  widowed  bed. 

And  when  thou  wouldst  solace  gather 
When  our  child's  first  accents  flow. 

Wilt  thou  teach  her  to  say  "  Fath 
Though  his  care  she  must  forego? 

Whta  her  little  hands  shall  press  thee, 
When  her  lip  to  thine  is  pressed, 

Think  of  him  whose  love  shall  bless  thee, 
Dunk  of  hitn  thy  love  had  blessed. 


Should  her  lineament*  resemble 
Those  thou  nevermore  raayst  see. 

Then  thy  heart  will  softly  tremble 
With  a  pulse  yet  true  to  me 

All  my  faults  perchance  thou  knowesi. 
All  my  madness  none  can  know  ; 

All  my  hopes  where'er  thou  gocst. 
Whither,  yet  with  thee  they  go. 

Every  feeling  hath  been  shaken  ; 

:.  ,  which  DM  ■  world  <-uuld  bow, 
Bows  to  thee — by  thee  forsaken, 
Ken  my  soul  forsakes  me  now 

But 'tis  done;  all  words  are  i.^le — 
Words  from  me  arc  vainer  still; 

But  the  thoughts  we  cannot  bridle 
Force  their  way  without  the  will 

Fare  thee  well  t  thus  disunited, 
i  from  every  nearer  tie, 
Seared  in  heart,  and  lone,  and  blighted, 
More  than  this  I  scarce  can  die. 


/ 


=^=r 


FAMILIAR   POEMS. 


-7[ 


£- 


751 


^^?" 

*^L 


■€$$3- 


©Jfti 


<Hour  of  9eaf§.      fjrjj" 


^1^ — 

Mrs.  Felicia.  Hemans. 


&z^ 


V.EAVES  have  their  time  to  fall, 

^A.  And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  north  wind's  breath, 

And  stars  to  set — but  all, 

Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own,  O  Death  ! 

Day  is  for  mortal  care, 

Eve  for  glad  meetings  round  the  joyous  hearth, 
Night  for  the  dreams  of  sleep,  the  voice  of  prayer— 

But  all  for  thee,  thou  mightiest  of  the  earth. 

The  banquet  hath  its  hour, 

Its  feverish  hour  of  mirth,  and  song,  and  wine  ; 
There  comes  a  day  for  grief's  o'erwhelming  power, 

A  time  for  softer  tears — but  all  are  thine. 

Youth  and  the  opening  rose 

May  look  like  things  too  glorious  for  decay, 
And  smile  at  thee — but  thou  art  not  of  those 

That  wait  the  ripened  bloom  to  seize  their  prey. 

Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall. 

And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  north  wind's  breath. 
And  stars  to  set — but  all, 

Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own,  O  Death ! 


We  know  when  moons  shall  wane, 

When  summer-birds  from  far  shall  cross  the  sea, 
When  autumn's  hue  shall  tinge  the  golden  grain— 

But  who  shall  teach  us  when  to  look  for  thee  ? 

Is  it  when  Spring's  first  gale 

Comes  forth  to  whisper  where  the  violets  lie? 
Is  it  when  roses  in  our  paths  grow  pale? — 

They  have  one  season — att  are  ours  to  die-' 

Thou  art  where  billows  foam, 

Thou  art  where  music  melts  upon  the  air; 
Thou  art  around  us  in  our  peaceful  home, 

And  the  world  calls  us  forth — and  thou  art  there. 

Thou  art  where  friend  meets  friend. 

Beneath  the  shadow  of  the  elm  to  rest — 

Thou  art  where  foe  meets  foe,  and  trumpets  rend 
The  skies,  and  swords  beat  down  the  princely  crest. 

Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall, 

And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  north  wind's  breath, 
And  stars  to  set — but  all, 

Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own,  O  Death! 


,7 


•H&— • — — — — — 0-« 


Elizabeth  Barrhtt  Browning. 


T  \0  you  know  you  have  asked  for  the  costliesf  thing 
^-J    Ever  made  by  the  Hand  above — 
A  woman's  heart  and  a  woman's  life, 
And  a  woman's  wonderful  love? 

Do  you  know  you  have  asked  for  this  priceless  thing 

As  a  child  might  ask  for  a  toy  ? 
Demanding  what  others  have  died  to  win, 

With  the  reckless  dash  of  a  boy? 

Vou  have  written  my  lesson  of  duty  out, 

M. m-like  you  have  questioned  me — 
Now  stand  at  the  bar  of  my  woman's  soul. 

Until  I  shall  question  thee. 

You  require  your  mutton  shall  always  be  hot, 
Your  socks  and  your  shirts  shall  be  whole ; 

I  require  your  heart  to  be  true  as  God's  stars, 
And  pure  as  heaven  your  soul. 

You  require  a  cook  for  your  mutton  and  beef; 

I  require  a  far  better  thing: 
A  seamstress  you're  wanting  for  stockings  and  shirts — 

I  look  for  a  man  and  a  king 


A  king  tor  a  beautiful  realm  called  home. 
And  a  man  that  the  maker,  God, 

Shall  look  upon  as  He  did  the  first, 
And  say,  "  It  is  very  good." 

I  am  fair  and  young,  but  the  rose  will  fade 
From  my  soft,  young  cheek  one  day — 

Will  you  love  me  then,  'mid  the  falling  leaves. 
As  you  did  'mid  the  bloom  of  May  ? 

Is  your  heart  an  ocean  so  strong  and  deep 

I  may  launch  my  all  on  its  tide  ? 
A  loving  woman  finds  heaven  or  hell 

On  the  day  she  is  made  a  bride. 

I  require  all  things  that  are  grand  and  true, 
All  things  that  a  man  should  be  ; 

If  you  give  this  all,  I  would  stake  my  life 
To  be  all  you  demand  of  me. 

If  you  cannot  do  this — a  laundress  and  cook 

You  can  hire,  with  little  to  pay ; 
But  a  woman's  heart  and  a  woman's  life 

Are  not  to  be  won  that  way. 


/ 


^ 


v~ 


K 


752 


^i~ 


/ 


FAMILIAR    i 


Sara  Jane  Lippincott  (Grace  Greenwood). 


VaJ'HEN  troubled  in  spirit,  when  weary  of  life, 
4**fc    When  1  faint  'ncath  its  burdens,  and  shrink  from  its  strife, 
When  its  fruit,  turned  to  ashes,  are  mocking  my  taste, 
And  its  fairest  scene  seems  but  a  desolate  waste, 
Then  come  ye  not  near  me,  my  sad  heart  to  cheer 
With  friendship's  soft  accents  or  sympathy's  tear; 
No  pity  I  ask,  and  no  counsel  I  need, 
But  bring  me,  oh,  bring  me,  my  gallant  young  steed  ! 
With  his  high  arched  neck,  and  his  nostril  spread  wide. 
His  eye  full  of  fire,  and  his  step  full  of  pride  ! 
As  I  spring  to  his  back,  as  I  seize  the  strong  rein, 
The  strength  to  my  spirit  returneth  again  ; 
The  bonds  are  all  broken  that  fettered  my  mind, 
And  my  cares  borne  away  on  the  wings  of  the  wind; 
My  pride  lifts  its  head,  for  a  season  bowed  down. 
And  the  queen  in  my  nature  now  puts  on  her  crown  ! 
Now  we're  off— like  the  winds  to  the  plains  whence  they  cam*. 
And  the  rapture  of  motion  is  thrilling  my  frame  I 
On,  on  speeds  my  courser,  scarce  printing  the  sod. 
Scarce  crushing  a  daisy  to  mark  where  he  trod  ! 
On,  on  like  a  deer,  when  the  hound's  early  bay 
Awakes  the  wild  echoes,  away  and  away  1 
Still  faster,  still  farther,  he  leaps  at  my  cheer, 
Till  the  rush  <>f  the  startled  air  whirs  in  my  ear  1 


Now  'long  a  clear  rivulet  Ueth  his  track. 

See  his  glancing  hoofs  tossing  the  white  pebbles  back; 

Now  a  glen  dark  as  midnight — what  matter? — we'll  down, 

Though  shadows  are  round  us,  and  rocks  o'er  us  frown  ; 

The  thick  branches  shake  as  we're  hurrying  through, 

And  deck  us  with  spangles  of  silvery  dew. 

What  a  wild  thought  of  triumph  that  this  girlish  hand 

Such  a  steed  in  the  might  of  his  strength  may  command  I 

What  .1  glorious  creature  t     Ah  !  glance  at  him  now. 

As  1  cneck  htm  awhile  on  this  green  hillock's  brow ; 

How  he  tosses  his  mane,  with  a  shrill,  joyous  neigh, 

And  paws  the  firm  earth  in  his  proud,  stately  play  ! 

Hurrah  1  off  again,  dashing  on  as  in  ire. 

Till  a  long,  flinty  pathway  is  flashing  with  fire  ! 

Ho  I  a  ditch  !     Shall  we  pause?     No  ;  the  bold  leap  we  dare, 

Like  a  swift-winged  arrow  we  rush  through  the  airl 

Oh,  not  all  the  pleasures  that  poets  may  praise. 

Not  the  'wildering  waltz  in  the  ball-room's  blaze, 

Nor  the  chivalrous  joust,  nor  the  daring  race, 

Nor  the  swift  regatta,  nor  merry  chase, 

Nor  the  sail,  high  heaving  waters  o'er. 

Nor  the  rural  dance  on  the  moonlight  shore. 

Can  the  wild  and  thrilling  joy  exceed 

Of  a  fearless  leap  on  a  fiery  steed  ! 


©Y^afcKerA. 


Rosa  Vkrtner  Jeffrey. 


^J>  NGEL  faces  watch  my  pillow,  angel  voices  haunt  my  sleep, 
^/tfV    And  upon  the  winds  of  midnight  shining  pinions  round  me  sweep, 

Floating  downward  on  the  *t,itlight  two  bright  infant  fern 
They  arc  mine,  my  own  bright  darlings,  come  from  heaven  to  visit  me. 

Barthh  Ik  upon  DM,  but  these  littler  ones  above 

Were  the  first  to  stir  the  fountains  <-f  ;l  mother' I  daathlata  love, 
And  as  now  they  watch  my  stumbor,  while  their  soft  eyes  on  me  shine, 
God  forgive  a  mortal  yearning  still  to  call  His  angels  mine. 

Earthly  1  bUdrtn  fondly  r.*l|  no,  but  no  mortal  voice  can  seem 
Sweet  a*  those  that  whisnrr  "  Mother  !  "  'mid  the  gloria*  of  my  dream; 
Years  will  pass,  and  earthly  pfMtWra  coaaa  perchnnce  to  lisp  my  name, 
But  my  angel  babies'  accents  will  he  evermore  the  same. 


4ft 


And  the  bright  band  now  around  me  from  their  home  perchance  will  rove, 
In  their  strength  no  more  depending  on  my  constant  care  and  love  ; 
But  my  first-born  still  shall  winder  from  the  sky,  in  dreams  to  rest 
ft  cheeks  and  shining  trusses  on  an  earthly  mother's  breast. 

Time  may  steal  away  the  freshness,  or  some  whelming  grief  destroy 
All  the  hope  that  erst  had  blossomed,  in  my  summer  time  of  joy ; 
Earthly  children  may  forsake  me,  earthly  friends  perhaps  betray, 
Kvery  tic  that  now  unites  me  to  this  life  may  pass  away : 

But,  unchanged,  those  angel  watchers,  from  their  blessed,  immortal  home. 
Pure  and  fair,  to  cheer  the  sadness  of  my  darkened  dreams  shall  c 
And  I  cannot  fee]  fermaketl,  for,  though  reft  of  earthly  love, 
Angel  children  call  me  "  Mother  !  "  and  my  soul  will  look  above. 


^ 


-$*  «J\  iJarecoeff.  4€- 

Charles  Kingslby. 

^T*  fairest  child,  I  have  no  song  to  give  you, 
**Y-^k  No  lark  could  pipe  to  skies  so  dull  and  gray, 
Yet,  ere  we  part,  one  lesson  I  can  leave  you 
For  every  day. 

Be  good,  sweet  maid,  and  let  who  will  be  clever  ; 
Do  noble  things,  not  dream  them  all  day  long; 
nd  so  make  life,  death,  and  that  vast  forever, 
One  grand,  sweet  song. 


©yv'fiat  tfte  &irS<s>  ^a^ 


*T~\0  you  ask  what  the  birds  say?     The  sparrow,  the 
JlJ  dove, 

The  linnet  and  thrush  say,  "  I  love,  and  I  love !  " 
In  the  winter  they're  silent,  the  wind  is  so  strong; 
What  it  says  I  don't  know,  but  it  sings  a  loud  song. 


But  green  leaves,  and  blossoms,  and  sunny  warm 

weather. 
And  singing  and  loving— all  come  back  together; 
But  the  lark  is  so  brimful  of  gladness  and  love. 
The  green  fields  below  him,  the  blue  sky  above, 
That  he  sings,  and  he  sings,  and  forever  sings  he, 
"  I  love  my  Love,  and  my  Love  loves  me." 


COLBKJ1X.H 


-i! 


~A 


754 


FAMILIAR  POEMS. 


*m*     <aK  Georgia  ^oFuafeer. 


Mary  A.  Townsend. 


VjAR  up  the  lonely  mountain  side  my  wandering  footsteps  led; 
4*?*  The  moss  lay  thick  beneath  my  feet,  the  pine  sighed  overhead. 
The  trace  of  a  dismantled  fort  lay  in  the  forest  nave. 
And  in  the  shadow  near  my  path  I  saw  a  soldier's  grave. 

The  bramble  wrestled  with  the  weed  upon  the  lowly  mound, 
The  simple  headboard,  rudely  writ,  had  rotted  to  the  ground; 
I  raised  it  with  a  reverent  hand,  from  dust  Its  words  to  clear, 
But  time  had  blotted  all  but  these—"  A  Georgia  Volunteer." 

I  saw  the  toad  and  scaly  snake  from  tangled  covert  start. 
And  hide  themselves  among  the  weeds  above  the  dead  man's  heart; 
But  undisturbed,  in  sleep  profound,  unheeding  there  he  lay  ; 
His  coffin  but  the  mountain  soil,  his  shroud  Confederate  gray. 

I  heard  the  Shenandoah  roll  along  the  vale  below, 

I  saw  the  Allcghenics  rise  towards  the  realms  of  snow. 

The  "  Valley  Campaign  "  rose  to  mind — its  leader's  name — and  then 

I  knew  the  sleeper  had  been  one  of  Stonewall  Jackson's  men. 


Yet  whence  he  came,  what  Up  shall  say— whose  tongue  will  erer 
What  desolate  hearths  and  hearts  have  been  because  he  fell  T 
What  sad-eyed  maiden  braids  her  hair,  her  hair  which  he  held  dear? 
One  lock  of  which,  perchance,  lies  with  the  Georgia  Volunteer  I 

What  mother,  with  long  watching  eyes  and  white  lips  cold  and  dumb. 
Waits  with  appalling  patience  for  her  darling  boy  to  come? 
Her  boy  I  whose  mountain  grave  swells  up  but  one  of  many  a  scar 
Cut  on  the  face  of  our  fair  land  by  gory-handed  war. 

What  fights  he  fought,  what  wounds  he  wore,  are  all  unknown  to  fasne; 
Remember,  on  his  lonely  grave  there  is  not  e'en  a  name  1 
That  he  fought  well  and  bravely,  too,  and  held  his  country  dear. 
We  know,  else  he  had  never  been  a  Georgia  Volunteer. 

He  sleeps — what  need  to  question  now  if  he  were  wrong  or  right? 
He  knows,  ere  this,  whose  cause  was  just  in  God  the  Father's  sight. 
He  wields  no  warlike  weapons  now,  returns  no  foeman's  thrust— 
Who  but  a  coward  would  revile  an  honored  soldier's  dust? 


Roll,  Shenandoah,  proudly  roll,  adown  thy  rocky  glen; 
Above  thee  lies  the  grave  of  one  of  Stonewall  Jackson's  men* 
Beneath  the  cedar  and  the  pine,  in  solitude  austere, 
Unknown,  unnamed,  forgotten,  lies  a  Georgia  Volunteer. 


fte  picket  €\uarcj. 


TZ2^=s~* 


Ethel  Lynn  Boh 


hm 


m  H5?  kL  quiet  along  the  Potomac,"  they  say, 

^sv^  "  Kxcept  now  and  then  a  stray  picket 
Is  shot,  M  he  walks  on  his  beat,  to  and  fro. 

By  a  rifleman  off  in  the  thicket. 
"Tis  nothing — a  private  or  two,  now  and  then, 

Will  nut  count  in  the  news  of  the  battle  ; 
Not  an  officer  lost — only  one  of  the  men. 

Moaning  out,  all  alone,  the  death-rattle." 

AH  quiet  along  the  Potomac  to-night. 

Where  the  soldiers  lie  peacefully  dreaming; 
Their  tents  In  the  rays  of  the  clear  autumn  moon 

Or  the  Itgjit  of  the  watch  fires  arc  gleaming. 
A  tremulous  sigh,  as  the  gentle  night-wind 

Through  the  forest-leaves  softly  is  creeping. 
While  stars  up  above,  with  their  glittering  ey«, 

Keep  guard— for  the  army  is  sleeping. 

There's  only  the  sound  of  the  lone  sentry's  tread. 
As  he  tramps  from  the  rock  to  the  fountain, 

And  thinks  of  the  two  in  the  low  trundle-bed 
Far  »  way  in  the  cot  on  the  mountain. 

His  musket  falls  slack— his  face,  dark  and  grim. 
Grows  gentle  with  memories  tender, 


As  he  mutters  a  prayer  for  the  children  asleep— 
For  their  mother— may  Heaven  defend  her  ! 

The  moon  seems  to  shine  just  as  brightly  as  then, 

That  night,  when  the  I   va  yet  unspoken 
Leaped  up  to  his  lips — when  low-murmured  vows 

Were  pledged  to  be  ever  unbroken. 
Then ,  drawing  his  sleeve  roughly  over  bis  eyes. 

He  dashes  oft*  tears  that  are  welling. 
And  gathers  his  gun  closer  up  to  its  place 

As  if  to  keep  down  the  heart -swelling. 

He  passes  the  fountain,  the  blasted  pine-tree — 

The  footstep  is  lagging  and  weary  ; 
Yet  onward  he  goes,  through  the  broad  belt  of  light 

Toward  the  shades  of  the  forest  so  dreary . 
Hark  1  was  it  night-wind  that  rustled  the  leaves  t 

Was  it  moonlight  so  wondrously  flashing? 
It  looked  like  a  rifle—"  Ah !  Mary,  good-by  f 

And  the  life-blood  is  ebbing  and  plashing. 

All  quiet  along  the  Potomac  to-night. 
No  sound  save  the  rush  of  the  river  : 

ft  falls  thr  dew  on  the  face  of  the 
The  picket's  off  duty  forever. 


-  »v 


•t 


FAMILIAR    POEMS. 


755 


f 


Thomas  Campbell. 


OUR  bugles  sang  truce — for  the  night-cloud  had  lowered; 
And  the  sentinel  stars  set  their  watch  in  the  sky  ; 
And  thousands  had  sunk  on  the  ground  overpowered, 
The  weary  to  sleep,  the  wounded  to  die. 

When  reposing  that  night  on  my  pallet  of  straw, 
By  the  wolf-scaring  faggot  that  guarded  the  slain, 

At  the  dead  of  the  night  a  sweet  vision  I  saw, 
And  thrice  ere  the  morning  I  dreamt  it  again. 

Methought  from  the  battle-field's  dreadful  array, 

Far,  far  I  had  roamed  on  a  desolate  track  : 
'Twas  autumn — and  sunshine  arose  on  the  way, 

To  the  home  of  my  fathers,  that  welcomed  me  back. 


I  flew  to  the  pleasant  field  traversed  so  oft 
In  life's  morning  march  when  my  bosom  was  young; 

I  heard  my  own  mountain  goats  bleating  aloft, 
And  knew  the  sweet  strain  the  corn-reapers  sung. 

Then  pledged  we  the  wine-cup,  and  fondly  I  swore 

From  my  home  and  my  weeping  friends  never  to  part ; 

My  little  ones  kissed  me  a  thousand  times  o'er, 
And  my  wife  sobbed  aloud  in  her  fulness  of  heart. 

"  Stay,  stay  with  us — rest,  thou  art  weary  and  worn  ;" 
And  fain  was  their  war-broken  soldier  to  stay  ; 

But  sorrow  returned  with  the  dawning  of  morn. 
And  the  voice  in  my  dreaming  melted  away. 


K^r^-i 


'<Si2=5-* 


-&-    S^iff  ansL  2oe, 


-ts=cy^yf 


{W OME,  dear  old  comrade,  you  and  I 

\X  Will  steal  an  hour  from  days  gone  by- 

The  shining  days  when  life  was  new. 

And  aM  was  bright  as  morning  dew, 

The  lusty  days  of  long  ago, 

When  you  were  Bill  and  I  was  Joe. 

Your  name  may  flaunt  a  titled  trail, 
Proud  as  a  cockerel's  rainbow  tail ; 
And  mine  as  brief  appendix  wear 
As  Tam  O'Shanter's  luckless  mare  ; 
To-day,  old  friend,  remember  still 
That  I  am  Joe  and  you  are  Bill. 

You've  won  the  great  world's  envied  prize. 

And  grand  you  look  in  people's  eyes. 

With  HON.  and  LL.D., 

In  big  brave  letters,  fair  to  see — 

Your  fist,  old  fellow  !  off  they  go  !— 

How  are  you,  Bill  ?     How  are  you,  Joe  ? 


Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

You've  worn  the  judge's  ermine  robe  ; 
You've  taught  your  name  to  half  the  globe; 
You've  sung  mankind  a  deathless  strain ; 
You've  made  the  dead  past  live  again  ; 
The  world  may  call  you  what  it  will, 
But  you  and  I  are  Joe  and  Bill. 

The  chaffing  young  folks  stare  and  «ay, 
"  See  those  old  buffers,  bent  and  gray  ; 
They  talk  like  fellows  in  their  teens  1 
Mad,  poor  old  boys  !    That's  what  it  raeams" 
And  shake  their  heads  ;  they  little  know 
The  throbbing  hearts  of  Bill  and  Joe — 

How  Bill  forgets  his  hour  of  pride. 
While  Joe  sits  smiling  at  his  side  ; 
How  Joe,  in  spite  of  time's  disguise, 
Finds  the  old  schoolmate  in  his  ey«s — 
Those  calm,  stern  eyes  that  melt  and  Ml 
As  Joe  looks  fondly  up  at  Bill. 


Ah,  pensive  scholar  !  what  is  fame  ? 

A  fitful  tongue  of  leaping  flame ; 

A  giddy  whirlwind's  fickle  gust. 

That  lifts  a  pinch  of  mortal  dust : 

A  few  swift  years,  and  who  can  show 

Which  dust  was  Bill,  and  which  was  Joe  ? 

The  weary  idol  takes  his  stand. 
Holds  out  his  bruised  and  aching  hand, 
While  gaping  thousands  come  and  go- 
How  vain  it  seems,  this  empty  show  1— 
Till  all  at  once  his  pulses  thrill  : 
'Tis  poor  old  Joe's  "  God  bless  you,  Bill  1" 

And  shall  we  breathe  in  happier  spheres 
The  names  that  pleased  our  mortal  ears — 
In  some  sweet  lull  of  harp  and  song. 
For  earth-born  spirits  none  too  long — 
Just  whispering  of  the  world  below. 
Where  this  was  Bill,  and  that  was  Joe? 


4 


t^=rf        &£fract  fro rr|  Tsucife.        f' — =^ft 


-t 


Owen  Meredith. 


"T-^T^E  »ay  live  without  poetry,  music  a»d  art; 
^*  A^  We  may  live  without  conscience  and  Kve  without  heart ; 
We  may  live  without  friends  ;  we  may  live  without  )►••  Us ; 
B»t  «ivStzed  man  oannot  Kve  witboM  coohc. 


Iff" •" 


■r 


We  may  live  without  books, — what  is  knowledge  but  grieving? 
We  may  live  without  hope,— what  is  hope  but  dooetviag? 
We  may  live  without  love,— what  is  passion  but  pining? 
Bat  where  is  the  man  that  can  live  without  dining? 


5p — „^ 


t 


■te 


756 


"7 


FAMILIAR    POEMS. 


JpicfureA   oj?  Memory, 


^7^  MONO  the  beautiful  pictures 
AV  That  hang  on  Memory's  wall, 

^  ^  Is  one  of  a  cltm  old  forest. 

That  seemeth  best  of  ail- 
Not  for  its  gnarled  oaks  olden. 

Dark  with  the  mistletoe  ; 
Not  for  the  violets  golden 

That  sprinkle  the  vale  below  ; 
Not  for  the  milk-white  lilies   - 

That  lean  from  the  fragrant  hedge. 
Coquetting  all  day  with  the  sunbeams, 

And  stealing  their  golden  edge  j 
Not  for  the  vines  on  the  upland 

Where  the  bright  red  berries  rest, 
Nor  the  pinks,  nor  the  pale,  sweet  cowslip 

It  seemeth  to  mc  the  best. 


I  once  had  a  little  brother 

With  eyes  that  were  dark  and  deep- 
In  the  lap  of  that  dim  old  forest, 

He  licth  in  peace  asleep. 


Alice  Caky. 


Ught  a.  the  down  of  the  thistle, 

Free  as  the  winds  that  blow, 
\Vc  ruved  there,  the  beautiful  summers 

The  summers  of  long  ago ; 
But  his  feet  on  the  hills  grew  weary, 

And  one  of  the  autumn  eves, 
I  made  for  my  little  brother 

A  bed  of  the  yellow  leaves. 

Sweetly  his  pale  arms  folded 

My  neck  in  a  meek  embrace 
As  the  light  of  immortal  beauty 

Silt.mly  covered  his  face; 
And  when  the  arrows  of  sunset 

Lodged  in  the  tree-tops  bright 
He  fell,  in  his  saint-like  beauty, 

Asleep  by  the  gates  of  light. 

Therefore,  of  all  the  pictures 

hang  on  Memory's  wall. 
The  one  of  the  dim  old  forest 
Sccmeth  the  best  of  all. 


Lydia  Huntley  Sigovrnby. 


/^O  to  thy  rest,  fair  child  ! 
VX    Go  to  thy  dreamless  bed, 
While  yet  so  gentle,  undefined, 
With  blessings  on  thy  head. 

Fresh  roses  in  thy  hand, 

Buds  on  thy  pillow  laid, 
Haste  from  this  dark  and  fearful  land, 

Where  flowers  so  quickly  fade. 

Shall  love  with  weak  embrace 
Thy  upward  wing  detain? 


No  !  cherub  angel,  seek  thy  place 
Amid  the  cherub  train. 

Ere  sin  hath  seared  the  breast. 

Or  sorrow  waked  the  tear. 
Rise  to  thy  throne  of  changeless  rest. 

In  yon  celestial  sphere  ! 

Because  thy  smile  was  fair. 
Thy  lip  and  eye  so  bright. 

Because  thy  loving  cradle-care 
Was  such  a  dear  delight. 


5o3.  @ur  Refuge.     TIB*. 


Clara  Laukk  Baldwin 


TaT^HEN  the  last  hope  of  life 
t*  *fc     Has  been  crushed  In  the  dust, 
And  the  last  of  our  loved  ones  are  gone— 

When  we   feel  that  there's  none 
Left,  who  love  us  and  trust, 

And  we  stand  in  the  wide  world  alone 

When  the  friends  of  the  put 
Have  become  all  estranged 
And  forget  "  'tis  divint  to  forgivt**— 


When  cold  words  are  said. 
And  cold  looks  exchanged — 
And  there's  naught  left  to  hope  for  or  live,- 

Then  '  (is  joy  to  the  soul 

To  know  that  there's  One 
Whose  mercy  and  love  reaches  all— 

Who  in  tender-eft  love 
Clings  till  life's  journey's  done, 

And  pities  us  still  when  we  fall 


-• a 


\K* 


We  parted  in  silence — our  cheeks  were  wet 

With  the  tears  that  were  past  controlling ; 
We  vowed  we  would  never,  no,  never  forget. 

And  those  vows,  at  the  time,  were  consoling  ; 
But  those  lips  that  echoed  the  sounds  of  mine 

Are  as  cold  as  that  lonely  river ; 
And  that  eye,  that  beautiful  spirit's  shrine. 

Has  shrouded  its  fires  forever. 


m        m        #t         0k 

im  ^fc  ^i^  ^^ 


®y/e  £)arfec|  irj  ^gifence. 


^T*Tt  parted  in  silence,  we  \.  »rt     by  night, 
/L*t   On  the  banks  of  that  lonely  j,ver; 
Where  the  fragrant  limes  their  boughs  unite 

We  met — and  we  parted  forever ! 
The  night-bird  sung,  and  the  stars  above 

Told  many  a  touching  story 
Of  friends  long  passed  to  the  kingdom  of  love, 

Where  the  soul  wears  its  mantle  of  glory. 


And  now,  on  the  midnight  sky  I  look. 

And  my  heart  grows  full  of  weeping ; 
Each  star  is  to  me  a  sealed  book, 

Some  tale  of  that  loved  one  keeping. 
We  parted  in  silence,  we  parted  in  tears. 

On  the  banks  of  that  lonely  river ; 
But  the  odor  and  bloom  of  those  bygone  years 

Shall  hang  o'er  its  waters  forever. 


75« 


FAMILIAR   POKMb 


Ufte  3onS  °f  ^-e  ^arnP' 


"•y^IVE  us  a  song  !  "  ihe  soldierscried, 
\JX      The  outer  trenches  guarding, 
When  the  heated  guns  of  the  camps  allied 
Grew  weary  of  bombarding. 

The  dark  Redaji,  in  silent  scoff, 

Lay  grim  and  threatening  under  ; 

And  the  tawny  mound  of  the  Malakoff 
No  longer  belched  its  thunder. 

There  was  a  pause.     A  guardsman  said, 

"  We  storm  the  forts  to-morrow ; 
Sing  while  we  may,  another  day 
Will  bring  enough  of  sorrow." 

They  lay  along  the  battery's  side. 
Below  the  smoking  cannon  : 

Brave  hearts  from  Severn  and  from  Clyde, 
And  from  the  banks  of  Shannon. 


Bavakd  Taylor. 


& 


They  sang  of  love,  and  not  of  fame  ; 

Forgot  was  Britain's  glory  : 
Each  heart  recalled  a  different  name. 

But  all  sang  "  Annie  Laurie." 

Voice  after  voice  caught  up  the  song. 

Until  its  tender  passion 
Rose  like  an  anthem,  rich  and  strong. 

Their  battle-eve  confession. 

D#ar  girl,  her  name  he  dared  not  speak. 
But  as  the  song  grew  louder, 

Something  upon  the  soldier's  cheek 
Washed  off  the  stains  of  powder. 


{V 


Beyond  the  darkening  ocean  burned 
The  bloody  sunset's  embers. 

While  the  Crimean  valleys  learned 
How  English  love  remembers. 

And  once  again  a  fire  of  hell 

Rained  on  the  Russian  quarters. 

With  scream  of  shot,  and  burst  of  shell. 
And  bellowing  of  the  mortars  ! 

And  Irish  Nora's  eyes  are  dim 
For  a  singer  dumb  and  gory ; 

And  English  Mary  mourns  for  him 
Who  sang  of  "  Annie  Laurie." 

Sleep,  soldiers  !  still  in  honored  rest 
Your  truth  and  valor  wearing : 

The  bravest  are  the  tenderest,— 
The  loving  are  the  daring. 


9 — !- 


,c_ 


IF  I  had  known  in  the  morning 
How  wearily  all  the  day 
The  words  unkind 
Would  trouble  my  inino 
I  said  when  you  went  away, 
I  had  been  more  careful,  darling. 
Nor  given  you  needless  pais; 
But  we  vex  ' '  our  own  " 
With  look  and  tone 

Wc  might  never  take  back  agaia. 


Margaret  E.  Sangsthr. 

For  though  in  the  quiet  evening 
You  may  give  me  the  kiss  of  peace, 
Yet  it  might  be 
That  never  for  me 
The  pain  of  the  heart  should  cease. 
How  many  go  forth  in  the  morning 

That  never  come  home  *t  night  I 
And  hearts  have  broken 
Fsr  harsh  words  spoken. 

That  sorrow  can  ne'er  set  right. 


-t-SL 


-*>*«€•-      ©ur   @con.      -5**6-     k 


3S, 


-i-& 


d    * 


We  have  careful  thoughts  for  the  stranger. 
And  smiles  for  the  sometime  guest. 
But  oft  for  "  our  own  " 
The  bitter  tone, 
Though  we  l*v*  "  our  own  "  the  best. 
Ah,  lips  with  the  curve  impatient ! 

Ah,  brow  with  that  look  of  scorn  ! 
'  Twere  a  cruel  fate. 
Were  the  night  too  late 

To  undo  the  work  of  morn. 


-*~-**^|     Where  4&  fto  5£)eatf\. 


VryHEREisnodeath!    The  stars  go  down 
jJL,     To  rise  upon  some  fairer  shore  : 
Aad  bright  in  Heaven's  jewelled  craws 
They  shine  forevcrmore. 

There  is  no  death  !     The  dust  we  tread 
Shall  change  beneath  the  summer  shower* 

To  golden  grain  or  mellow  fruit, 
Or  rainbow-tinted  flowers. 

There  is  no  death  !     The  forest  leaves 

Convert  to  life  the  view  leu*  air; 
The  rocks  disorganize  to  Wed 

The  hungry  moss  they  boar. 


"i  *  r 


J.  L.  McCrerrt. 

There  is  no  death  I     The  leaves  may  fall, 
And  flowers  may  fade  and  pass  away ; 

They  only  wait  through  wintry  hours 
The  coming  of  the  May. 

There  is  no  death  1     An  angel  forss 
Walks  o'er  the  earth  with  silent  tread  , 

H?  hears  our  best  loved  things  away  ; 
Aad  thes  we  call  them  "  dead." 

He  leaves  our  hearts  all  desolate, 

He  plucks  our  fairest,  sweetest  flowers  ; 

Transplanted  iatc  Hiss,  they  a«w 
Adora  immortal  bowers. 

The  bird-like  voice,  whose  jr>y«uis  toaes 
Made  glad  these  scenes  of  »m  and  strife, 

Siags  mow  as  everlasting  song 
Aroostd  the  tree  of  life. 


Where'er  he  sees  a  smile  too  bright, 
Or  heart  toe  pure  for  taint  and  vice. 

He  bean  it  to  that  world  of  light, 
To  dwell  in  Paradise. 

Bora  uato  that  undying  life, 
They  leave  us  but  to  come  agaia ; 

With  joy  we  welcome  them  the 
Except  their  sin  and  paia. 

Aad  ever  aear  us,  though  uaseesi. 
The  dear  immortal  spirits  tread; 

For  all  the  boundless  universe 
Is  We — tktrt  mrt  mm  demJ. 


*  '^s   • 


^^ 


K 


FAMILIAR    TOEMS 


A 


759 


*-..-;< 


-»1 


If  Ma&irV  an  S^ifor  ©ufea  o?  <Him.  §t 


i-»" 


»>eA9«- 

Will  M.  Carleton. 


**y^OOD  mornin',  sir,  Mr.  Printer;  how  is  your  body  to-day? 

\9£  I'm  glad  you're  to  home,  for  you  fellers  is  al'ays  a  runnin'  away. 
Your  paper  last  week  wa'n't  so  spicy  nor  sharp  as  th.e  one  week  before ; 
But  I  s'pose  when  the  campaign  is  opened,  you'll  be  whoopin'  it  upto  'em 

more. 
That  feller  that's  printin'  The  Smasher  is  goin'  for  you  pcrty  smart ; 
And  our  folks  said  this  mornin*  at  breakfast,  they  thought  he  was  gettin'  the 

start. 
But  I  hushed  'em  right  up  in  a  minute,  and  said  a  good  word  for  you ; 
I  told  'em  I  b'lieved  you  was  tryin'  to  do  just  as  well  as  you  knew; 
And  I  told  'em  that  some  one  was  sayin',  and  whoever  'twas  it  is  so, 
That  you  can't  expect  much  of  no  one  man,  nor  blame  him  for  what  he  don't 

know. 
But,  layin'  aside  pleasure  for  business,  I've  brought  you  my  little  boy  Jim  ; 
And  1  thought  I  would  see  if  you  couldn't  make  an  editor  outen  o'  him. 

*'  My  family  stock  is  increasing  while  other  folks  seem  to  run  short. 

I've  got  a  right  smart  of  a  family — it's  one  of  the  old-fashioned  sort : 

There's  Ichabod,  Isaac  and  Israel,  a  workin'  away  on  the  farm, 

They  do  'bout  as   much  as  one  good  boy,  and  make  things  go  off  like  a 

charm. 
There's  Moses  and  Aaron  are  sly  ones,  and  slip  like  a  couple  of  eels  ; 
But  they're  tol'able  steady  in  one  thing— they  al'ays  git  round  to  their 

meals. 
There's  Peter,  is  busy  inventin'  (though  what  he  invents  I  can't  see), 
And  Joseph  is  studyin*  medicine — and  both  of  'em  boardin'  with  mc. 
There's  Abram  and  Albert  is  married,  each  workin'  my  farm  for  himself, 
And  Sam  smashed  his  iiose  at  a  shootin',  and  so  he  is  laid  on  the  shelf. 
The  rest  of  the  boys  are  all  growin'  'cept  this  little  runt,  which  is  Jim, 
And  I  thought  that  perhaps  I'd  be  makin'  an  editor  outen  o'  him. 

*'  He  ain't  no  great  shakes  for  to  labor,  though  I've  labored  with  him  a  good 

deal, 
And  give  him  some  strappin'  good  arguments  I  know  he  couldn't  help  but 

to  feel ; 
But  he's  built  out  of  second-growth  timber,  and  nothin'  about  him  is  big, 
Exceptin'  his  appetite  only,  and  there  he's  as  good  as  a  pig. 
I  keep  him  carryin'  luncheons,  and  fillin'  and  bringin'  the  jugs, 
And  take  him  among  the  pertatoes,  and  set  him  to  pickin'  the  bugs  ; 
And  then  there's  things  to  be  doin'  a  helpin'  the  women  in-doors : 
There's  churnhY  and  washin'  of  dishes,  and  other  descriptions  of  chores  ; 


But  he  don't  take  to  nothin'  but  victuals,  and  he'll  never  be  much,  I'm 

afraid, 
So  I  thought  tt  would  be  a  good  notion  to  larn  him  the  editor's  trade. 
His  body's  too  small  for  a  farmer,  his  judgment  is  rather  too  slim, 
But  I  thought  we  perhaps  could  be  makin'  an  editor  outen  o'  him. 

"  It  ain't  much  to  get  up  a  paper,  it  wouldn't  take  him  long  for  to  learn; 
He  could  feed  the  machine,  I'm  thinkin',  with  a  good  strappin'  fellow  to 

turn. 
And  things  that  was  once  hard  in  doin'  is  easy  enough  now  to  do ; 
Just  keep  your  eye  on  your  machinery i  and*crack  your  arrangements  right 

through. 
I  used  for  to  wonder  at  readin' ,  and  where  it  was  got  up,  and  how ; 
But  'tis  most  of  it  made  by  machinery — I  can  see  it  all  plain  enough  now. 
And  poetry,  too,  is  constructed  by  machines  of  different  designs, 
Each  one  with  a  gauge  and  a  chopper,  to  see  to  the  length  of  the  lines; 
And  I  hear  a  New  York  clairvoyant  is  runnin'  one  sleeker  than  grease, 
And  z.-rcntin'  her  heaven-born  productions  at  a  couple  of  dollars  apiece  ; 
An'  since  the  whole  trade  has  growed  easy,  'twould  be  easy  enough,  I've  a 

whim. 
If  you  was  agreed,  to  be  makin'  an  editor  outen  o*  Jim." 

The  editor  sat  in  his  sanctum  and  looked  the  old  man  in  the  eye. 
Then  glanced  at  the  grinning  young  hopeful,  and  mournfully  made  his  reply  : 
"  Is  your  son  a  small  unbound  edition  of  Moses  and  Solomon  both? 
Can  he  compass  his  spirit  with  meek»ess,  and  strangle  a  natural  oath  ? 
Can  he  leave  all  his  wrongs  to  the  future,  and  carry  his  heart  in  his  cheek  ? 
Can  he  do  an  hour's  work  in  a  minute,  and  live  on  a  sixpence  a  week? 
Can  he  courteously  talk  to  an  equal,  and  browbeat  an  impudent  dunce? 
Can  he  keep  things  in  apple-pie  order,  and  do  half-a-dozen  at  once  ? 

"  Can  he  press  all  the  springs  of  knowledge  with  quick  and  reliable  touch. 
And  be  sure  that  he  knows  how  much  to  know,  and  knows  how  to  not  know 

too  much  ? 
Does  he  know  how  to  spur  up  his  virtue,  and  put  a  check-rein  on  his  pride? 
Can  he  carry  a  gentleman's  manners  within  a  rhinoceros'  hide? 
Can  he  know  all,  and  do  all,  and  be  all,  with  cheerfulness,  courage  and  vim  ? 
If  so,  we  perhaps  can  be  '  makin'  an  editor  outen  o*  him.'  " 

The  farmer  stood  curiously  listening,  while  wonder  his  visage  o'erspread, 
And  he  said  :  "Jim,  I  guess  we'll  be  goin';  he's  probably  out  of  his  head." 


>*~#- 


5  @J^e  TsigftfaJrjy-S^piL  ©iApenAer. 


Will  M.  Carleton. 


^TaV'HICH  this  railway  smash  reminds  me,  in  an  underhanded  way, 
Ji\    Of  a  lightning-rod  dispenser  that  came  down  on  me  one  day  ; 
Oiled  to  order  in  his  motions — sanctimonious  in  his  mien — 
Hands  as  white  as  any  baby's  an'  a  face  unnat'ral  clean  ; 
Not  a  wrinkle  had  his  raiment,  teeth  and  linen  glittered  white, 
And  his  new-constructed  neck-tie  was  an  intcrestin'  sight ! 
Which  I  almost  wish  a  razor  had  made  red  that  white-skinned  throat, 
And  that  new-constructed  neck-tie  had  composed  a  hangman's  knot. 
Ere  he  brought  his  sleek-trimmed  carcass  for  my  women  folks  to  see, 
And  his  buzz-saw  tongue  a-runnin'  for  to  gouge  a  gash  in  me. 
Still  I  couldn't  help  but  like  him — as  I  fear  I  al'ays  must, 
The  gold  o'  my  own  doctrine  in  a  fellow  heap  o'  dust ; 
For  I  saw  that  my  opinions,  when  I  fired  them  round  by  round. 
Brought  back  an  answerin'  volley  of  a  mighty  similar  sound. 


/ 


I  touched  him  on  religion,  and  the  joys  my  heart  had  known ; 
And  I  found  that  he  had  very  similar  notions  of  his  own  ! 
I  told  him  of  the  doublings  that  made  sad  my  boyhood  years  ; 
Why,  he'd  laid  awake  till  morning  with  that  same  old  breed  of  fears  I 

I  pointed  up  the  pathway  that  I  hoped  to  heaven  to  go  : 

He  was  on  that  very  ladder,  only  just  a  round  below  ! 

Our  pontics  was  different,  and  at  first  he  galled  and  winc*d  ; 

But  I  arg*ed  him  so  able,  he  was  very  soon  convinced. 

And  'twas  gettin'  tow'id  the  middle  of  a  hungry  summer  day — 

There  was  dinner  on  the  table,  and  I  asked  him,  would  he  stay? 

And  he  sat  him  down  among  ns — everlastm'  trim  and  neat — 

And  he  asked  a  short  crisp  blessin'  almost  good  enough  to  eat  I 

Then  he  fired  up  on  the  mercies  of  *ur  Everlastin'  Friend, 


50 


*f 


Till  he  gi'n  the  Lord  Almighty  a  good,  first-claw  recommend : 
And  for  full  an  hour  wc  listened  to  that  sugar-coated  scamp — 
Talkin'  like  a  blessed  angel— eatin'  like  a  blasted  tramp  I 

My  wife— she  liked  the  stranger,  smiling  on  him  warm  and  sweet ; 
(It  al'ays  flatters  women  when  their  guests  are  on  the  eat !) 
And  he  hinted  that  some  ladies  never  lose  their  youthful  charms. 
And  caressed  her  yearlin'  baby,  and  received  it  in  his  arms. 
My  sons  and  daughters  liked  him— for  he  had  progressive  views. 
And  he  chewed  the  cud  o'  fancy,  and  gi'n  down  the  latest  news  : 
And  /  couldn't  help  but  like  him— as  I  fear  I  al'ays  must. 
The  gold  of  my  own  doctrines  in  a  fellow-heap  o"  dust. 

He  was  chiselin'  desolation  through  a  piece  of  apple-pie. 
When  he  paused  and  gazed  upon  us,  with  a  tear  in  his  off  eye. 
And  said,  "Oh,  happy  family !— your  joys  they  make  me  sad  I 
They  all  the  time  remind  me  of  the  dear  one*  once  /  had  I 
A  babe  as  sweet  as  this  one ;  a  wife  almost  as  fair ; 
A  little  girl  with  ringlets,  like  that  one  over  there. 
Hut  had  I  not  neglected  the  means  within  my  way. 
Then  they  might  still  be  living,  and  loving  me  to-day. 

'*  One  night  there  came  a  tempest ;  the  thunder  peals  were  dire ; 

The  clouds  that  marched  above  us  were  shooting  bolts  of  fire  ; 

In  my  own  house  I  lying,  was  thinking,  to  my  shame, 

How  little  I  had  guarded  against  those  bolts  of  flame. 

When  crash  I  —through  roof  and  ceiling  the  deadly  lightning  cleft, 

And  killed  my  wife  and  children,  and  only  I  was  left ! 

"  Since  then  afar  I've  wandered,  and  naught  for  life  have  cared, 

Save  to  save  others'  loved  ones  whose  lives  have  yet  been  spared ; 

Since  then  it  is  my  mission,  where'er  by  sorrow  tossed, 

To  sell  to  worthy  people  good  lightning-rods  at  cost. 

With  sure  and  strong  protection  I'll  clothe  your  buildings  o'er; 


'Twill  cost  you— twenty  dollars  (/trka/s  a  triflt  more; 
Whatever  else  it  comes  to,  at  lowest  price  I'll  put ; 
You  simply  sign  a  contract  to  pay  so  much  per  foot)." 

I  — signed  it !  while  my  family,  all  approvin',  stood  about ; 
The  villain  dropped  a  tear  on't — but  he  didn't  blot  it  out ! 
That  self-same  day,  with  wagons,  came  some  rascals  great  a* 
They  hopped  up  on  my  buildin's  just  as  if  they  owned  'em  all ; 
They  hewed  'em  and  they  hacked  'em— agin'  my  loud  desires — 
They  trimmed  'em  off  with  gewgaws,  and  they  bound  'em  down  with 
They  hacked  'em  and  they  hewed  'em  and  they  hewed  and  hacked  '< 
And  every  precious  minute  kep'  a  runnin'  up  the  bill. 

To  find  my  soft-spoke  neighbor,  did  1  rave  and  rush  and  run; 
He  was  suppin'  with  a  neighbor,  just  a  few  miles  further  on. 
"  Do  you  think,"  I  loudly  shouied,  "  that  I  need  a  mile  o'  wire 
For  to  save  each  separate  hay-cock  out  o'  heaven's  consumin'  fire  T 
Did  you  think,  to  keep  my  buildin's  out  o'  some  uncertain  harm, 
I  was  goin'  to  deed  you  over  all  the  balance  of  my  farm  t " 

He  silenced  me  with  silence  in  a  very  little  while, 
And  then  trotted  out  the  contract  with  a  reassuring  smile  ; 
And  fur  half  an  hour  explained  it,  with  exasperatin'  skill. 
While  his  myrmurdums  kep*  probably  a  runnin'  up  my  bill. 
He  held  me  to  that  contract  with  a  firmness  queer  to  see; 
'Twas  the  very  first  occasion  he  had  disagreed  with  me  ! 
And  for  that  'ere  thunder  story,  ere  the  rascal  finally  went, 
I  paid  two  hundred  dollars,  if  I  paid  a  single  cent 

And  if  any  lightnin'-rodist  wants  a  dinner  dialogue 
With  the  restaurant  department  of  an  entcrprisin"  dog, 
Let  htm  set  his  mouth  a-runnin'  just  inside  my  outside  gate, 
And  I'll  bet  two  hundred  dollars  that  he  won't  have  long  to  wait. 


i  still. 


'Prm. 


glgp  JfanaaR  ^aae.   gggg 


■■  f — HX& — m  » 
Pbtrolkum  V.  Nasbv. 


Cj'lIF.  isn't  half  so  handsome  as  when,  twenty  years  agone, 
Ji3  At  her  old  home  in  Piketon,  Parson  Avery  made  us  one  ; 
The  great  house  crowded  full  of  guests  of  every  degree, 
The  girls  all  envying  Hannah  Jane,  the  boys  all  envying  me. 

Her  fingers  then  were  taper,  and  her  skin  as  white  as  milk, 
Her  brown  hair — what  a  mess  it  was  1  and  soft  and  fine  as  silk  ; 
No  wind-moved  willow  by  a  brook  had  ever  such  a  grace, 
The  form  of  Aphrodite,  with  a  pure  Madonna  face. 

She  had  but  meagre  schooling;  her  little  notes  to  me 
Were  full  of  crooked  pot-hooks,  and  the  worst  orthography  : 
Her  "dear"  the  spelled  with  double  «,  and  "kiss"  with  but  one  s; 
Hut  when  one's  crazed  with  passion,  what's  a  letter  more  or  less  ? 

She  blundered  in  her  writing,  and  she  blundered  when  she  spoke, 
And  every  rule  of  syntax,  that  old  Murray  made,  she  broke  ; 
But  she  was  beautiful  and  fresh,  and  I— well,  I  was  young  ; 
Her  farm  and  face  o'erbalanced  all  the  blunders  of  her  tongue. 

I  was  but  little  better.     True,  I'd  longer  been  at  school ; 
My  tongue  and  pen  were  run,  perhaps,  B  little  more  by  rule  ; 
But  that  was  all.     The  neighbors  round,  who  both  of  us  well  knew, 
Said — which  I  believe— she  was  the  l>etter  of  the  two. 

All's  changed  :  the  light  of  seventecn's  no  longer  in  her  eyes  ; 
Hrr  wavy  hair  Is  gone — that  loss  the  coiffeur**  art  HBjftpl 
Her  form  is  thin  and  angular ;  she  slightly  forward  bends ; 
Her  fingers,  once  so  shapely,  now  are  stumpy  at  the  ends. 


4^ 


She  knows  but  very  little,  and  in  little  arc  we  one; 

The  beauty  rare,  that  more  than  hid  that  great  defect,  is  grjoe. 

My  /arvtnm  relations  now  deride  my  homely  wife, 

And  pity  me  that  I  am  tied  to  such  a  clod  for  life. 

I  know  there  is  a  difference  ;  at  reception  and  levee. 

The  brightest,  wittiest  and  most  famed  of  women  smile  on  me; 

And  everywhere  I  hold  my  place  among  the  greatest  men  ; 

And  sometimes  sigh,  with  Whittier's  Judge, "  Alas  I  it  might  have  bean.* 

When  they  all  crowd  around  me,  stately  dames  and  brilliant  belles. 
And  yield  to  me  the  homage  that  all  great  success  compels, 
Discussing  art  and  state-craft,  and  literature  as  well, 
From  Homer  down  to  Thackeray,  and  Swedenborg  on  "  Hell," 

I  can't  forget  that  from  these  streams  my  wife  has  never  quaffed. 
Has  never  with  Ophelia  wept,  nor  with  Jack  FaNtaff  laughed  ; 
Of  authors,  actors,  artists— why,  she  hardly  knows  the  names  ; 
She  slept  while  I  was  speaking  on  the  A/aimma  claims. 

I  can't  forget— just  at  this  point  another  form  appears— 
The  wife  I  wedded  as  she  was  Iwforc  my  prosperous  years ; 
I  travel  o'er  the  dreary  road  we  travelled  side  by  side, 
And  wonder  what  my  share  would  be,  if  Justice  should  divide. 

She  had  four  hundred  dollars  left  her  from  the  old  estate  ;' 
On  tli.it  wc  married,  and,  thus  poorly  armored,  faced  our  fate. 
I  wrestled  with  my  books  ;  her  task  was  harder  far  than  mine— 
'Twas  how  to  make  two  hundred  dollars  do  the  work  of  nine. 


^ 


FAMILIAR  POEMS. 


76l 


At  last  I  was  admitted  ;  then  I  had  my  legal  lore. 
An  office  with  a  stove  and  desk,  of  books  perhaps  a  score  ; 
She  had  her  beauty  and  her  yo;ith,  and  some  housewifely  skill, 
And  love  for  me  and  faith  in  me,  and  back  of  that  a  will. 

I  had  no  friends  behind  me— no  influence  to  aid  ; 
I  worked  and  fought  for  every  little  inch  of  ground  I  made. 
And  how  she  fought  beside  me  !  never  woman  lived  on  less; 
In  two  long  years  she  never  spent  a  single  cent  for  dress. 

Ah !  how  she  cried  for  joy  when  my  first  legal  fight  was  won. 
When  our  eclipse  passed  partly  by,  and  we  stood  in  the  sun  ! 
The  fee  was  fifty  dollars — 't  was  the  work  of  half  a  year — 
First  captive,  lean  and  scraggy,  of  my  legal  bow  and  spear. 

I  well  remember  when  my  coat  (the  only  one  I  had) 

Was  seedy  grown  and  threadbare,  and,  in  fact,  most  shocking  bad; 

The  tailor's  stern  remark  when  I  a  modest  order  made  : 

"  Cash  is  the  basis,  sir,  on  which  we  tailors  do  our  trade." 


Her  winter  cloak  was  in  his  shop  by  noon  that  very  day; 
She  wrought  on  hickory  shirts  at  night  that  tailor's  skill  to  pay  ; 
I  got  a  coat,  and  wore  it ;  but  alas  !  poor  Hannah  Jane 
Ne'er  went  to  church  or  lecture  till  warm  weather  came  again. 

Our  second  season  she  refused  a  cloak  of  any  sort. 
That  I  might  have  a  decent  suit  in  which  t'  appear  in  court ; 
She  made  her  la^t  year's  bonnet  do,  that  I  might  have  a  hat : 
Talk  of  the  old-time,  flame-enveloped  martyrs  after  that ! 

No  negro  ever  worked  so  hard  ;  a  servant's  pay  to  save. 
She  made  herself  most  willingly  a  household  drudge  and  slave. 
What  wonder  that  she  never  read  a  magazine  or  book. 
Combining  as  she  did  in  one  nurse,  housemaid,  seamstress,  cook. 

What  wonder  that  the  beauty  fled,  that  I  once  so  adored  ! 
Her  beautiful  complexion  my  fierce  kitchen  fire  devoured ; 
Her  plump,  soft,  rounded  arm  was  once  too  fair  to  be  concealed ; 
Hard  work  for  me  that  softness  into  sinewy  strength  congealed. 


I  was  her  altar,  and  her  love  the  sacrificial  flame  : 
Ah  !  with  what  pure  devotion  she  to  that  altar  came. 
And,  tearful,  flung  thereon — alas  1  I  did  not  know  it  then- 
All  that  she  was,  and  more  than  that,  all  that  she  might  have  been  I 


..o+o.. 


^=^ 


^ohq  eKn^erAoa,  M>/  ^o. 


"2=*- 


<g, — -*  *"fl  «* — rs) 
Robert  Burns. 


VOHN  ANDERSON,  my  jo,  John, 
)^p-    When  we  were  first  acquent, 
Vour  locks  were  like  the  raven. 

Your  bonnie  brow  was  brent ; 
But  now  your  brow  is  beld,  John, 

Your  locks  are  like  the  snaw ; 
But  blessings  on  your  frosty  pow, 

John  Anderson,  my  jo. 


John  Anderson,  my  jo,  John, 

We  clamb  the  hill  thegither ; 
And  mony  a  canty  day,  John, 

We've  had  wi'  ane  anither. 
Now  we  maun  totter  down,  John, 

But  hand  in  hand  we'll  go  ; 
And  sleep  thegither  at  the  foot, 

John  Anderson,  my  jo. 


•o+o- 


(Home,  ^>coeet  Jfome. 

John  Howard  Payne. 
As  published  by  Mr.  Payne,  in  New  York,  in  /8ji. 


•X" 


ID  pleasures  and  palaces  though  we  may  roam, 
Be  it  ever  so  humble,  there's  no  place  like  home. 
A  charm  from  the  skies  seems  to  hallow  us  there, 
Which   seek  through  the  world,  is  ne'er  met  with  elsewhere. 

Home  !  home  !  sweet,  sweet  home  1 
There's  no  place  like  home  !  there's  no  place  like  home  1 

An  exile  from  home,  splendor  dazzles  in  vain  j 
Oh,  give  me  my  lowly  thatched  cottage  again. 
The  birds  singing  gaily  that  come  to  my  call — 
Give  me  them,  with  the  peace  of  mind  dearer  than  all. 

Home  !  home !  sweet,  sweet  home ! 
There's  no  place  like  home  !  there's  no  place  like  home 


How  sweet  'tis  to  sit  'neath  a  fond  father's  smile. 
And  the  cares  of  a  mother  to  soothe  and  beguile ! 
Let  others  delight  'mid  new  pleasures  to  roam, 
But  give,  oh  !  give  me  the  pleasures  of  home. 
Home  !  home !  sweet,  sweet  home  ! 
There's  no  place  like  home  !  there's  no  place  like  home  ( 

To  thee  I'll  return,  overburdened  with  care; 
The  heart's  dearest  solace  will  smile  on  me  there. 
No  more  from  that  cottage  again  will  I  roam ; 
Be  it  ever  so  humble,  there's  no  place  like  home. 

Home  !  home  !  sweet,  sweet  home ! 
There's  no  place  like  home  !  there's  no  place  like  home  ( 


U 


%w 


762 


FAMILIAR    POEMS. 


•    (Ufte  Sl>i^ouac  of  tfie  52)eac|. 
'a  = 

Theodore  O'Hara. 

The  Legislature  of  Kentucky  caused  the  dead  of  that  State  who  fell  at  Buena  Vista  to  be  brought  home  and  interred  at  Frankfort, 
splendid  monument.     Theodore  O'Hara,  a  gifted  Irish-Ken  tuckian  soldier  and  scholar,  was  selected  the  orator  and 
poet  of  the  occasion,  whence  this  beautiful  eulogy,  which  has  the  same  application  to-day. 


Vt/HE  muffled  drum's  sad  roll  has  beat 
V-H1    The  soldier's  last  tattoo  ; 
No  more  on  life's  parade  shall  meet 

That  brave  and  fallen  few. 
On  fame's  eternal  cam  ping -ground 

Their  silent  tents  are  spread, 
And  glory  guards,  with  solemn  round, 

The  bivouac  of  the  dead. 

No  rumor  of  the  foe's  advance 

Now  swells  upon  the  wind  ; 
No  troubled  thought  at  midnight  haunts 

Of  loved  ones  left  behind  ; 
No  vision  of  the  morrow's  strife 

The  warrior's  dream  alarms ; 
No  braying  horn  nor  screaming  file 

At  dawn  shall  call  to  arms. 

Their  shivered  swords  are  red  with  rust. 

Their  plumed  heads  are  bowed ; 
Their  haughty  banner,  trailed  in  dust. 

Is  now  their  martial  shroud. 
And  plenteous  funeral  tears  have  washed 

The  red  stains  from  each  brow, 
And  the  proud  forms,  by  battle  gashed. 

Are  free  from  anguish  now. 

The  neighing  troop,  the  flashing  blade, 

The  buglc*3  stirring  blast. 
The  charge,  the  dreadful  cannonade, 

The  din  and  shout  are  past ; 
Nor  war's  wild  note  nor  glory's  peal 

Shall  thrill  with  fierce  delight 
Those  breasts  that  never  more  may  feel 

The  rapture  of  the  fight. 


Like  the  fierce  northern  hurricane 

That  sweeps  his  great  plateau, 
*  Flushed  with  the  triumph  yet  to  gain 

Came  down  the  serried  foe. 
Who  heard  the  thunder  of  the  fray 

Break  o'er  the  field  beneath 
Knew  well  the  watchword  of  that  day 

Was  "  Victory  or  death." 

Long  had  the  doubtful  conflict  raged 

O'er  all  that  stricken  plain — 
For  never  fiercer  fight  had  waged 

The  vengeful  blood  of  Spain — 
And  still  the  storm  of  battle  blew, 

Still  swelled  the  gory  tide  ; 
Not  long,  our  stout  old  chieftain  knew. 

Such  odds  his  strength  could  bide. 

'Twas  in  that  hour  his  stern  command 

Called  to  a  martyr's  grave 
The  flower  of  his  beloved  land. 

The  nation's  flag  to  save. 
By  rivers  of  their  fathers'  gore 

His  first-'jorn  laurels  grew, 
And  well  he  deemed  the  sons  would  pour 

Their  lives  for  glory,  too. 

Full  many  a  mother's  breath  had  swept 

O'er  Angostura's  plain — 
And  long  the  pitying  sky  has  wept 

Above  the  moldering  slain. 
The  raven's  scream,  or  eagle's  flight. 

Or  shepherd's  pensive  lay, 
Alone  awakes  each  sullen  height 

That  frowned  o'er  that  dread  fray. 


Sons  of  the  Dark  and  Bloody  Ground, 

Ye  muht  not  slumber  there. 
Where  stranger  steps  and  tongues  resound 

Along  the  heedless  air ; 
Your  own  proud  land's  heroic  soil 

Shall  be  your  fitter  grave- 
She  claims  from  war  his  richest  spoil — 

The  ashes  of  her  brave. 
So,  'neath  their  parent  turf  they  rest. 

Far  from  the  gory  field, 
Borne  to  a  Spartan  mother's  breast. 

On  many  a  bloody  shield  ; 
The  sunshine  of  their  native  sky 

Smiles  sadly  on  them  here, 
And  kindest  eyes  and  hearts  watch  by 

The  heroes'  sepulchre. 

Rest  on,  embalmed  and  sainted  dead. 

Dear  as  the  blood  ye  gave  ; 
No  impious  footstep  here  shall  tread 

The  herbage  of  your  grave  ; 
Nor  shall  your  glory  be  forgot 

While  fame  her  record  keeps 
Or  honor  points  the  hallowed  spot 

V/hcrc  valor  proudly  sleeps. 

Yon  marble  minstrel's  voiceless  stone 

In  deathless  song  shall  tell. 
When  many  a  vanished  age  hath  flown. 

The  story  how  ye  fell ; 
Nor  wreck,  nor  change,  nor  winter's  blight. 

Nor  Time's  remorseless  doom, 
Shall  dim  one  ray  of  glory's  light 

That  gilds  your  deathless  tomb. 


i-^d    ©Tfie  gfarA  ar]rj  trie  ^focoerAT^^-^ 


Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 


& 


^Af^HEN  Eve  had  led  her  lord  away, 
W        And  Cain  had  killed  his  brother, 
The  stars  and  flowers,  the  poets  say 
Agreed  with  one  another 

To  chest  the  cunning  tempter's  art* 

And  teach  the  race  Its  duty, 
By  keeping  on  its  wicked  heart 

Their  eyes  of  light  and  licauty, 

A  million  sleepless  lids,  they  say. 

Will  lie  at  [cost  a  warning  ; 
And  to  the  flowers  would  watch  by  day. 

The  stars  from  eve  to  morning. 


They  try  to  shut  their  saddening  eyes, 

And  in  the  vain  ei 
We  see  them  twinkling  in  the  skies, 

And  so  they  wink  forever. 


On  hill  and  prairie,  field  and  lawn, 

Thctr  dewy  eyes  upturning. 
The  flowers  still  watch  from  reddening  dawn 

Till  western  skies  are  burning. 

Alas  I  each  hour  of  daylight  tells 

A  talc  of  shame  so  crushing, 
That  some  turn  white  as  sea-bleached  shells. 

And 'Some  are  always  blushing. 

But  when  the  patient  stars  took  down 

On  all  their  light  discovers, 
The  traitor's  smile,  the  murderer's  frown, 

The  lips  of  lying  lovers, 


-\ 


764 


FAMILIAR  POEMS. 


-s^lfe- 


— ^^ 


«!► 


F.  Bret  Haktb. 


I  SAY  there  I     P'r'apt 
Some  on  you  chaps 
Might  know  Jim  Wild? 
Well— no  offence : 
Thar  aint  no  sense 
In  gettin'  riled  * 

Jim  was  my  chum 
Up  on  the  Bar  : 

That's  why  I  come 

Down  from  up  thar. 

Look  in'  for  Jim. 

Thank  ye,  sir  I  you 

Ain't  of  that  crew- 
Blest  if  you  are  1 

Money? — Not  much  : 
That  ain't  my  kind  ; 

1  ain't  no  such. 

Rum?— I  don't  mind, 
Seein'  it's  you. 


Well,  this  yer  Jim, 
Did  you  know  him?— 
Jess  'bout  your  size ; 
Same  kind  of  eyes  ? — 
Well,  that  is  strange  : 
Why,  it's  two  year 
Since  he  come  here. 
Sick,  for  a  change. 

Well,  here's  to  us? 

Eh? 
The  tieuce  you  say  ! 

Dead? 
That  little  cuss  ? 


What  makes  you  I 
You,  over  thar? 
Can't  a  man  drop 
*s  glass  in  yer  shop 
But  you  must  rar*  ? 
It  wouldn't  take 
Derned  much  to  break 
You  and  your  bar 


Dead! 
Poor— little— Jim  1  \ 
— Why  there  was  me, 
Jones,  and  Bob  Lee 
Harry  and  Beo — 
No-account  men : 
Then  to  take  him  I 


Well,  thar—    Good-by— 
No  more,  sir, — I— 

Eh? 
What's  that  you  say? — 
Why,  dern  it ! — sho  I — 
No  ?     Ye*  I     By  Jo  I 

Sold? 
Sold  1     Why,  you  limb. 
You  ornery 

Derned  old 
Long-legged  Jim  1 


e£7"<"'^as 


M 


arne 


Anonymous. 


-|U 


OUR  beautiful  Maggie  was  married  to-day— 
Beautiful  Maggie,  with  soft  brown  hair. 
Whose  shadows  fall  o'er  a  face  as  fair 
As  the  snowy  blooms  of  the  early  May  ; 
We  have  kissed  her  lips  and  sent  her  away. 

With  many  a  blessing  and  many  a  prayer, 
The  pet  of  our  house  who  was  married  to-day. 

The  sunshine  is  gone  from  the  old  south  room. 

Where  she  sat  through  the  long,  bright  summer  hours. 
And  the  odor  has  gone  from  the  window  flowers, 

And  something  Is  lost  of  their  delicate  bloom, 

And  a  shadow  creeps  over  the  house  with  its  gloom  % 
A  shadow  that  over  our  paradise  lowers, 

For  we  see  her  no  more  in  the  old  south  room. 

I  thought  that  the  song  of  the  robin  this  eve, 

As  he  sang  to  his  male  on  the  sycamore  tree. 
1 1  l-I  minors  of  sadness  to  temper  his  glee, 

As  if  he  for  the  loss  of  our  Marling  did  grieve. 

And  uktsl,  "  Where  Is  Maggie?  "  and  "  Why  did  she  leav 
The  maiden  who  .  MTOthd  IwSftM  duets  with   me?  " 

For  she  mocked  not  the  song  of  the  robin  this  eve. 


The  pictures  seem  dim  where  they  hang  on  the  waU : 

Though  they  cost  but  a  trifle,  they  always  looked  ftJr, 
Whether  lamplight  or  sunlight  illumined  them  there— 

I  think  'twas  her  presence  that  brightens  them  all. 

Since  Maggie  no  longer  can  come  to  our  call, 

With  her  eyes  full  of  laughter,  unshadowed  by  care. 

The  pictures  seem  dim  where  they  hang  on  the  walL 


I  lounge  through  the  garden,  I  stand  by  the  gate- 
She  stood  there  to  greet  me  last  eve  at  this  hour, 
Every  eve,  through  the  summer,  in  sunshine  or  s! 

Just  stood  by  the  postern,  my  coming  to  wait — 

Dear  Maggie,  her  heart  with  Its  welcome  elate. 
To  give  me  a  smile,  and  a  kiss,  and  a  flo< 

Oh  t  when  will  she  meet  me  again  by  the  gate  ? 


She  loved  us  and  left  us — she  loves,  and  is  gone 

With  the  one  she  loves  best,  as  his  beautiful  bride. 
How  fondly  he  called  her  his  joy  and  his  pride, 

Our  joy  and  our  pride,  whom  he  claims  as  his  own  I 

But  can  he,  like  us,  prire  the  heart  he  has  won — 

The  heart  that  now  trustingly  throbs  by  Mi  side? 

God  knows  !  and  we  know  that  she  loves  and  [■  gone. 


766 


KA.MIUAK  POEMS 


•f^3 


oJ2EF*^+o*^&£> 


fcf      Ufte  ©foAing  §cene. 


T.   Buchanan   Read. 
The  following  is  pronounced  by  the  Westminster  Review  to  be  unquestionably  the  finest  American  poem  ever 


XITHIN  this  sober  realm  of  leafless  trees. 
The  russet  year  inhaled  the  dreamy  air. 
Like  some  tanned  reaper  in  his  hour  of  case, 
When  alt  the  fields  are  lying  brown  and  bare. 

The  gray  barns  looking  from  their  hazy  hills 
<  >Vr  the  dim  waters  widening  in  the  vales. 

Sent  down  the  air  a  greeting  to  the  mills. 
On  the  dull  thunder  of  alternate  flails. 

All  sights  were  mellowed  and  all  sounds  subdued, 
The  hills  seemed  further  and  the  streams  sang  low; 

As  in  a  dream  the  distant  woodman  hewed 
His  winter  log  with  many  a  muffled  blow. 

The  embattled  forests,  erewhile  armed  in  gold. 
Their  banners  bright  with  every  martial  hue. 

Now  stood,  like  some  sad  beaten  host  of  old. 
Withdrawn  afar  in  Time's  remotest  blue. 

On  slumberous  wings  the  vulture  tried  his  flight : 
The  dove  scarce  heard  his  sighing  mate's  complaint; 

And,  like  a  star  slow  drowning  in  the  light, 
The  village  church-vane  seemed  to  pale  and  faint. 

The  sentinel  cock  upon  the  hill-side  crew- 
Crew  thrice,  and  all  was  stiller  than  before — 

Silent  till  some  replying  wanderer  blew 

His  alien  horn,  and  then  was  heard  no  more. 

Where  erst  the  jay  within  the  elm's  tall  crest 

Made  garrulous  trouble  round  the  unfledged  you»g : 

And  where  the  oriole  hung  her  swaying  nest 
By  every  light  wind  like  a  censer  swung ; 

Where  sang  the  noisy  masons  of  the  eaves. 

The  busy  swallows  circling  ever  near. 
Foreboding,  as  the  rustic  mind  believes. 

An  early  harvest  and  a  plenteous  year; 

Where  every  bird  which  charmed  the  vernal  feast 
Shook  the  sweet  slumber  from  its  wings  at  morn. 

To  w.im  the  reapers  of  the  rosy  east — 
All  now  was  songless,  empty,  and  forlorn 


Alone,  from  out  the  stubble  piped  the  quail, 
And  croaked  the  crow  through  all  the  dreamy 

Alone  the  pheasant,  drumming  in  the  vale. 
Made  echo  to  the  distant  cottage  loom. 


There  was  no  bud,  no  bloom  upon  the  bowers ; 

The  spiders  wove  their  thin  shrouds  night  by  night; 
The  thistle-down,  the  only  ghost  of  flowers. 

Sailed  slowly  by— passed  noiseless  out  of  sight. 

Amid  all  this,  in  this  most  cheerless  air,, 

And  where  the  woodbine  sheds  upon  the  porch 

Its  crimson  leaves,  as  if  the  year  stood  there 
Firing  the  floo'  with  his  inverted  torch— 

Amid  all  this,  the  centre  of  the  scene, 

Th:  white-haired  matron,  with  monotonous  tread, 
Plied  her  swift  wheel,  and  with  her  joyless  mien 

Sat  like  a  Fate,  and  watched  the  flying  thread. 

She  had  known  sorrow.     He  had  walked  with  her. 
Oft  supped,  and  broke  with  her  the  ashen  crust ; 

And  in.  the  dead  leaves  still  she  heard  the  stir 
Of  his  black  mantlet  railing  in  the  dust. 

While- yet  her  cheek  was  bright  with  summer  bloom, 
Hei  COUatrjr  summoned,  and  she  gave  her  all; 

And  twice  War  bowed  to  her  his  sable  plume — 
Re-gave  the  swords  to  rust  upon  her  wall. 

Re-gave  the  swords — but  not  the  hand  that  drew. 
And  struck  for  liberty  the  dying  blow ; 

in\  who,  to  his  sire  and  country  true, 
Fell,  'mid  the  ranks  of  the  invading  foe. 

Long,  but  not  loud,  the  droning  wheel  went  on. 
Like  the  low  murmur  of  a  hive  at  noon ; 
but  not  loud,  the  memory  of  the  gone 
-tlied  through  her  lips  a  sad  and  tremulous  ruse. 

At  lut  the  thread  was  snapped — her  head  was  bowed. 
Life  dropped  the  distaff  through  his  hands  serene ; 

And  loving  neighbors  smoothed  her  careful  shroud- 
While  Death  and  Winter  closed  the  autumn  i 


kL 


JiJ 


11 


\\J  HE  melancholy  days  are  come,  the  saddest  of  the  year, 
*^1>  Ofwailing  winds,  and  naked  woods,  and  meadows 
"      *  brown  and  sear. 

Heaped  in  the  hollows  of  the  grove,  the  autumn  leaves  lie  dead ; 
They  rustle  to  the  eddying  gust,  and  to  the  rabbit's  tread. 
The  robin  and  the  wren  are  flown,  and  from  the  shrubs  thejay. 
And  from  the  wood-top  calls  the  crow  through  all  the  gloomy 
day. 


And  then  I  think  of  one  who  in  her  youthful  beauty  died. 

The  fair  meek  blossom  that  grew  up  and  faded  by  my  side. 

In  the  cold  moist  earth  we  laid  her,  when  the  forests  cast  the  leaf. 

And  we  wept  that  one  so  lovely  should  have  a  life  so  brief; 

Yet  not  unmeet  it  was  that  one,  like  that  young  friend  of  ours, 

So  gentle  and  so  beautiful,  should  perish  with  the  flowers. 


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768                                                     DICTIONARY    OF    PROSK    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 

•.•11 •  —  -n     <?wp 

r 

-L<5 1  >•                                                                 ■»  •  » ■        ,  M    J         .         (         . 

bs^s '»■                            '*%  +   ^r 

^diCtio^Y  of  pi(o$E  f  d 

POETICAL  pmpfcft  p 

«r    ♦  v *•*•      "     '   <  *^    ^ij^ 

Arranged  both  Topically 

and  Alphabetically. 

Absence. 

With  devotion's  visage. 
And  pious  action,  we  do  sugar  o'er 

Conspicuous  by  his  absence. 

The  Devil  himself. 

Scd  prafulgebant  Casslus  atque  Brutus,  eo  Ipso 

Skakspere. 

quod  effigies  corum  non  videbantur. 

Tacitus. 

Adversity. 

Absence  makes  the  heart  grow  fonder; 
Isle  of  Beauty,  fare  thee  well  I 

A  wretched  soul,  bruised  with  adversity. 

Skakspere. 

Thomas  Jlaynes  Bay  ley. 

I  dote  on  his  very  absence. 

Shakspere. 

A  man  I  am,  cross M  with  adversity. 

Skakspere. 

Your  absence  of  mind  w«?  have  borne,  till  your  presence  of  body 
came  to  be  called  in  question  by  It. 

If  thou  faint  in  the  day  of  adversity,  thy  strength  Is  small. 

Old  Testament. 

Lamb. 

Id 

the  day  of  prosperity  be  joyful, but  in  thed  ly  of  adversity  consider 

Old  Testament. 

Accident. 

Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity, 

Which,  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous. 

A  happy  accident. 

Mm,,  de  Stael. 

Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  1  cad ; 

And  this  our  life,  exempt  from  public  haunt, 

Finds  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  brooks, 

The  accident  of  an  accident. 

Lord  Thurlovf, 

Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything. 

Acquaintance. 

Skakspere. 
The  aromatic  plants  bestow 

Should  auld  acquaintance  be  forgot, 

No  spicy  fragrance  while  they  grow  ; 

And  never  brought  to*min'? 

But  crush'd,  or  trodden  to  the  ground, 

Should  auld  acquaintanccbe  forgot. 

Diffuse  their  balmy  sweets  around. 

And  days  0'  lang  sync? 

7*he  wretch  condemn*d  with  life  to  part, 

Bursts, 

Still, still  on  hope  relies; 

If  there  be  no  great  love  in  the  beginning,  yet  Heaven  may  decrease 

And  every  pang  that  rends  the  heart 

it  upon  better  acquaintance,  when  we  are*  married,  and  have   more 

Bids  expectation  rise. 

occasion  to   know  one  another:    f  hope  upon  familiarity  will  grow 

Goldsmitk. 

more  contempt. 

SkaksJ>ere. 

Age. 

Action. 

My  way  of  life 
Is  fall'n  Into  the  scar,  the  yellow  leaf; 

Statesman,  yet  friend  to  truth  I  of  soul  sincere, 

And  that  which  should  accompany  old  age. 

In  action  faithful,  and  in  honor  clear; 

As  honor,  love,  obedience,  troops  of  friends. 

Who  broke  no  promise,  serv'd  no  private  end, 

I  must  not  look  to  have. 

Who  gain'd  no  title,  and  who  lost  no  friend. 

Poft. 

Skakspere. 

Me,  let  the  tender  office  long  engage 

What  a  piece  of  work  Is  a  man  1    How  noble  In  reason '  how  infinite 

To  rock  the  cradle  of  reposing  age, 

In  faculties  1    in  form  and  moving,  how  express  and  admirable  1   Ir 

With  lenient  arts  extend  a  mother's  breath. 

action,  how  like  an  angel  I  in  apprehension,  how  like  a  god  1 

Make  languor  Mnilr,  and  smooth  the  bed  of  death: 

Sltaksyere. 

Explore  the  thought,  explain  the  asking  c\  1  . 

For  since  these  arms  of  mine  had  seven  years'  pith, 

And  keep  awhile  one  parent  from  the  sk\ 

Till  now  some  nine  moons  wasted,  they  have  us'd 

Pope, 

Their  dearest  action  in  the  tented  field. 

The  stars  shall  fade  away,  the  sun  himself 

Skakspere. 

Grow  dim  with  age,  and  nature  sink  In  years. 

In  peace  there's  nothing  so  becomes  a  man 

Addison. 

As  modest  stillness  and  humility ; 

In  a  good  old  age. 

Old  Testament. 

But  when  the  blast  of  war  blows  In  our  ears. 

Then  imitate  the  action  of  the  tiger: 

His  hair  just  grixxlcd 
As  in  a  green  old  age. 

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The  Pyramids  themselves,  doting  with  age,  have  forgotten  the  names 

Oh  !  when  a  Mother  meets  on  high 

of  their  founders.                                                                         _  _ 

The  babe  she  lost  in  infancy, 

Fuller. 

Hath  she  not  then,  for  pains  and  fears, 

Alone. 

The  day  of  woe,  the  watchful  night, 

For  all  her  sorrow,  all  her  tears, 

So  lonely  'twas,  that  God  himself 

An  over-payment  of  delight? 

Southey. 

Scarce  seemed  there  to  be. 

Coleridge. 

Battle. 

Like  one  that  on  a  lonesome  road 

Doth  walk  in  fear  and  dread, 

And  leaving  in  battle  no  blot  on  his  name, 

And,  having  once  turned  round,  walks  on 

Look  proudly  to  heaven  from  the  death -bed  of  fame. 

And  turns  no  more  his  head, 

Campbell. 

Because  he  knows  a  frightful  fiend 

Ye  mariners  of  England  1 
That  guard  our  native  seas, 

Doth  close  behind  him  tread. 

Coleridge. 

Whose  flag  has  braved  a  thousand  years 

Alone! — that  worn-out  word, 

The  battle  and  the  breeze  1 

So  idly,  and  so  coldly  heard ; 

Campbell. 

Yet  all  that  poets  sing,  and  grief  hath  known, 

When  the  battle  rages  loud  and  long, 

Of  hopes  laid  waste,  knells  in  that  word — Alone  1 

And  the  stormy  winds  do  blow. 

Bulwer  Lytton. 

Campbell. 
And  little  of  this  great  world  can  I  speak, 

Ambition. 

More  than  pertains  to  feats  of  broil  and  battle. 

Shakspere. 

When  that  the  poor  have  cried,  Cxsar  hath  wept: 

But  to  the  hero,  when  his  sword 

Ambition  should  be  made  of  sterner  stuff. 

Shakspere. 

Has  won  the  battle  for  the  free, 
Thy  voice  sounds  like  a  prophet's  word. 

I  have  no  spur 

Halleck. 

To  prick  the  sides  of  my  intent;  but  only 

Vaulting  ambition,  which  o'erleaps  itself, 

Wut's  words  to  them  whose  faith  and  truth 

And  falls  on  the  other. 

On  War's  red  techstone  rang  true  metal, 

Shakspere. 

Who  ventured  life  an'  love  an'  youth 

Here  we  may  reign  secure,  and  in  my  choice 

For  the  gret  prize  o*  death  in  battle  ? 

Lowe  IS. 

To  reign  is  worth  ambition,  though  in  hell: 

Better  to  reign  in  hell,  than  serve  in  heaven. 

Milton. 

Beauty. 

Angels. 

So  stands  the  statue  that  enchants  the  world, 

So  bending  tries  to  veil  the  matchless  boast, 

The  mingled  beauties  of  exulting  Greece. 

O  woman !  lovely  woman  1  nature  made  thee 

Thomson, 

To  temper  man ;  we  had  been  brutes  without  you. 

Angels  are  painted  fair,  to  look  like  you : 

In  naked  beauty,  more  adorn'd. 

There's  in  you  all  that  we  believe  in  heaven  r 

More  lovely,  than  Pandora. 

Milton, 

Amazing  brightness,  purity,  and  truth, 

Eternal  joy,  and  everlasting  love. 

She  walks  in  beauty,  like  the  night 

Otway. 

Of  cloudless  climes  and  starry  skies ; 

He  pass'd  the  flaming  bounds  of  place  and  time: 

And  all  that's  best  of  dark  and  bright 

The  living  throne,  the  sapphire  blaze, 

Meet  in  her  aspect  and  her  eyes ; 

"Where  angels  tremble  while  they  gaze, 

Thus  mellow' d  to  that  tender  light 

He  saw;  but,  blasted  with  excess  of  light, 
Closed  his  eyes  in  endless  night. 

Which  Heaven  to  gaudy  day  denies. 

Byron, 

Gray. 

Blessing. 

Argument. 

Blessings  be  with  them,  and  eternal  praise, 

I  have  found  you  an  argument;  I  am  not  obliged  to  find  you  an 

Who  gave  us  nobler  loves,  and  nobler  cares, 

understanding. 

yoknson. 

The  Poets,  who  on  earth  have  made  us  heirs 

Of  truth  and  pure  delight  by  heavenly  lays  1 

It  would  be  argument  for  a  week,  laughter  for  a  month,  and  a  good 

Wordsworth. 

jest  forever. 

Shakspere. 

Blessings  on  him  who  invented  sleep,  the  mantle  that  covers  all 
human  thoughts,  the  food  that    appeases    hunger,  the    drink   that 

He  draweth  out  the  thread  of  his  verbosity  finer  than  the  staple  of 

quenches  thirst,  the  fire  that  warms  cold,  the  cold  that  moderates  heat, 

his  argument. 

and  lastly,  the  general  coin  that  purchases  all  things,  the  balance  and 

Shakspere. 

weight  that  equals  the  shepherd  with  the  king,  and  the  simple  with  the 

Babe. 

wise. 

Cervantes. 

Hush,  my  dear,  lie  still  and  slumber! 

A  babe  in  a  house  is  a  well-spring  of  pleasure. 

Holy  angels  guard  thy  bed ! 

Tapper. 

Heavenly  blessings  without  number 

t                                         And  pity,  like  a  naked,  new-born  babe. 

Gently  falling  on  thy  head. 

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DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE   AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 


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Blush. 

But  'ncath  ypn  crimson  tree, 

Lover  to  listening  maid  might  breathe  his  flame, 

Nor  mark,  within  its  roseate  canopy. 

Her  blush  of  maiden  shame. 

Bryant. 

"Wo  grieved,  we  sighed,  we  wept:    we  never  blushed  before. 

Cowley. 

This  I*  the  state  of  man :    to-day  he  puts  forth 

The  tender  leaves  of  hope,  to-morrow  blossoms, 

And  bears  his  blushing  honors  thick  upon  him: 

The  third  day,  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost; 

And — when  he  thinks,  good  easy  man,  full  surely 

His  greatness  is  a  ripening— nips  his  root. 

And  then  he  falls. 

Shakspere. 

To  the  nuptial  bower  I  led  her,  blushing  like  the  morn. 

Milton. 

Burden. 

Every  man  shall  bear  his  own  burden. 

New  Testament. 
For  other  things  mild  Heav'n  a  time  ordains, 
And  disapproves  that  care,  though  wise  in  show. 

That  with  superfluous  burden  loads  the  day, 
And,  when  God  sends  a  cheerful  hour,  refrains. 

Milton. 
And  the  gay  grandslrc,  skill'd  In  gestlc  lore. 
Has  frlsk'd  beneath  the  burden  of  threescore. 

Goldsmith. 
Out  from  the  heart  of  Nature  rolled 
The  burdens  of  the  Bible  old. 

Emerson. 

Business. 

A  dinner  lubricates  business. 

Lord  Stowell. 
Seest  thou  a  man  diligent  In  his  business?  he  shall  stand  before 
kings ;  ho  shall  not  stand  before  mean  men. 

Old  Testament. 

Of  seeming  arms  to  make  a  short  essay. 

Then  hasten  to  be  drunk,  the  business  of  the  day. 

Dryden. 
Despatch  Is  the  soul  of  business. 

Chesterfield. 
How  doth  the  little  busy  bee 
Improve  each  shining  hour? 

Watts. 

The  armorers,  accomplishing  the  knights, 
With  busy  hammers  closing  rivets  up, 
Give  dreadful  note  of  preparation. 

Shakspere. 

Calm. 

Rest  here,  distrest  by  poverty  no  more, 
Here  find  that  calm  thou  gav'st  so  oft  before; 
Sleep,  undlsturh'd,  within  this  peaceful  shrine, 
Till  angels  wake  thee  with  a  note  like  thine  I 

Johnson. 

No'er  saw  I,  never  felt,  a  calm  so  deep  I 
The  river  glldcth  at  his  own  sweet  will ; 
Door  God  I  the  very  houses  seem  asleep ; 
And  all  that  mighty  heart  is  lying  stilt  I 

Wordsworth. 


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And,  through  the  heat  of  conflict,  keeps  the  law 
In  calmness  made,  and  see*  what  he.  foresaw. 

Wordsworth. 

Care. 

Care  to  our  coffin  adds  a  nail,  no  doubt. 
And  every  grin,  so  merry,  draws  one  out. 

Wolctt. 

Let  the  world  glide,  let  the  world  go: 

A  fig  for  care,  and  a  fig  for  woe  1 

If  I  can't  pay,  why,  I  can  owe, 

And  death  makes  equal  the  high  and  low. 

I  Ifjrwood. 
Shall  I,  wasting  In  despair, 

Die  because  a  woman's  fair? 
Or  make  pale  my  cheeks  with  care, 

'Cause  another's  rosy  are? 
Be  she  faker  than  the  day, 
Or  the  flow'ry  meads  in  May, 
If  she  be  not  so  to  me, 
What  care  I  how  fair  she  be? 

Wither. 

Hang  sorrow !  care  will  kill  a  cat, 
And  threescore  let's  be  merry. 

If  the  heart  of  a  man  is  depress'd  with  cares. 
The  mist  is  dispell'd  when  a  woman  appears. 


Wither. 


Gay. 

Charity. 

An  old  man,  broken  with  the  storms  of  state. 
Is  come  to  lay  his  weary  bones  among  ye ; 
Give  him  a  little  earth  for  charitv  1 

Shakspere. 

In  Faith  and  Hope  the  world  will  disagree. 
But  all  mankind's  concern  is  Charitv. 

Pope. 

Charity  shall  cover  the  multitude  of  sins. 

New  Testament. 
Careless  their  merits  or  their  faults  to  scan. 
His  pity  gave  ere  charity  began. 


Goldsmith. 


Chastity. 


Early,  bright,  transient,  chaste,  as  the  morning, 
She  sparkled,  was  exhaled,  and  went  to  heaven. 

Toung. 

As  chaste  a*  unsunned  snow. 

Shakspere. 

That  chastity  of  honor  which  felt  a  (tain  like  a  wound. 

Bnrke. 
So  dear  to  Heaven  Is  saintly  chastity, 
That,  when  a  soul  is  found  sincerely  so, 
A  thousand  liveried  angels  lackey  her. 
Driving  far  off  each  thing  of  sin  and  guilt. 


Milton, 


Childhood. 

Ah,  happy  hills!  ah,  pleasing  shad*  I 

Ah,  fields  bclov'd  in  vain! 
Where  once  my  careless  childhood  stray'd, 

A  stranger  yet  to  pain  1 


Gray. 


I  have  had  playmate*,  I  have  had  companions, 
In  my  days  of  childhood,  In  my  Joyful  school-days: 
AU  are  gone,  the  old  familiar  faces. 


Lamb. 


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DICTIONARY   OF   PROSE   AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS.                                                 771 

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The  childhood  shows  the  man 

Ease. 

As  morning  shows  the  day. 

Milton, 

How  blest  is  he  who  crowns,  in  shades  like  these, 

The  children  like  olive  plants  round  about  thy  tabic. 

A  youth  of  labor  with  an  age  of  ease  1 

Old  Testament. 

Goldsmith, 

By  sports  like  these  are  all  their  cares  beguil'd ; 

Shall  I  not  take  mine  ease  in  mine  inn? 

Skakspere. 

The  sports  of  children  satisfy  the  child. 

Goldsmith. 

Nor  peace  nor  ease  the  heart  can  know, 
'Which,  like  the  needle  true, 

Dancing. 

Turns  at  the  touch  of  j  oy  or  woe, 

But,  turning,  trembles  too. 

Midnight  shout  and  revelry, 

Mrs.  Greville. 

Tipsy  dance  and  jollity. 

Milton. 

Error. 

On  with  the  dance !  let  joy  be  unconfined. 

Byron. 

To  err  is  human,  to  torgive  divine. 

Pope. 

And  bear  about  the  mockery  of  woe 

Truth  crushed  to  earth  shall  rise  again; 
The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers ; 

To  midnight  dances  and  the  public  show. 

Pope. 

But  Error,  wounded,  writhes  with  pain, 

Doubt. 

And  dies  among  his  worshippers. 

Bryont. 

No  hinge,  nor  loop 
To  hang  a  doubt  on. 

Eternity. 

Skakspere. 

Doubt  thou  the  stars  are  fire, 
Doubt  that  the  sun  doth  move; 

*Tis  the  divinity  that  stirs  within  us; 

'Tis  Heaven  itself  that  points  out  an  hereafter, 

Doubt  truth  to  be  a  liar, 

And  intimates  eternity  to  man. 

But  never  doubt  I  love. 

Eternity!  thou  pleasing,  dreadful  thought! 

Skakspere. 

Addison. 

And  better  had  they  ne'er  been  born, 

But  there  are  wanderers  o'er  Eternity 

Who  read  to  doubt,  or  read  to  scorn. 

Whose  bark  drives  on  and  on,  and  anchor'd  ne'er  shall  be. 

Scott. 

Byron. 

Dreams. 

Faith. 

Hunt  half  a  day  for  a  forgotten  dream. 

Happy  he 

Wordsworth, 

With  such  a  mother  1  faith  in  womanhood 

Who  has  not  felt  how  sadly  sweet 

Beats  with  his  blood,  and  trust  in  all  things  high 

The  dream  of  home,  the  dream  of  home, 

Comes  easy  to  him,  and,  though  he  trip  and  fall, 

Steals  o'er  the  heart,  too  soon  to  fleet, 

He  shall  not  blind  his  soul  with  clay. 

When  far  o'er  sea  or  land  we  roam  ? 

Tennyson. 

Moore. 

One  in  whom  persuasion  and  belief 

True,  I  talk  of  dreams, 

Had  ripened  into  faith,  and  faith  become 

Which  are  the  children  of  an  idle  brain, 

A  passionate  intuition. 

Begot  of  nothing  but  vain  fantasy. 

Wordsworth. 

Skakspere. 

Faith  is  the  substance  of  things  hoped  for,  the  evidence  of  things 
not  seen. 

Dust. 

New  Testament. 

How  lov'd,  how  honor'd  once,  avails  thee  not, 

Farewell. 

To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot: 

A  heap  of  dust  alone  remains  of  thee ; 

I  only  know  we  loved  in  vain — 

'Tis  all  thou  art,  and  all  the  proud  shall  be ! 

Pope; 

I  only  feel — Farewell ! — Farewell ! 

Byr$n. 

The  knight's  bones  are  dust, 

Oh,  now,  forever, 

And  his  good  sword  rust; 

Farewell  the  tranquil  mind  I  farewell  content! 

His  soul  is  with  the  saints,  I  trust. 

Farewell  the  ploomed  troop,  and  the  big  wars, 

Coleridge. 

That  make  ambition  virtue  !  Oh,  farewell  I 
Farewell  the  neighing  steed,  and  the  shrill  trump, 

Earth. 

The  spirit-stirring  drum,  th'  ear-piercing  fife, 
The  royal  banner,  and  all  quality, 

Earth  felt  the  wound ;  and  Nature  from  her  seat, 

Pride,  pomp  and  circumstance  of  glorious  war! 

Sighing  through  all  her  works,  gave  signs  of  woe, 

And,  O  you  mortal  engines,  whose  rude  throats 

That  all  was  lost. 

Milton. 

The  immortal  Jove's  dread  clamors  counterfeit, 

Farewell !  Othello's  occupation's  gone! 

The  common  growth  of  Mother  Earth 

Shakspere. 

Suffices  me — her  tears,  her  mirth, 

Her  humblest  mirth  and  tears. 

Wordsworth. 

Folly. 

Earth,  with  her  thousand  voices,  praises  God. 

A  fool  must  now  and  then  be  right  by  chance. 

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For  fooU  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread. 

Pope. 

Happiness. 

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Of  all  causes  which  conspire  to  blind 

Domestic  Happiness,  thou  only  bliss 

Man's  erring  judgment,  and  misguide  the  mind, 

Of  Paradise  that  has  surviv'd  the  fail ! 

What  the  weak  head  with  strongest  bias  rules. 

Camper, 

It  pride,  the  never-failing  vice  of  fools. 

O  happiness !  our  being's  end  and  aim ! 

Pope. 

Good,  pleasure,  ease,  content!  whate'er  thy  name* 

Forgetfulness. 

That  something  still  which  prompts  th'  eternal  sigh. 
For  which  we  bear  to  live,  or  dare  to  die. 

Go,  forget  me — why  should  sorrow 

Pope. 

O'er  that  brow  a  shadow  fling? 

How  bitter  a  thing  it  is  to  look   into   happiness  through   another 

Go,  forget  me — and  to-morrow 

man's  eyes  I 

Brightly  smile  and  sweetly  sing. 

Shahspere. 

Smile— though  I  shall  not  be  near  thee ; 

All  who  joy  would  win 

Sing— though  I  shall  never  hear  thee. 

Musts  ha  re  it; 

Wolfe. 

Happiness  was  bora  a  twin. 

Byron. 

Freedom. 

Heaven. 

We  must  be  free  or  die,  who  speak  the  tongue 

That  Shakspcre  spake;  the  faith  and  morals  hold 

'Tis  heaven  alone  that  is  given  away; 

Which  Milton  held. 

*Tis  only  God  may  be  had  for  the  asking. 

Wordsworth. 

Lowell. 

I  am  as  free  as  nature  first  made  man. 

Thus,  when  the  lamp  that  lighted 

Ere  the  base  laws  of  servitude  began, 

The  traveller  at  first  goes  out, 

When  wild  In  the  woods  the  noble  savage  ran. 

He  feels  awhile  benighted, 

Dry  den. 

And  looks  around  in  fear  and  doubt. 

No,     Freedom  has  a  thousand  charms  to  show, 

But  soon,  the  prospect  clearing. 

That  slaves,  howe'er  contented,  never  know. 

By  cloudless  starlight  on  he  treads. 

Cov/per. 

And  thinks  no  lamp  so  cheering 

That  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom,  and 

As  that  light  which  heaven  sheds. 

Moore. 

that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people,  shall  not 

perish  from  the  earth. 

Sit,  Jessica;    look,  how  the  floor  of  heaven 

Abraham  Lincoln. 

Is  thick  inlaid  with  patines  of  bright  gold ; 
There's  not  the  smallest  orb  which  thou  behold'st 

Glory. 

But  in  his  motion  like  an  angel  sings. 
Still  quiring  to  the  young-eyed  cherubins: 

'Tis  beauty  calls,  and  glory  leads  the  way. 

Lee. 

Such  harmony  is  in  immortal  souls; 

But,  whilst  this  muddy  vesture  of  decay 

Avoid  shame,  but  do  not  seek  glory — nothing  so  expensive  as  glory. 

Doth  grossly  close  it  in,  we  cannot  hear  it. 

Sydney  Smith. 

Shakspere. 

I  have  touch'd  the  highest  point  of  all  my  greatness, 

Heaven  open'd  wide 

And  from  that  full  meridian  of  my  glory 

Her  ever-during  gates,  harmonious  sound 

I  haste  now  to  my  setting:     I  shall  fall 

On  golden  hinges  moving. 

Like  a  bright  exhalation  in  the  evening. 

Milton. 

And  no  man  see  me  more. 

To  heirs  unknown  descends  th'  unguarded  store. 

Byron. 

Or  wanders,  heaven-directed,  to  the  poor. 

Pope. 

God. 

Hell. 

Had  I  but  scrv'd  my  God  with  half  the  zeal 

I  serv'd  my  king,  he  would  not  in  mine  age 

Hell  Is  paved  with  good  intentions. 

Jotnsen. 

Have  left  me  naked  to  mine  enemies. 

Shakspere. 

Which  way  shall  I  fly. 

Just  are  the  ways  of  God, 

Infinite  wrath,  and  infinite  despair' 

And  justifiable  to  men  ; 

Which  way  I  By  is  hell ;  myself  am  hell ; 

Unless  there  be  who  think  not  God  at  all. 

And,  In  the  lowest  deep,  a  lower  deep, 

Milton. 

Still  threat'ning  to  devour  me,  opens  wide. 

God  helps  them  that  help  themselves. 

Franklin. 

To  which  the  hell  I  suffer  seems  a  heaven. 

.Villon. 

Lo,  the  poor  Indian  1  whose  untutored  mind 

Full  little  knowest  thou  that  hast  not  tried. 

Sees  God  In  clouds,  or  hears  him  in  the  wind; 

What  hell  it  is  in  suing  long  to  bide  ; 

Hit  soul  proud  Science  never  taught  to  stray 

To  loose  good  dayes  that  might  be  better  spent. 

Far  as  the  solar  walk  or  milky  way. 

To  wast  long  nights  In  pensive  discontent ; 

Pope. 

To  speed  to-day,  to  be  put  back  to*morrow; 

God  sendeth,  and  givcth,  both  mouth  and  the  meat. 

To  feed  on  hope,  to  pine  with  fcarc  and  sorrow. 

Thomas  Josser. 

Spenstr. 

Grief. 

Honesty. 

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Every  honest  miller  has  a  golden  thumb. 

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Hope. 

Thus  heavenly  hope  is  all  serene, 

But  earthly  hope,  how  bright  soe'er, 

Still  fluctuates  o'er  this  changing  scene, 

As  false  and  fleeting  as  'tis  fair. 

Heber. 

Cease,  every  joy,  to  glimmer  on  my  mind, 
But  leave— oh  !  leave  the  light  of  Hope  behind  ! 
What  though  my  winged  hours  of  bliss  have  been, 
Like  angel -visits,  few  and  far  between. 

Campbell. 

Hope!  thou  nurse  of  young  desire. 

Bickerstaff. 

Hope  springs  eternal  in  the  human  breast: 
Man  never  is,  but  always  to  be  blest. 
The  soul,  uneasy,  and  confin'd  from  home, 
Rests  and  expatiates  in  a  life  to  come. 

Pope. 

Sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State! 
Sail  on,  O  Union,  strong  and  great! 
Humanity  with  all  its  fears, 
With  all  the  hopes  of  future  years. 
Is  hanging  breathless  on  thy  fate! 

Longfellow. 

Idleness. 

How  various  his  employments,  whom  the  world 
Calls  idle  ;  and  who  justly  in  return 
Esteems  that  busy  world  an  idler  tool 

Cowper. 

In  idle  wishes  fools  supinely  stay; 

Be  there  a  will,  and  wisdom  finds  a  way. 

Crabbe. 

Immortality. 

There  is  no  death !  an  angel  form 
Walks  o'er  the  earth  with  silent  tread, 

He  bears  our  best-loved  things  away, 
And  then  we  call  them  "  dead." 

Harvey. 

There  is  no  death  !    What  seems  so  is  transition, 

This  life  of  mortal  breath 

Is  but  a  suburb  of  the  life  elysian. 

Whose  portal  we  call  death. 

Longfellow. 

Though  inland  far  we  be, 

Our  souls  have  sight  of  that  immortal  sea 

Which  brought  us  hither. 

Wordsworth. 

Our  dissatisfaction  with  any  other  solution  is  the  blazing  evidence  of 
immortality. 

Emerson. 


Innocence. 

An  age  that  melts  in  unperceiv'd  decay, 
And  glides  in  modest  innocence  away. 

He's  armed  without  that's  innocent  within. 


yohnson. 
Pope. 


Jealousy. 

Trifles,  light  as  air, 
Are  to  the  jealous  confirmations  strong 
As  proofs  of  Holy  Writ. 

Shakspere. 

Love  is  strong  as  death  ;  jealousy  is  cruel  as  the  grave. 

Old  Testament. 


First,  then,  a  woman  will,  or  won't,  depend  on*t; 
If  she  will  do't,  she  will ;  and  there's  an  end  on't. 
But  if  she  won't,  since  safe  and  sound  your  trust  is, 
Fear  is  affront,  and  jealousy  injustice. 


Hill. 


Jesting. 


Ot  all  the  griefs  that  harass  the  distrest, 
Sure  the  most  bitter  is  a  scornful  jest. 

yohnson. 
A  jest's  prosperity  lies  in  the  ear 
Of  him  that  hears  it,  never  in  the  tongue 
Of  him  that  makes  it. 

Shakspere. 

Haste  thee,  Nymph,  and  bring  with  thee 
Jest,  and  youthful  Jollity, 
Quips,  and  Cranks,  and  wanton  Wiles, 
Nods,  and  Becks,  and  wreathed  Smiles. 

Milton. 

Joy. 

And  e'en  while  fashion's  brightest  arts  decoy. 
The  heart,  distrusting,  asks  if  this  be  joy. 

Goldsmith. 
Reason's  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joys  of  sense, 
Life  in  three  words — health,  peace  and  competence. 

Pope. 
Silence  is  the  perfectest  herald  of  joy:  I  were  but  little  happy,  if  I 
could  say  how  much. 

Shakspere. 

Bliss  in  possession  will  not  last; 
Remember'd  joys  are  never  past; 
At  once  the  fountain,  stream  and  sea, 
They  were,  they  are,  they  yet  shall  be 

Montgomery. 
There's  not  a  joy  the  world  can  give  like  that  it  takes  away. 

Byron. 
From  our  own  selves  our  joys  must  flow, 
And  that  dear  hut— our  home. 

Co  Hon. 

Oh,  the  Joys  that  came  down  shower-like, 
Of  Friendship,  Love  and  Liberty, 
Ere  I  was  old ! 

Coleridge. 

Justice. 

Fiat  Justitia  ruat  coelum. 

Terence. 

We  but  teach 
Bloody  instructions,  which,  being  taught,  return 
To  plague  the  inventor.    This  even-handed  justice 
Commends  the  ingredients  of  our  poison'd  chalice 
To  our  own  lips. 

Shakspere. 

What  stronger  breastplate  than  a  heart  untainted? 
Thrice  is  he  arm'd  that  hath  his  quarrel  just; 
And  he  but  naked,  though  lock'd  up  in  steel, 
Whose  conscience  with  injustice  is  corrupted. 

Shakspere. 

Between  two  hawks,  which  flies  the  higher  pitch; 
Between  two  dogs,  which  hath  the  deeper  mouth; 
Between  two  horses,  which  doth  bear  him  best; 
Between  two  girls,  which  hath  the  merriest  eye— 
I  have,  perhaps,  some  shallow  spirit  of  judgment; 
But  in  these  nice  sharp  quillets  of  the  law, 
Good  faith,  I  am  no  wiser  than  a  daw. 

Shakspere. 


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774                                                  DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE   AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 

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Kindness. 

Labor. 

Assume  a  virtue,  if  you  have  it  not. 

Man  goeth  forth  unto  his  work  and  to  his  labor  until  the  evening. 

I  must  be  cruel,  only  to  be  kind: 

Old  Ttslamtnt.  ■ 

Thus  bad  begins,  and  worse  remains  behind. 

Honest  labor  bears  a  lovely  face. 

Skaksptrt. 

Dtkktr. 

Howe'er  it  be,  it  seems  to  me, 

So  he  with  difficulty  and  labor  hard 

'Tis  only  noble  to  be  good. 

Mov'd  on,  with  difficulty  and  labor  he. 

Kind  hearts  are  more  than  coronets, 

Milton. 

And  simple  faith  than  Norman  blood. 

The  laborer  is  worthy  of  his  hire. 

Tennyson, 

New  Ttslamtnt. 

And  kind  as  kings  upon  their  coronation  day. 

Drydtn. 

The  Ladies. 

Yet  do  I  fear  thy  nature : 

A  lion  among  ladies  is  a  most  dreadful  thing. 

It  is  too  full  o'  the  milk  of  human  kindness. 

Skaksptrt. 

Skaksptrt. 

If  ladies  be  but  young  and  fair. 

The  King. 

They  have  the  gift  to  know  it. 

Skaksptrt. 

Not  all  the  waters  in  the  rough,  rude  sea 

Ladies,  whose  bright  eyes 

Can  wash  the  balm  from  an  anointed  king. 

Raia  influence,  and  judge  the  prize. 

Skaksptrt. 

Milton. 

A  man  may  fish  with  the  worm  that  hath  cat  of  a  king;  and  eat  of 

And  when  a  lady's  in  the  case. 

the  fish  that  hath  fed  of  that  worm. 

You  know  all  other  things  give  place. 

Skaksptrt. 

Gay. 

Ay,  every  inch  a  king. 

Skaksptrt. 

The  Land. 

The  king's  name  is  a  tower  of  strength. 

Ill  fares  the  land,  to  hastening  ills  a  prey, 

Skaksptrt. 

When  wealth  accumulates  and  men  decay; 

The  right  divine  of  kings  to  govern  wrong. 

Psinces  and  lords  may  flourish  and  may  fade, 

Skaksptrt. 

A  breath  can  make  them  as  a  breath  has  made. 

Kissing. 

But  an  honest  peasantry,  a  country's  pride, 

When  once  destroyed,  can  never  be  supplied. 

Be  plain  in  dress,  and  sober  in  your  diet; 

Goldsmilk. 

In  short,  my  deary:  kiss  me  and  be  quiet. 

Breathes  there  the  man,  with  soul  so  dead, 

Montagut. 

Who  never  to  himself  hath  said. 

Then  come  kiss  me,  swcet-and-twenty. 

This  is  my  own,  my  native  land! 

Skaksptrt. 

Whose  heart  hath  ne'er  within  him  burned, 

O  Love,  O  fire !  once  he  drew 

As  home  his  footsteps  he  hath  turned 

With  one  long  kiss  my  whole  soul  through 

From  wandering  on  a  foreign  strand? 

My  lips,  as  sunlight  drinketh  dew. 

Scott. 

Ttnnyson. 

There's  nae  sorrow  there,  John, 

The  kiss,  snatched  hasty  from  the  sidelong  maid. 

There's   neither  cauld  nor  care,  John, 

Tkomson. 

The  day  is  aye  fair, 

A  long,  long  kiss,  a  kiss  of  youth  and  love. 

Byron. 

In  the  land  o'  the  leal. 

Lady  Maims. 

Knavery. 

Laughter. 

New  will  I  show  myself  to  have  more  of  the  serpent  than  the  dove; 

They  laugh  that  win. 

that  Is,  more  knave  than  fool. 

Skaksptrt. 

Marlowt. 

There  was  a  laughing  Devil  in  his  sneer. 

Whip  me  such  honest  knaves. 

Byron. 

Skaksptrt. 

You  hear  that  boy  laughing?— you  think  he's  all  fun; 

Knowledge. 

But  the  angels  laugh,  too,  at  the  good  he  has  done; 

The  children  laugh  loud  as  they  troop  to  his  call, 

Knowledge  Is  of  two  kinds.    We  know  a  subject  ourselves,  or  we 

And  the  poor  man  that  knows  him  laughs  loudest  of  mill 

kaow  where  we  can  find  information  upon  it. 

Jfolmts. 

yoknson. 

And  Laughter  holding  both  his  sides. 

Half  our  knowledge  we  must  snatch,  not  take. 

MOtmm. 

Popt. 
Knowledge  is  power. 

Bacon. 
A  wise  man  is  strong ;  yea,  a  man  of  knowledge  increaseth  strength. 

The  Law. 

■  Clo.  Argal,  he  that  Is  not  guilty  of  his  own  death  shortens  not  his 
own  life. 

Old  Ttslamtul. 

2  Clo.  But  is  this  law? 

Histories  make  men  wise  ;  poets,  witty  ;  the  mathematics,  subtle ; 

I  Clo.  Ay,  marry,  is't ;  crowner's- quest  law. 

natural  philosophy,  deep ;  morals,  grave ;  logic  and  rhetoric,  able  to 

Skaksper,. 

j 

contend. 

Bacon. 

V 

When  law  ends,  tyranny  begins. 

Pill. 

\ 

t 

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1— 

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DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 


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7 


No  man  e'er  fe!  cr  draw, 

With  good  opinion  of  the  law. 


Trumbull. 


Of  Law  there  can  be  no  less  acknowledged,  than  that  her  seat  is  the 
bosom  of  God,  her  voice  the  harmony  of  the  world :  all  things  in  heaven 
and  earth  do  her  homage,  the  very  least  as  feeling  her  care,  and  the 
greatest  as  not  exempted  from  her  power. 

Hooker. 

The  law  is  a  sort  of  hocus-pocus  science,  that  smiles  in  yor  face 
while  it  picks  yer  pocket ;  and  the  glorious  uncertainty  of  it  is  of  mair 
use  to  the  professors  than  the  justice  of  it. 


Macklin. 


Learning. 

Some  for  renown  on  scraps  of  learning  dote, 
And  think  they  grow  immortal  as  they  quote. 

With  just  enough  of  learning  to  misquote. 


Young. 
Byron. 


Liberty. 


\ 


Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price  of 
chains  and  slavery?  Forbid  it  Almighty  God!  I  know  not  what 
course  others  may  take ;  but,  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty,  or  give  me 
death. 

Patrick  Henry. 
Liberty's  in  every  blow! 
Let  us  do  or  die. 

Burns. 

O  liberty !  liberty !  how  many  crimes  are  committed  in  thy  name ! 

Mme.  Roland. 
Behold  !  in  liberty's  unclouded  blaze 
We  lift  our  heads,  a  race  of  other  days. 

Spragtte. 


Life, 

I  do  not  set  my  life  at  a  pin's  fee. 

The  world's  a  bubble,  and  the  life  of  man 
Less  than  a  span. 


Shokspe, 


Bacon. 


Y~ 


We  arc  such  stuff 
As  dreams  are  made  on  :  and  our  little  life 
Is  rounded  with  a  sleep. 

Shakspere. 

A  sacred  burden  is  this  life  ye  bear, 
Look  on  it,  lift  it,  bear  it  solemnly, 
Stand  up  and  walk  beneath  it  steadfastly. 
Fail  not  for  sorrow,  falter  not  for  sin, 
But  onward,  upward,  till  the  goal  ye  win. 

Kemble. 

life's  but  a  means  unto  a*  end  ;  that  end 
Beginning,  tne<ut  and  end  to  all  things— God. 

Bailey. 
That  life  is  long  wtiick  an-wcrs  life's  great  end. 

Young. 
Our  life  is  but  a  winter  day 
Some  only  breakfast  and  away 
others  to  dinner  stay 
and  are  full  fed 
the  oldest  man  but  sups 
and  goes  to  bed 
large  is  his  debt 
that  lingers  out  the  day 
he  that  goes  soonest 
has  the  least  to  pay. 

Epitaph. 


51 


Love. 

A  mighty  pain  to  love  it  is, 
And  'tis  a  pain  that  pain  to  mi 
But  of  all  pain,  the  greatest  pain 
It  is  to  love,  but  love  in  vain. 

Cowley. 

Love  looks  not  with  the  eyes,  but  with  the  mind, 
And  therefore  is  wing'd  Cupid  painted  blind. 

Shakspere. 
Mightier  far 
Than  strength  of  nerve  or  sinew,  or  the  sway 
Of  magic  potent  over  sun  and  star, 
Is  Love,  though  oft  to  agony  distrest, 
And  though  his  favorite  seat  be  feeble  woman's  breast. 

Wordszvorth. 


But  to  see  her  was  to  love  her, 
Love  but  her  and  love  forever. 


Burns. 


Had  we  never  loved  sae  kindly, 
Had  we  never  loved  sae  blindly, 
Never  met  or  never  parted, 
We  had  ne'er  been  broken-hearted. 

Burns. 

Men  have  died  from  time  to  time  and  worms  have  eaten  them,  but 
not  from  love. 


Shakspere. 


Oh,  my  luve's  like  a  red,  red  rose, 
That's  newly  sprung  in  June, 

Oh,  my  luve's  like  a  melodie 
That's  sweetly  played  in  tune. 

Alas  !  the  love  of  woman  !  it  is  known 
To  be  a  lovely  and  a  fearful  thing. 

Man's  love  is  of  man's  life  a  thing  apart, 
'Tis  woman's  whole  existence. 


Burns. 


Byron. 


Byron. 


For  stony  limits  cannot  hold  love  out. 


Madness. 


Shakspere. 


Great  wit  is  sure  to  madness  near  allied, 
And  thin  partitions  do  their  bounds  divide. 

Dry  den. 

This  Is  very  midsummer  madness. 

Shakspere. 

Though  this  be  madness,  yet  there's  method  in't. 

Shakspere. 
To  be  wroth  with  one  we  love 
Doth  work  like  madness  on  the  brain. 

Coleridge. 
And  moody  madness  laughing  wild, 
Amid  severest  woe. 

Gray. 

Cure  her  of  that: 
Canst  thou  not  minister  to  a  mind  diseas'd, 
Pluck  from  the  memory  a  rooted  sorrow, 
Raze  out  the  written  troubles  of  the  brain? 


Shakspere. 


Maidenhood. 


Maidens,  like  moths,  are  ever  caught  by  glare, 
And  Mammon  wins  his  way  where  Seraphs  might  despair. 

Byron. 


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The  maid  who  modestly  conceals 
Her  beauties,  while  she  hides,  reveals; 
Give  but  a  glimpse,  and  fancy  draws 
Whate'er  the  Grecian  Venus  was. 

Edward  Moore. 

She  dwelt  among  the  untrodden  ways 

Beside  the  spring1  of  Love, 
A  maid  whom  there  were  none  to  praise 

And  very  few  to  love. 

Wordsworth. 

And  when  once  the  young  heart  of  a  maiden  Is  stolen, 
The  maiden  herself  will  steal  after  it  soon. 

Moore. 

Longfellow. 
Johnson. 


Standing  with  reluctant  feet 
Where  the  brook  and  river  meet, 
Womanhood  and  childhood  fleet! 

Wretched  un-idea'd  girls. 

Man. 


An  honest  man's  the  noblest  work  of  God. 
A  very  unclubable  man. 


Pope. 


Johnson. 

Before  man  made  us  citizens,  great  Nature  made  us  men. 

Lowell* 
I  dare  do  all  that  may  become  a  man ; 
Who  dares  do  more  is  none. 

Shakspere. 

Adam  the  goodliest  man  of  men  since  born 
His  sons ;  the  fairest  of  her  daughters  Eve. 


MUton. 


For  contemplation  he  and  valor  form'd, 
For  softness  she  and  sweet  attractive  grace; 
He  for  God  only,  she  for  God  in  him. 
His  fair  large  front  and  eyes  sublime  declar'd 
Absolute  rule. 

Milton. 
Like  leaves  on  trees  the  race  of  man  is  found, 
Now  green  in  youth,  now  withering  on  the  ground: 
Another  race  the  following  spring  supplies; 
They  fall  successive,  and  successive  rise. 

Pope. 

All  the  world's  a  stage 
And  all  the  men  and  women  merely  players; 
They  have  their  exits  and  their  entrances; 
And  one  man  in  his  time  plays  many  parts— 
His  acts  being  seven  ages.    At  first,  the  Infant, 
Mewling  and  puking  in  the  nurse's  arms. 
Then  the  whining  School-boy,  with  his  satchel 
And  shining  morning  face,  creeping  like  snail 
Unwillingly  to  school.    And  then  the  Lover, 
Sighing  like  furnace,  with  a  woful  ballad 
Made  to  his  mistress'  eyebrow.    Then  a  Soldier, 
Full  of  strange  oaths,  and  bearded  like  the  pard; 
Jealous  in  honor,  sudden  and  quick  in  quarrel, 
Seeking  the  bubble  reputation 

Evw  to  the  cannon's  mouth.    And  then  the  Justice, 
In  f;iir  round  belly  with  good  capon  lin'd, 
With  eyes  severe  and  beard  of  formal  cut, 
Full  of  wise  saws  and   nodcrn  instances— 
And  so  he  plays  his  part.     The  sixth  age  shift! 
Into  the  lean  and  slippcr'd  Pant;ilr>.m, 
1 1  l    youthful  hose  will  sav'd,  a  world  too  wide 
For  his  shrunk  shank  ;  and  his  big  manly  voice. 
Turning  again  toward  childish  treble,  pipes 
And  whistles  in  his  sound.     Last  scene  of  all, 


That  ends  this  strange,  eventful  history, 

Is  second  childishness  and  mere  oblivion  ; 

Sans  teeth,  sans  eyes,  sans  taste,  sans— everything. 

Shakspere. 

Marriage. 


Choose  not  alone  a  proper  mate. 
But  proper  time  to  marry. 


Cooper. 


Let  me  not  to  the  marriage  of  true  minds 
Admit  impediments:  love  is  not  love 
Which  alters  when  it  alteration  finds. 

Shakspere. 
How  much  the  wife  is  dearer  than  the  bride. 

Lytielton. 
Such  duty  as  the  subject  owes  the  prince, 
Even  such  a  woman  oweth  to  her  husband. 

Shakspere. 
You  arc  my  true  and  honorable  wife ; 
As  dear  to  me  as  are  the  ruddy  drops 
That  visit  my  sad  heart. 

Shakspere. 
With  secret  course,  which  no  loud  storms  annoy, 
Glides  the  smooth  current  of  domestic  joy. 

'Johnson. 
Is  not  marriage  an  open  question  when  it  is  alleged  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  world  that  such  as  are  m  the  institution  wish  to  get 
out,  and  such  as  are  out  wish  to  get  in? 

R.  \V.  Emerson. 

She  what  was  honor  knew, 
And  with  obsequious  majesty  approv'd 
My  pleaded  reason.     To  the  nuptial  bower 
I  led  her,  blushing  like  the  morn:  all  heaven. 
And  happy  constellations  on  that  hour 
Shed  their  sclcctest  influence  ;  the  earth 
Gave  sign  of  gratulation,  and  each  hill; 
Joyous  the  birds;  fresh  gales  and  gentle  airs 
Whispcr'd  it  to  the  woods,  and  from  their  wings 
Flung  rose,  flung  odors  from  the  spicy  shrub. 

Milton. 

Melancholy. 

Sweet  bird,  that  shunn'st  the  noise  of  folly, 
Most  musical,  most  melancholy! 

Milton. 

And,  with  a  green  and  yellow  melancholy, 
She  sat,  like  Patience  on  a  monument, 
Smiling  at  grief. 

Shakspere. 

Go— you  may  call  it  madness,  folly; 

You  shall  not  chase  my  gloom  away  I 
There's  such  a  charm  in  melancholy 

I  would  not,  if  I  could,  be  gay. 


There's  naught  in  this  life 
If  man  were  wise  to  see't, 

But  only  melancholy ; 

Oh,  sweetest  Melancholy! 


Asjsjr* 


Fletcher. 


The  melancholy  days  are  come,  the  saddest  of  the  year, 
Of  wailing  winds,  and  naked  woods,  and  meadows  brown  and  sear. 

Bryant, 

Memory. 

Time  whereof  the  memory  of  man  runneth  not  to  the  contrary. 

Blacks/one. 


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DICTIONARY   OF   PROSE   AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS.                                               777 

And,  when  the  stream 

Be  ye  all  of  one  mind. 

i 

Which  overflowed  the  soul  was  passed  away, 

Old  Testament. 

A  consciousness  remained  that  it  had  left, 

Vain,  very  vain,  my  weary  search  to  find 

Deposited  upon  the  silent  shore 

That  bliss  which  only  centres  in  the  mind. 

Of  memory,  images  and  precious  thoughts 

Goldsmith. 

That  shall  not  die,  and  cannot  be  destroyed. 

Wordsworth, 

Misery. 

Music,  when  soft  voices  die, 

Misery  acquaints  a  man  with  strange  bedfellows. 

Vibrates  in  the  memory; 

Shakspere. 

Odors,  when  sweet  violets  sicken, 

Our  sympathy  is  cold  to  the  relation  of  distant  misery. 

Live  within  the  sense  they  quicken. 

Gibbon. 

Shelley. 

He  gave  to  misery  (all  he  had)  a  tear, 

This  is  the  truth  the  poet  sings, 

He  gain'd  from  Heaven  ('twas  all  he  wished)  a  friend. 

That  a  sorrow's  crown  of  sorrow  is  remembering  happier  things. 

Gray. 
In  misery's  darkest  cavern  known, 

Tennyson. 

While  memory  holds  a  seat 

His  useful  care  was  ever  nigh 

In  this  distracted  globe.     Remember  thee? 

Where  hopeless  anguish  pour'd  his  groan, 

Yea,  from  the  table  of  my  memory 

And  lonely  want  retired  to  die. 

I'll  wipe  away  all  trivial  fond  records. 

yohnson. 

Shakspere. 

Modesty. 

The  memory  of  the  just  is  blessed. 

Old  Testament, 

He  saw  her  charming,  but  he  saw  not  rialf 
The  charms  her  downcast  modesty  conceal'd. 

Mercy. 

Thomson. 
The  chariest  maid  is  prodigal  enough 

The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strain'd ; 

If  she  unmask  her  beauty  to  the  moon. 

It  droppeth  as  the  gentle  rain  from  heaven 

Shakspere. 

Upon  the  place  beneath:  it  is  twice  bless'd; 

And  on  their  own  merits  modest  men  are  dumb. 

It  blesseth  him  that  gives,  and  him  that  takes: 

Colman. 

*Tis  mightiest  in  the  mightiest:  it  becomes 

Not  stepping  o'er  the  bounds  of  modesty. 

The  throned  monarch  better  than  his  crown: 

Shakspere. 

His  sceptre  shows  the  force  of  temporal  power, 

The  attribute  to  awe  and  majesty, 

Thy  modesty's  a  candle  to  thy  merit. 

Fielding. 

Wherein  doth  sit  the  dread  and  fear  of  kings ; 
But  mercy  is  above  this  sceptred  sway. 

Suit  the  action  to  the  word,  the  word  to  the  action,  with  this  special 

It  is  enthroned  in  the  hearts  of  kings. 

observance,  that  you  o'erstep  not  the  modesty  of  nature. 

It  is  an  attribute  to  God  himself, 

Shakspere. 

And  earthly  power  doth  then  show  Hkest  God's, 

Money. 

When  mercy  seasons  justice.    Therefore,  Jew, 

Though  justice  be  thy  plea,  consider  this : — 

Put  money  in  thy  purse. 

Shakspere. 

That  in  the  course  of  justice  none  of  us 

Should  see  salvation:  we  do  pray  for  mercy. 

Get  money;  still  get  money,  boy; 

And  that  same  prayer  doth  teach  us  all  to  render 

No  matter  by  what  means. 

The  deeds  of  mercy. 

yonson. 

Shakspere, 

The  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil. 

That  mercy  I  to  others  show, 

New  Testament. 

That  mercy  show  to  me. 

This  bank-note  world. 

Pope. 

Halleck. 

Sweet  mercy  is  nobility's  true  badge. 

For  what  is  worth  in  anything 

Shakspere. 

But  so  much  money  as  'twill  bring? 

Butler. 

Mind. 

Hath  a  dog  money?    Is  it  possible 
A  cur  can  lend  three  thousand  ducats? 

My  mind  to  me  a  kingdom  is ; 

Shakspere. 

Such  present  joys  therein  I  find 

Motherhood. 

That  it  excels  all  other  bliss 

That  earth  affords  or  grows  by  kind: 

A  mother  is  a  mother  still, 

Though  much  I  want  which  most  would  have, 

The  holiest  thing  alive. 

Yet  still  my  mind  forbids  to  crave. 

Coleridge. 

Dyer. 

Where  yet  was  ever  found  a  mother 

My  mind  to  me  an  empire  is 

Who'd  give  her  booby  for  another? 

While  grace  affordeth  health. 

Gay. 

Southwell. 

Music. 

'Tis  strange  the  mind,  that  very  fiery  particle, 

Should  let  itself  be  snuff 'd  out  by  an  article. 

As  sweit  and  musical 

Byron, 

As  bright  Apollo's  lute,  strung  with  his  hair; 

I,  thus  neglecting  worldly  ends,  all  dedicated 

And  when  Love  speaks,  the  voice  of  all  the  gods 

To  closeness,  and  the  bettering  of  my  mind. 

Makes  heaven  drowsy  with  the  harmony. 

i 

Shakspere. 

Shakspere. 

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778                                                  DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE   AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 

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1 

Bright  gem  instinct  with  music,  vocal  (park. 

Here  in  the  body  pent, 

H  .rds-jjorth. 

Absent  from  Him  I  roam; 

He  makes  sweet  mualc  with  th'  cnamel'd  stones, 

Yet  nightly  pitch  my  moving  tent 

Giving  a  gentle  kiss  to  every  sedge 

A  day's  march  nearer  home. 

Montgomery. 

He  ovcrtaketh  in  his  pilgrimage. 

Shakspere. 

O  night. 

His  very  foot  hath  music  in  't 

And  storm,  and  darkness!  ye  are  wondrous  strong. 

A*  he  comes  up  the  stairs. 

Yet  lovely  in  your  strength,  as  is  the  light 

Mickle. 

Of  a  dark  eye  in  woman ! 

Sundays  observe  :  think  when  the  bells  do  chime 

Byron. 

'Tis  angels'  music. 

Where  eldest  Night 

Herbert. 

And  Chaos,  ancestors  of  Nature,  hold 

That  strain  again ;  it  had  a  dying  fall : 

Eternal  anarchy  amidst  the  noise 

Oh,  it  came  o'er  my  ear  like  the  sweet  south, 

Of  endless  wars,  and  by  confusion  stand. 

That  breathes  upon  a  bank  of  violets. 

Milton. 

Stealing  and  giving  odor. 

Murmuring,  and  with  him  fled  the  shades  of  night 

Shakspere. 

Milton. 

It  will  discourse  most  eloquent  music. 

You  meaner  beauties  of  the  night, 

Shakspere. 

That  poorly  satisfy  our  eyes 

The  man  that  hath  no  music  in  himself, 

More  by  your  number  than  your  light. 

Nor  is  not  mov'd  with  concord  of  sweet  sounds, 

You  common  people  of  the  skies — 

Is  fit  for  treasons,  stratagems  and  spoils: 

What  are  you  when  the  moon  shall  rise? 

The  motions  of  his  spirit  are  dull  as  night, 

Wcltrn. 

And  his  affections  dark  as  Erebus. 

Good  night,  good  night :  parting  is  such  sweet  sorrow, 

Let  no  such  man  be  trusted. 

Shakspere. 

That  I  shall  say  good  night  till  it  be  morrow. 

Shakspere. 

Music  hath  charms  to  soothe  the  savage  breast, 

To  soften  rocks,  or  bend  a  knotted  oak. 

Pain. 

Congreve. 

When  Music,  heavenly  maid,  was  young, 

Rich  the  treasure. 

While  yet  in  early  Greece  she  sung. 

Sweet  the  pleasure, 

Collins. 

Sweet  is  pleasure  after  pain. 

The  music  in  my  heart  I  bore 

Dryitn. 

Long  after  it  was  heard  no  more. 

So  when  a  raging  fever  burns. 

Wordsworth. 

We  shift  from  side  to  side  by  turns, 
And  'tis  a  poor  relief  we  gain 

Nature. 

To  change  the  place,  but  keep  the  pain. 

Watts. 

Come  forth  into  the  light  of  things; 

The  labor  we  delight  in  physics  pain. 

Let  nature  be  your  teacher. 

Shakspere. 

Wordsworth. 

To  frown  at  pleasure,  and  to  smile  In  pain. 

The  course  of  nature  is  the  art  of  God. 

Tamng. 

Toung. 

1                        Pains  of  love  be  sweeter  far 

One  touch  of  nature  makes  the  whole  world  kin. 

Than  all  other  pleasures  are. 

Shakspere. 

Ihydrn. 

Diseased  nature  sometimes  breaks  forth 

In  strange  eruptions. 

Patience. 

Shakspere. 

Accuse  not  nature ;  she  hath  done  her  part: 

This  flower  of  wifely  patience. 

Do  thou  but  thine. 

Chanter. 

Milton. 

The  worst  speak  something  good :  if  all  want  sense, 
God  takes  a  text  and  preacheth  patience. 

Night 

Iter  km. 
Like  patience  on  a  monument. 

Night  is  the  time  to  weep ; 

Shakspere. 

To  wet  with  unseen  tears 

Patier-e  and  sorrow  strove. 

Those  graves  of  memory  where  sleep 

Who  should  express  her  goodliest. 

The  joys  of  other  years. 

Shakspere. 

Montgomery. 

'Tis  all  men's  office  to  speak  patience 

How  beautiful  is  nightl 

To  those  that  wring  under  the  load  of  sorrow. 

A  dewy  freshness  fills  the  silent  ajr; 

Rut  no  man's  virtue,  nor  sufficiency. 

No  mist  obscures,  nor  cloud,  nor  speck,  nor  stain, 

To  be  so  moral  when  he  shall  end  ire 

Rrcaka  the  serene  of  heaven : 

The  like  himself. 

In  full-orbed  glory,  yonder  moon  divine 

Shakspere. 

Rolls  through  the  dark  blue  depths. 

For  there  was  never  yet  philosopher 

!■<  m.ith  her  steady  ray 

That  could  endure  the  toothache  patiently. 

The  desert-circle  spreads, 

Shahipere. 

Like  the  round  ocean,  girdled  with  the  sky. 

Arm  the  obdured  breast 

i 

How  beautiful  Is  nie,ht! 

With  stubborn  patience  as  with  triple  steel. 

} 

Sonthty. 

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DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 


779 


~A 


The  best  of  men 
That  e'er  wore  earth  about  him  was  a  sufferer; 
A  soft,  meek,  patient,  humble,  tranquil  spirit. 
The  first  true  gentleman  that  ever  breathed. 

Patriotism. 


Dekker. 


I 


That  man  is  little  to  be  envied  whose  patriotism  would  not  gain 

force  upon  the  plain  of  Marathon,  or  whose  piety  would  not  grow 

warmer  among  the  ruins  of  lona. 

yohnson. 

Such  is  the  patriot's  boast,  where'er  we  roam, 

His  first,  best  country  ever  is  his  home. 

Goldsmith. 

Patriotism  is  the  last  refuge  of  a  scoundrel. 

yohnson. 

Who  dared  to  love  their  country  and  be  poor. 

J  Pope. 

True  patriots  all ;  for  be  it  understood 

We  left  our  country  for  our  country's  good. 

Barrington. 

Oh,  Heaven  T  he  cried,  my  bleeding  country  save. 

Campbell. 

My  country,  'tis  of  thee, 
Sweet  land  of  liberty— 
Of  thee  I  sing. 

Samuel  F.Smith. 

I  was  born  an  American ;  I  live  an  American ,  I  shall  die  an  American. 

Webster. 
Our  country — whether  bounded  by  the  St.  John's  and  the  Sabine,  or 
however  otherwise  bounded  or  described,  and  be  the  measurements 
more  or  less — still  our  country,  to  be  cherished  in  all  our  hearts,  to  be 
defended  by  all  our  hands. 

Winthrop. 

Peace. 

Peace  be  within  thy  walls  and  prosperity  within  thy  palaces. 

Old  Testament. 
Peace  hath  her  victories 
No  less  renown'd  than  war. 

Milton. 

Still  In  thy  right  hand  carry  gentle  peace, 
To  silence  envious  tongues. 

Shakspere. 

There  never  was  a  good  war  or  a  bad  peace. 

Franklin. 

Peace,  peace:  when  there  is  no  peace. 

Old  Testament. 
Where  peace 
And  rest  can  never  dwell,  hope  never  comes, 
That  comes  to  all. 

Milton. 

The  inglorious  arts  of  peace. 

Marvell. 

Pity. 

She  loved  me  for  the  dangers  I  had  passed, 
And  I  loved  her  that  she  did  pity  them. 

Shakspere. 

He  that  hath  pity  upon  the  poor  lendeth  unto  the  Lord. 

Old  Testament. 

For  pity  melts  the  mind  to  love. 

Dry  den. 

Of  all  the  paths  lead  to  a  woman's  love 
Pity  's  the  straightest 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 

And  pity,  like  a  naked  new-born  babe, 
Striding  the  blast. 

Shakspere. 


Pity  the  sorrows  of  a  poor  old  man, 

Whose  trembling  limbs  have  borne  him  to  your  door, 
Whose  days  are  dwindled  to  the  shortest  span ; 

Oh!  give  relief,  and  Heaven  will  bless  your  store. 

Moss. 

Pleasure. 

Rich  the  treasure, 
Sweet  the  pleasure. 
Sweet  is  pleasure  after  pain. 

But  pleasures  are  like  poppies  spread, 
You  seize  the  flower,  its  bloom  is  shed,* 
Or,  like  the  .snow-fall  In  the  river, 
A  moment  white,  then  melts  forever. 

Bum*. 

The  Puritans  hated  bearbaiting,  not  because  it  gave  pain  to  th« 
bear,  but  because  It  gave  pleasure  to  the  spectators. 


Dryden. 


A  man  of  pleasure  is  a  man  of  pains. 
The  soul's  calm  sunshine  and  the  heartfelt  joy. 


Macaulay. 
Toung. 
Pope. 


Come  live  with  me,  and  be  my  love, 
And  we  will  all  the  pleasures  prove 
That  hills  and  valleys,  dales  and  fields, 
Woods  or  steepy  mountains,  yields. 

Marlowe. 

All  human  race,  from  China  to  Peru, 
Pleasure,  howe'er  disguis'd  by  art,  pursue? 

Warton, 

Here  Skugg 
Lies  snug, 
As  a  bug 
In  a  rug. 


There  *s  little  pleasure  in  the  house 
When  our  gudeman  's  awa*. 


Franklin. 


Mickle. 


No  profit  grows  where  is  no  pleasure  ta'en ; 
In  brief,  sir,  study  what  you  most  affect. 

Shakspere. 

Poverty. 

Blessed  is  he  that  considereth  the  poor. 

Old  Testament. 

Steep'd  me  In  poverty  to  the  very  lips. 

Shakspere. 

He  left  a  paper  sealed  up,  wherein  were  found  three  articles  as  his 
last  will:  "I  owe  much,  I  have  nothing,  I  give  the  rest  to  the  poor." 

Rabelais. 

With  one  hand  he  put 
A  penny  in  the  Tim  of  poverty 
And  with  the  other  took  a  shilling  out. 

PoUok, 

Poor  naked  wretches,  wheresoe'er  you  are, 

That  bide  the  pelting  of  this  pitiless  storm, 

How  shall  your  houseless  heads  and  unfed  sides, 

Your  loop'd  and  window'd  raggedness,  defend  you 

From  seasons  such  as  these. 

Shakspere. 

Thou  source  of  all  my  bliss,  and  all  my  woe, 
That  found'st  me  poor  at  first,  and  keep'st  me  so. 

Goldsmith. 


Too  poor  for  a  bribe,  and  too  proud  to  importune. 
He  hath  not  the  method  of  making  a  fortune. 

Nor  grandeur  hear  with  a  disdainful  smile 
The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor. 


Gray. 


Gray. 


-- — » 


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DICTIONARY   OF    PROSE   AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 


A  poor,  Infirm,  weak  »nd  deapis'd  old  man. 

Skakifi 


Praise. 

The  love  of  praise,  howe'er  concealed  by  art. 
Reigns  more  or  lew,  and  glows  in  ev'ry  heart. 

Praise  God,  from  whom  ail  blessing*  flow; 
Praise  Him,  all  creatures  here  below  I 
Prsisc  Him  abovckye  heavenly  hostl 


Tonng 


Kn. 


Poetic  Justice,  with  her  lifted  scale, 

Where,  in  nice  balance,  truth  with  gold  she  weighs, 

And  solid  pudding  against  empty  praise. 


Popt. 


Of  whom  to  be  disprais'd  were  no  small  praise. 

Green  be  the  turf  above  thee, 
Friend  of  my  better  days  ; 

None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee, 
Nor  named  thee  but  to  praise. 


Milton. 


HalUtk. 


Poets  lose  half  the  praise  they  should  have  got 
Could  it  be  known  what  they  discreetly  blot. 


Waller. 


The  sweeter  sounds  of  woman's  praise. 


Macaulay. 


Praise  undeserved  Is  scandal  in  disguise. 

The  rose  that  all  arc  praising 
Is  not  the  rose  for  me. 


Pope. 


Baylty. 


Pride. 

He  passed  a  cottage  with  a  double  coach-house, 

A  cottage  of  gentility ; 

And  he  owned  with  a  grin 

That  his  favorite  sin 

Is  pride  that  apes  humility. 

Sontmey. 

My  pride  fell  with  my  fortunes. 

Shaksfer*. 

Pride  in  their  port,  defiance  in  their  eye. 

Goldsmith* 

Pride  goeth  before  destruction,  and  an  haughty  spirit  before  a  fall. 

Old  Testament, 
A  falcon,  tOWVftng  in  her  pride  of  place, 
'Was  by  a  mousing  owl  hawk'd  at  and  killed. 

Shaksfere. 
In  pride,  in  reasoning  pride,  our  error  lies  ; 
All  quit  their  sphere,  ami  rush  into  the  skies. 
Pride  still  is  aiming  at  the  blessed  abodes; 
Men  would  be  angels,  angels  would  be  gods. 


And  the  Devil  did  grin,  for  his  darling  sin 
Is  pride  th.it  apes  humility. 

Purity. 


Pop*. 


C.f.r.d^. 


Unto  the  pure  all  things  arc  pure. 

New  Testament. 
She  was  good  as  she  was  fair; 
None— none  on  earth  above  her  I 
As  pure  in  thought  M  angels  are, 
To  know  her  was  to  love  her. 


Like  the  stained  web  that  whitens  In  the  sun, 
Grow  pure  by  being  purely  shone  upon. 


Rogers. 


Moore. 


t 


tfo  his  life  has  flowed 

From  its  mysterious  urn  a  sacred  stream, 

In  whose  calm  depth  the  beautiful  and  pure 

Alone  are  mirror'd. 

Talfouri, 

We  understood 
Her  by  her  sight ;  her  pure  and  eloquent  blood 
Spoke  in  her  cheeks,  and  so  distinctly  wrought. 
That  one  might  almost  say  her  body  thought 


The  real  simon  pure. 


Dount. 


Crntltvrt. 


They  say  that  a  lion  will  turn  and  flee 
From  a  maid  in  the  pride  of  her  purity. 
But  the  maiden,  if  she  be  a  wise  little  thing, 
Will  keep  out  of  the  path  of  the  beastly  king. 


Anon. 


Chaste  as  the  icicle, 
That 's  curded  by  the  frost  from  purest  snow. 
And  hangs  on  Dian's  temple.    . 


Skakspen. 


Quiet. 


All  that  are  lovers  of  virtue,  ...  be  quiet,  and  go  a- Angling. 

Walton. 

Use  three  Physicians, 

Still-first  Dr.  Quiet, 

Next  Dr.  Mery-man 

And  Dr.  Dyet. 

Old  wort  on  Jftaltk. 

Bat  quiet  to  quick  bosoms  Is  a  hell. 


Byron. 


And  join  with  thee  calm  Peace  and  Quiet, 
Spare  Fast,  that  oft  with  gsds  doth  diet. 

Study  to  be  quiet. 


MMon. 
Nra  Ttstamint. 


Rain. 


Violets  plucked,  the  sweetest  rain 
Makes  not  fresh  or  grow  again. 

The  thirsty  earth  soaks  up  the  rain, 
And  drinks  and  gapes  for  drink  again; 
The  plants  suck  in  the  earth,  and  are 
With  constant  drinking  fresh  and  fair. 


FleUktr. 


Ccneley. 


For  the  rain  it  ralneth  every  day. 


Skakipert. 


He  shall  come  down  like  rain  upon  the  mown  grass. 

Old  Ttstamint. 

Ah,  do  not,  whan  my  heart  hath  scap'd  this  sorrow. 

Come  in  the  rearward  of  a  conquered  woe ; 

Give  not  a  windy  night  a  rainy  morrow. 

To  linger  out  a  purpos'd  overthrow. 

Skaktpm. 

Reading. 

Learn  to  read  slow;  all  other  grace* 

WBI  follow  in  their  proper  places. 

H  alker. 

Read,  mark,  learn  and  Inwardly  digest. 

Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

You  write  with  ease  to  show  your  breeding, 
But  easy  writing's  cursed  hard  reading. 

'  '  Skeridan. 

Reading  makcth  a  full  man,  confeience  a  ready  man,  and  writing 

Boron. 


an  exact  man. 


s 


I 


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DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 


78l 


3fr 


What  is  twice  read  is  commonly  better  remembered  than  what  is 

transcribed. 

Johnson. 

And  better  had  they  ne'er  been  born, 
Who  read  to  doubt,  or  read  to  scorn. 

Scott. 

Reading*  what  they  never  wrote, 

Just  fifteen  minutes,  huddle  up  their  work, 

And  with  a  well-bred  whisper  close  the  scene. 

Cowper. 

Reason. 

Reason  is  the  life  of  the  law;  nay,  the  common  law  itself  is  nothing* 
else  but  reason.  .  .  .  The  law,  which  '.  1  perfection  of  reason. 

Coke. 
Sure,  He  that  made  us  with  such  large  discourse, 
Looking  before  and  after,  gave  us  not 
That  capability  an-1  godlike  reason 
To  rust  in  us  unus'd. 

Shakspere. 

Now  see  that  noble  and  most  sovereign  reason, 
Like  sweet  bells  jangled,  out  of  tune  and  harsh. 

Shakspere. 
Give  unto  me,  made  lowly  wise, 
The  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  ; 
The  confidence  of  reason  give; 
And  in  the  light  of  truth  thy  bondman  let  me  live. 

Wordsworth. 
Error  of  opinion  may  be  tolerated  where  reason  Is  left  free  to  com- 
bat it. 

Jefferson. 

The  ruling  passion,  be  it  what  it  will, 
The  ruling  passion  conquers  reason  still. 

Pope. 

The  intelligible  forms  of  ancient  poets, 

The  fair  humanities  of  old  religion, 

The  power,  the  beauty  and  the  majesty, 

That  had  their  haunts  in  dale,  or  piny  mountain, 

Or  forest,  by  slow  stream,  or  pebbly  spring, 

Or  chasms  and  watery  depths :  all  these  have  vanished  ; 

They  live  no  longer  in  the  faith  of  reason. 

Coleridge. 

Religion. 

To  be  of  no  church  is  dangerous.  Religion,  of  which  the  rewards 
are  distant  and  which  is  animated  only  by  Faith  and  Hope,  will  glide 
by  degrees  out  of  the  mind,  unless  it  be  invigorated  and  reimpresscd 
by  external  ordinances,  by  stated  calls  to  worship  and  the  salutary 
influence  of  example. 

Johnson. 

The  writers  against  religion,  whilst  they  oppose  every  system,  are 
wisely  careful  never  to  set  up  any  of  their  own. 

Burke. 

A  little  philosophy  inclineth  a  man's  mind  to  atheism,  but  depth  of 
philosophy  bringeth  men's  minds  about  to  religion. 

Lord  Bacon. 

Revenge. 

Which,  if  not  victory,  is  yet  revenge. 

Revenge,  at  first  though  sweet, 
Bitter  ere  long  back  on  itself  recoils. 


Milton. 


Milton. 

That  practie'd  falsehood  under  saintly  shew, 
Deep  malice  to  conceal,  couch'd  with  revenge. 

Milton. 

If  it  will  feed  nothing  else,  it  will  feed  my  revenge. 

Shakspere. 

Revenge  is  profitable ;  gratitude  Is  expensive. 

Gibbon. 


Sadness. 

Of  all  tales  'tis  the  saddest— and  more  sad 
Because  it  makes  us  smile. 

Byron. 

I  had  rather  have  a  fool  make  me  merry,  than  experience  make 
me  sad. 

Shakspere. 

Earth  has  no  sorrow  that  Heaven  cannot  heal. 

Moore. 

But  hushed  be  every  thought  that  springs 
From  out  the  bitterness  of  things. 

Wordsworth. 

But,  sad  as  angels  for  the  good  man's  sin, 
Weep  to  record,  and  blush  to  give  it  in. 

Campbell. 

For  seldom  shall  she  hear  a  tale 
So  sad,  so  tender,  and  so  true. 

Shenstone. 

A  sadder  and  a  wiser  man, 
He  rose  the  morrow  morn. 

Coleridge. 

And  Mecca  saddens  at  the  long  delay. 


Thomson. 


The  Sea. 


They  that  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships,  that  do  business  In  great 

waters. 

Old  Testament. 

I'll  example  you  with  thievery: 

The  sun's  a  thief,  and  with  his  great  attraction 

Robs  the  vast  sea:    the  moon's  an  arrant  thief, 

And  her  pale  fire  she  snatches  from  the  sun: 

The  sea's  a  thief,  whose  liquid  surge  resolves 

The  moon  into  salt  tears. 

Shakspere. 

'Twas  when  the  sea  was  roaring 

With  hollow  blasts  of  wind, 

A  damsel  lay  deploring, 

All  on  a  rock  reclin'd. 

Gay.    ' 

This  narrow  isthmus  'twixt  two  boundless  seas, 
The  past,  the  future,  two  eternities! 


Moore. 


On  life's  vast  ocean  diversely  we  sail, 
Reason  the  card,  but  passion  is  the  gale. 

Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  Ocean — roll! 
Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain; 
Man  marks  the  earth  with  ruin — his  control 
Stops  with  the  shore. 

Shame. 


Pope. 


Byron. 


And  lovelier  things  have  mercy  shown 

To  every  failing  but  their  own  ; 

And  every  woe  a  tear  can  claim, 

Except  an  erring  sister's  shame. 

Byron. 

Oh,  shame  to  men!  devil  with  devil  damn'd 

Firm  concord  holds ;  mm  only  disagree 

Of  creatures  rational. 

Milton. 

O  shame  !  where  is  thy  blush ! 

Shakspere. 

Avoid  shame,  but  do  not  seek  glory — nothing  so  expensive  as  glory. 

Sydney  Smith. 

Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise ; 
Act  well  your  part,  there  all  the  honor  lies. 

Pope. 


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782                                                 DICTIONARY   OK    PROSE   AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 

< 

Men  the  most  infamous  are  fond  of  fame, 

Thou  hast  been  called,  O  Sleep  1  the  friend  of  woe  ; 

And  those  who  fear  not  guilt,  yet  start  at  shame. 

But  'tis  the  happy  that  have  called  thee  so. 

Cknrckill. 

Souikey. 

I  have  mark'd 

He  giveth  his  beloved  sleep. 

Old  Testament. 

A  thousand  blushing  apparitions 

To  start  into  her  face ;  a  thousand  innocent  shames, 

Yet  a  little  sleep,  a  little  slumber,  a  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep. 

In  angel  whiteness,  bear  away  those  blushes. 

Old  Testament. 

Skakspere. 

Tired  Nature's  sweet  restorer,  balmy  sleep  1 

Tonng. 

Sighing. 

Not  poppy,  nor  mandragora, 

A  plague  of  sighing  and  grief !  it  blows  a  man  up  like  a  bladder. 

Nor  all  the  drowsy  syrups  of  the  East, 
Shall  ever  medicine  thee  to  that  sweet  sleep 

Shaksptrt. 

Which  t.ou  ow'd^t  vesterday. 

Sigh'd  and  look'd,  and  sigh'd  again. 

Dryden. 

Skakspere. 

On  parent  knees,  a  naked  new-born  child 

Speed  the  soft  intercourse  from  soul  to  soul, 

Weeping  thou  sat'st  while  all  around  thee  smiled; 

And  waft  a  sigh  from  Indus  to  the  Pole. 

Pope. 

So  live,  that,  sinking  in  thy  last  long  sleep. 

Calm  thou  may'st  smile,  while  all  around  thee  weep. 

Sigh  no  more,  ladies,  sigh  no  more, 

'Jones. 

Men  were  deceivers  ever. 

Skakspere. 

Now  blessings  light  on  him  who  first  invented  sleep  :  it  covers  a  m  an 

Had  sighed  to  many,  though  he  loved  but  one. 

Byron. 

I  stood  in  Venice,  on  the  Bridge  of  Sighs  ; 

all  over,  thoughts  and  all,  like  a  cloak ;  it  is  meat  for  the  hungry, 
drink  for  the  thirsty,  heat  for  the  cold,  and  cold  for  the  hot. 

Cervantes. 

A  palace  and  a  prison  on  each  hand. 

Byron. 

Solitude; 

She  gave  me  for  my  pains  a  world  of  sighs. 

Skakspere. 

In  the  desert  a  fountain  is  springing, 
In  the  wide  waste  there  still  is  a  tree, 

The  sigh  that  rends  thy  constant  heart 

And  a  bird  in  the  solitude  singing, 
Which  speaks  to  my  spirit  of  thee. 

Byron. 

Shall  break  thy  Edwin's  too. 

Goldsmith. 

Silence. 

I  praise  the  Frenchman,  his  remark  was  shrewd. 
How  sweet,  how  passing  sweet  is  solitude ! 

There  was  a  silence  deep  as  death ; 

But  grant  me  still  a  friend  in  my  retreat. 

And  the  boldest  held  his  breath 

Whom  I  may  whisper,  solitude  is  sweet. 

For  a  turn-. 

Campbell. 

Camper. 

He  makes  a  solitude,  and  calls  it  peace. 

Byron. 

The  silent  organ  loudest  chants 

The  master's  requiem. 

Emerson. 

For  solitude  sometimes  is  best  society, 

Come  then,  expressive  silence,  muse  his  praise. 

And  short  retirement  urges  sweet  return. 

Milton. 

Thomson. 

That  inward  eye 

Silence  in  love  bewrays  more  woe 

Which  is  the  bliss  of  solitude. 

Than  words  though  ne'er  so  witty ; 

H'ordswortk. 

A  beggar  that  is  dumb,  you  know, 

In  solitude,  where  we  are  least  alone. 

May  challenge  double  pity. 

Byrtrn. 

Raleigk. 

O  Solitude !  where  are  the  charms 

No  hammers  fell,  no  ponderous  axes  rung; 

That  sages  have  seen  in  thy  face? 

Like  some  till  palm  the  mystic  fabric  sprung. 

Cowper. 

Majestic  silence! 

There  Is  a  pleasure  In  the  pathless  woods. 

Heber. 

There  Is  a  rapture  on  the  lonely  shore, 

Now  came  still  evening  on,  and  twilight  gray 

There  Is  society,  where  none  intrudes, 

Had  in  her  sober  livery  all  things  clad ; 

By  the  deep  sea,  and  music  in  its  roar: 

Silcnco  accompany'J  ;  for  beast  and  bird, 

I  love  not  Man  the  less,  but  Nature  more. 

They  to  their  grassy  couch,  these  to  their  nests, 

Byron. 

Were  slunk,  all  but  the  wakeful  nightingale. 

Milton. 

Strength. 

Silence  that  dreadful  bell  1  It  f rights  the  isle 

He  that  wrestles  with  us  strengthens  our  nerves  and  sharpens  our 

From  her  prosperity. 

skill ;  our  antagonist  is  our  helper. 

Skakspere. 

Bnrke. 

Silence  b  the  perfectest  herald  of  Joy;  I  wcrc  but  little  happy  If  I 
could  say  how  much. 

Spring. 

Skakspere. 

Come,  gentle  Spring  I  ethereal  mildness  1  come. 

Sleep. 

Thomson. 

Mcthought  I  heard  a  voice  err,  "  Sleep  no  more ! 

When  Spring  unlocks  the  flowers  to  paint  the  laughing  soil.                  1 

Heber. 

*••'■                      •■iirdor  sleep"— the  Innocent  sleep; 
Sleep,  that  knits  up  the  ravell'd  «lrrvr  ..f  care. 

1 

Sweet  Spring,  full  of  sweet  days  and  roses, 

1 

Skakspere. 

A  box  where  sweets  compacted  lie. 

Herbert. 

«-i 

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DICTIONARY    OF    PROSE    AND    POETICAL    QUOTATIONS. 


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"711 


But  when  shall  spring1  visit  the  mouldering  urn  ? 
Oh,  when  shall  it  dawn  on  the  night  of  the  grave? 

Beattit. 

Primrose,  first-born  child  of  Ver, 
Merry  spring-time's  harbinger. 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 
In  those  vernal  seasons  of  the  year,  when  the  air  is  calm  and  pleas- 
ant, it  were  an  injury  and  sullenness  against  Nature  not  to  go  out  and 
see  her  riches,  and  partake  in  her  rejoicing  with  heaven  and  earth. 

Milton. 

The  State. 

But  in  the  gross  and  scope  of  mine  opinion, 
This  bodes  some  strange  eruption  to  our  stable. 

Shakspere. 

What  constitutes  a  state? 

****** 

Men  who  their  duties  know, 
But  know  their  rights,  and,  knowing,  dare  maintain. 

****** 
And  sovereign  law,  that  state's  collected  will, 

O'er  thrones  and  globes  elate, 
Sits  empress,  crowning-  good,  repressing  ill. 

yones. 

A  thousand  years  scarce  serve  to  form  a  state ; 
An  hour  may  lay  it  in  the  dust. 

Byron. 

Here  shall  the  Press  the  People's  right  maintain, 
Unawed  by  influence  and  unbribed  by  gain ; 
Here  patriot  Truth  her  glorious  precepts  draw, 
Pledged  to  Religion,  Liberty  and  Law. 

Story. 

States,  as  great  engines,  move  slowly. 

Bacon. 

Methinks  I  see  in  my  mind  a  noble  and  puissant  nation  rousing  her- 
self like  a  strong  man  after  sleep,  and  shaking  her  invincible  locks; 
methinks  I  see  her  as  an  eagle  mewing  her  mighty  youth,  and  kind- 
ling her  undazzled  eyes  at  the  full  mid-day  beam. 


Milton. 


Talking. 


Then  he  will  talk— good  gods  !  how  he  will  talk ! 

Lee. 

Who  think  too  little,  and  who  talk  too  nuch. 

Dry  den. 

Let  your  speech  be  always  with  grace,  seasoned  with  salt. 

New  Testament. 

The  poetry  of  speech. 

Byron. 

Just  at  the  age  'twixt  boy  and  youth, 

When  thought  is  speech,  and  speech  is  truth. 

Scott. 

Thought. 

But  evil  is  wrought  by  want  of  thought 
As  well  as  want  of  heart. 

Hood. 

They  are  never  alone  that  are  accompanied  with  noble  thoughts. 

Sidney. 
And  Thought  leapt  out  to  wed  with  Thought 
Ere  Thought  could  wed  itself  with  Speech. 

Tennyson. 

Like  thoughts  whose  very  sweetness  yieldeth  proof 
That  they  were  born  for  immortality. 

Wordsworth. 

He  thought  as  a  sage,  though  he  felt  as  a  man. 


Thought  is  deeper  than  all  speech. 


Beattie. 


Cranck. 


X 


With  curious  art  tne  brain  too  finely  wrought 
Preys  on  herself,  and  is  destroyed  by  thought. 

Churchill. 

The  dome  of  thought,  the  palace  of  the  soul. 

Byron . 

Thought  is  the  property  of  him  who  can  entertain  it,  and  of  htn 

who  can  adequately  place  it. 

Emerson. 

But  words  are  things,  and  a  small  drop  of  ink, 
Falling,  like  dew,  upon  a  thought,  produces 
That  which  makes  thousands,  perhaps  millions,  think. 

Byron. 
When  to  the  sessions  of  sweet  silent  thought 
I  summon  up  remembrance  of  things  past. 

Shakspere. 

Delightful  task!  to  rear  the  tender  thought, 
To  teach  the  young  idea  how  to  shoot. 

Thomson. 

Thoughts,  that  voluntary  move 
Harmonious  numbers. 

Milton. 

Time. 

Even  such  is  Time,  that  takes  on  trust 
Our  youth,  our  joys,  our  all  we  have, 
And  pays  us  but  with  age  and  dust; 
Who  in  the  dark  and  silent  grave, 
When  we  have  wandered  all  our  ways, 
Shuts  up  the  story  of  our  days ; 
But  from  this  earth,  this  grave,  this  dust. 
My  God  shall  raise  me  up,  I  trust. 

Raleigh. 

And  panting  Time  toiled  after  him  in  vain. 

"johnson. 

The  signs  of  the  times. 

New  Testament. 

Thus  the  whirligig  of  Time  brings  in  his  revenges. 

Shakspere. 

Live  to  be  the  show  and  gaze  o'  the  time. 

Shakspere. 

The  hell  strikes  one.    We  take  no  note  of  time, 

But  from  its  loss. 

Toung. 

Gather  ye  rose  buds  while  ye  may, 

Old  Time  is  still  a-flying. 
And  this  same  flower,  that  smiles  to-dayt 

To-morrow  will  be  dying. 

Merrick. 

Time  has  laid  his  hand 
Upon  my  heart,  gently,  not  smiting  it, 
But  as  a  harper  lays  his  open  palm 
Upon  his  harp,  to  deaden  its  vibrations. 

Longfellow. 
His  golden  locks  time  hath  to  silver  turned  ; 

O  time  too  swift!  O  swiftness  never  ceasing! 
His  youth  'gainst  time  and  age  hath  ever  spurned, 
But  spurn'd  in  vain ;  youth  waneth  by  increasing. 

PeeU. 

Truth. 


Beauty  is  truth,  truth  beauty,  that  Is  all 
Ye  know  on  earth,  and  all  ye  need  to  know. 


Keats. 


Truth  from  his  lips  prevail'd  with  double  sway, 
And  fools,  who  came  to  scoff,  remain*d  to  pray. 

Goldsmith. 

No  pleasure  is  comparable  to  standing  on  the  vantage-ground  of  truth. 

Lord  Bacon. 


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/ 


For  truth  ha*  such  a  face  and  such  a  mien, 
As  to  be  lov'd  needs  only  to  he  seen. 

Dtydtn. 

Truth  Is  as  imposible  to  sot)  by  any  outward  touch  as  is  the  sunbeam. 

Lord  Bacon, 
Truth  Is  the  highest  thing  that  man  may  keep. 

Chaucer. 
Great  is  truth,  and  mighty  above  ali  things. 

Old  Testament. 
Truth  U  as  Impossible  to  be  soiled  by  any  outward  touch  as  the 
sunbeam. 

Milton. 

Tyranny. 

Necessity  is  the  argument  of  tyrants,  it  is  the  creed  of  slaves. 

Pitt. 
Kings  will  be  tyrants  from  policy,  when  subjects  are  rebels  from 
principle. 

Burke. 

Where  law  ends,  tyranny  begins. 

Pitt. 

The  tree  of  liberty  only  grows  when  watered  by  the  blood  of  tyrants. 

Barere. 
This  hand,  to  tyrants  ever  sworn  the  foe, 
For  freedom  only  deals  the  deadly  blow; 
Then  sheathes  in  calm  repose  the  vengeful  blade, 
For  gentle  peace  in  freedom's  hallowed  shade. 

J.  J?.  Adams. 

Virtue. 

Know  then  this  truth  (enough  for  man  to  know), 
"Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below." 

Pope. 
Well  may  your  hearts  believe  the  truths  I  tell ; 
'Tls  virtue  makes  the  bliss,  where'er  we  dwell. 

Collins. 
Virtue  could  sec  to  do  what  virtue  would 
By  her  own  radiant  light,  though  sun  and  moon 
Were  in  the  flat  sea  sunk. 

Milton. 
Virtue  is  bold,  and  goodness  never  fearful. 

Skakspere. 
I  cannot  praise  a  fugitive  and  cloistered  virtue,  unexercised   and 
unbrealhcd,  that  never  sallies  out  and  sees  her  adversary,  but  slinks 
out  of  the  race,  where  that  immortal  garland  is  to  be  run  for  not  with- 
out dust  and  heat. 

Milton. 
Virtue  is  like  precious  odors,  most  fragrant  when  they  arc  Incensed 
or  crushed. 

Bacon. 

War. 

War,  wai ,  is  still  the  cry— war  even  to  the  knife  t 

Byron. 
There  never  was  a  good  war  or  a  bad  peace. 

Franklin. 
But  war's  a  game  which,  were  their  subjects  wise. 
Kings  would  not  play  at. 

Cowpcr. 
Oh,  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilderness, 

illllglllll  01  shade, 
Whrn-  RUBOI  "t  1'i'pr,  v.ion  and  deceit, 

^successful  or  successful  war, 
Might  nevet  reach  me  more. 

Covper. 
To  be  prepared  for  war  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  means  of  pre- 


serving  peace. 


\<L 


Wixki'mgtan. 


One  to  destroy  is  murder  by  the  law; 
And  gibbets  keep  the  lifted  hand  in  awe ; 
To  murder  thousands  takes  a  specious  name, 
War's  glorious  art,  and  gives  immortal  fame. 

Young. 

He  is  come  to  ope 
The  purple  testament  of  bleeding  war. 

Skaktftrt, 
Oh,  withcr'd  is  the  garland  of  war. 
The  soldier's  pole  is  fallen. 

Skaktftrg. 

The  hum  of  cither  army  stilly  sounds, 
That  the  fix'd  sentinels  almost  receive 
The  secret  whispers  of  each  other's  watch. 
Fire  answers  fire ;  and  through  their  paly  flames 
Each  battle  sees  the  other's  umbered  face. 
Steed  threatens  steed,  in  high  and  boastful  neighs 
Piercing  the  night's  dull  ear ;  and  from  the  tents. 
The  armorers  accomplishing  the  knights, 
With  busy  hammers  closing  rivets  up. 
Give  dreadful  note  of  preparation. 

Skoksftrt. 

Welcome. 

*Tis  sweet  to  hear  the  watch-dog's  honest  bark 
Bay  deep-mouthed  welcome  as  we  draw  near  home. 

Byron. 
Whoe'er  has  travel'd  life's  dull  round. 
Where'er  his  stages  may  have  been, 
May  sigh  to  think  he  still  has  found 
The  warmest  welcome  at  an  inn. 

Shtnstou*, 

For  I,  who  hold  sage  Homer's  rule  the  best. 
Welcome  the  coming,  speed  the  going  guest. 

Pmfm. 
Welcome  ever  smiles, 
And  farewell  goes  out  sighing. 

Ska  is  ft  re. 

Wisdom. 

Wisdom  is  the  principal  thing:     therefore  get  wisdom  ;  and  with  all 
thy  getting  get  understanding. 

Old  Ttstamtnt. 
The  man  of  wisdom  is  the  man  of  years. 

Toung. 
In  idle  wishes  fools  supinely  stay ; 
Be  there  a  will,  and  wisdom  finds  a  way. 

Cratbe. 
Knowledge  is  proud  that  he  has  Icarn'd  so  much ; 
Wisdom  is  humble  that  he  knows  no  more. 

Cos*/,  r. 

To  know 
That  which  before  us  lies  in  daily  life, 
Is  the  prime  wisdom. 

Milton. 

Be  wisely  worldly,  be  not  worldly  wise. 

Qua  r Us. 
Thus  we  play  the  fools  with  the  time,   and  the  spirits  of  the  wise 
sit  on  the  clouds  and  ...ock  us. 

Shakff,  re. 
Type  of  the  wise  who  soar,  but  never  roam; 
True  to  the  kindred  points  of  Heaven  and  Home. 

Wordsworth. 

Woman. 

The  reason  firm,  the  temperate  will , 
Endur.uu.  .  Fwlglit,  strength  and  skill; 
A  perfr<  t  Wmn.in,  noMv  planned. 
To  warn,  to  comfort  and  command. 

UWdswortk. 


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785 


Her  air,  her  manners,  all  who  saw  admired  ; 
Courteous  though  coy,  and  gentle  though  retired; 
The  joy  of  youth  and  health  her  eyes  display'd, 
And  ease  of  heart  her  every  look  convey'd. 

Crabbe. 


Earth's  noblest  thing,  a  woman  perfected. 


Lowell. 


A  creature  not  too  bright  or  good 

For  human  nature's  daily  food  ; 

For  transient  sorrows,  simple  wiles, 

Praise,  blame,  love,  kisses,  tears  and  smiles. 

Wordsworth, 
O  woman  !  in  our  hours  of  ease, 
Uncertain,  coy,  and  hard  to  please, 
And  variable  as  the  shade 
By  the  light,  quivering  aspen  made; 
When  pain  and  anguish  wring  the  brow, 
A  ministering  angel  thou  ! 

Scott. 

Where  is  the  man  who  has  the  power  and  skill 

To  stem  the  torrent  of  a  woman's  will ; 

For  if  she  will,  she  will,  you  may  depend  on't; 

And  if  she  won't,  she  won't ;  and  there  's  an  end  on  't. 

Old  Epigram. 

Women,  like  princes,  find  few  real  friends. 

Lyttelton. 

Her  voice  was  ever  soft, 
Gentle  and  low — an  excellent  thing  in  woman. 

Shakspere. 
Sir,  a  woman  preaching  is  like  a  dog's  walking  on  his  hind  legs.    It 
is  not  done  well ;  but  you  are  surprised  to  find  it  done  at  all. 

yohnson. 
The  world  was  sad — the  garden  was  a  wild, 
And  Man,  the  hermit,  sighed — till  woman  smil'd. 

Campbell. 

The  woman  that  deliberates  is  lost. 

Addison. 

He  is  a  fool  who  thinks  by  force  or  skill 
To  turn  the  current  of  a  woman's  will. 

Tuke. 

Her  children  arise  up  and  call  her  blessed. 

Old  Testament. 

So  well  to  know 
Her  own,  that  what  she  wills  to  do  or  say 
Seems  wisest,  virtuousest,  discreetest,  best. 

Milton. 


My  latest  found, 
Heaven's  last,  best  gift,  my  ever  new  delight. 

Milton. 

Not  she  with  trait'rous  kiss  her  Savior  stung, 
Not  she  denied  him  with  unholy  tongue  ; 
She,  while  apostles  shrank,  could  danger  brave, 
Last  at  his  cross  and  earliest  at  his  grave. 


Youth. 

Crabbed  age  and  youth 
Cannot  live  together. 


Barrett. 


Shakspere. 


Rejoice,  O  young  man,  in  thy  youth. 

Old  Testament. 

The  canker  galls  the  infants  of  the  spring, 
Too  oft  before  their  buttons  be  disclosed ; 
And  in  the  morn  and  liquid  dew  of  youth 
Contagious  blastments  are  most  imminent. 

Shakspere. 
He  wears  the  rose 
Of  youth  upon  him. 

Shakspere. 

*Tis  now  the  summer  of  your  youth :    time  has  not  cropt  the  rosct. 
from  your  cheek,  though  sorrow  long  has  washed  them. 

Edward  Moore. 

Fair  laughs  the  mom,  and  soft  the  zephyr  blows, 
While  proudly  riding  o'er  the  azure  realm 

In  gallant  trim  the  gilded  vessel  goes ; 
Youth  on  the  prow,  and  Pleasure  at  the  helm ; 

Regardless  of  the  sweeping  whirlwind's  sway, 

That,  hush'd  in  grim  repose,  expects  his  ev'ning  prey. 

Gray. 

A  worm  is  in  the  bud  of  youth. 
And  at  the  root  of  age. 

Cowper. 

And  life  is  thorny,  and  youth  is  vain; 
And  to  be  wroth  with  one  we  love 
Doth  work  like  madness  in  the  brain. 

Coleridge. 

In  the  lexicon  of  youth,  which  fate  reserves 

For  a  bright  manhood,  there  is  no  such  word 

As—fail. 

Bulwer  Lytton. 

Ah !  happy  years !  once  more,  who  would  not  be  a  boy? 

Byron. 


-5p 


>iS 


IV 


736 


HEROES    AND    HEROINES    OF    PROSE    AND    POETRY. 


"71 


-4-V 


4- 


*X- 


Heroes  end  Heroines  of  Prose  end  Poetry. 


M 


^p" 


A  Compendium  of  the  Celebrated  Characters  in  the  Literature  of  the  Wond. 

The  name  of  the  character  li  given  In  black  letter;  the  name  of  the  author  and  of  the  work  from  which  the  character  U  taken,  In  Italic 


Ahdlel.  Paradise  Lost,  Milton.  The 
faithful  angel  who  opposed  Satan  in  his  re* 
volt. 

Abigail.     The  Bible.    A  waiting-maid. 
Lblewhlte,  Godfrey.  Moonstone,  Wilkie 
Collins.    A  disreputable  spy. 

Abou  Hunan.  Arabian  Nights.  An 
Arab  who  was  made  to  believe  himself  Caliph. 

Absalom,  i.  The  Bible.  The  son  of  Da- 
vid, King  of  Israel,  a.  Absalom  and  Achito- 
phel, Dryden.  A  pseudonym  for  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth,  an  illegitimate  son  of  King 
Charles  II.  * 

Absolute,  Captain.  The  Rivals,  Sheri- 
dan. The  hero  of  the  comedy,  the  gallant 
and  fortunate  lover. 

Absolut,.,  sir  Anthony.  The  Rivals, 
Sheridan.  Father  of  Captain  Absolute,  a 
very  irascible  and  absolute  old  gentleman. 

Aohltophel.  Absalom  and  Achitophel, 
Dry  den.  The  pseudonym  for  the  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury. 

Acres,  Bob.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan.  A 
cowardly  boaster,  the  butt  of  the  comedy. 

Aorasla.  The  Faery  Queen,  Spenser.  An 
old  witch,  the  personification  of  Intemper- 
ance. r 

Adam,  Bell.  Retiaues,  Percy.  A  cele- 
brated archer. 

Adams,  Parson,  Joseph  Andrews,  Field- 
tng.    An  eccentric,  good-natured  clergyman. 

Adrlana.  Comedy  of  Errors,  Shakspere. 
The  wife  of  Antipholus. 

Agnecheck,  Sir  Andrew.  Twelfth 
Night,  Shakspere.    A  coward  and  a  fool. 

A  In. I, lin.  Arabian  Nights.  The  owner  of 
a  magic  lamp  and  ring,  which  gave  the  pos- 
sessor every  wish  he  made. 

Aliworthy.  Squire.  Tom  Tones,  Field- 
'"g-    A  good-natured  old  country  gentleman. 

Alp.  Th,  Siege  of  Corinth,  Byron.  A 
brave  and  d, -v..t,  ,1  man. 

Amndta  de  Oaul.  Amadis  de  Gaul.  The 
boo  of  a  Portuguese  chlvalric  romance, 
the  authorship  ol  which  is  unknown.  It  was 
translated  into  every  language  in  Europe. 

Amelia.  Amelia,  Fielding.  A  lovelv 
woman,  supposed  to  be  drawn  from  Field- 
lng'a  own  wife. 

Amine.  Arabian  Nights.  A  wicked  aor. 
ho'unds  e"»»ged  her  three  sisters   into 

Amlet,  III. -hard.  The  Confederacy,  Van- 
burgh.    A  gambler. 

Amri.  Absalom  and  Achitophel,  Dryden. 
Pseudonym  for  11.  Finch,  ssryasn. 

fielding.    A  hero  ridiculously  upright  and 

Anerley.  Mary.  Mary  Anerley.  Black- 
more.    A  lovely  and  beautiful  girl. 

Apetnantn*.  Ttmon  of  Athens,  Shaks- 
pere.   A  cynic. 


Arden,  Enoch.  Enoch  Arden,  Tennyson. 
A  sailor,  supposed  drowned,  who  returns 
home  to  find  his  wife  married  again. 

Argante.  The  Faery  Queen,  Spenser.  A 
giantess. 

Ariel.  The  Tempest,  Shakspere.  A  spirit 
of  the  air,  perhaps  the  daintiest  creation  of 
the  myriad -minded  poet. 

Artful  Dodger.  Oliver  Twist,  Dickens. 
A  young  thief  who  understands  his  business. 

Arthur,  King.  Idyls  of  the  King,  Tenny- 
son. A  legendary  British  King,  who  estab- 
lished an  order  of  chivalry  known  as  the 
Round  Table,  and  about  whom  many  popu- 
lar legends  are  afloat  in  Wales  and  Western 
France. 

Ashton.Lucy.  The  Bride  of  Lammermoor , 
Scott.  A  beautiful  character,  loved  and  lost 
by  Kavenswood. 

Atalanta.  Atalanta  in  Calydon,  Swin- 
burne.   One  of  Diana's  maidens. 

Autolycns.  Winter's  Tate,  Shakspere. 
An  intellectual  sneak-thief. 

Baba,  All.  Arabian  Nights.  The  hero 
of  the  talc  of  the  forty  thieves,  who  breaks 
into  the  robbers*  cave  by  means  of  the  magical 
pass-word  "  Sesame." 

Baba,  Casslm.  Arabian  Nights.  Brother 
of  the  above,  who  forgets  the  pass -word,  and 
is  captured  by  the  robbers. 

Backbite,  Sir  Benjamin.  School  for 
Scandal,  Sheridan.    A  scandal-monger. 

Bagstock,  Joe.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dick- 
ens.   A  pompous  fellow. 

Bailey,  Young.  Martin  Chuislewit,  Dich- 
ens.    A  precocious  youth, 

Balderston*,  Caleb.  Bride  of  Lammer- 
moor, Scott.    The  butler  of  Kavenswood. 

Balthazar,  i.  Comedy  of  Errors,  Shaks- 
pere. A  merchant,  i.  Much  Ado  about  Noth- 
ing, Shakspere-    A  servant. 

Bitiiquo.  Macbeth,  Shakspere.  A  chieftain 
murdered  by  Macbcthjlalcr  in  the  same  play, 
a  ghost. 

Bnrdell,  Mrs.  Pickwick  Papers.  Dick- 
ens. Mr.  Pickwick's  landlady,  who  sues  him 
for  breach  of  promise  of  marriage. 

Bardolph.  Henry  /»-.,  Skakspere.  A 
follower  of  Sir  John  Falstaff. 

Barkis.  David  Copper/eld,  Dickens.  A 
marrying  man  who  eventually  mat 

Bath,  Major.  Amelia,  Fielding.  A  pom- 
pous officer. 

Bayes.  The  Rehearsal,  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham.   A  pseudonym  for  Dryden. 

Baylies,  Charlotte.  Adventures  of 
Pkilip,  Tkackeray.    The  hero's  sweetheart. 

Hede,  Adam.  Adam  Beds,  George  Eliot. 
An  ideal  workingman. 

Belch.  Sir  Toby.  Twelfth  Night,  Shaks- 
pere.   Olivia's  hard-drinking  uncle. 

Belford.  Clarissa  Harlawe,  Richardson. 
The  friend  of  Lovelace. 


Belinda.  Rape  of  the  Lock,  Pope.  The 
heroine,  whose  hair  is  cut. 

Bell,  Laura.  Pendennis,  Thackeray.  One 
of  the  sweetest  heroines  in  English  literature. 

Bell,  Peter.  Peter  Bell,  Wordsworth. 
An  extremely  prosaic  man. 

Bellaston,  Lady.  Tom  "Jones,  Fielding. 
One  of  Tom  Jones*  sweethearts. 

Bellenden,  Lady.  Old  Mortality,  Scott. 
A  Tory  gentlewoman. 

Belphoebe.  The  Faery  Queen,  Spenser. 
A  pseudonym  for  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Belvldera.  Venice  Preserved,  Otway. 
The  heroine  of  the  poem. 

Benedict.  Love's  Labor  Lost,  Shakspere. 
A  confirmed  bachelor  who  was  converted  to 
matrimony  by  the  lovely  Beatrice.  From  this 
gentleman  comes  the  name  Benedict  applied 
to  married  men  who  were  not  going  to  marry. 

Bennet,  Mrs.  Amelia,  Fielding.  An  im- 
proper character. 

Benvollo.  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Skakspere. 
One  of  Romeo's  friends. 

Bertram.  Airs  Well  That  Ends  Well, 
Shakspere.  The  hero  of  the  plsy,  who  mar- 
ries Helen. 

Iti-nca.  Othello,  Shakspere.  Cassio's 
sweetheart. 

Birch,  Harvey.  The  Spy,  Cooper.  The 
chief  character  of  the  novel. 

Bilfll.  Tow  Jones,  Fielding.  AUworthy's 
nephew,  a  tale-bearer. 

Blember,  Miss  Cornelia.  Dombey  tend 
Son,  Dickens.    A  blue-stocking  governess. 

Boabdil,  Captain.  Every  Man  in  His 
Humor,  Johnson.    A  boasting  coward. 

Boeuf,  Front  de.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  One 
of  King  John's  followers.  A  ferocious  scoun- 
drel. 

Boffin,  Noddy.  Our  Mutual  Friend 
Dichens.  The  good-natured  occupant  of 
Boffin's  Bower. 

Bola  Gnltbert,  Brian  de.  Ivanhoe, 
Scott.    The  master  of  the  Knights  Templars. 

Boniface.  The  Beaux'  Stratagem,  Far- 
auhar.  A  landlord.  Hence  applied  to  land- 
lords generally. 

Booby,  Lady.  Joseph  Andrews,  Fielding. 
One  of  the  minor  characters. 

Booth.  Amelia,  Fielding.  The  hero  of 
the  story. 

Bottom.  Nick.  A  Midsummer  NighCs 
Dream,  Shakspere.  A  ridiculous  weaver 
with  whom  Titanla,  the  queen  of  the  fairies, 
is  forced  to  fall  in  love  by  a  charm. 

Bonnderby,  Josiah.  HardTimes,  Dick- 
ens. A  prosaic,  matter-of-fact  manufacturer. 

Bowles.  Tom.  Kentlm  Chillingly,  Bui- 
wer.    A  blacksmith. 

Bowline,  Tom.  Roderick  Random,  Smol- 
lett. A  sailor  whose  name  hss  been  applied 
to  mariners  ever  since. 


I 


HEROES    AND    HEROINES    O"    PROSE    AND    POETRY. 


787 


A 


Box  and  Cox.  Box  and  Cox,  Morion, 
The  heroes  of  the  farce. 

Bradwardine,  Baron.  Waverly,  Scoii. 
The  father  of  Hose  Bradwardine. 

Bramble,  Matthew.  Humphrey  Clinker, 
Smollett.    A  walking  epitome  of  dyspepsia. 

Brangtons.  Evelina,  Miss  Bur ney.  Very 
vulgar  people. 

Brass,  Sally  and  Sampson.  Old  Curi- 
osity Shop,  Dickens,  A  shystering  lawyer  and 
his  sister. 

Brick,  Jefferson.  Martin  Chuzzlewit, 
Dickens.    A  ridiculous  American  editor. 

Bridgenorth,  Major  Ralph.  Peveril 
of  the  Peak,  Scott.  A  prominent  officer  in  the 
Puritan  Army. 

Bridget,  Mrs.  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne. 
Tristram's  nurse. 

Brown,  Tom.  Tom  Brown's  School  Days 
and  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford,  Thos.  Hughes. 
The  hero  of  one  of  the  best  boys'  books  ever 
written  in  English. 

Bucket,  Inspector.  Bleak  House,  Dick' 
ens.    A  detective. 

Bumble*  Oliver  Twist,  Dickens.  A  bea- 
dle. 

Cains,  Doctor,  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor, 
Shakspere.    Anne  Page's  Welsh  lover. 

Caliban.  The  Tempest,  Shakspere. 
Prospero's  monstrous  servant. 

Candor,  Mrs.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan. 
A  scandal-monger. 

Carker.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.  A 
scoundrelly  clerk. 

Cassio.  Othello,  Shakspere.  Othello's 
lieutenant. 

Caudle,  Mrs.  Curtain  Lectures,  Douglas 
ferrold.    An  artistic  scold. 

Caustic,  Col.  The  Lounger,  Mackenzie. 
A  satirical  gentleman. 

Celia.  As  Ton  Like  It,  Shakspere. 
Rosalind's  cousin. 

Chadband.-  Bleak  House,  Dickens.  A 
hypocrite. 

Chamont.  The  Orphans,  Otway.  The 
hero  of  the  play. 

Chillingly,  Kenelm .  Kenelm  Chillingly, 
Bulwer.    The  hero  of  the  novel. 

Christabel.  Christabel,  Coleridge.  The 
heroine  of  the  poem. 

Christiana.  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Bunyan. 
The  wife  of  the  hero  Christian. 

Chuzzlewit,  Jonas  and  Martin.  Mar- 
tin  Chuzzlewit, Dickens.  The  first  a  miser  and 
murderer,  the  second  the  hero  of  Dickens' 
story. 

Clare,  Ada.  Bleak  House,  Dickens.  The 
wife  of  Carstone,  and  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant characters  in  the  story. 

Clifford,  Paul.  Paul  Clifford,  Bulwer. 
A  beatified  highwayman  hero. 

Clinker,  Humphrey.  Humphrey  Clin- 
ker, Smollett.  A  philosophical  young  man 
who  meets  very  singular  adventures. 

Coalebs.  Calebs  in  Search  of  a  Wife, 
Hannah  More.  A  gentleman  who  has  very 
precise  ideas  on  the  subjects  of  matrimony 
ana  woman. 

Coldstream,  Sir  Charles. 

Matthews.    A  fatigued  and  weary  man 
world. 


Used    Up, 
1  of  the 


Consuelo.  Consuelo,  George  Sand.  The 
heroine  of  the  novel,  a  rather  inflammable 
young  lady. 

Copper  Captain,  The.  Rule  a  Wife, 
and  Have  a  Wife,  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 
A  nickname  applied  to  Peres,  the  boastful 
coward  of  the  play. 

Copperfield,  David .  David  Copperfield, 
Dickens.  The  hero  of  the  novel,  supposed  to 
be  a  picture  of  Dickens'  own  life  and  char- 
acter. 


Cordelia.  King  Lear,  Shakspere.  The 
faithful  daughter  of  the  King  in  the  play. 

Corinne.  Corinne,  Mme.  de  Stael.  The 
heroine  of  de  Stael's  greatest  work. 

Costigan,  Captain.  Pendennis,  Thack- 
eray. The  father  of  Pendennis*  first  sweet- 
heart, a  hard-drinking  but  amusing  old  man. 

Coverly,  Sir  Roger  de.  Spectator,  Ad- 
dison. A  model  country  gentleman  of  the 
olden  time. 

Crane,  Ichabod.  Sleepy  Hollow,  Irving. 
The  schoolmaster  in  the  sketch. 

Crawley,  Kawdon.  Vanity  Fair,  Thack- 
eray. The  hero  of  "the  novel  without  a  hero." 
The  husband  of  Becky  Sharp. 

Cressida.      Troilus  and  Cressida,  Shaks 

4  ere.     The  heroine  of  the  play,  in  love  with 
roilus. 

Crummies,  Vincent.  Nicholas  Nick4e- 
by,  Dickens.  A  theatrical  head  of  a  theatrical 
family. 

Crusoe,  Robinson.  Robinson  Crusoe, 
DeFoe.  The  hero  of  the  most  remarkable 
novel  ever  written.  It  has  been  translated 
into  every  civilized  language  on  the  globe. 
The  story  relates  Crusoe's  adventures  on  a 
desert  isle  upon  which  he  was  cast  by  the  sea, 
and  is  one  of  intense  interest. 

Cuttle,  Captain.  Dombey  and  Son, 
Dickens.  A  nautical  character  who  indulges 
in  a  number  of  queer  mannerisms. 

Cymbeline.  Cymbeline,  Shakspere.  A 
heroic  King  of  Britain. 

Dalgamo,  I-ord.  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel, 
Scott.  A  Scottish  nobleman  of  bad  char- 
acter. 

Dalgetty,  Dugald.  Waverly,  Scott.  A 
famous  and  well  drawn  soldier  of  fortune, 
whose  name  has  become  proverbial. 

Deans,  Davie,  Effle  and  Jeanie* 
Heart  of  Midlothian,  Scott.  Famous 
characters  in  the  story,  jeanie  is  the  heroine. 

Dedlock,  Lady,  and  Sir  Ijeicester. 
Bleak  House,  Dickens.  Husband  and  wife, 
proud  and  unfortunate,  but  noble  people. 

Delamaine,  Geoffrey.  Man  and  Wife, 
Collins.    A  man  of  muscle. 

Delphine.  Delphine,  Mme.  de  Stael.  The 
heroine  of  the  novel. 

Deronda,  Dahiel.  Daniel  Deronda. 
George  Eliot.  The  hero  of  the  novel,  one  of 
the  best  character  sketches  which  George 
Eliot  has  made. 

Desdemona.  Othello,  Shakspere.  The 
unfortunate  heroine  of  the  play,  wife  of  tne 
Moor  Othello. 

Diddler,  Jeremy.  Raising  the  Wind, 
Kinny.  The  prototype  of  all  modern  de^d- 
beats. 

Dimsdale,  Rev.  Arthur.  The  Scarlet 
Letter,  Hawthorne.  The  seducer  of  Hester 
Prynne. 

Dods,  Meg.  St.  Roman's  Well,  Scott.  A 
lanuiady. 

Dodson  and  Fogg.  Pickwick  Papers, 
Dickens.  Mrs.  Bardell's  attorneys  in  her 
suit  against  Mr.  Pickwick. 

Dogberry.  Much  Ado  about  Nothing, 
Shakspere.  An  absurd  character  who 
travesties  justice. 

Dombey,  Florence,  Mr.  and  Paul. 
Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.  Characters  in  the 
novel. 

Dominie,  Sampson.  Guy  Mannering, 
Scott.    An  eccentric  clergyman. 

Don  Quixote.  Von  Quixote,  Cervantes. 
The  hero  of  the  novel.  This  has  been  de- 
scribed by  eminent  critics  as  the  best  work  of 
fiction  which  the  world  has  yet  produced.  It 
was  written  in  Spanish  by  Miguel  de  Cer- 
vantes, as  a  protest  against  the  ridiculous 
extravagances  of  what  are  known  as  Chivalric 
Romances.  Don  Quixote  is  the  type-  upon 
which  thousands  of  later  novels  Have  been 
founded.     Crazed  by  the  reading  of  knightly 


The  Man  of  Mode,  Etherege. 


tales,  he  arms  himself  and  goes  out  in  search 
of  adventures,  on  his  steed  Rozinante,  and 
accompanied  by  his  squire  Sancho  Panzo. 
These  adventures  are  told  so  wittily,  that  the 
world  has  been  laughing  at  them  for  cen- 
turies, and  the  book  has  never  lost  it 
boyish  interest.  The  best  English  trau 
is  Smollett's.  Gustave  Dore,  the  famcu* 
French  artist,  some  years  since  completed  a 
set  of  illustrations  for  Don  Quixote,  wLich 
have  added  greatly  to  its  interest. 

Dora.  David  Copperfield,  Dickens.  Cop- 
perfield's  child-wife. 

Dorimant. 
A  dandy. 

Dorothea.  Mt'ddlemarch,  George  Eliot. 
The  heroine  of  the  tale. 

Dorrit,  Edward  and  «  Little."  Little 
Dorrit,  Dickens.  The  Father  of  the  Marshal- 
sea  prison  and  his  interesting  daughter. 

Drawcansir.  The  Rehearsal,  The  Duke 
of  Buckingham.    A  bully. 

Duleinea  del  Toboso.  Don  Quixote, 
Cervantes.  A  country  girl  whom  Don  Quix- 
ote selects  as  his  ladylove. 

Dundreary,  Lord.  Our  American  Cousin, 
Taylor.  A  typical  and  absurd  English  lord. 
The  character  was  really  created  by  the  actor 
Sothern. 

Edgar.  King  Lear,  Shakspere.  The 
son  of  Gloucester. 

Emilia.  Othello,  Shakspere.  Wife  of 
Iago,  the  villain  of  the  play. 

Esmond,  Beatrix  and  Henry.  Henry 
Esmond,  Thackeray.  Heroine  and  hero  of 
the  novel,  which  is  of  the  time  of  the  English 
Revolution. 

Eugenia.  The  Return  of  the  Native, 
Hardy.    A  beautiful  and  unfortunate  girl. 

Evangeline.  Evangeline,  Longfellow. 
Heroine  of  the  poem  ;  her  wanderings  are  told 
in  verse  that  will  never  die. 

Evans,  Sir  Hugh.  The  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor,  Shakspere.    A  Welsh  clergyman. 

Evelina.  Evelina,  Miss  Burney.  Heroine 
of  the  novel. 


Eyre,  Jane. 

ine  of  the  novel. 


Jane  Eyre,  Bronte.     Hero- 


Fag.     The  Rivals,  Sheridan.    A  servant. 

Fagin.  Oliver  Twist,  Dickens.  The  pre- 
ceptor  in  the  thieves'  academy,  where  Oliver 
Twist  is  held  a  prisoner. 

Faithful,  Jacob.  Jacob  Faithful,  Mar- 
ryatt.    The  hero  of  the  novel. 

Falkland.  The  Rivals.  Sheridan.  A 
jealous  lover  of  J  ulia's,  and  friend  to  Captain 
Absolute. 

Falstaff,  Sir  John.  Henry  IV.  and  The 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  Shakspere.  This 
is  Shakspere's  most  comic  character; 
Queen  Elizabeth  was  so  pleased  with  Sir 
John  in  Henry  IV.  that,  at  her  request, 
Shakspere  composed  The  Merry  Wives  ox 
Windsor,  in  order  to  give  the  fat  knight  a 
wider  field  for  fun. 

Fanny*  I  'nder  the  Greenwood  Tree, 
Hardy.    A  pretty  school  -mistress. 

Fat  Boy,  The*  Pickwick  Papers  .Dickens. 
One  of  the  minor  characters  in  the  novel, 
given  to  sleep  and  pie. 

Faust.  Faust,  Goethe.  The  hero  of  the 
great  German  tragedy,  who  sells  his  soul  to 
the  Devil,  and  gets  in  return  youth,  wealth 
and  an  attendant  devil,  Mephistophclcs. 
Goethe  was  to  Germany  what  Shakspere 
was  to  England. 

Felton,  Septijnius.  Septimius  Felton, 
Hawthorne.    The  mystical  hero  of  the  novel. 

Ferdinand.  The  Tempest,  Shakspere. 
Son  of  the  King,  falls  in  love  with  Prospero's 
daughter  Miranda. 

Ferrers,  Endymion.  Endymion,  Ben- 
jamin Disraeli.    Hero  of  the  novel. 


JM 


**? 


V 


788 


HEROES    AND    HEROINES    OF    PROSE   AND    POETRY. 


/ 


1  Frir 

with 


Figaro.  The  Marring*  of  Figaro  Beam* 
mar  chain.  An  exceedingly  comical  and  sharp- 
wittcd  barber. 

Flrniln,  Philip.  The  Adventures*  of 
Philip,  Thackeray.    The  hero  of  the  novel. 

Florlzel.  A  Winter's  Tale,  Shakspere. 
The  prince  of  Bohemia. 

Fluellen.  Henry  V.,  Shakspere.  A 
pedantic  hut  bflTI  Welsh  officer. 

Foker,  Harry.  Pendennis,  Tliackeray. 
One  of  the  minor  characters. 

Fopp 
Brugh.    An  idiotic  dandy. 

Foiro,  Count.  Woman  in  While,  Collins. 
A  complicated  scoundrel. 

Frankenstein.  Frankenstein, Mrs.Southey. 
The  dreadful  result  of  tlie  labors  of  a  (J«  nn.m 
student,  who  makes  I  man  in  the  dissecting 
room  out  of  corpses  and  brings  him  to  life  by 

f;tlv.im  .m.  The  hideous  hero  of  the  novel 
as  a  series  of  most  blood-curdling  adven- 
tures. 

Friar  Turk.  Reliques ,  Percy .  The  jolly 
companion  of  Rubin  Hood,  the  outlaw  of 
Sherwood  Forest. 

Friday.  Robinson  Crusoe,  DeFoe.  Cru- 
soe's savage  servant. 

Gadgrlud,  Jeremiah.  Hard  Times, 
Dichens.    A  tyrannical  "practical"  man. 

Gamp,  Salry.  Martin  Chuxxlewit, 
Dickens.  A  comical  and  hard-drinking 
monthly  nurse. 

Gargantua.  Gargantua,  Rabelais.  Hero 
of  the  tale. 

Gaunt,  Griffith.  Griffith  Gaunt,  Reade. 
Hern.  <>f  tlie  novel. 

Gay,  Walter.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens. 
Marries  Florence  Dombey. 

Glbble,  Goose.  Old  Mortality,  Scott.  A 
half-witted  boy. 

Git  Bias.  Gil  BlasfLe  Sage.  The  hero 
of  a  very  famous  novel.  His  adventures  are 
of  the  most  surprising  character,  and  are  told 
in  a  most  interesting  manner. 

Gilpin,  John.  John  Gilpin's  Ride,  Cow- 
per.     lhe  absurd  hero  of  the  poem. 

Glnevra.  Ginevra,  Rogers.  The  heroine 
of  the  poem,  accidentally  locked  in  a  trunk 
on  her  wedding  day,  and  not  found  for  years 
and  years. 

Gnhbo,  l.niinrelot.  The  Merchant  of 
Venice,  Shakspere.    A  merry  servant. 

Oonerll.  King  Lear,  Shakspere.  The 
eldest  daughter  ot  the  King,  a  traitor  and  an 
ingratc. 

Gonxalo.  The  Tempest,  Shakspere.  An 
old  councillor. 

Gosling,  Giles.  Kenilworth,  Scott.  A 
landlurd. 

Grandlson,  Rlr  Charles.  Sir  Charles 
GranJison,  Richardson.     Hero  of  the  novel. 

Gray,  Vivian.  Vivian  Gray,  Disraeli. 
Hero  of  the  novel. 

Grundy,  Mm.  Speed  the  Plough,  Morton. 
An  old  lady  who  represents  worldly  propriety 
and  tale -bearing. 

Gulliver,  Lemuel.  Gulliver's  Travels, 
Swijt.    Hero  of  the  romance. 

Hamlet.  Hamlet,  Shakspere.  The 
melancholy  Dane,  hero  of  the  play. 

Harley.  The  Man  of  Peeking,  Mackensie. 
H  I  DM  novel. 

II  .rlnwe,  Clarissa.     Clarissa  Harlowe, 

Richardson.     lUroinc  of  the  novel. 

If  arris,  Mrs.  Martin  Chusxlrrvit,  Dickens, 
A  fictl  invented  by  s.hiv  Gamp, 

for  Um  purpo  ■  ■  \  •  nl  ><■  ins  h<  I  I  tfrraaaa 
by  quoting  the  opinion*  of  Mrs,  Harris  upon 
the  subject  usder  discussion. 

Headstone,  Bradley.  Our  Mutual 
Friend.  Dickon*,  A  schoolmaster  in  love 
with  Llxxle  Hexam. 


Heep,  Uriah.  David  Ccpperjteld,  Dickens. 
A  hypocrite  and  sneak. 

Helena.  A^s  Well  that  Ends  Well, 
Shakspere.    Heroine  of  the  play. 

Hero.  Much  Ado  about  Nothing,  Shaks- 
kere.    Daughter  of  Leonato. 

Hexam,  Lizzie.  Our  Mutual  Friend, 
Dickens.    Heroine  of  the  novel. 

Hoi  of  ernes.  As  Ton  Like  Lt,  Shakspere. 
A  schoolmaster  and  pedant. 

Holt,  Felix.  Felix  Holt,  George  Eliot. 
Hero  of  the  novel. 

Honeyman,  Charles.  The  Newcomes, 
Tliackeray.    A  fashionable  preacher. 

Honor,  Mrs.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  Sophia 
Western's  waiting-woman. 

Hopeful.  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Bunyan. 
A  pilgrim. 

Horatio.  Hamlet,  Shakspere.  The 
friend  of  Hamlet. 

Howe,  Miss.  Clarissa  Harlowe,  Richard- 
son.   Clarissa's  friend. 

Hudibras.    Hudibras,  Butler.    Hero   of 

the  poem. 
Hunter,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Leo.    Pickwick 

Papers,  Dickens.  Minor  characters  in  the 
novel. 

Iago.  Othello,  Shakspere.  The  villain 
Of  the  tragedy. 

Imogen.  Cymbeline,  Shakspere.  Hero- 
ine of  the  play. 

Isabella.  Measure  for  Measure,  Shahs- 
Pere.     Heroine  of  the  play. 

Ivanhoe.  Lvanhoe,  Scott.  Hero  of  the 
novel. 

Jack,   Col.      Col.    Jack,   DeFoe.      The 

criminal  hero  of  the  tale. 

Jafller.  Venice  Preserved,  Otway.  Hero 
of  the  poem. 

Jaqucs.       As    Tou    Like   It,    Shakspere. 

The  melancholy  philosopher. 

Jarndyce,  John.  Bleak  House,  Dickens. 
A  benevolent  old  gentleman. 

Javert.  Les  Miserables,  Hugo.  A  de- 
tective. 

Jessica.  Merchant  of  Venice,  Shakspere. 
Shylock's  daughter. 

Jingle,  Alfred.  Pickwick  Papers, 
Dickens.    An  amusing  adventurer. 

Kilmansegg,  Miss.  The  Golden  Legend, 
Hood.-  The  golden -legged  heroine  ot  the 
poem. 

Kitely.  Every  Man  in  his  Humor,  John- 
son.   A  jealous  husband. 

Lady  Bountiful.  The  Beam's  Stratagem, 
Farqukar.    A  generous  lady. 

Laertes.  Hamlet,  Shakspere.  The  son 
of  Tolonius,  killed  by  his  own  sword. 

Lalla  Rookh.  Lalla  Rookh,  Moore. 
Heroine  of  the  poem,  to  whom  Keramorz  re- 
lates tlie  stories  told  in  the  romance. 

Languish,  Lydla.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan. 
Heroine  of  the  play. 

Lear,     King. 
Hero  of  the  play. 

Leatherstorklng,  Natty.  Pathfinder, 
Deerslayer,  and  other  novels,  Cooper.  A 
huntsman  and  Indian  fighter. 

Legree.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  Stowe.  Slave 
master. 

Leigh,  Aurora.  Aurora  Leigh,  Brown- 
ing.   Heroine  of  the  romance. 

Leila.  Giaour,  Byron.  Heroine  of  the 
poem. 

Llghtwood,  Mortimer.  Our  Mutual 
Friend,  Dichens.    Minor  character  in  | 

Llsmahago,  Capt.  Humphrey  Clinker, 
Smollett.    A  retired  officer. 

Little,  Henry.  Put  Tourself  in  His 
Plate,  Reade.    Hero  of  the  novel. 


Little  Nell.  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Dickens. 
Heroine  of  novel. 

Loeksley.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  One  of  Robin 
Hood's  pseudonyms. 

Long  Tom  Coffin.  Pilot,  Cooper.  A 
boatman. 

Lothalr.  Lothair,  Disraeli.  Hero  of 
novel,  supposed  pseudonym  for  the  Marquis 
of  Bute. 

Lothario.  The  Fair  Penpent,  Rows. 
A  rake. 

Lovelace.  Clarissa  Harlowe,  Richardson. 
A  rake. 

Lumpkin,  Tony.  She  Stoops  to  Conquer, 
Goldsmith.    A  country  squire. 

Macbeth.  Macbeth,  Shakspere.  Hero 
of  the  play. 

Macduff.  Macbeth,  Shakspere.  Rival 
of  Macbeth. 

Maclvor,  Flora.  Rob  Royt  Scott.  Hero* 
ine  of  novel. 

Mackenzie,  Mrs.  Newcotnes,  Thackeray. 
A  termagant  widow. 

Malagrother,  Sir  Mingo.  The  Fortunes 
of  Nigel,  Scott.    An  ill-natured  courtier. 

Malaprop,  Mrs.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan. 
A  character  famed  for  verbal  blunders. 

Mai  vol  i«.  Twelfth  Night,  Shakspere. 
Olivia's  conceited  steward. 

Manfred.  Manfred,  Byron,  Hero  of  the 
tragedy. 

Mantalinl.  Nicholas  Nickleby,  Dickens. 
The  absurd  husband  of  the  milliner  in  the 
story. 

Marchioness,  The.  Old  Curiosity  Shop, 
Dickens.  Mr.  Dick  Swiveller's  remarkable 
little  nurse. 

Margaret.  Famsl,  Goethe.  The  heroine 
of  the  tragedy. 

Marlow,  Young.  She  Stoops  to  Conquer, 
Goldsmith.    Hero  of  the  play. 

Medora.  The  Corsair,  Byron.  Heroine 
of  1 1 ie  poem. 

Merdle,  Mr.  Little  Dorrit,  Dickens.  A 
speculator. 

Melster,  Wilhelm.  Wilhelm  M titter, 
Goethe.    Hero  of  the  novel. 

Mephlstopheles.  Faust,  Goethe.  The 
Devil. 

Mercutlo.  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Shaks- 
pere. A  wonderfully  witty  friend  of 
Romeo's. 

Micawber,  Wilkin*.  David  Cofperkeld, 
Dickens.  A  remarkable  character,  always 
waiting  for  something  to  turn  up. 

Miller,  Daisy.  Daisy  Milter,  Henry 
James.  An  alleged  representative  American 
girl. 

Minna.  The  Pirate,  Scott.  One  of,  the 
heroines  of  the  noveL 

Miranda.  The  Tempest,  Shakspere, 
Daughter  of  Prosper©,  beloved  of  Ferdinand; 
heroine  of  the  play* 

Monimia.  The  Orphan,  Otway.  Heroine 
of  the  poem. 

Mouldy.  Henry  IV.,  Shakspere.  Oo« 
of  Falsi  all's  recruits. 

Mucklewrath,  Hnbbaknk.  Old  Mor- 
tality, Scott.    A  fanatical  preacher. 

Neuchatel,  Adrians.  Endymion,  Dis- 
raeli.   A  wealthy  young  lady. 

Newcome,  Cllve,  Colonel,  Kthel.  The 
jVewcamtt,  Thackeray.  Character*  in  the 
best  novel  Thackcrayhas  written. 

Nirkleby,  Mrs.  Nicholas  Nickleky. 
Dickens.  The  exasperating  mother  of  lh« 
hero,  Nicholas. 

Noma.  The  Pirate,  Scott.  An  insane 
soothsayer. 

Nydla.  laM  Days  of  Pompeii,  Buiwer. 
A  blind  flower  girl. 


rr 


HEROES    AND    HEROINES    OF    PROSE   AND    POETRY. 


789 


it 


Obadlah.     Tristram   Shandy,  Sterne.    A 

servant. 

Oberon.  Midsummer  Night's  Dream, 
Shakspere.    The  King  of  Fairyland. 

Ochiltree,  Edie.  The  Antiquary,  Scott. 
A  beggar  of  prominence. 

Oldbuck,  Jonathan.  The  Antiquary, 
Scott.    Hero  of  the  novel. 

Old  Mortality.  Old  Mortality,  Scott,  A 
gravestone  cleaner. 

Olifaunt,  Nigel.  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel, 
Scott.     Hero  of  the  novel. 

Ophelia.  Hamlet,  Shakspere.  Heroine 
of  the  tragedy. 

Orville,  Lord.  Evelina,  Miss  Burney. 
Evelina's  lover. 

Othello.  Othello,  Shakspere.  Hero  of 
the  play,  a  Moor,  husband  of  Desdemona. 

O'Trigger,  Sir  Lucius.  The  Rivals, 
Sheridan.    A  fire-eating  Irishman. 

Overreach,  Sir  Giles.  A  New  Way  to 
Pay  Old  Debts,  Massimger.     A  usurer. 

Page,  Anna  and  Mrs.  The  Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor,  Shakspere.  Characters  in  the 
play. 

Pamela.  Pamela,  Richardson.  An  in- 
tensely good  young  lady. 

Pangloss.  The  Heir-al-Law,  Colman.  A 
pedantic  teacher. 

Pantagruel.  Pantagruel,  Rabelais.  Hero 
of  the  sketch. 

Partridge.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  The 
hero's  trusty  follower. 

Pecksniff,  Charity,  Mercy,  Mr.  Martin 
Chuzzlezvit,  Dickens.  Characters  in  the  story. 
Pendennis,    Arthur,    Helen,    Major. 
Pendennis,  Thackeray.    Well  drawn  and  for- 
cible characters  in  the  novel. 

Perdita.  Winter's  Tale,  Shakspere, 
Florizet's  sweetheart. 

Petruchio.  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew, 
Shakspere.  The  hero,  and  husband  of 
Katherine. 

Pickle,  Peregrine.  Peregrine  Pickle, 
Smollett.  The  wandering  and  immoral  hero 
of  the  novel. 

Pickwick,  Samuel.  Pickwick  Papers, 
Dickers.     Hero  of  the  novel. 

Pierre.  Venice  Preserved,  Olway.  A  ' 
Conspirator. 

Pistol,  Ancient.  Merry  Wives  of  Wind* 
sor  and  Henry  IV.,  Shakspere,  Falstaff's 
most  characteristic  follower. 

Pleydell,  Paul  us.  Guy  Manner ing,  Scott. 
A  lawyer. 

Poins,  Ned.  Henry  IV.,  Shakspere,  A 
friend  of  Prince  Hal. 

Portia.  The  Merchant  of  Venice.  Heroine 
of  the  play. 

Pound  i  int,  Peter.  Old  Mortality,  Scott. 
A  preacher. 

Primrose,  Dr.    Vicar  of  Wakefield,  Gold- 
smith.    The  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 
Primrose,  Moses.    His  son. 
Prolius.      Two     Gentlemen    of     Verona, 
Shakspere.    One  of  the  two  Gentlemen. 

Proud fute.  Fair  Maid  of  Perth,  Scott. 
A  bonnet-maker. 

Prynne,  Hester.  Scarlet  Letter,  Haw* 
thorne.    Heroine  of  novel. 

Pumblechook,  Uncle.  Great  Expecta- 
tions, Dickens,    A  bully  and  fraud. 

Pynchon,  Phoebe.  House  of  the  Seven 
Gables,  Hawtkorne.    Heroine  of  the  novel. 

Quasimodo.  Our  Lady  of  Notre  Dame, 
Hugo.    A  monster. 

Quickly,  Mrs.  Henry  IV.,  Shakspere. 
The  famed  hostess  of  the  Boar's  Head  Tavern, 
in  Kastcheap. 

Qnilp.  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Dickens.  A 
vicious  dwarf. 


Quince,  Peter.  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,  Shakspere.  Character  in  the  inter- 
lude. 

Random,  Roderick.  Roderick  Random, 
Smollett.     Hero  of  the  novel. 

Rashlelgh.  Rob  Roy,  Scott.  The  villain 
of  the  novel. 

Rasselas.  Rasselas,Dr.  Johnson.  Prince 
of  Abyssinia,  hero  of  the  tale. 

Rattler,  Jack.  Roderick  Random,  Smol- 
lett.   A  nautical  character. 

Ravenswood.  The  Bride  of  Lammer moor, 
Scott.  Hero  of  the  novel,  lover  of  Lucy  Ash- 
ton. 

Rebecca.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  A  lovely 
Jewess. 

Redgauntlet.  Redgauntlet,  Scott.  Hero 
of  the  novel. 

Rob  Roy.  Rob  Roy,  Scott.  A  Scottish 
chief,  hero  of  the  novel. 

Roderigo.  Othello,  Shakspere,  Iago's 
dupe. 

Romeo.      Romeo  and  Juliet,  Shakspere. 
The  hero  of  the  play,  lover  of  J  uliet. 
Sabrina.     Comus,  Milton.    River  nymph. 
Sacripant.       Orlando    Furioso,  Ariosto. 
King  of  Circassia,  in  love  with  Angelica. 

Saddletree,  Bartoline.  Heart  of  Mid' 
lothian,  Scott.    A  learned  peddler. 

Sancho  Panza.  Don  Quixote,  Cervantes. 
Worthy  squire  of  a  worthy  master;  the  right 
man  in  the  right  place. 

Sandford,  Harry.  Sandford  and  Merton, 
Day.    Hero  of  the  story. 

Sangrado,  Doctor.  Gil  Bias,  Le  Sage. 
A  confirmed  phlebotomist. 

Scheherezade,  Queen.  Arabian  Nigfils. 
The  Sultaness  who  tells  the  tales. 

Scrub.  The  Beau's  Stratagem,  Farquhar. 
A  facetious  valet. 

Sedley,  Amelia.   Vanity  Fair,  Thackeray. 
An  amiable  woman,  but  of  no  great  decis.o'n. 
Sedley,  Joseph.    Vanity  Fair,  Thackeray. 
A  fat,  bashful  East  Indian. 

Selim.  Bride  of  Abydos,  Byron,  The 
hero. 

Shafton,  Sir  Piercle.  The  Monastery, 
Scott,    A  pedantic  courtier. 

Shandy,  Tristram.  Tnstram  Shandy, 
Sterne.     Hero  of  the  story. 

Sharp,  Rebecca.  Vanity  Fair,  Thack- 
eray.   The  designing   heroine. 

Shylock.  Merchant  of  Venice,  Shaks- 
pere.    A  vindictive  Jew. 

Silvia.  Troo  Gentleman  of  Verona,  Shaks- 
pere.   In  love  with  Valentine. 

Skimpole,  Harold.  Bleak  House, 
Dickens,    Always  out  of  money. 

Slipslop,  Mrs.  Joseph  Andrews,  Fielding. 
A  waiting  woman  of  doubtful  character. 

Slop,  Doctor.  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne. 
An  irascible  physician. 

Sly,  Christopher.  Tamingof  the  Shrew, 
Shakspere.    A  drunken  tinker. 

SI  vine,  Chevy.  Martin  Chuzzlewit, 
Dickens.    A  *'  gent  short  of  funds." 

Smyke.  Nicholas  Nickleby,  Dickens.  An 
ill-used,  poor,  half-witted  pupil  of  Squeers. 

Sneerwell,  Lady.  School  for  Scandal, 
Sheridan.    A  gossip  and  back -biter. 

Snod  grass,  Augustas.  Pickwick  Papers, 
Dickens,    A  poetical  character. 

Snow,  Lucy.  Villette,  Charlotte  Bronte. 
The  heroine. 

Sparkler,  Edmond.  Little  Dorrit, 
Dickens,    Man  of  fashion. 

Squeers,  Wackford.  Nicholas  Nukleby, 
Dickens,  The  brutal  master  of  Dotheboy's 
Hall. 

Squeers,  Master  Wackford.  In  same. 
A  spoiled  child,  th«  image  of  his  father. 


St.  Leon.  St.  Leon,  William  Goodwin. 
Hero  of  the  tale,  has  the  secret  of  perpetual 
youth  and  the  transmutation  of  metals. 

Steerforth,  James.  David  Copperfield, 
Dickens,    Talented  and  profligate. 

Steggs,  Miss  Carolina  Willie]  mi  na 
Amelia.  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  Goldsmith.  A 
pretender  to  gentility. 

Stiggins,  Elder.  Pickwick  Papers, 
Dickens,  Affects  pineapple  rum  and  Airs. 
W  slier. 

Strap,  Hugh.  Roderick  Random,  Smollett. 
Roderick's  follower. 

Surface,  Sir  Charles  and  Joseph. 
School  for  Scandal \  Sheridan.  The  first  a 
good-natured  rake,  the  second  a  hypocrite. 

Swi  Teller,    Dick.     Old  Curiosity    Shop. 
Dickens,  A  gay  rattlepate  and  a  good  fellow. 
Tamora.      Titus  Andronicus,  Shakspere. 
A  Gothic  Queen. 

Tapley,  Mark.  Martin  Chuzzlewit, 
Dickens,  Happiest  when  most  miserable ; 
jolly  when  he  ought  to  cry. 

Tappertit,  Simon.  Barnaby  Rudge, 
Dickens.    A  ferocious  little  apprentice. 

Tartuffe.  Tartuffe,  Moliere.  A  hypocriti- 
cal character. 

Teazle,  Lady.  School  for  Scandal,  Sher- 
idan.    The  Iieroine. 

.  Teazle,  Sir  Peter.  School  for  Scandal, 
Sheridan.  The  old  husband  of  Lady  Teazle. 
Thersites.  Iliad,  Homer,  and  Troilus 
and  Cressida,  Shakspere.  A  foul-mouthed 
Greek. 

Thwackum.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  A 
philosophical  pedagogue. 

Tillemina.  The  Critic,  Sheridan.  A 
maiden  very  much  crossed  in  love. 

Timon.  Timon  of  Athens,  Shakspere. 
A  misanthrope,  hero  of  the  play. 

Tint  o,  Dick.  Bride  of  Lammermoor,  and 
St.  Romans  Well,  Scott.    An  artist. 

Titania.  Midsummer  Night's  Dream, 
Shakspere.     The  queen  of  faines. 

Titmouse,  Tittlebat.  Ten  Thousand  a 
Tear,  Dr.  Warren.  Astonished  Parliament 
by  an  imitation  ot  Chanticleer. 

Tito.  Romola,  George  Bitot.  The  hand' 
some,  but  weak  hero. 

Todgers,  Mrs.  Martin  Chuzzlewit, 
Dickens.  The  keeper  of  a  commercial  board- 
ing-house. 

Toots.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens,  A 
simple,  eccentric  fellow. 

Topsey.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  Mrs.  Stowe. 
An  ignorant  young  slave  girl. 

Touchstone.  As  Tou  Like  It,  Shakspere. 
A  clown. 

T»uehwood,  Peregrine.  St.  Romans 
Well,  Scott,    An  irascible  East  Indian. 

Tox,  Miss.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.  A 
spinster,  slightly  curious. 

Traddles,  Tom.  David  CopperJtelH, 
Dickens.  A  barrister  and  friend  of  Copper- 
field. 

Trapbois.  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel,  Scott. 
A  usurer. 

Trim,      Corporal.        Tn'stam      Shandy, 
Sterne.        The  follower  of  Uncle  Toby. 
Trinculo.   Tempest,  Shakspere.  A  jester. 
Triol,  Marquis.    The  Pirate,  Scott.    A 
wealthy  2ealander. 

Trotwood,  Betsy.  David  Copperfield, 
Dickens.  The  kindest  of  women,  but  with  an 
aversion  to  trespassing  donkeys. 

Trulliber,  Parson.  Joseph  Andrews, 
Fielding.    An  ignorant  clergyman. 

Trunnion.  Commodore  Hawser,  Pere- 
grine Pickle,  Smollett,  An  odd  nautical 
character. 

Tulkinghorn,  Mr.  Bleak  House,  Dickens. 
A  wily  solicitor. 


Tnlliver,  Maggie.  Mill  on  the  Floss, 
George  Eliot,     i' 

Tnlliver,  Tom.  Mill  on  thr  Floss,  George 
Eliot.     II' r  ted  brother. 

Tupman,  Tracy.  Pkkoick  Papers, 
Dickens.    Ail  otMM  admirer  ol  lovely  wumt-n. 

Tnrveydrop.  Weak  House.  Dickens. 
Dancing  master  and  professor  of  deportment. 

Tusher,  Thomas.  Henry  Esmond, 
Thackeray.     A  sycophantic  clergyman. 

Twemlow,  Mr.  Our  Mutual  Friend, 
Dickens.  A  diner  out  and  friend  of  the  Ven* 
ccrings. 

Twlut,  Oliver.  Oliver  Twist,  Dickens. 
Hero  of  the  novel. 

Twysden,  Talbott.  Fhilip,  Thackeray. 
A  public  officer. 

Tybalt.  Romeo  and  "Juliet,  Shaksfere. 
Nephew  of  I.ady  Capulet,  slain  by  Romeo. 

Ulrica.    Ivanhoe,  Scott.    An  old  witch. 

Una.  The  Faery  Queen,  Spenser.  The 
personification  of  Truth. 

Uncns.  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  Cooper. 
A  Mohican  chief. 

Uncle  Toby.  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne.  A 
noble  veteran,  the  real  hero  of  the  story. 

Uncle  Tom.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  Stowe. 
A  pious  and  unfortunate  slave,  the  hero  of 
the  novel.  This  book  added  more  converts  to 
the  abolition  party  than  any  other  tailor.  It 
is  the  most  remarkable  and  effective  American 
work  printed. 

Varden,  Dolly.  Barnaby  Rudge,  Dickens. 
The  heroine  of  the  story. 

Vathck.  Vathek,  Beckford.  The  hero  of 
Dcckfortl's  remarkable  novel. 

Vernon,  Dl.  Rob  Roy,  Scott.  The 
heroine  of  the  novel. 

Vholes.  Bleak  House,  Dickens.  A  crafty 
lawyer. 

Viola.  Twelfth  Night,  Shaksptrt.  A 
tweet  little  lady  in  love  with  Orsino. 


Virgilin.  Coriolanus,  Shakspere.  Wife 
of  Corioi 

Virginia.  Foul  and  Virginia,  St.  Pierre. 
Hero:  ,,el. 

Vivian.  Idyl*  of  the  King,  Tennyson.  The 
Hill  ll  Ml  of  Merliu,  the  hnchanter. 

Wadmnn,  Widow.  Tristram  Skondy, 
Sterne.  The  lady  who  seeks  to  decoy  Uncle 
Toby  into  matrimony. 

Wamba.    Ivanhoe,  Scott.    A  clown. 

Wardle,  Mr.  Pickwick  Papers.  Dickens. 
A  jolly  country  gentleman,  friend  of  Mr. 
Pickwick. 

Wegg,  Silas..  Our  Mutual  Friend, 
Dickens.    The  villain  of  the  novel. 

Weller,  Tony  and  Samivel.  Pickwick 
Papers,  Dickens.  Father  and  son  ;  the  latter, 
Mr.  Pickwick's  serving  man,  is  undoubtedly 
the  most  original  and  mosthumorous  creation 
of  Dickens'  exuberant  fancy. 

Werther.  Sorrows  of  Werther,  Goethe. 
Hero  of  the  tale. 

Western,  Squire  and  Sophia.  Tom 
Jones,  Fielding.  Father  and  daughter,  the 
fatter  the  heroine  of  the  novel. 

Whiskerandos,  Don  Forolo.  The  Critic, 
Sheridan.    The  lover  of  Tilburina. 

Wlckfleld,  Agnes.  David  Copperficld, 
Dickens.    Heroine  of  the  novel. 

Wild,  Jonathan.  Jonathan  Wild,  Field- 
ing. A  famous  highwayman,  and  afterwards 
a  noted  thieftakcr  of  London. 

Wildair,  Sir  Harry.  The  Constant  Cou- 
ple, and  Sir  Harry  Wildair,  Farauhar.  The 
hero  of  both  plays. 

Wilier,  Bella,  I.avinia,  Reginald  and 
Mrs.  Our  Mutual  Friend,  Dickens.  One  of 
the  most  entertaining  family  groups  in  Eng- 
lish fiction.  The  first  is  the  charming  heroine 
of  the  novel.  Lavinia  is  her  abominable  m-,- 
ter;  Reginald,  her  angelic  papa;  while  the 
somber  background  is  made  by  the  gloomy 
mamma,  whose  other  name  in  the  family  is 
The  Tragic  Muse. 


Wilfrid.      Rokeby,    Scott.      Hero    of   the 

poem. 

Williams,  Caleb.  Caleb  Williams,  God. 
win.    'I  he  hero  of  a  very  remarkable  novel. 

Wimble,  WlH.  Spectator,  Addison. 
Pseudonym  for  Thomas  Morecrait. 

Winkle,  Ilip  Van.  Sketch  Book,  Irving. 
The  immortal  sleeper  of  the  Gat&kills. 

Wlshfort,  I.ady.  The  Way  of  the  World, 
Congreve.    Heroine  of  the  play. 

Worldly  Wiseman,  Mr.  Pilgrim's 
Promts,  Bunyan.    One  of  Christian's  dim- 

Wray,  Enoch.  The  Village,  Crabbe.  A 
noble  old  man. 

Wren,  Jenny.  Our  Mutual  Friend, 
Dickens.    The  dolls'  dressmaker. 

Wronghead,  Sir  Francis.  The  Provoked 
Husband,  Vanburgh.    Hero  of  the  play. 

Vorick.  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne.  A  jester 
descended  from  the  Yorick  whose  history  is 
told  by  Hamlet. 

Tsenlt.  Tristram  and  Tseult,  Matthem 
Arnold.  A  Cornish  heroine  of  the  olden  time. 

Zarlor.  Absolom  and  Achitophet,  Dryden. 
Pseudonym  for  Sancroft,  Archbishop  of  Can* 
tcrbury. 

Zanoni.  Zanoni,  Bulwer.  The  mystical 
hero  of  the  novel. 

Zeluco.  Zeluco,  Dr.  J.  Moore.  The 
prodigal  hero  of  the  novel. 

Zobeide.  Arabian  Nights.  The  wife  of 
the  great  Haroun  al  Raschid. 

Zodig.  Zodig,  Voltaire.  The  Babylonian 
hero  of  the  novel. 

Zophiel.  Paradise  Lost,  Milton.  A  swift- 
winged  cherub. 

Znleika.  The  Bride  of  Abydos,  Byron. 
Heroine  of  the  poem. 


v5l»S<»S^I«I«mS^ 


A  DICTIONARY  OF 


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NOMS  DE  PLUME. 


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tHE   following   list  of  assumed  names  in  English  and 
American  literature  will  be  found  to  be  the  most  com- 
N—x     prehensive  ever  published  : 

ASSUMED    NAME.  REAL    NAME.  REPRESENTATIVE  WORK. 

A  Country  Parson. ...Archhish.  Whately..  ..Divinity  and  Logic. 

A  Gaol  Chaplain Rev.  Erskine  Neale. .  .Bentley' 's  Miscellany. 

t>         a    v    tt   t»      a      t  Recreations  of  a 
...Rev.  A.  K.  II.  Boyd...  J 


A.  K.  H.  B.. 


Country  Parson. 

dv    ) 
.      '    (  Charlotte  Tucker. City  of  No  Cross. 

of  England)  >  J 

A  Lady Mrs.  Rundell Domestic  Cookery. 

A  Lady Mrs.  Anna  Jamieson.. Art  Criticism. 

J  F.  W.  Fairholt Costume  in  England. 

quary.  >  ° 

A  Lover  of  ) 

_  _  (  Thomas  Green Diary. 

Literature  '  J 

A  Lincolnshire  )  ^,   „  ,,  „  __ ., 

_,       .      |  T.  Hartwell  Home. ..Bibliography. 

A  Manchester  >  „,  ,       ,  _  ,  ,  „  ,.  . 

,,        ,     t  {  Richard  Cobden Political  tracts. 

Manufacturer  ' 

A  Northern  Man....Chas.  J.  Ingersoll Political  History. 

A  Student  at  Law..F.  K.  Hunt The  Fourth  Estate. 

A  Travelling'  )«,-,.  ,-,  «. 

«     ,    «      >  J.  Femmore  Cooper. ..Travels. 
Bachelor  \  r 

A  Trinity  Man Thomas  Wright Alma  Mater,  1827. 

A.  N.  Farmer Rev.  Isaac  Wilkins.. .Political  tracts. 

A  Young  American  .A.  Slidel  Mackenzie.. Year  in  Spain. 

Ablmelech  Coody.. .Julian  C.  Verplanck... Political  tracts. 

Acheta  Domestica..Miss  L.  M.  Budgen. ..Episodes  of  Insect  Life. 

Acton  Bell Anne  Bronte Agnes  Gray. 

a  j         li  aj  t  Rev*  James  Cook  1  _. 

Admonish  Crime..  \  _.  .  .1  Poems. 

(  Richmond  J 

Adolph  Myer M.  A.  Goldschmidt.... Novelist. 

Agate Whitelaw  Reid Journalist. 

Agricola  William  Elliott Carolina  Sports. 

Alfred  Croquis Daniel  Maclise Fraserian  Portraits. 

Alfred  CrowquiII A.  H.  Forrester Eccentric  Tales. 

AVlan  Grant. William  Wilson Dundee  Review. 

Alice  G.  Lee j  Mice  Bradley  (I^^en  \  Godt/s  Lad/,  BMk. 

Ally  Sloper Charles  H.Ross Adventures  in  Judy. 

Almaviva Clement  Scott Figaro's  dramatic  critic. 

Alpin William  Wilson Dundee  Review* 

Alter Rev.  J.  B.  Owen Chess  Studies. 

Alton  Clyde..     Sarah  Anne  Jeffries..  .Maggie  Lynn. 

Amateur  Casual James  Greenwood  ....Night  in  the  Workhouse. 

Amelia Mrs.  Welby Poems. 

Amicus Thomas  Fairbairn.... Social  Progress. 

Amy  Lothrop Anna  B.  Warner Dollars  and  Cents. 

An  Amateur .....Charles  K.  Sharpe. ...Portraits. 

An  American Gen.  Lewis  Cass Sketches  in  France. 

An  Angler Sir  Humphry  Davy..  .Salmonia. 

An  English  1  .  .      „  ,  m     _. 

™  J  John  Oxenford The  Times. 

Playgoer ) 


ASSUMED    NAME.  REAL    NAME.  REPRESENTATIVE  WORK. 

An  Epicure F.  Saunders Salad  for  the  Solitary. 

An  Irish  Woman. ...Miss  Anna  Perricr The  Irishman. 

An  Octogenarian ...  .J  ames  Rc:he Essays. 

An  Old  Bushman. ...W.  Wheelwright Naturalist. 

-...-.  t  Sir  Francis  Bond  (  Bubbles  from  the 

An  Old  Man I  „       ,  \  _, 

\  Head  \  Brunner. 

An  Old  Sailor M.  H.  Baker Sea  Tales. 

Anthony  Pasquin....John  Williams... Morn  irg  Herald, 

Arachnophilus Adam  White Essays. 

Archaeus Rev.  John  Sterling.... The  Onyx  Ring. 

Ariel Stephen  R.  Fiske New  York  Leader, 

Artemus  Ward Charles  F.  Browne...."  His  Book." 

Arthur  Griffenhoff... George  Colman,  Jr.... Dramatist. 

Arthur  Sketchley. ... Rev.  George  Ross Mrs.  Brown. 

Asa  Trenchard Henry  Watterson Magazine  sketches. 

Ascott  R.  Hope...  j     °  er        °?*!      ♦     •  «  J  Book  About  Boys. 

Aug.  Dunshunner....Wm.  E.  Aytoun Tales,  Blackwood. 

Augur H.  M.  Feist The  Racing  Prophet. 

Aunt  Fanny Mrs.  T.  D.  Gage Juvenile  Tales. 

Aunt  Judy Mrs.  Alfred  Catty Aunt  Judy's  Magazine. 

Azamat  Batuk N.  L.  Thicblin Spain  and  Spaniards. 

Bab W.  S.  Gilbert Bab  Ballads. 

Bailey Fred.  Douglass Journalist. 

Barclays,  One  of  the. .Mrs.  H.  G.  Otis Barclays  of  Boston. 

Barnacle A.  C.  Barnes Litterateur, 

Barrabas  >_        ,      .        ,,  «...„. 

_,..  ,     .,       [  Douglas  Jerrold Articles  in  Punch. 

Whitefeather  J         &       " 

Barry  Cornwall B.  W.  Proctor The  Sea  and  other  Songs. 

Barry  Gray Robert  Barry  Coffin...  My  Married  Life. 

Belle  Brittan Hiram  Fuller New  York  Mirror, 

Belle  Smith Louise  Kirby  Piatt... .Home  Journal, 

.   Benjamin  V.  Austin   v 
Benauly <   and  Lyman  Abbott,   >  Conecut  Corners. 

'   Ben.  Au.  Ly.,  jointly   * 
Benedict  Cruiser George  Aug.  Sala Howl  Tamed  Mrs.  C. 

_        .  .  _  _    ,      „.  <  The  John  Brown 

Berwick James  Redpath 1  T 

f  Invasion. 

Besieged  Resident.  ..H.  Labouchere In  Paris. 

Bibliophile  J acob. . ..Paul  Lacroix Novels. 

Bideford  Postman...  Ed  ward  Capern Poems. 

Bill  Arp Charles  H.  Smith. 

BIythe  White,  J un... Solon  Robinson New  York  Tribune. 

Bob  Short A.  B.  Longstreet Political  articles. 

Bon  Gaultier. Wm.  E.  Aytoun Ballads. 

Boston  Bard Robert  S.  Coffin Poems. 

Boston  Rebel John  Lowell Political  articles. 

Boz Charles  Dickens Sketches  by  Boz. 

Bret  Harte Francis  B.  Hart The  Heathen  Chinee. 

Brother  Peregrine... Octavian  Blewitt Fraser*s  Magazine. 

Burleigh. Matthew  Hale  Smith.  .Boston  Journal, 

Bullerof  Brasenose.John  Hughes Blackwood*  s  Magazine. 

Cadwalader^^  j  y  Q   ^^ ^  q{  r  m   Sunley> 


1 

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792 

A    DICTIONARY    OF 

NOMS    DE    PLUME. 

1 

t 

ASSUMED    NAME. 

REAL    NAME. 

(  Rev.  James  W. 

'                          Alcxandc 

REPRESENTATIVE   WORK. 

J  Literary  World. 
ri 

Tales,  Family  Herald, 

The  Way  to  Win. 
.Journalist. 

The  Billiard  Book. 

.Tales  of  Irish  Life. 

.  Belgravia. 

.SI.  Louie  Spectator. 

.Upper  Ten  Thousands. 

{ Journalist. 
^  1 

.Search  of  a  Home. 

.Sea  Novels. 

,On  Whist. 

.The  Stud  Farm. 

.Caricatures. 

■  Miscellanies. 

K  Southern  Literary 
'  '                          Messenger. 

J  Tale.. 

.Poems. 

.Sunday  Mercury. 

.Novelist. 

.Citircnof  the  World. 

.Magazine  articles. 

.Could  Aught  Atone  ? 

.Novelist. 

.Xoctcs  Ambrosianae. 

.Come  Back  to  Erin. 

.Sweet  Singer. 

.Dramatic  Criticism. 

J  Sketches. 

n  j  Goac?s  Lady**  Btok, 

■  Hope  Campbell. 
.Jane  Eyre. 
.Verdant  Green. 

j  Letters  on  Church 

'                            Matters. 

.Dramatic  critic. 

.Life  in  Danbury. 

.The  Mildmays. 

.Knifhfs  Quarterly. 

.  Poems. 

..Novels  and  plays. 

.Travels. 

.Court  of  Napoleon. 

.History  of  New  York. 

.Merry  Companions. 
.Friend's  Delight. 

j  Letters  from  Spain. 

..Patent  Sermons. 

t  American  Advocate 
"  1                             «^  Peace. 

■Whitington  and  Hia  Cat. 

.Peter's  Letters. 
.Tour  of  Dr.  S. 

|  The  Life  and 

\      Adventures  of  U.  U. 

ASSUMED    NAME. 

REAL    NAME. 

.H.  M.  Flint 

representative  WORE. 
.Nrut  York  World. 
.Springfield  B -publican. 
.Letters  on  Currency. 
.  .Spring  and  Holiday. 
.Travels. 
.Notes  on  Noses. 
.Visit  to  Paris. 
.Poetry. 
..Dramatist. 
.  .Travels. 
.Juvenile  works. 
.Knight' i  Quarterly. 
.Poetry. 

.College  Romance. 

.The  Partisan  Leader. 
'.Essays  of  Elia. 

.Journalist. 

.Wide,  Wide  World. 

.Wuthering  Heights. 

.Confessions. 

.Book  of  the  Salmon. 

.Sunday  School  Tales. 
..  Letters  from  England. 
..Air at  y'orh  Mirror. 

.  Contemporary  Review. 

.Tales  and  Poems. 

.The  Drama  in  Pokerville. 

.  The  Press. 

.Humor. 

j  Fern  Leaves. 

1  Trippings  in 

n  i                       Authorland* 

. .  Poetry. 

..Humor. 

1  Reliques  of  Father 
j                                  Prout. 

..London  Journal. 
.Journalist. 

..Novels. 

. .  Ladies'  Magazine. 

..Poetry. 

.  .George  G»ith. 

.Charles  C.  Converse. 

Captain  Rawdon 

Crawley 

Capt.  Rock  in 

London 

Captain  Shandon... 

E.  H.  T 

Edgeworth  Benson 

Edmund  Falconer. 

Edward  Baldwin.. 
Edward  Hazlefoot. 

Edward  Stevenson 
O'Brien 

.Edmund  O'Rourke.. 

.W.  Sidney  Walker... 
.J.  Hamilton  Reynold* 

.C.  Smith  Cheltnam... 

Charles  Carleton 

Com 
.Sir  George  Stephen.. 

Elizabeth  Wetherel 
Ellis  Bell 

English  Opium- 
Eater 

Ephraim  Holding.. 
Espriella  Alvarez. . 

Chas.  Summerfield. 
Charlotte  Elizabeth 

Chcvalter 

Cheviot  Tichburn.. 
Chinese  Philosophei 

Christine  Sevcrne.. 

Christopher  North. 

.Albert  W.  Arrington 

I  Charlotte  Elizabeth 
1                              Tonn 
.Rev.  Chas.  Kingsley. 

.  .Matthew  F.  Whittier 
.Wm.  E.  Gladstone... 

.Mrs.  Anna  Boulton... 

Ettrick  Shepherd.. 

,  .Jonathan  F.  Kellv.. 
t  Mrs.  (Sarah  Willis) 
}                  James  Parto 
.Mary  J.  S.  Upsher. 
<  Emily  (ChubbuckJ 
}                                Judsc 

..A.  Miner  Griswold.. 

i  Viscomtesse 
1                      de  St.  Mai 
|  Alice  Bradley  (\e:i!) 
1                              Have 

Fanny  Forrester 

D.C.L 

D G 

Danhury  Newsman 

..Kate  W.Hamilton. 

.Daniel  Owen  Madden 
.Dcrwcnt  Coleridge.. 

..Ann  F.Wilbur 

..Mrs.  J.  H.  Riddcll... 

..Henry  W.Herbert... 
..Mary  Abigail  Dodge 
..Geo.  Alf.  Townsend. 
..G.  E.  M.  Crawford.. 

.  .Washington  Irving.. 

..Louis  Arundel. 

.  .Field  Sports  of  the  V.  S. 

..Gala  Days. 

.  .Journalist. 

..Cricket  Notts. 
1  Met*  York  Courier 
i                     and  Inquirer. 

.Sketch  Book. 

Dennis  Jasper 

Murphy 
Dcrwcnt  Conway.. 

Diedrlch 

Knickerbocker 

..Frank  B.  Goodrich.. 
J  Washington  Irving.. 

Gemsee 

Genesee  Traveller. 

Don  Leucadio 

Doblado 

Dr.  Oldham  at 

Grays  tones 
Dr.  Vicc;;lmus 

Rlcnkinaop 
Dr.  Peter  Morris... 

1  Rev.  Joseph  Blanco 
1                               Whi 

..Madame  Dudcvant.. 

..Nathaniel  I.  Bowditc 
1  Mrs.  Sarah  Jane 
I         (Clark)  Lippinco 

.Naturalist. 
..Novels. 
.  .Knights  Quarterly, 

.Fiction. 
1.  Boston  Transcript. 

\  History  of  My  Prta. 
tt ) 

..Queens  of  Society. 

.Modern  Painters. 

.Lay  Sermons. 

.The  Microcosm. 

f 

Girard  Montgomery 
Glance  Gaylord .... 

j  Rev.  Caleb  S.  Henry 

Grace  Greenwood.. 

Graduate  of  Ox  fort 
Gregory  Griffin.... . 

4 

Dr.  Updike 

Underbill 

..John  F.  Graff 

. 

f 

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1 

\ 

A    DICTIONARY    OF 

NOMS    DE    PLUME.                                                                       793 

e 
t 

ASSUMED   NAME. 

Hamilton  Murray- 

REAL   NAME. 

REPRESENTATIVE    WORK. 

..Knight's  Quarterly. 
..Ballads. 
.Ballads. 

.  .Sporting  Notes. 
..Juvenile  tales. 
..Adventures  of  Harry  F. 

|  Captain  Brand. 

.Practical  Horsemanship. 
(  Adventures  of  Harry 
i                       Lorrequer. 

.Caricaturist. 

Tales  in  Good  Words. 

\  Evelyn. 

.Shoemakers'  Village. 
.Passionate  Pilgrim. 

t  Hester  Morley's 

X                         Primrose. 
.Political  Letters. 
.London  Times. 
..Novelist. 

.Flotsam  and  Jetsam. 
.Independent  Chronicle. 
.Family  Herald. 
.Collegiate  Experience. 
.Signs  before  Death. 
.Tales  of  the  Genii. 
.Journalist. 
.Biglow  Papers. 

t  Telegraph  and 

6                   Sporting  Life. 
.Nile  Notes. 
.Idyls  of  Battle. 
.Field. 

j  Tell -Tale. 

s  ) 

.Guide  and  other  Poems. 
(  Sketches  of  Public 
\                       Characters. 

.Reveries  of  a  Bachelor. 
t  Lispings  from  Low 

n  \                        Latitudes. 

.Baltimore  Sun. 

.On  the  Aristocracy. 

.Novelist. 

ning. 

.Humor. 

.Poetry. 

.London  Parks. 

.  The  Times. 

.  Gypsies  of  Dane's  Dyke. 

.Religious  controversy. 

.London  Magazine. 

.Medical  Times. 

.Figaro. 

..Tales  of  My  Landlord. 

.Humor. 

-Children's  tales. 
.Velvet  Cushion. 
.Religious  controversy. 
r.  Poems. 

.Sunday  Despatch. 
.Essays. 
.Legal  Peers. 

ASSUMED    NAME. 

John  Hampden.... 

REAL   NAME.                 REPRESENTATIVE  WORK. 

(  Lord  (G.  N.  Green-      1  „. 

J                     ville)  Nugent  [HlSt0ry- 

(  Rev.  Leonard                    i  __     __    . 

wufcj             I  The  Puritan. 
(                         Withington  ) 

.Charles  H.  Webb Liffith  Lank. 

..Capt.  Geo.  H.  Derby.. Phcenixiana. 

(  Lieut.  Harry  Aug. 
i                                Wi 

Harry  Gringo 

John  Sur-re-butter 

Jonathan  Freke 

Slingsby 
Jonathan  Oldstyle.. 

Journeyman  Printe 

t  Anna  Cora  (Mowatt) 
j                                Ritch 
.Mrs.  D.  M.  F.  Walke 

..Washington  Irving.. ..Morning  Chronicle. 
..Henry  N.  Coleridge... KnighVs  Quarterly. 

.  .H.  W.  Longfellow  . . .  .History  of  Newbury. 
r..C.  Manby  Smith Autobiography  of  J.  P. 

i  Joseph  Lemuel               j  _ 

1                             Chester  Pouraahst- 

Henry  J.  Thurston. 

.Archbishop  McHale. 
.Sir  L.  V.  Harcourt.. 

Hookanit  Bee,  Esq 
Horace  Fitz  Jersey 

.S.  R.  Wigram 

Kirwan 

..Charles  C.  Converse... Church  Singer. 

j  Rev.  Nicholas  Murray. Religious  Controversy. 

..John  S.  Du  Solle Sunday  Despatch. 

■ 

.Theo.  W.  A.  Buckley 
.Rev.  James  Ridley.. 

(  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Stuart 
f                                Phelp 

.Donald  G.  Mitchell.. 

1  Lady  Harriet  G. 

1      (Hamilton)  Dufferi 

..Stephen  Higginson.,.. Political  controversy. 

Hotspur.... 

Howard  Glyndon.. 

Launcelot 

Wagstaffe,  Jr. 

..Lizzie  B.  Comins, 

.  .Rev.  Jesse  Appleton . .  \  v*™^»-  f «~     . 

(              geltcal  Mttgattnt. 

.L.  Virginia  French Poems. 

.Fred.  G.  Tomlins London  Wttkly  Timts. 

Lawrence  Slingsby 

Ignatius  Loyola 

Robinson 

Lewis  Carroll 

London  Antiquaria 
Louise  Muhlbach.. 
Louis  de  Montalte. 

Impulsia 

Gushington 

.Clara  (Muller)  Mundt.. Historical  Novels. 

.W.  Gilmore  Simms... 
.See  Major  Jack  Dow 
..Jonathan  F.  Kelly... 

.M.  J.  Higgins 

.Charles  G.  Leland Ballads. 

Jacob  Omnium 

Major  Jack  Downin 
Malakoff 

..Joseph  A.  Scoville....Z«»i<r<»>  Herald. 

1  Maria  (Gowen)              1  _ 

1                             Brooks  (Poems- 

..Harriet  M.  Bradley... Minnie's  Birthday. 

j  Mary  Virginia                  > 

j           (Hawes)  Terhune  I  Wovels' 

[  Mrs.  Harriet  M.              1  „ 

c.     u        1  Novels. 
'                            Stephens  \ 

..John  P.  Kennedy Swallow  Barn. 

..W.  C.  M.  Kent The  Derby  Ministry. 

.Samuel  L.  Clemens.... Innocents  Abroad. 

.Rev.  William  Hickey.. Irish  Agriculture. 

.Mrs.  CM.  Kirkland...A  New  Home. 

;  Mrs.  Marv  Sargent         1  _                 .    _     .. 

~         ,vr     i\ \t-  u  1    [  Lectures  to  Ladies. 
1      Gove  (Neal)  Nichols  ) 

\l 

Maria  del  Occidente 

Marion  Harland... 

Marion  Ward 
Markham  Howard. 

Mark  Rochester. . . . 

Janus  Weatherboun 

j  Stephen  C.  Massett.. 
.Mrs.  Jennie  C.  Croly. 

Jedediah 

Cteishbotham 
Jeemes  Pipes  of 

Pipesville 

Jeremiah  Bingletub 
J.  K.  L 

.Cincinnatus  H.  Mille 
.George  A.  Foxcroft. 
.Thompson  Westcott. . 

John  Darby 

i 
J 

k 

ASSUMED   NAME.  REAL   NAME.  REPRESENTATIVE  WOKE. 

Mary  Powell MUs  M.  A.  Manning.. Fiction. 

Massachusettensis... Daniel  Leonard Political  controversy. 

_      .  „  „         ,.  i  Master  Timothv's 

Master  Timothy G.  W.  M.  Reynolds. ...  J  Bookcase. 

Matthew  Browne William  B.  Rands Poems. 

M.ittlicw  Stradling...M.  M.  F.  Mahoney..... Gilbert  Masslnger. 

Maurice  Sand Maurice  Dudevant... .Travels. 

M  i  x  Adeler Chas.  Heber  Clark  . . .  .Comic. 

Mcrcutio Will  Winter. New  York  Tribuiu. 

Michael  Angclo       I  w  M  Thackeray Paris  Sketches. 

Titinarsh  t 

Miles  O'Reilly See  Private  Miles  O'Reilly. 

i  Anna  L.Johnson  j  Poenw. 

[     (Mrs.  Joaquin  Miller)  ( 


Minnie  Myrtle.. 
Modern 


!  Robert  McNish Blackwood's  Magazine. 

Pythagorean  ) 

Mofussilite Thomas  Lang Too  Clever  by  Half. 

Morgan  O'Dohcrty.. William  Maginn Blackwood's  Magazint. 

Morgan  Rattler Pcrcival  Banks Fraser's  Magazine. 

Mr.  Pips Percival  Leigh Punch. 


Mrs.  Markham., 


[  Mrs.  Elizabeth 


Penrose 


School  histories. 


Mrs.  Manner. j  C°™"»H-  (B£^*L  \  M  H°me  "*  ^""^ 

Mrs.  Partington Benj.  P.  Shillabcr Boston  Post. 

Ned  Buntlinc E.  Z.  C.  Judson King  of  the  Sea. 

Nclsle  Brook Mrs.  Ellen  Ross Little  Mother  Mattie. 

Nicias  Foxcar Francis  Jacox Journalist. 

Nilla Miss  AbbyAUIn Home  Ballads. 

Nlmrod Charles  J.  Appcrly.... Chase,  Turf  and  Road. 

Novanglus John  Adams Political  controversy. 

O.  F.  Q.  (  a  T>     f  (  Natural  history  In 

Philander  Smith  )  °U  y f  Figaro. 

Occasional John  W,  Forney The  Press,  Philadelphia. 

Old  Humphrey George  Mogridge Every-day  Lessons. 

Old  Merry Edwin  Hoddcr Old  Merry's  Annual. 

Old  Sailor Henry  M.  Barker Tough  Yarns. 

Old  Shekarry Major  Leveson Forest  and  Field. 

Old  South Benjamin  Austin Independent  Chronicle. 

Oliver  Oldschool Joseph  Dennle The  Portfolio. 

Oliver  Optic William  F.  Adams. ...Juvenile  tales. 

Olivia. Emily  Edson  Grigg . .  .Journalist. 

Ollapod Willis  G.  Clark Knickerbocker  Magazint. 

~.  .  .       _  .  .  _  (  Handbook  of 

Olphar  Hamst,  Esq.. Ralph  Thomas 1  _.    ,  , 

(  Fictitious  Names. 

One  from  the  Plough. G.Mitchell The  Times. 

Onu;>hrioMuralto...See  William  Marshall,  Gent. 

Onyx  Titian Sarah  Woodward Apple  Blossom. 

Orpheus  C.  Kerr Robert  H.  Newell Humor. 

Ouida Louise  dc  la  It ame Under  Two  Flags. 

,  Lord  (Robert  E. 

Bulwcrj  Lytton 

P.  Fisher W.  E.  Chatto. Angler's  Souvenir. 

Parson  Frank Francis  Jacox Journalist. 

Patty  Lee Alice  Cary Poems. 

(J.A.S.  Coliin  | 

I       (Danton)  de  Pl.ncy  ( In,crnal  D"*»o»«T. 

Paul  Creyton John  F.  Trowbridge.. Fiction. 

Paul  Pindar J.  Yonge  Akerman... .Legends  of  Old  London, 

Paul  Prigglns Rev.  J,  Hewlett Novelist. 

Paulus  Sileritlarius... George  P.  Phlles The  Philoblbllon. 

Peasant  Bard Josiah  D.  Canning.... Poems. 

[John  Dickinson Political  controversy. 

Pcquot Charles  W.March Boston  Courier. 

Peregrine  Persic James  Morler Hajji  Baba. 

Perley Bcnj.  lYrl.  v  Potnm,,m,MmmmM  Journal. 

Peter  Palette Thomas  Onwhyn Artist. 


Owen  Meredith. 


Paul  Bcranger. 


Lucille. 


ASSUMED   NAME.  REAL   NAME.  REPRESENTATIVE   WORE. 

Peter  Parley Samuel  G.  Goodrich .  .Cabinet  Library. 

Peter  Pennot Rev.  W.  F.  Round. 

Peter  Peppercorn.... Thomas  L.  Peacock. ..Poems. 

Peter  Pindar Dr.  John  Wolcot. Satirist. 

Peter  Plymley Rev.  Sydney  Smith.. ..Letters. 

Peter  Porcupine William  Cobbett P.  P.'s  Gazette. 

Peter  Prlggins Rev.  H.  Hewlett. College  Scout. 

Peter  Quince Isaac  Story The  Parnassian  Shop. 

Peter  Schlemihl George  Wood P.  S.  in  America. 

Peter  Scriber Charles  Aug.  Davis. ..Commercial  Advertistr. 

Peter  Wilkins Robert  Pattock Fiction. 

Petroleum  V.Nasby. David  R.  Locke Toledo  Blade. 

Phllanthropos William  Lad Friend  of  Peace. 

Philip  Quilibet George  E.  Pond. 

Philip  Wharton John  C.  Thomson Wits  and  Beaux. 

PhilopatrisVarvi-    .  j^,  pajr character,  of  Fox. 

censis  j 

Phiz H.  K.  Browne Illustrator  of  Dickeas. 

Poor  Richard Benjamin  Franklin.,..  P.  R.'s  Almanac. 

Porte  Crayon David  H.  Strother Harper's  Magazine. 

Priam C.  J.  Collins...... Dick  Diminy. 

Private  Miles  .  Chajlcs  G  Halpine....AVw  York  Herald. 

O'Reilly  J  r 

Prizeman  Newdigate.W.  H.  Mallock Every  Man  HisOwn  Poet 

Publicola John  Quincy  Adams... Political  controversy. 

Publicola . W.  J .  Fox Westminster  Review, 

Publicola David  E.  Williams London  Weekly  Despatch. 

Puck John  Proctor Caricature  cartoons, 

Q Chas.  G.  Rosenberg... You've  Heard  of  'Era, 

Q Edmund  H.  Yates Evening  Star. 

Q.  Q Miss  Jane  Taylor Youth's  Magazine. 

Q.  K.  Philander        ),-.»—,  n. 

D       t*  ks  I  Thompson. Pluri-bus-tah. 

Quallon S.  H.  Bradbury... Poems. 

Quiz Rev.  Ed.  Caswell Sketches. 

Radical Leslie  Grove  J  ones  ....London  Times. 

Rawdon  Crawley.  ...See  Capt.  Rawdon  Crawley. 

Red  Spinner W.  Senior Waterside  Sketches. 

Reuben  Percy See  Sholto  and  R.  Percy. 

Richard  Brisk. J.  Duncan Railway  Book. 

Richard  Hayward...Fred.  S.  Cozzcns Knickerbocker  Magazine. 

Robinson  Crusoe  ....Daniel  Defoe... Adventures  of  R.  C. 

Rob  Roy John  Macgregor Canoe  Voyages. 

Roving  Englishman. Grenville  Murray Sketches. 

Ruhama Miss  Skidmore St.  Louis  G lobe •  Democrat. 

Runnymede Benjamin  Disraeli Letters  of  Runnymede. 

Rustic  Bard Robert  Dinsrnoor Poems. 

Rutledge. Mrs.  Miriam  (Coles)  Harris. 

S.  G.  O S.  G.  Osborne The  Times. 

Samuel  A.  Bard Ephraim  G.  Squier....Waikna. 

Sam  Slick Thos.  C.  Haliburton...The  Clockraaker. 

Sarah  Tyler. Miss  Keddie }  *****  ior  Thw*£™ 

Saville  Rome Clement  Scott London  Telegraph, 

Scrutator J.  Horlock Country  Gentleman. 

See  De  Kay Charles  D.  Kirk. 

Seeley  Regester Mrs.  O.  J.  Victor. 

Sexton  of  the  Old-    ).       .      .,   .  >  Dealings  with  the 

.      .  I  Lucius  M.  Sargent  _      . 

school  (  •  )  Dead. 

Shamrock R.  D.  Williams Poems. 

Shclsley  Boauchamp.T.  W.  Bradley Grantley  Grange. 

Shirley  Dare Mrs.  (Susan  Dunning)  Waters. 

Sholto  and  i  Thomas  Byerley  and 

Reuben  Percy  (     Joseph  C.  Robertson  I 

Sholto R.  S.  Mackenzie Philadelphia  Press. 

Sigma Lucius  M.  Sargent. ..  .Boston  Transcript. 

Silvcrpcn Eliza  Meteyard Lilian's  Golden  Hours. 

Sir  Cosmo  Gordon. ..Sir  S.  E.  Brvdges Letters  on  Byron. 

Sir  Galahad Henry  W.  Moore Kansas  City  Times. 


.(Percy 


Anecdotes. 


\ 


vr 


K 


~A 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    NOMS    DE    PLUME. 


795 


ASSUMED   NAME. 


REAL    NAME. 


REPRESENTATIVE    WORK. 


Solitaire John  S.  Robb Humor. 

Sophie  May Miss  R.  S.  Clark Swamp  Dr. *s  Adventures. 

Sparrowgrass F.  S.  Cozzens Sparrowgrass  Papers. 

Speranza Lady  Wilde Poems. 

Spy  in  Washington.. Matthew  L.  Davis. ...N.  Y.  Courier. 

Squibob George  H.  Derby Squibob  Papers. 

Stampede Jonathan  F.  Kelly Humor. 

Stella Mrs.  E.  A.  B.  Lewis... Records  of  the  Heart. 

Stonehenge J.  Henry  Walsh The  Dog. 

Straws J  oseph  M.  Field New  Orleans  Picayune, 

Straws,  Jr. M  iss  Kate  Field Springfield  Republican. 

Sut  Lovengood George  W.  Harris Humor. 

Sydney  Yendys Syd ney  Dobe II Poetry. 

Tabor Mrs.  Robinson Novelist. 

Tag,  Rag  and  Bobtail. Isaac  D'Israeli ..Flim-Flams. 

Talvi Mrs.  Ed.  Robinson Tales. 

Tamoc  Caspipini Jacob  Duche Letters  of  T.  C. 

Teufelsdroeckh Thomas  Carlyle Sartor  Resartus. 

Teutha William  Jerdan Literary  Gazette. 

The  Black  Dwarf.... Thomas  J.  Wooler.... Politics. 

The  Celt .Thomas  Davis Poems. 

The  Druid Henry  H.  Dixon Silk  and  Scarlet. 

The  Governor Henry  Morf ord New  York  Atlas. 

The  O'Hara  Family..John  and  M.  Banim... Novels. 

The  Traveller. Isaac  Stary Columbian  Sentinel, 

Theodore  de  la  i 

G        ,    j  Nathaniel  Ward Simple  Cobbler. 

Theodore Taylor.....J.  C.  Hotten Life  of  Thackeray. 

Thinks  I  to  Myself.. .Rev.  Dr.  Ed.  Nares.... Novels. 

Thomas  Little Thomas  Moore..*.. ...Little's  Poems. 

Thomas  Ingoldsby...Rev.  R.  H.  Barham....Ingoldsby  Legends. 

Thomas  Rowley Thomas  Chatterton... .Poems. 

Timon  Fieldmouse..  .William  B,  Rands Essays. 

Timothy  Tickler Robert  Syme, In  Noctes  Ambrosianae. 


ASSUMED    NAME. 


REAL    NAME. 


REPRESENTATIVE    WORK. 


Timothy  Titcomb.. . .J.  G.  Holland Letters  to  the  Young. 

Tom  Brown Thomas  Hughes Tom  Brown  at  Rugby. 

Tom  Folio Joseph  E.  Babson. 

Tom  Hawkins Theo.  W.  A.  Buckley.. Gentleman*s  Magazine. 

Trinculo John  A.  Cockerill Journalist. 

Tristram  Mcrton Thomas  B.  Macaulay..A*»i^A/'j  Quarterly. 

Two  Brothers A.  and  C.  Tennyson... Poems. 

Ubique Parker  Gilmore Afloat  and  Ashore. 

Un  a M  ary  A.  Ford Poems. 

Uncle  Hardy William  Senior Notable  Shipwrecks. 

Uncle  John Elisha  Noyce Marvels  of  Nature. 

Uncle  Philip Rev.  Dr.  F.  L.  Hawks. American  Histories. 

Uncle  Toby Rev.  Tobias  H .  Miller. 

V Mrs.  Archer  Clive Poems. 

Vandyke  Brown William  Penn  Brennan  \  L.  .  „    , 

)  Thousand  Strings. 

Veteran  Observer.... Ed.  D.  Mansfield Chronicle  and  Atlas. 

Village  SchoolmasterC.  M.  Dickinson Tales. 

Vigilant John  Corlett The  Times. 

Vivian George  H.  Lewes The  Leader. 

Vivian  Joyeux W.  M.  Praed KnigkV sQuarterly. 

Walter  Barrett,  clerk.  Joseph  A.  Scoville Old  Merchants  of  N.  Y. 

Walking  Gentleman. Thos.  C.  Grattan Highways  and  By-ways. 

Walter  Maynard W.  Bealc Enterprising  Impresario. 

Warrington William  S.  "Robinson, .Spring/ield  Republican. 

Waters William  H.  Russell.. .Diary  of  a  Detective, 

Werdna  Retnyw Andrew  Wynter Odds  and  Ends. 

What's  His  Name...  .E.  C.  Massey Green-eyed  Monster. 

Wm.  Marshall,  Gent.. Horace  Walpole Castle  of  Otranto. 

William  and  Robert )  ,         „     ,,         _  „.        .     . 

___.    ,         ,  J  John  Hookham  ^rercKinsr  Arthur. 
Whistlecraft )  & 

Wilibald,  Alexis William  Hxring Walladmor. 

Wizard John  Corlett 751*  Times. 

Zadkiel  the  Seer R.  J.  Morrison Prophetic  Almanac. 


■Si 


4k< 


£! 


IV 


796 


7? 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  MYTHOLOGY. 


^MYTHOIOGY* 


£Z£S 


^asasgsasasgsflsasgsa&asi 


I  t 

I  1 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN 


^  BBOTfA.    A  goddess  of  voyages,  etc. 

A***    Aeha'tes.     The  trusty  friend  of  ./Eneas. 

Acheron.  The'  son  of  Sol  and  Terra,  changed 
by  Jupiter  into  a  river  of  hell.  Used  also  for 
hell  itself. 

Achilles.  A  Greek  who  signalized  himself  in 
the  war  against  Troy.  Having  been  dipped  by 
his  mother  in  the  river  Styx,  he  was  invulner- 
able in  every  part  except  his  right  heel,  but  was 
at  length  killed  by  Paris  with  an  arrow. 

A'cis.  A  Sicilian  shepherd,  killed  by  Polyphe- 
mus because  he  rivaled  the  latter  in  the  affec- 
tions of  Galatea. 

Ac  tee 'oil.  A  famous  hunter,  who,  having  sur- 
prised Diana  as  she  was  bathing,  was  turned  by 
ner  into  a  stag,  and  killed  by  his  ow.i  Jogs. 

Ado'nls.  A  beautiful  youth  beloved  by  Venus 
an  1  Proserpine.  He  was  killed  by  a  wdd  boar. 
When  wounded,  Venus  sprinkled  nectar  into  his 
blood,  from  which  flowers  sprang  up. 

JEife'us.  A  king  of  Athens,  giving  name  to  the 
M$ I  in  sea  by  drowning  himself  in  it. 

JR'giB,  A  shield  given  by  Jupiter  to  Minerva. 
Also  the  name  of  a  Gorgon  whom  Pallas  slew. 

2Ene'oS.  A  Trojan  prince,  son  of  Anchises  and 
Venus  ;  the  hero  of  Virgil's  poem  the  /Eruid. 

JE'oluS.     Tnc  god  of  the  winds. 

JSSo'uS.     One  of  the  four  horses  of  the  sun. 

JE^cula'pius.  The  god  of  medicine,  and  the 
son  of  A  poll »  Killed  by  Jupiter  w:th  %  tb'in- 
derbolt  for  having  restored  rlippolytus  tc  lite. 

JE  thon.     One  of  the  four  horses  of  the  sun. 

Aff&mem'non.  King  of  My  cento  and  Argos, 
brotli  r  to  Menelaus,  and  chosen  captain-gen - 
f  the  Greeks  at  the  siege  of  Troy. 

Atfanip'pe.  A  fountain  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
H  In  on,  daughter  of  the  river  Permessui. 

Affla'ia.     One  of  the  tin  cc  Graces. 

A'.|ax.     Next  to  Achilles,  the  bravest  of  all  the 
I  in  the  Trojan  war. 

ATblon.  The  son  nf  Neptune;  went  into  Britain 
and  established  a  kingdom. 

Alces'te,  or  Aloestis.    The  daughter  of  Mm 

tight  back  from  hell  by 
Hercules. 

Alci'dss.     A  title  of  Harcule*. 

Alec  to.     One  of  the  three  Furies.. 

Alo'a.    A  festival  of  Bacchus  and  Ceres. 

A  mm  on.     A  title  of  Jupiter. 

Atnphi'on.  A  famous  musician,  the  son  of  Tu- 
mi Antlope.  who  built  the  city  of  Thebes 
jy  the  muslr  of  tils  harp.  He  ami  his  brother 
Zethu*  arc  said  to  have  invented  music 

Amphitri'U.    Goddess  of  the  sea,  and  wife  of 

Neptiiin  , 


Androm'ache.     Wife  of  Hector. 

Andromeda.  The  daughter  of  Cepheus  and 
Cassiopeia,  who,  contesting  with  Juno  and  the 
Nereides  for  the  prize  of  beauty,  was  bound  to  a 
rock  by  them  ana  exposed  to  a  sea  monster,  but 
was  rescued  and  married  by  Perseus. 

Angre'rona.    The  goddess  of  silence. 

An  tee 'us.  The  giant  son  of  Neptune  and  Terra ; 
/ed  to  death  by  Hercules. 

Antever'ta.     Goddess  of  women  bl  labor. 

Antifc'one.  The  daughter  of  CEJipus  and  Jo- 
casta,  famous  for  her  filial  piety. 

An'ubis.     An  Egyptian  god  with  a  dog's  head. 

A 'pis.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Niobe ;  called  also 
Serapis  and  Osiris.  Taught  the  Egyptians  to 
sow  corn  and  plant  vines,  and  worshipped  by 
them  in  the  form  of  an  ox. 

Apollo.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and 
tnc  god  of  music,  poetry,  eloquence,  medicine 
and  the  fine  arts. 

Arach'ne.  A  Lydian  princess,  turned  into  a 
spider  for  contending  with  Minerva  at  spinning. 

Arethu'sa.  One  of  Diana's  nymphs,  who  was 
changed  into  a  fountain. 

Ar'jrus.  The  son  of  Aristor ;  said  to  have  had  a 
hundred  eyes;  but  being  killed  by  Mercury 
when  appointed  by  Juno  to  guard  Io.she  put  his 
eyes  on  the  tail  of  a  peacock.  Also  an  archi- 
t  <  t ,  who  built  the  ship  Argo. 

Ariad'ne.  The  daughter  of  Minos,  who,  from 
love  to  Theseus,  gave  him  a  clew  of  thread,  to 
guide  him  out  ofthe  Cretan  labyrinth  ;  being 
afterward  deserted  by  him,  she  was  married 
to  Bacchus,  and  made  his  priestess. 

Ari'on.  A  lyric  poet  of  Mcthymna,  who,  in 
his  voyage  to  Italy,  saved  his  life  from  the 
cruelty  of  the  mariners  by  means  of  dolphins, 
which  the  sweetness  of  his  music  brought 
together. 

Aristae 'us.    A  son  of  Apollo  and  Cyrene. 

Aatrse'a.  The  goddess  of  justice  ;  charged  into 
the  constellation  Virgo. 

Atalan'ta.  A  princess  of  Seyros,  who  consented 
to  marry  that  one  of  her  suitors  who  should  out- 
run her,  Hippomcucs  being  the  successful  com 
pet  i tor. 

Atlas.  One  ofthe  Titans,  and  king  of  Maurr. 
<  una  ;  said  to  have  supported  the  world  on  his 
ihouMsn;  he  was  turned  into  a  mountain  by 
Perseus. 

Auro'ra.    The  goddess  of  morning. 

Autum'nus.     The  god  of  fruits. 

Baochan'te*.     Priests  of  Bacchus. 

Bacchus.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Semelc,  and 
the  god  of  wine. 

Bap  ta.    The  goddess  of  shame. 


BeUer'ophon.  The  son  of  Giaueus,  king  of 
Ephyra.  He  underwent  numerous  hardships  for 
refusing  an  intimacy  with  Sthenobcea,  wife  of 
Praetus,  the  king  of  Argos.  With  the  aid  of  the 
horse  Pegasus  he  destroyed  the  Chimera. 

Bellona.    Goddess  of  war;  sister  of  Mars. 

Hereni'ca.  A  Grecian  lady ;  the  only  person  of 
her  sex  permitted  to  see  the  Olympic  games. 

Boli'na.  A  nymph  rendered  immortal  for  her 
modesty  and  resistance  to  Apollo . 

Bo're^js.  The  son  of  Astrzus  and  Aurora ; 
the  i.ame  of  the  north  wind. 

Bria'reus.  A  giant  who  warred  against  heaven, 
and  was  feigned  to  have  had  fifty  heads  and  one 
hundred  arms. 

Busi'ris.  The  sc  of  Neptune ;  a  tyrant  of 
Egypt,  and  a  monstaous  giant,  who  fed  his  horses 
with  human  flesh ;  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

Byblis.  The  daughter  of  Miletus ;  she  wept 
herself  into  a  fountain  through  love  of  her  brother 
Caunus. 

Ca'cus.  A  son  of  Vulcan  and  a  most  notorious 
robber ;  slain  by  Hercules  for  stealing  bis  oxen. 

Cadmus.  The  son  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoenicia ; 
founder  of  Thebes,  and  the  reputed  inventor  of 
sixteen  letters  ofthe  Greek  alphabet. 

Cadu'ceus,     Mercury's  golden  rod  or  wand. 

C alii  ope.  One  of  the  Muses,  presiding  over 
eloquence  and  epic  poetry. 

Calyp'so.     One  of  the  Oceanides,  who  reigned 

in  the  island  Ogygia,  and  entertained  and  became 

enamored  of  Ulysses. 
Camfie'na,  or  Cam  a.    Goddess  of  infants. 
Oassan'dra.     A  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba, 

endowed  with  the  gift  of  prophecy  by  Apollo. 
Castalldes.     The  Muses,  so  called  from  the 

.m  Castalius,  at  the  foot  of  Parnassus. 
Castor.     A  sou  of  Jupiter  and  Leda.     He  and 

his  twin  brother  Pollux  shared  immortality  alter- 
and  were  formed  into  the  constellation 

Gemini. 
Ce  crops.     The  first  king  of  Athens,  who  insti- 
tuted marriage,  altars  and  sacrifices. 
Cem'taurS.     Children   of  Ixion,  half  men  and 
tea,  inhabiting  Thessaly,  and  vanquished 

by  Theseus. 
Cerl>erus.     TV   three-headed   dog   of    Pluto, 

guarding  the  gates  of  hell. 
Ce'res.     The  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Cybele,  and 

goddess  of  agriculture. 
Charon.     The  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox,  and  fer» 
f  hell,  who  conducted  the  souls  of  the 

dead  over  the  rivers  Styx  and  Acheron. 
Charyb'dis.     A   ravenous  woman,  turned  by 

Jupiter  into  a  very  dangerous  gulf  or  whirlpool 

on  the  coast  of  Sicily. 


<.ki 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  MYTHOLOGY. 


797 


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Chi'mera.  A  strange  monster  of  Lycia,  killed 
by  Bellerophon. 

Ohi'ron.  A  Centaur,  who  was  preceptor  to 
Achilles,  taught  yEscutapius  physic,  and  Her- 
cules astronomy,  and  who  became  the  constella- 
tion Sagittarius. 

Chry'seis.  The  daughter  of  Chryses,  priest  of 
Apollo,  famed  for  beauty  and  (or  her  skill  in 
embroidery. 

Cir'ce.    A  noted  enchantress. 

Cli'o.    One  of  the  Muses,  presiding  over  history. 

Clo'tho.    One  of  the  three  Fates. 
Clytemnes'tra.    The  faithless  wife  of  Agamem- 
non, killed  by  her  son  Orestes. 
Co'mus.    The  god  of  merriment. 
Cro'cus.     A  young  man  enamored  of  the  nymph 

Smilax,  and.  changed  into  a  flower. 
Croe'sus.     King  of  Lydia;  the  richest  man  of 

his  time. 
Cu'pid.    Son  of  Mars  and  Venus ;  the  god  of 

love. 
Cyb'ele.    The  daughter  of  Ccelus  and  Terra ; 

wife  of  Saturn,  and  mother  of  the  gods. 
Cy'clops.     Vulcan's  workmen,  giants  who  had 

only  one  eye,  in  the  middle  of  their  foreheads  ; 

slain  by  Apollo  in  a  pique  against  Jupiter. 

Deed'aluS.  A  most  i  ngenious  artificer  of  Athens , 
who  formed  the  Cretan  labyrinth,  and  invented 
the  auger,  axe,  glue,  plumb-line,  saw,  and  masts 
and  sails  for  ships. 

Damon.     The  friend  of  Pythias. 

Dana'ides,  or  Belides.  The  fifty  daughters 
of  Danaus,  king  of  Argos,  all  of  whom,  except 
Hypermnestra,  killed  their  husbands  on  the  first 
night  of  their  marriage,  and  were  therefore- 
doomed  to  draw  water  out  of  a  deep  well,  and 
eternally  pour  it  into  acask  full  of  holes. 

Daphne.  A  nymph  beloved  by  Apollo ;  the 
daughter  of  the  river  Pcneus;  changed  into  a 
laurel  tree. 

Daph'nis.  A  shepherd  of  Sicily  and  son  of  Mer- 
cury ;  educated  by  the  nymphs,  and  inspired  by 
the  Muses  with  the  love  of  poetry. 

Dar'danus.  A  son  of  Jupiter  and  founder  of 
Troy. 

Deida'mia.  The  daughter  of  Lycomedes,  king 
of  Scyros ;  wife  of  Achilles,  and  mother  of 
Pyrrhus. 

Deiph'obus.  A  son  of  Priam  and  "Hecuba; 
married  Helena  after  the  death  of  Paris,  but  be- 
trayed by  her  to  the  Greeks.  • 

Dejani'ra.  Wife  of  Hercules,  who  killed  herself 
in  despair,  because  her  husband  burnt  himself 
to  avoid  the  torment  occasioned  by  the  poisoned 
shirt  she  had  given  him  to  regain  his  love, 

Delphi.  A  city  of  Phocis,  famous  for  a  temple 
and  an  oracle  of  Apollo. 

Deucalion.  The  son  of  Prometheus,  and  king 
of  Thessaly,  who,  with  his  wife  Pyrrha,  was  pre- 
served from  the  general  deluge,  and  repeopled  the 
world  by  throwing  stones  behind  them,  as 
directed  by  the  oracle. 

Dian'a.  Daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and 
goddess  of  hunting,  chastity  and  marriage. 

Di'do.  Founder  and  queen  of  Carthage ;  daugh- 
ter of  Belus,  and  wife  of  Sichseus.  According  to 
Virgil,  she  entertained  yEneas  on  his  voyage  to 
Italy,  and  burnt  herself  through  despair,  because 
he  left  her. 

Diome'des.  Son  of  Tydeus,  and  kingof  iEtolia  ; 
gained  great  reputation  at  Troy,  and,  with 
Ulysses,  carried  off  the  Palladium. 

Dir'ce.  Wife  of  Lycus ,  king  of  Thebes ;  dragged 
to  death  by  a  mad  bull. 

Dry'ades.    Nymphs  of  the  woods. 

Ech'o.     The  daughter  of  Aer,  or  Air,  and  Tellus, 

who  pined  away  for  love  of  Narcissus. 
Elec'tra.     Daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Clytem- 

nestra  ;  instigated  her  brother  Orestes  to  revenge 

their  father's  death  upon  their  mother  and  iEgis- 

thus. 

Ely  slum.  The  happy  residence  of  the  virtuous 
after  death. 


EnceVadus.  Son  of  Titan  and  Terra,  and  the 
ttruugvSI  ot'thc  giants ;  conspired  against  Jupiter, 
and  attempted  to  scale  heaven. 

Endym'ion.  A  shepherd  and  astronomer  of 
Curia,  condemned  to  a  sleep  of  thirty  years. 

Epe'uS.  The  artist  who  made  the  Trojan  horse, 
inventor  of  the  sword  and  buckler. 

Er'atO.     The  Muse  of  lyric  and  amorous  poetry. 

Er/eane.     A  river  whose  waters  inebriated. 

Er'ebus.  The  son  of  Chaos  and  Nox  ;  an  infer- 
nal deity.  A  river  of  hell,  and  often  used  by  the 
poets  for  hell  itself. 

Erin'nys.  The  Greek  name  for  the  Furies,  or 
Eumenides. 

E'ros.     A  name  of  Cupid. 

Eumen'ides.     A  name  of  the  Furies. 

Euphor'bus.  The  son  of  Panthous;  slain  by 
Menelaus  in  the  Trojan  war. 

Euphros'yne.    One  of  the  three  Graces. 

Euro 'pa.  The  daughter  of  Agenor,  carried  by 
Jupiter,  in  the  form  of  a  white  bull,  into  Crete. 

Eury ''ale.  A  queen  of  the  Amazons.  Also  one 
of  the  three  Gorgons 

Eury'alus.  A  Peloponnesian  chief  in  the  Tro- 
jan war.  Also,  a  Trojan  and  a  friend  of  Nisus, 
for  whose  loss  iEneas  was  inconsolable. 

Euryd'ice.  Wife  of  Orpheus  ;  killed  by  a  ser- 
pent on  her  marriage  day. 

Euryl'ochus.  One  of  the  companions  of 
Ulysses;  the  only  one  who  was  not  changed  by 
Circe  into  a  hog 

Euter/pe.  One  of  the  Muses,  presiding  over 
music. 

Evad'ne.  Daughter  of  Mars  and  Thebe  ;  threw 
herself  on  the  funeral  pyre  of  her  husband,  Cata- 
lans. 

Fab'ula.     Goddess  of  lies. 

Fa'ma.    Goddess  of  report,  etc. 

Fates.  Powerful  goddesses,  who  presided  over 
the  birth  and  the  life  of  mankind,  were  the  three 
daughters  of  Nox  and  Erebus,  named  Clotho, 
Lachesis  and  Atropos.  Clotho  was  supposed  to 
hold  the  distaff,  Lachesis  to  draw  the  thread  of 
human  life,  and  Atropos  to  cut  it  off. 

Fau'na,  and  Fatu'a.    Names  of  Cybele, 

Fau'ni.  Rural  gods,  described  as  having  the 
legs,  feet  and  cars  of  goats. 

Fau'nus.  Son  of  Mercury  and  Nox,  and  father 
of  the  Fauni. 

Flo'ra.     The  goddess  of  flowers. 

Fortu'na.  The  goddess  of  fortune ;  said  to  be 
blind. 

Fur/iOS.  The  three  daughters  of  Nox  and  Ache- 
ron, named  Alecto,  Tisiphoneand  Megaera,  with 
hair  composed  of  snakes,  and  armed  with  whips, 
chains,  etc. 

Galate'a.  A  sea-nymph,  daughter  of  Nereus 
and  Doris,  passionately  loved  by  Polyphemus. 

Gan'ymede.  The  son  of  Tros,  King  of  Troy, 
whom  Jupiter,  in  the  form  of  an  eagle,  snatched 
up  and  made  his  cup-bearer. 

Gre'ryon,  A  monster,  having  three  bodies  and 
three  heads,  and  who  fed  his  oxen  with  human 
flesh,  and  was  therefore  killed  by  Hercules. 

Gor'dius.  A  husbandman,  but  afterward  king 
of  Phrygia,  remarkable  for  tying  a  knot  of  cords, 
on  which  the  empire  of  Asia  depended,  in  so  in- 
tricate a  manner,  that  Alexander,  unable  to  un- 
ravel it,  cut  it  asunder. 

Gordons.  The  three  daughters  of  Phorcus  and 
Ceta,  named  Stheno,  Euryale  and  Medusa. 
Their  bodies  were  covered  with  impenetrable 
scales,  their  hair  entwined  with  serpents  ;  they 
had  only  one  eye  betwixt  them,  and  they  could 
change  into  stones  those  whom  they  looked  on. 

Gra'ces.  Three  goddesses,  Aglaia,  Thalia  and 
Euphrosyne,  represented  as  beautiful,  modest 
virgins,  and  constant  attendants  on  Venus. 

Ha'des.    A  title  of  Pluto. 

Har'pies.  Winged  monsters,  daughters  of  Nep- 
tune and  Terra,  named  Aello,  Celaeno  and  Ocy- 


pete,  with  the  faces  of  virgins,  the  bodies  of  vul- 
tures, and  hands  armed  with  claws. 

HeT>6.  The  daughter  of  Juno  ;  goddess  of  youth, 
and  Jupiter's  cup-bearer  ;  banished  from  heaven 
on  account  of  an  unlucky  fall. 

Hec'tor.  The  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba ;  the 
most  valiant  of  the  Trojans,  and  slain  by 
Achilles. 

Hec'uba.  The  wife  of  Priam,  who  tore  her  eyes 
out  for  the  loss  of  her  children. 

Hfel'ena,  or  Hel'en.  The  wife  of  Menelaus, 
and  the  most  beautiful  woman  of  her  age,  who, 
running  away  with  Paris,  occasion^  the  Trojan 
war. 

Hel'enuS.  A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  spared 
by  the  Greeks  for  his  skill  in  divination. 

Helle.  The  daughter  of  Athamas,  who,  flying 
from  her  stepmother  Ino,  was  drowned  in  the 
Pontic  Sea,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Hellespont. 

Her'cules.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Alcmena  ; 
the  most  famous  hero  of  antiquity,  remarkable  for 
his  great  strength  and  numerous  exploits. 

Her'mes.     A  name  of  Mercury. 

Hermi'one.  The  daughter  of  Mars  and  Venus, 
and  wife  of  Cadmus  ;  was  changed  into  a  serpent. 
Also,  a  daughter  of  Menelaus  and  Helena,  mar- 
ried to  Pyrrhus. 

He'ro.  A  beautiful  woman  of  Sestos,  in  Thrace, 
and  priestess  of  Venus,  whom  Leander  of  Abydos 
loved  so  tenderly  that  he  swam  over  the  Helles- 
pont every  night  to  see  her ;  but  he,  at  length, 
being  unfortunately  drowned,  she  threw  herself, 
in  despair,  into  the  sea. 

Hesper'ides.  Three  nymphs,  ^Egle,  Arethusa 
and  Hesperethusa,  daughters  of  Hesperus.  They 
had  a  garden  bearing  golden  apples,  watched  by 
a  dragoq,  which  Hercules  slew,  and  bore  away 
the  fruit. 

BCes'perus.  The  son  of  Japetus,  and  brother  to 
Atlas ;  changed  into  the  evening  star. 

Hippol'ytuB.  The  son  of  Theseus  and  Antiope, 
or  Hippolyte,  who  was  restored  to  life  by  ^tscula- 
pius,  at  the  request  of  Diana. 

Hippom'enes.  A  Grecian  prince,  who,  beating 
Atalanta  in  ;he  race  by  throwing  golden  apples 
before  her,  married  her.  They  were  changed  by 
Cybele  into  lions. 

Hyacin'thttS.  A  beautiful  boy,  beloved  by 
Apollo  and  Zephyrus.  The  latter  killed  him  ; 
but  Apollo  changed  the  blood  that  was  spilt  into 
a  flower  called  hyacinth. 

Hy'adeS.  Seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and  jEthra, 
changed  by  Jupiter  into  seven  stars. 

Uy'dra.  A  celebrated  monster,  or  serpent,  with 
seven,  or,  according  to  some,  fifty  heads,  which 
infested  the  Lake  Lerna.  It  was  killed  by 
Hercules. 

Hy/men.  Son  of  Bacchus  and  Venus,  and  god 
of  marriage. 

Hyp'erion.    Son  of  Ccelus  and  Terra. 

Ica'rius.  Son  of  GSbalus ;  having  received  from 
Bacchus  a  bottle  of  wine,  he  went  into  Attica  to 
show  men  the  use  of  it,  but  was  thrown  into  a 
well  by  some  shepherds  whom  he  had  made 
drunk  and  who  thought  he  had  given  them  poison. 

Ic'arus.  The  son  of  Dscdr.lus,  who,  flying  with 
his  father  out  cf  Crete  in'.o  Sicily,  and  soaring  too 
high,  melted  the  wax  of  his  wings,  end  fell  into 
the  sea,  thence  called  the  lcarian  sea. 

I'O.  The  daughter  of  Tnachus,  turned  by  Jupiter 
into  a  white  heifer,  but  afterward  resumed  her 
former  shape  ;  was  worshipped  cficr  her  death 
by  the  Egyptians,  under  the  name  of  I  sis. 

Iphigreni'a.  The  dnughter  of  Agamemnon  and 
Clytcmnestra,  who,  standing  ready  as  a  victim  to 
be  sacrificed  to  appease  the  Ire  cf  Diana,  was 
by  that  goddess  transformed  into  a  white  hart 
and  made  a  priestess. 

I'ris.  The  daughter  of  Thaumas  and  Electra ; 
one  of  the  Ocear.ides,  and  messenger  and  com- 
panion of  Juno,  who  turned  her  into  a  rainbow. 

Ixi'on.  A  king  of  Thessaly,  and  father  of  the 
Centaurs.  He  killed  his  own  sister,  and  was 
punished  by  being  fastened  in  hell  to  a  wheel  per- 
petually turning. 


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V 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  MYTHOLOGY. 


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Ja'nus.  The  ion  of  Apollo  and  Creusa,  and  first 
king  of  Italy,  who,  receiving  the  banished 
Saturn,  was  rewarded  by  him  with  the  knowledge 
of  husbandry,  and  of  things  past  and  future. 

Ja'son.  The  leader  of  the  Argonauts,  who,  with 
Media's  help,  obtained  the  golden  fleece  from 
I 

J  ocas' to.  The  dfqgJMBf  of  Ocon.  She  unwit- 
tingly married  her  own  son,  (-Edipus. 

Ju'no.  The  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Ops;  sister 
MM  wltb  f  Jupiter,  the  great  queen  of  heaven, 
and  of  all  the  gods,  and  goddess  of  marriages 
and  birth*. 

Ju'pitor.  The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops ;  the  su- 
preme deity  of  the  heathen  world,  the  most  pow- 
erful of  the  gods,  and  governor  of  all  things. 

Lach'esis.    One  of  the  throe  Fates. 

Laoc'oi  n.    A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and 

high  priest  of  Apollo,  who  opposed  the  reception 
of  the  wooden  horse  into  Troy,  for  which  he  and 
his  two  sons  were  killed  by  serpents. 

Laom'edon.  A  kingofTroy.kilhxlby  Hercules 
for  denying  him  his  daughter  Hesione  after  he 
had  delivered  her  from  the  sea* monster. 

La'res.  Inferior  gods  at  R->me,  who  presided 
over  houses  and  famili  s  ;  son*  of  Mercury  and 
Lara. 

Laver'na.    A  goddess  of  thieve*. 

Lean'der.    See  II  ro. 

Lethe.  A  river  of  h.lt  whose  waters  caused  a 
total  forg.-t  fulness  of  th;n;s  p.isi. 

IiUben'tia.    Goddess  of  pleasure. 

Lu'oifsr.     The  name  of  t*ie  planet  Venus,  or 

morning  star  ;  said  to  bj  the  son  of  Jupiter  and 

Aurora, 

Luoi'na.  A  daughter  of  Jupiter  an  J  Juno,  and  a 
goddess  who  presided  over  childbirth. 

Luna.  The  moon;  the  daughter  of  Hyperion 
and  Terr.i. 

Luper'calia.     Feasu  in  honor  of  Pan. 

Kart).    The  god  of  w.ir. 

XCede'a.  The  daughter  of  Mitt,  and  a  wonder- 
ful sorceress  or  magician  j  sh*.'  assisted  Jason  to 
oht.iin  the  golden  fGcce. 

Medusa.  The  chief  of  the  thrceGorgons;  killed 
by  Perseus. 

Mntree'ra.     One  of  the  Furies. 

MeK'ara.     Wife  of  Hercules. 

Melpom'ene.  One  of  the  Mutes,  presiding  over 
tragedy. 

Mem 'noil.  The  son  of  Tithonus  and  Aurora,  and 
king  ot  Abydon;  killed  by  Achilles  for  assisting 
Priam,  and  changed  into  a  bird  at  the  request  of 

his  ntn th.  r 

slenela'us.     The  son  of  Atreus  king  of  Sparta; 

rot  Agamemnon,  and  husband  of  Helen. 
Mentor,     foe  faithful  friend   of  Ulysses,  the 

governor  of  Tclemachus,  and  the  wisest  man  of 

his  time. 

Mer'oury.  Tho  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia;  mes- 
senger ot  ihe  gods,  inventor  of  letters,  and  god  of 
eloquence,  commerce  and  robbers. 

Mi'da*.  A  kin^  of  Phrygia,  who  had  the  power 
given  him  ol  turning  whatever  he  touched  into 
gold. 

MinerVa.  The  goddess  of  wisdom,  the  arts,  and 
wit  ;  produced  from  Jupiter's  brain. 

Mln'otaur.  A  celebrated  monster,  half  man  and 
BshTdmL 

Mnemos'yn^.    The  goddess  of  memory,  and 
t  ufihe  nine  Muses 

Mo'mus.  The  son  of  Nox,  and  god  of  folly  ami 
pleasantry. 

Mor'phsus.  The  minister  of  Noa  and  Somnus, 
I M I  god  of  sleep  and  dreams. 

Mors.    Goddess  of  death. 

Mn'set.     Nino  <*  uighter*  of  Jupiter  and  Mnrmo- 
ivno,    named    Calliope,   Clio,   Erato,    1 
Mtjp  Reno,    P  hhymnia,  Terpsichore, 
and  Urania.    They  were  mistresses  of   all  the 
sc  icnces ,  and  governesses  of  the  feasts  of  the  gods . 

Mu'ta,     Goddess  of  silence. 


Na'iades      Nymphs  of  streams  and  fountains. 

Narcissus.  A  beautiful  youth,  who,  falling  in 
love  with  his  own  reflection  in  the  water,  pined 
away  into  a  daffodil. 

Nem'esis.  One  of  the  infernal  deities,  and  god- 
dess of  revenge. 

Nep'tune,  The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops ;  god  of 
tnc  sea,  and,  next  to  Jupiter,  the  most  powerful 
deity. 

No'reid*.     Sea-nymphs. 

Nestor.  The  son  of  Ncleus  and  Chloris,  and 
king  of  Pylos  and  M  esse  nia.  He  fought  against 
the  Centaurs,  was  distinguished  in  the  Trojan 
war,  and  lived  to  a  great  age. 

Ni'obeX  Daughter  of  Tantalus,  and  wife  of  Am- 
pbioa,  who,  preferring  herself  to  Latona,  had  her 
fourteen  children  killed  by  Diana  and  Apollo, 
and  wept  herself  into  a  stone. 

Nox.  The  most  ancient  of  all  the  deities,  and 
goddess  of  night. 

Ocean'idea.  Sea-nymphs,  daughters  of  Oceanus; 
three  thousand  in  number. 

Oce'anuS*     An  ancient  sea-god 

(Ed'ipus.  King  of  Thebes,  who  solved  ihe  rid- 
dle of  the  Sphinx,  unwittingly  killed  his  father, 
married  his  mother,  and  at  last  ran  mad  and 
tore  out  his  eyes. 

Om'phald.  A  queen  of  Lydia,  with  whom  Hcr- 
cuLs  wr.s  so  enamored  that  h--  submitted  to 
spinning  and  other  unbecoming  offices. 

Ops.     A  name  of  Cybcle. 

Oroa'te*.     The  son  of  Agamemnon. 

Or'phouS.  A  celebrated  Argonaut,  whose  skill 
In  music  ii  sol  I  to  have  been  so  great  that  he 
coul  I  make  racks,  trees,  etc..  follow  him.  He 
was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Calliope. 

Osiris.    B««  Apis. 

Palla'dium.     A  statue  of  Minerva,  which  the 

i  Imagined  ftiS  Eras  heaven,  and  with 

which  their  city  was  deemed  unconquerable. 

Pallas  and  PyTotis.     Names  of  Minerv:t. 

Pan.  The  son  of  Mercury,  and  the  god  of  vhep- 
h  rat,  huntsmen,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country. 

Panda 'r a.  The  first  woman,  made  by  Vulcan, 
and  endowed  with  gifts  by  all  ihe  deities.  Jupi- 
ter gave  her  a  box  which  contained  all  the  evils 
and  miseries  of  life,  but  with  hope  at  the  bottom. 

Paris,  or  Alexander.  Son  of  Priam  and 
H.:cuba;  a  most  beautiful  youth,  who  ran  away 
with  Helen,  and  thus  occasioned  the  Trojan  war. 

Parnas'sus.  A  mountain  of  Phocis,  famous  for 
a  temple  oi  Apollo  ;  the  favorite  residence  of  the 
Muses. 

Pogr'asus.  A  winged  horse  belonging  to  Apollo 
and  Ihe  Muses,  which  sprung  from  the  blood  of 
Medusa  when  Perseus  cut  off  her  fa 

Pena'tm.     Small  statues,  or  household  gods. 

Pen  ol 'one.  A  celebrated  prince**  of  Greece, 
daugmcr  of  I  cams  f  and  wife  of  Ulysses;  cele- 
brated for  her  cSasiity  and  constancy  in  the  long 
absence  of  her  husband. 

Per'seus.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Panae;  per- 
form c  I  many  extraordinary  exploits  by  means 
of  Medusa's  head. 

Pha'etotU     Son  of  Sol   (Apollo)  and  Climene. 

ed  the  guidance  of  his  father's  chariot  for 

<y  as  a  proof  of  his  divine  descent;  but, 

unable  to  mature  the  horses,  set  the  world  on 

fire,  and  was  therefore  struck  by  Jupiter  with  a 

thunderbolt  into  the  river  Po. 

Philomela.  The  daughter  of  Pandion,  king  of 
Athens;  changed  Into  a  nightingale. 

Phin'eaa,  Ragofl  Paphhtgonia;  had  his  m 
torn  out  by  Porea^.hut  was  recompensed  with 
the  knowledge  of  ftimriiy.  A'so,  a  king  of 
Thrace  turned  into  a  stone  by  Perseus. 

Phostrus.    A  title  of  Apollo. 

Pleiades.  Seven  daughters  of  Adas  and  Plei- 
one,  changed  into  stars. 

Plu'to.  The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops,  brother  of 
Juonsraad  Neptune,  and  the  god  of  the  infernal 
iSPSBSi 


Plu'tuS.     The  god  of  riches. 
Pomona.     The  goddess  of  fruits  and  ?utomn. 
Polyhym'nia.    The  Muse  of  rhetoric. 
Priam.     The  last  king  of  Troy,  the  son  of  La- 
i,  under  whose  reign  Troy  was  taken  by 
the  Greeks. 

Prometheus.  The  son  of  Japetus;  said  to 
have  stolen  fire  from  heaven  to  animate  two 
bodies  which  he  had  formed  of  clay,  and  was 
therefore  chained  by  Jupiter  to  Mourn  Caucasus, 
with  a  vulture  perpetually  gnawing  his  liver. 

Pros'erpine.     Wife  of  Pluto. 

Pro'teus.  The  son  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys ;  a 
sea-goJ  and  prophet,  who  possessed  the  power 
of  changing  himself  into  any  shape. 

Pey'che.  A  nymph  beloved  by  Cupid,  and 
made  immoral  by  Jupiter. 

Pys/znies.  A  nation  of  dwarfs  only  a  span 
long,  carried  away  by  Hercules. 

Pyl'ades.     The  constant  friend  of  Orestes. 

Pyr'amua  and  Thisbe.  Two  lovers  of  Baby.. 
Ion,  who  killed  themselves  with  tlic  same  sword, 
and  thus  caused  the  berries  of  the  mulberry  tree, 
under  which  they  died,  to  change  from  white  to 
red. 

Py'thon.  A  huge  serpent,  produced  from  the 
mud  of  the  deluge ;  killed  by  Apollo,  who,  in 
memory  thereof,  institmcd  the  PyUMSS  games. 

Re'mua.  The  elder  brother  of  Romulus,  killed 
by  him  for  ridiculing  the  city  walls. 

Rhadr; man  thus.     One  of  the  three   infernal 

judges. 

Romulus.  The  son  of  Mars  Ilia ;  thrown  into 
the  Tiber  by  his  uncle,  but  saved,  with  his  twin 
brother, Remus,  by  a  shepherd;  became  the 
founder  and  first  king  of  Rome. 

Salii.     The  twelve  frantic  priests  of  Mars. 
Sal  US.      Goddess  of  health. 
Saturnalia.     Feasts  of  Saturn. 

Sat'urn.  A  son  of  Qrlus  and  Terra;  god  of  time. 
Satyrs.     Attendants  cf  Bacchus  ;    horned  mon- 
sters, half  goats,  hdf  men. 

Sem'ele.  The  daughter  of  Cadmus  and  Thebe, 
and  mother  of  Bacchus. 

SenuVamis.  .  A  celebrated  queen  of  Assyria, 
who  built  ihe  walls  of  Babylon;  was  slain  by 
her  own  son,  Ninyas,  and  turned  into  a  pigeon. 

Sera'pis.    See  A/is. 

Sile'nus.  The  foster-father,  master  and  com- 
panion  of  Bacchus.  He  lived  in  Arcadia,  rode 
on  an  ass,  and  was  drunk  every  day. 

Si'rens.  Sea  -  nymphs,  or  sea  -  monsters,  the 
daughters  of  Oceanus  and  Amphitrite. 

Sisyphus.  The  son  of  iEolus  ;  a  most  crafty 
.  killed  by  Theseus,  and  condemned  by 
Pluto  to  roll  up  hill  a  large  stone,  which  con- 
stantly fell  back  again. 

3oL     A  name  of  Apollo. 

Somnus.  The  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox,  and  the 
god  of  sleep. 

Sphinx.     A  monster,  who  destroyed  herself  be. 
1  Kdipus  solved  the  enigma  she  proposed. 

Sten'tOr.     A  Grecian  whose  voice   is 
to  have  been  as  strong  and  as  loud  as  the  l 
of  fifty  men  together. 

S  the  no.     One  of  the  three  Gorgon*. 

Styx.     A  river  of  hell. 

Sy  lvanus.     A  god  of  woods  and  forests. 

Ta'cita,     A  goddess  of  silence. 

Tantalus.  The  son  of  Jupiter,  and  king  of 
Lydia,  who  served  up  tnc  limbs  of  his  son, 
Pelops,  to  try  the  disunity  *  f  the  gods,  for  which 
he  was  plunged  to  the  chin  in  a  lake  if  hell,  and 
doomed  to  everlasting  thirst  and  hunger. 

Tar'tarus.  The  part  of  the  infernal  regions  \ 
which  the  wicked  were  punished. 

Tau'rus.  The  bull  under  whose  form  Jupiter 
arried  away  Europe. 

Telexn'achus.     The  only  son  of  Ulysses. 

Terpsichore.  The  Muse  presiding  over  danc- 
ing. 


* 


Kr 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  MUSICAL  TERMS 


799 


"71 


The'mis.     The  daughter  of  Coelus  and  Terra, 
and  goddess  of  justice. 

Ti'phys.     Pilot  of  the  ship  Argo. 

Tisiph'one.    One  of  the  three  Furies. 

Ti'tan.     The  son  of  Ccelus  and   Terra,  elder 

brother  of  Saturn,  and  one  of  the  giants  who 

warred  against  heaven. 
Titho'nus.     The  son  of  Laomedon,  loved  by 

Aurora,  and  turned  by  her,  in  his  old  age,  Into  a 

grasshopper. 
Tri'ton.    The  son  of  Neptune  and  Amphitrite,  a 

powerful  sea-god,  and  Neptune's  trumpeter. 


Tro'ilus.     A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba. 
Troy.     A  city  of  Phrygia,  famous  for  holding  out 

a  siege   of  ten   years  against    the  Greeks,  but 

filially  captured  and  destroyed. 
"Dlys'ses.     King  of  Ithaca,  who,  by  his  subtlety 

and  eloquence,  was  eminently  serviceable  to  the 

Greeks  in  the  Trojan  war. 
TXra'nia.     The  Muse  of  astronomy. 
Ve'nus.    One  of  the  most  celebrated  deities  of 

the  ancients,  the  wife  of  Vulcan,  the  goddess  of 

beauty,  the  mother  of  love,  and  the  mistress  of 

the  graces  and  of  pleasures. 
Vertum'nus.    A  deity  of  the  Romans,  who  pre- 


sided over  spring  and  orchards,  and  who  was  the 
lover  of  Pomona. 

Ves'ta.  The  sister  of  Ceres  and  Juno,  the  god- 
dess of  fire,  and  patroness  of  vestal  virgins. 

Viri'placa.  An  inferior  nuptial  goddess,  who 
reconciled  husbands  and  wives.  A  temple  at 
Rome  was  dedicated  to  her,  whither  the  married 
couple  repaired  after  a  quarrel. 

Vul'cail.  The  god  who  presided  over  subterra- 
neous fire,  patron  of  workers  in  metal. 

Zeph'yrtUi-  The  west  wind,  son  of  &olus  and 
Aurora,  and  lover  of  the  goddess  Flora, 

Zeus.    A  title  of  Jupiter. 


-*~«-H3K£H-«~i-- 


->1  4 


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»  i<- 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  MUSICAL  TERMS. 


■M  4 


^1^ 


* — *-H- 


Accellerando,  or  AoceL  Quicken  the  time 
gradually. 

.Adagio.     Very  slow. 
Ad  Libitum,  or  Ad  Lib.    At  will. 
Affettuoso.     Affecting,  with  pathos. 
Agitato.     Agitated. 
Al  Fine.    To  the  end. 

Allegretto.  Somewhat  cheerful,  but  not  so 
quick  as  Allegro. 

AUegTO.    Quick. 

Al  Segno-  To  the  sign,  signifying  that  the  per- 
former must  go  back  to  the  sign  ;S;t  and  play 
from  that  mark  to  the  word  Fin*. 

Amoroso.     Lovingly. 

Andante.    Somewhat  slow. 

Andantino.     Not  quite  so  slow  as  Andante. 

Animato.     In  an  animated  style. 

A  poco  a  POCO.     Little  by  little. 

Aria.    An  air  or  song. 

Assai.     Very,  extremely. 

A  tempo.     In  the  regular  time. 

Bis.     Twice  (repeat). 

Brillante.    Brilliant. 

Calando.  Diminishing  gradually  in  tone  and 
speed. 

Cantabile.     In  a  graceful,  singing  style. 

Con  JKoto.     In  agitated  style.     With  spirit. 

Con  Spirito.     With  quickness  and  spirit. 

Coda.  A  few  bars  added  to  terminate  a  compo- 
sition. 

Colla  Voce.     With  the  voice  or  melody. 

Con  Brio.    With  brilliancy. 

Con  Expressions    With  expression. 

Crescendo,  or  Cres.    Gradually  increase  the 

volume  ot  tone. 

Da  Capo,  or  D.  C.  Repeat  from  the  beginning 
to  the  word  Fine. 

Decrescendo,  or  Decree.  Gradually  dimin- 
ish the  volume  of  tone. 

Delicato.     Delicately. 

Del  Segno.     See  Segno. 

Diminuendo,  or  Dim.    Same  as  Decrescendo. 

Dolce,  or  DoL     In  a  sweet,  smooth  style. 

Dolor o so.    In  a  mournful,  pathetic  style. 


E.     And 

Expressivo.       }  — -^ 

■a  .  r  Withexpi 

Expressione.     ) 

Fine.    The  end. 
Forte,  or  f.    Loud. 
Fortissimo,  or  ft    Very  loud. 
Forzando,  or  Fz.    Signifies  that  the  note  is  to 
be  given  peculiar  emphasis  or  force. 

Forza.     Force. 

FuOCO.     With  fire. 

Grave.    Extremely  slow. 

Grazioso.     In  a  graceful,  elegant  style. 

Impromptu.    An  extemporaneous  production. 

L.  H.     Left  hand. 

Larghetto.     Slow  and  solemn,  but  less  so  than 

Largo. 
Largo.     Very  slow  and  solemn. 
Legeremente.    Lightly,  gayly. 
Lentando.     Slower  by  degrees. 
Legato.    In  a  smooth  and  connected  manner. 
Lento.     In  a  slow  time. 
Loco.     Place,  play  as  written. 
Maestoso.     Majestic  and  dignified. 
Martellato.     Struck  with  force. 
Mono.    Less. 

Mezzo,  or  M,     Neither  loud  nor  soft — medium. 
T&czzo  Fort©,  or  mf.     Rather  loud. 
Mezzo  Piano,  or  mp.    Rather  soft. 
Moderato.    Moderate. 
Molto.     Very. 
JXEosso.     Movement. 
Moto,   or  Con  Moto.    With  agitation  and 

earnestness. 
Morendo.    Dying  away. 
Non  Troppo.    Not  too  much. 
Obligate     Cannot  be  omitted. 
Ottava,  or  8va.    An  octave  higher. 
Patetico.     Pathetically. 
Pastorale.    A  soft  and  rural  movement. 
Piano,  or  p.    Soft. 
Pianissimo,  or  pp.    Very  soft. 
Piu.    Very. 
Poco.    A  Uttle,  somewhat. 


Pomposo.     Pompous,  grand. 
Presto.     Very  quick. 
Prestissimo.    As  quick  as  possible. 
Quasi.    As  if. 

Rallentando,  or  Rail.  A  gradual  diminu- 
tion of  tone  and  retarding  of  movement. 

Religiose     En  a  solemn  style. 

Ritardando,  or  Ritard,  or  Rit,    Gradually 

sluwer. 

Rinforzando,  or  Rf.     With  additional  force, 

Ritenuto.     Hold  back  the  time  at  once. 

Scherzando.     Playfully. 

Segue.     Continue  as  before. 

Seria.    Seriously. 

Sempre.     Throughout — always, 

Semplice.     In  a  simple,  unaffected  style. 

Segno,  or  :S:.  Sign ;  as,  Al  segno,  to  the  sign ; 
Dal  Segno,  repeat  from  the  sign  to  the  word 
Fine. 

Senza.    Without. 

Sf o  r  z  ando.     E  mphasi  zed . 

Sincopato.    Forced  out  of  time. 

Smorzando.    Smoothed,  decreased. 

Soave-     Soft  and  delicate. 

Sotto  Voce.     In  an  undertone. 

So^tenutO.     Tn  a  smooth,  connected  style, 

Spirito,  or  Con  Spirito.    With  spirit. 

Staccato.     Detached,  short. 

Tempo.    In  time. 

lempo  di  Marcia.    In  marching  time. 

Tempo  di  Valse.    In  waltz  time. 

Tempo  PrimO.     In  the  original  time. 

Trillando.    Shaking  on  a  succession  of  notes. 

Tranquillo.    Tranquilly. 

Tutto  Forza.    As  loud  as  possible. 

Veloce.     With  Velocity, 

VigoroSO.     Boldly,  vigorously. 

Vivace.     With  extreme  briskness  and  anima- 
tion. 
Vivo.    Animated,  lively. 
Volti  Subito.    Turn  over  the  pages  quickly. 
ZelosO*     With  zeal. 


/ 


8oo 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  FAMILIAR  ALLUSIONS. 


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Ifflil  Vfltji  fftll 


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Words  and  Phrases,  Persons,  Places,   Pictures,   Buildings,  Streets  and   Monuments  frequently  alluded  to  in 

Literature  and  in  Conversation. 


ff-UO  has  not  met,  either  in  reading  or  conversation,  with  allusions  to  matters  with  which  he  was  previously  unacquainted? 
ft    Facts  and  fancies  of  history  and  romance  are  continually  encountered,  to  which  only  a  liberal  education  or  a  wide  course 
of  study  will  give  the  key.    We  have  gathered  below  a  glossary  of  the  most  frequent  of  these  allusions,  and  we  flatter 
*        ourselves  that  the  succeeding  pages  will  throw  a  flood  of  light  upon  many  interesting  topics  which  to  the  majority  of 
people  have  heretofore  been  dark  and  inex-:'   .able. 


Abderlte.  Democritus,  the  original  laugh- 
ing philosopher,  was  born  in  Abdera,  a  Thra- 
cian  city.       From   him   a  scoffer  or  person 

Sven  to  continual  laughing  is  called  an 
bderite. 

Abraham'*  Bosom.  The  rest  of  the 
blessed  dead. 

Ahyla  and  Calne,  the  Pillars  of  Hercules, 
the  exit  from  the  Mediterranean. 

Academic*.  Plato's  disciples  were  so 
called  from  the  Academy. 

Academy.  (Academe.)  Plato  founded 
his  school  in  a  gymnasium  of  this  name  near 
Athens.    36S  B.  C. 

Academy,  The  French.  A  French  sci- 
entific body  limited  to  forty  members. 

Acadia.  Formerly  the  name  of  Nova 
Scotia. 

Ailiim's  Apple.  A  part  of  the  throat 
where,  it  is  said,  a  piece  of  the  forbidden  fruit 
lodged. 

Admirable  Crlchton,  The.  James 
Crichton,  an  accomplished  Scotchman  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

Admiral.    The  highest  rank  In  the  Navy. 

.Tlnriil.    An  epic  poem  by  Virgil. 

Ages.  The  five  ages  of  the  world  accord- 
ing to  Hesiod,  are  the  Golden,  the  Silver,  the 
Brazen,  the  Heroic  and  the  Iron. 

Alabama.  A  Confederate  privateer  .milt 
in  F.ugland.       Sunk  by  the   Kcarsarge  J une 

10th,  fte*. 

Aladdin's  Window,  To  Finish.  Trying 
to  complete  another's  work.  Aladdin's  palace 
was  perfect  except  one  window  left  for  the 
Sultan  to  finish,  but  his  treasure  failed  liiin. 

Albany  Regency.  Name  applied  sixty 
years  ago  to  some  Democrats  at  Albany,  V  V. 

Albino.     A  person  with  white  skin  and 
hair  and  red  eyes.     The  Portuguese  so 
the  white  negroes. 

Albion.  England,  so  called  from  the 
chalky  white  cliffs. 

Aldlne  Press.  Founded  by  Aldus  Manu- 
tlus  at  Venice  In  l«/i.  Editions  of  the  class- 
lea  issued  from  this  press  were  called  the 
Aldlne  editions.  This  term  Is  now  applied  to 
•omo  elegant  editions  of  English  works. 

A 1.  van, Irian  Library.  Was  found.  .1  by 
PtoUmy  I'hiladclphus.  It  contained  700,000 
volumes,  and  was  burnt  47  B.  C. 


Alexandrine  Age.  323-640,  when  Alex- 
andria was  the  seat  of  the  highest  culture. 

\  Ihanibra.  A  magnificent  palace  and  a 
fortress  built  by  the  Moors  at  Granada,  in 
Spain. 

All-Hallows.    All  Saints'  day,  Nov.  1st 

Allah.    Arabic  name  of  God. 

Almack*.  Assembly  room  in  London 
where  the  most  exclusively  aristocratic  balls 
were  given. 

Almighty  Dollar.  A  phrase  first  used 
by  Irving  in.  his  Creole  Village,  and  which  has 
become  quite  common.    The  title  of  a  play. 

Alsatla.  A  quarter  in  London  where 
criminals  take  refuge. 

Alto-Relievo.  Figures  in  marble  or  cast- 
ings projecting  one-half  or  more  from  the 
tablet. 

Ambrosia.     Food  of  the  Gods. 

Anachronism.  An  error  In  computing 
time. 

Anacreontics.  Poems  composed  in  the 
manner  of  Anacreon,  a  great  poet  noted  for 
his  exact  imitation  of  nature. 

Anclen  Regime.  The  French  Govern- 
ment previous  to  the  revolution  of  1798. 

Angling,  The  Father  of.   Izaak  Walton. 

Annua  Mlrabilia.  (Wonderful  year.) 
A.  D.  1666.  Noted  for  the  great  fire  in  Lon- 
don, the  Plague,  and  an  English  victory  over 
the  butch.  ' 

Antoninus,  The  Wall  of.  Was  built  by 
the  Unmans  in  A.  D.  140  across  Scotland  be- 
tween the  Clyde  and  the  Frith  of  Forth;  an 
embankment  of  earth. 

Apollo  Belvedere.  One  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  perfect  representations  of  the  human 
ituc  of  Apollo  In  the  Belvedere 
iy  of  the  Vatican  Palace  at  Rome. 

Applan  Way.  The  road  from  Rome  to 
Capua.    The  oldest  Roman  road. 

Apples  of  Sodom.  Beautiful  fruit,  hut 
full  el  alhet,  Applied  figuratively  BO  the  dis- 
appointment of  sin. 

Apple,  Golden.  Prize  for  bcautv  disput- 
ed before  l*;nis,  between  Juno,  Pallas  and 
;  awarded  by  htm  to  Venus. 

Arabesque.    Decoration  in  Moorish  stvle. 

Arcadian.  A  shepherd;  a  Greek  grazing 
country  named  Arcadia  has  furnished  this 
word  to  the  poets. 


Argo.  The  ship  in  which  Jason  and  his 
fifty-four  compani  ns  sailed  when  going  to 
Colches  for  the  Golden  Fleece. 

Argonauts.  The  adventurers  on  the  Argo. 

Argus-eyed.  Crafty,  watchful.  Argus 
had  a  hundred  eyes;  the  jealous  Juno  put  him 
on  detective  duty  over  Io. 

Armada,  The  Spanish.  A  fleet  of  130 
ships  gathered  by  Philip  of  Spain  for  the  in- 
vasion of  England  in  1500.  Queen  Elizabeth 
was  busy  preparing  for  resistance  when  the 
news  came  that  a  storm  had  completely 
wrecked  the  Armada. 

Artesian  Well.  Boring  in  the  earth  un- 
til water  is  reached  that  will  flow  spontane- 
ously.   Their  first  use  was  in  Artois,  France. 

Aryans.  The  stem  of  the  Indo-European 
peoples. 

Astor  Library.  Founded  by  John  Jacob 
Astor  in  New  York  City. 

Athens,  The  Modern.    Boston. 

Augustan  Age.  As  the  most  flourishing 
period  of  the  Roman  literature  was  during 
the  time  of  Augustus,  that  name  is  given 
to  any  age  wherein  literature  is  pre-eminent. 

A nlil  Reekie.    Scotland. 

Avalon.  King  Arthur's  burial-place, 
Glastonbury. 

A>  re-hire  Poet,  The.  Bums.  His  birth- 
place was  near  Ayr  in  Scotland. 

Barnburner*.  A  name  given  some  years 
ago  to  radical  Democrats,  a  leading  man 
amongst  whom  was  John  Van  Buren. 

Babylonish  Captivity.  The  seventy  years' 
captivity  of  the  Jews  at  Babylon, oot  -J3S  B.C. 

Itaeonian  Philosophy.  The  inductive 
philosophy  of  Lord  Bacon. 

Ilnlmoral  Castle.  A  Scotch  castle  own- 
ed by  Queen  Victoria,  where  she  spend*  meet 
OX  her  time  in  the  summer. 

Rank  of  England.    Founded  1694. 

Rnrd  of  Avon.  Shakspere,  so  called 
from  his  home  being  Stratford-on-Avon. 

Barmecide'.  Feast.  A  mockery,  *  de- 
lusion and  a  sham.  Barmecide  asked  a  starv- 
ing beggar  to  dinner,  and  seated  him  at  a 
table  of  empty  dishes. 

Basilisk.  A  mythical  srrprnt  vrtta  power 
to  kill  by  merely  looking  at  its  victim. 


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A    DICTIONARY    OF    FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


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Basso  RelieTO.  Figures  in  marble  and 
castings  thatprojectbut  a  little  from  the  plane. 

Bastile.  French  prison  and  fortress. 
People  were  incarcerated  here  by  lettre  de 
cachet,  without  notice  or  trial.  Destroyed 
by  a  mob,  170S. 

Battle  of  the  Books.  Satire  by  Dean  Swift 
comparing  ancient  and  modern  literature. 

Battle  of  the  Kegs.  A  practical  joke  on 
the  British  General  Loring.  Detailed  in  a 
ballad  of  the  Revolutionary  war. 

Battery,  The.  A  park  in  New  York  City 
adjoining  the  river. 

Beacon  St.  The  aristocratic  residence 
street  of  Boston. 

Beauty  and  the  Beast.  A  fairy  tale. 
Beauty  lives  with  the  Beast  to  save  her  fath- 
er's life.  By  her  love  she  disenchants  the 
Beast,  who  proves  to  be  a  great  Prince. 

Bedlam.    A  mad-house. 

Bee,  The  Attic.  Plato;  so  called  from 
his  honeyed  style. 

Bee,  The  Busy.  An  example  of  com- 
munal industry. 

Beelzebub.    A  Philistine  deity. 

Begging  the  Question.  Assuming  as 
true  what  you  are  to  prove. 

Belle  France,  La.     Beautiful  France. 

Belgravia.  Fashionable  quarter  of  Lon- 
don. 

Bell  the  Cat.  In  a  convention  of  mice 
it  was  proposed  to  hang  a  bell  on  the  cat's 
neck,  to  give  warning  of  her  coming.  No 
one  would  serve  on  the  committee. 

Bell,  The  Passing.  Rung  formerly  when 
persons  were  dying. 

Beloved  Disciple,  The.    St.  John. 

Bess,  Good  Queen.    Queen  Elizabeth. 

Bibliotheque  National.  (National  Li- 
brary.) At  Paris;  contains  over  1,000,000  books, 
150,000  MSS. 

Billingsgate.  Coarse  language.  Such 
as  is  used  at  the  fish  market  of  Billingsgate  in 
London ;  a  fishwife's  tongue  being  said  to  be 
remarkably  expressive. 

Black  Death.  A  plague  which  desolated 
Europe,  Asia  and  Africa  in  the  fourteenth 
century. 

Black  Friday.  Gold  panic  Sept.  26th, 
1869.  Immense  fortunes  lost  and  won  same 
day.  Investigation  could  never  discover  the 
true  inwardness  of  it. 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta.  Dark  prison 
cell  wherein  Surajah  Dowlah  shut  up  146 
British  soldiers;  only  23  lived  till  morning. 

Black  Prince,  The.  Edward,  Prince  of 
Wales,  son  of  Edward  III. 

Black  Republicans.  The  Republican 
party  of  U.  S.  so  called  when  opposing  the 
extension  of  slavery. 

Blarney  Stone.  Its  supposed  virtue  when 
kissed  is  to  impart  a  smooth  and  oily  tongue. 
Profusion  of  compliments  is  called  Blarney. 
This  stone  is  in  Blarney  Castle,  near  Cork, 
Ireland. 

Bluebeard.  A  wife-killing  tyrant,  in  a 
nursery  story. 

Blue  Laws.      Some  severe  New  England 

statutes  were  so  called. 
Blue  Stocking.       A  literary  society  at 

Venice  in  1400,  whose  members  wore  blue 
stockings,  is  the  origin  of  this  name  for  a 
female  pedant. 

Bohemian.  As  opposed  to  Philistine,  an 
artist  or  literary  man  living  loosely  by  his  wits. 

Bois  de  Boulogne.  A  Parisian  prome- 
nade. 

Border,  The.  Frontier  of  England  and 
Scotland. 

Border  Minstrel,  The.  Sir  Walter  Scott 

Border  States.  Maryland,  Delaware, Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky,  Missouri. 


Bourgeoisie.  A  class  of  the  people  of 
France    mostly    composed    of     traders    and 

manufacturers. 

Boulevard.  A  wide  street  in  Paris,  in  the 
place  of  the  ancient  ramparts. 

Bourse.    Parisian  stock  exchange. 

Bow  Bells.  A  set  of  bells  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Mary-le-Bow,  London.  One  "born 
within  sound  of  Bow  Bells"  is  a  Cockney. 

Bowery,  The.  A  New  York  thoroughfare. 

Boycott.  To  refuse  to  have  anything  to 
do  with  a  person.  To  let  him  severely  alone. 
A  trying  ordeal  passed  through  by  Captain 
Boycott  in  Ireland  in  1881.  No  one  would 
sell  to  him,  buy  from  him,  work  for  him  or 
speak  to  him. 

Brandy  Nose.    Queen  Anne  of  England. 

Breeches  Bible,  The.  An  edition  in 
which  "aprons"  in  Gen.  iii.  7  is  rendered 
"breeches." 

Bride  of  the  Sea.    Venice. 

Bridge  of  Sighs.  In  Venice.  Connects 
Doge's  Palace  and  State  Prison.  Over  this 
bridge  the  condemned  passed  when  on  their 
way  to  be  executed. 

British  Museum.  Library  and  museum 
in  London. 

Broadway.  The  principal  business  street 
of  New  York. 

Brook  Farm.  A  Socialistic  community 
to  carry  out  the  idea  of  Fourierism;  was 
founded  at  West  Roxbury,  Mass.,  1S41. 

Brother  Jonathan.  America ;  an  Amer- 
ican. Some  doubt  as  to  its  origin,  but  it  is 
said  to  come  from  Gov.  Jonathan  Trumbull, 
of  Connncticut,  in  speaking  of  whom  Wash- 
ington would  say,  "We  must  consult  Brother 
Jonathan." 

Buncombe.  Clap -trap  speeches,  to  cajole 
constituents,  more  than  for  immediate  effect. 
Buncombe  is  in  North  Carolina.  A  North 
Carolina  member  said  a  fiery  speech  was  not 
delivered  to  the  House,  but  to  Buncombe. 

Bunker  Hill  Monument.  An  obelisk 
of  granite  marking  the  site  of  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  fought  between  the  British  and 
Americans,  June  17,  1775. 

Cachet,  Lettres  de.  (Sealed  letters.) 
Blank  warrants  with  the  seal  of  the  French 
King  already  affixed  for  imprisoning  or  re- 
leasing any  person  in  the  Bastilc. 

Caledonia.    Scotland. 

Calumet.  An  Indian  pipe.  In  old  times 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  red  men  would  be 
ratified  by  smoking  the  calumet. 

Campagna.  The  plains  around  the  city 
of  Rome. 

Carbonari.  A  secretpolitical  society  or- 
ganized in  Italy,  1820. 

Carmagnole.  Song  and  dance  in  the 
French  Revolution. 

Cartesian  Philosophy.  From  Descartes, 
"  I  think,  therefore  I  exist." 

Castle  Garden.  At  New  York  City,  the 
landing-place  of  emigrants. 

Catacombs.  Subterranean  sepulchres. 
.About  three  miles  from  Rome  in  the  Appian 
Way  a  vast  number  of  long  underground  pas- 
sages about  three  feet  wide  and  ten  feet  high. 
On  each  side  in  niches  were  deposited  the 
bodies  of  the  martyrs  and  early  Christians. 
These  niches  were  closed  with  tiles  or  slabs 
of  marble  having  proper  inscriptions  on 
them.  During  the  persecutions  the  Christians 
concealed  themselves  in  these  caves. 

Cavalier  Servente.  The  escort  of  a 
married  woman. 

Cecilia,  St.  A  martyr;  patroness  of 
music. 

Celestial  Empire.  China,  whose  first 
Emperors  were  all  divinities. 


Central  Park.  The  great  park  of  New 
York  City;  contains  863  acres. 

Champs  de  Mars.  A  field  in  Paris  for 
military  manoeuvres. 

Champs  Elysees.  A  promenade  in  Paris. 

Charter  Oak.  A  tree  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
in  which  the  Colonial  Charter  was  secreted 
in  1688.    It  was  blown  down  in  1S56. 

Chauvinism.  Patriotism  of  the  blatant 
kind,  from  Chauvin,  one  of  Scribe's  charac- 
ters. 

Cheapside.     A  thoroughfare  in  London. 
Chiltern  Hundreds,  To  Accept  the.  A 

member  of  the  English  Parliament  cannot 
resign,  and  cannot  hold  office  during  mem- 
bership. If  he  wishes  to  leave,  he  can  vacate 
his  seat  by  accepting  the  office  of  Steward  of 
the  Chiltern  Hundreds. 

Chiltern  Hundreds.  A  tract  in  Buck- 
inghamshire  and  Oxfordshire,  England,  to 
which  is  attached  the  nominal  office  of 
steward  under  the  crown. 

Christ  Church.  The  name  of  the  largest 
college  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Cid,  The.  The  Spanish  hero,  Don  Rod- 
erigo  Laynez,  Count  of  Bivar. 

Cincinnati,  The.  Society  of  American 
Revolutionary  officers. 

Citizen  King,  The.  Louis  Philippe  of 
France. 

Cockaine,  Land  of.  An  imaginary 
country  of  ease  and  pleasure;  usually  applied 
to  London. 

Colossus  of  Rhodes.  A  brass  statue, 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  which  stood 
astride  the  entrance  to  the  port  of  Rhodes. 

Columbia.  Poetical  name  of  the  United 
States. 

Column  of  Vendome.  A  stone  pillar  in 
Paris  erected  by  Napoleon,  commemorating 
the  successes  of  the  French  armies.  It  was 
thrown  down  by  the  Communists  in  1871. 

Confederate  States.  The  eleven  States 
which  seceded  in  1861,  Alabama,  Arkansas, 
Florida,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Mississippi, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee, 
Texas  and  Virginia. 

Congressional  Library.  At  Washing- 
ton ;  it  is  the  largest  in  the  United  States. 

Consols.    English  public  securities. 

Copperheads.  Northern  sympathizers 
with  the  South  in  the  Civil  war. 

Corncrackers,  The.    Kentuckians. 

Corn   Law   Rhymer,   The.      Ebenezer 

Elliott. 

Corso.    The  chief  thoroughfare  of  Rome. 

Crapand,  Johnny.    A  Frenchman. 

Credit  Mobilier.  An  authorized  stock 
company.  The  American  Credit  Mobilier 
formed  for  raising  money  for  the  Pacific 
Railroad  raised  a  foul  odor  in  1873. 

Crocodile  Tears.  Counterfeit  sorrow. 
A  fable  says  the  crocodile  weeps  as  it  eats  its 
victim. 

Cumberland.  A  United  States  vessel 
sunk  by  the  Confederate  ram  Merrimac  in 
Hampton  Roads,  March  8,  1862. 

Curfew  Bell.  At  8  o'clock,  the  ringing  of 
the  curfew  bell  in  old  times  in  England,  all 
lights  were  extinguished,  the  fires  raked  up 
and  covered,  and  the  people  of  the  Kingdom 
retired  to  bed.  This  rule,  made  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  lasted  for  a  long  time,  and 
even  yet  there  is  some  sign  of  its  observance 
in  the  nine  o'clock  bell  rung  in  many  parts  of 
New  England. 

Damocles'  Sword.  Damocles,  having 
commented  upon  the  happiness  which  the 
tvrant  Dionysius  must  enjoy,  was  invited  by 
him  to  a  feast  where,  whilst  discussing  the 
good  things,  he  looked  up  and  discovered  a 
sword  hanging  by  a  single  hair  immediately 
over  his  head. 


l_ 


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A    DICTIONARY   OF    FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


,  It  ar 

U    HI 


Darby  and  Joan.    The  loving;  couple. 

Darwinian  Theory.  An  explanation  of 
the  origin  of  species  in  animals,  that  they 
come  from  one  or  a  few  original  forms,  the 
at  differences  resulting  from  develop- 
ment and  natural  selection. 

Da  Profundi*.  The  130th  Psalm;  part  of 
tlur  iMjriul  service. 

Debatable  Ground.  Land  on  the  west- 
ern border  of  Scotland,  disputed  between 
England  and  Scotland. 

Defender  of  the  Faith.  Henry  VIII. 
received  this  title  from  Tope  Leo.  X.,  and 
his  successors  have  borne  it  ever  since. 

Directory,  The  French.  By  the  Con- 
stitution ot  1705,  the  executive  power  was 
vested  In  five  Directors ;  It  lasted  only  four 
years. 

Dixie,  The  Land  of.  The  Southern  States. 

Dlxsy.  The  nickname  of  Benjamin  Dis- 
raeli, Karl  of  Bcaconsfield. 

Doctors'  Commons.  The  place  where 
the  Ecclesiastical  Court  sat  in  London. 

Doctrinaire.      A  cant  term    in    French 

Solitics,  given  to  the  proposer  of  an  imprac- 
cable  compromise  measure. 
Doe,  John.      The    fictitious    plaintiff    In 
ejectment  suits,  the  defendant  being  Richard 

Doomsday  Book.  Compiled  by  order  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  It  contained  a  sur- 
vey and  an  estimate  of  value  of  all  the  lands 
in  England. 

Donnybrook  Fair.  A  once  celebrated 
annual  fair  near  Dublin. 

Donny  Bible,  The.  The  English  Bible 
authorized  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church; 
first  published  at  Douay,  France. 

Downing  Street.  The  official  residence  of 
the  English  Prime  Minister  since  the  time  of 
Sir  Robert  Walpole  is  in  Downing  Street, 
London. 

Drnry  Lane  Theater.  In  London;  was 
opened  in  1688. 

Dying  Gladiator.  An  ancient  statue  in 
the  Capitol  at  Rome. 


Eastern  States,  The.  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island  and  Connecticut. 

Ecce  Homo.  A  painting  by  Correggio 
representing  the  Savior  crowned  with 
thorns. 

Ecole  Polytechnlque.  A  Parisian  school, 
the  graduates  of  which  are  given  places  in 
the  public  service. 

F.l  Dorado.  A  fabulous  region  In  South 
America,  surpassing  all  other  countries  in 
the  production  of  gems  and  precious  metals. 
A  name,  for  any  wealthy  country. 

Elephant,     Seeing     the.       Seeing    the 

world.  v 

Elgin  Marbles.  A  collection  of  Greek 
sculptures  made  by  Lord  Elgin.  Now  in  the 
British  Museum. 

Escurlal,  The.  A  royal  residence  built 
hv  Philip  II.;  It  Is  the  largest  structure  In 
Spain,  and  one  of  the  most  splendid  buildings 
in  Europe.  It  Is  11  miles  from  Madrid  and 
Contains  a  palace,  a  church,  a  monastery, 
free  schools  and  a  mausoleum. 

I.l.rnul  City,  The.     Rome. 

Eureka.  (I  have  found  It.)  Exclamation 
of  Archimedes  when  he  discovered  the  method 
of  proving  that  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the 
sides  of  a  right-angled  triangle  equaled  the 
square  of  the  hypothenuse. 

Evangelists,  Symbols  of  the.  Matthew 
has  a  rcroll  before  him  and  holds  a  pen; 
Mark  Its  writing,  with  a  winged  lion  by  Ml 
side;  Luke  has  a  pen  and  a  scroll,  near  him 
Is  an  ox  ;  John  Is  a  young  man  behind  whom 
la  an  eagle. 


Exclusion,  Bill  of.  A  bill  which  passed 
the  English  House  of  Commons  in  1070,  pro  - 
posing  to  exclude  the  Duke  of  York  from  the 
throne  because  he  was  a  Koman  Catholic. 

Expounder  of  the  Constitution,  The. 

Daniel  Webster. 


Fabian  Policy.  Delaying;  dilatory. 
From  Quintus  Fabius  Maximus,  the  Human 
General  who  successfully  opposed  Hannibal, 
the  Carthaginian,  by  avoiding  a  battle  ana 
continually  harassing  him. 

Fabius,  The  American.    George  Wash- 

lngton. 

Fairmount  Park.  In  Philadelphia, 
where  the  Centennial  Exhibition  of  1S76  was 
held ;  contains  nearly  3,000  acres. 

Faineants,  I. is  Bols.  (Do-nothing 
Kings.)  The  last  twelve  Kings  of  the  Merov 
lagtaa  Dynasty  were  so  called.  For  about 
100  years  previous  to  7J0,  when  Pepin  de- 
throned Childeric  III.,  they  were  mere  pup- 
pets, and  the  supreme  authority  was  exercised 
by  the  mayors  of  the  palace. 

Falerninn.  A  celebrated  ancient  Italian 
wine  grown  at  Falernum. 

Faneuil  Hall.  In  Boston,  built  174a  ;  called 
the  "cradle  of  Liberty,"  for  there  the  Rcvolu 
tionary  patriots  were  wont  to  assemble. 

Farmer  George.  George  III.  of  Eng- 
land ;  so  called  from  his  love  of  agriculture. 

Fata  Morgana.  A  mirage  in  the  Straits 
of  Messina. 

Father  of  his  Country.    George  Wash 

ington. 

Fathers   of   the   Latin    Church.      St 

Ambrose   of  Milan,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Ber- 
nard, St.  Hilary,  St  Jerome,  Lactantius. 

Faubourg  St.  Antolne.  The  part  of 
Paris  where  the  workingmen  live. 

Faubourg  St.  Germain.  Aristocratic 
part  of  Paris. 

Fenians.  A  society  of  Irishmen  formed 
in  the  United  States  in'1865  to  free  Ireland. 

shield  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  Plain  in 
France  where  Francis  I.  and  Henry  VIII. 
met  on  a  mutual  visit  It  is  historical  on 
account  of  the  gorgeous  display,  both  parties 
being  most  extravagant  in  their  outfit 

Fifth  Avenue.  A  celebrated  residence 
street  in  New  York. 

Fighting  Joe.  The  American  General 
Joseph  Hooker. 

First  Gentleman  In  Europe.  George 
IV.  of  England. 

Five  Points.  A  once  notorious  locality 
In  New  York, 

Flagellants.  Religious  fanatics  of  the 
thirteenth  century  who  went  about  naked  and 
scourging  themselves. 

Fleet,  The.  A  London  prison  taken 
down  in  1S45. 

Flowery  Kingdom,  The.    China. 

Flying  Dutchman.  A  spectre  ship 
cruising  about  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Fore- 
bodes  trouble  to  whoever  sees  it 

Forte.     Strong  point 

Fort  Sumter.  In  the  harbor  of  Charles- 
ton. S.  C.  Here  were  heard  the  first  sounds 
of  the  cannons'  thunder  in  the  late  Civil  war. 

Fnurierism.  Charles  F'ouricr,  a  French 
visionary,  proposed  a  system  of  communism 
In  which  the  world  should  be  divided  Into 
"  phalansteries "  of  four  hundred  families 
who  were  to  live  and  work  in  common. 

Freshman.  A  student  in  his  first  year  at 
college. 

Funk,  Peter.  A  mock  auction;  a  person 
employed  to  act  as  an  apparent  purchaser 
and  bid  up  articles  for  sale. 


Gadshlll.  Near  Rochester,  in  Kent, 
England.  Place  where  Palatal!  met  so  many 
men  in  buckram.   Charles  Dickens'  residence 

was  at  Gadshlll. 

Genre  Painting.  Represents  ordinary 
domestic  and  rural  scenes. 

George,  St.,  and  the  Dragon.  St 
George,  the  patron  saint  of  England,  is  said 
to  have  slain  in  Libya  a  hideous  dragon 
whose  daily  food  was  a  virgin. 

Gerrymander.  The  geographical  appor- 
tionment of  districts  to  give  preponderance 
to  one  political  partv.  Started  in  Massa- 
chusetts, and  named  from  Its  Govern 
bridge  Gerry.  Example,  a  shoestring  district 
in  Missouri. 

Ghetto.  The  quarter  In  Rome  to  which 
the  Jews  were  formerly  restricted. 

Ghibelline.  One  of  a  faction  in  Italv  in 
the  thirteenth  century,  which  favored  the 
German  Emperors,  in  opposition  to  the 
Guelphs,  adherents  of  the  Pope. 

Girondists;  The  Gironde.  Moderate 
"Constitutional"  Republican  party  in  the 
French  Revolution  in  179S. 

Glencoe.  A  pass  in  Argyleshire,  Scot' 
land.  Here,  February  13, 1691,  were  massacred 
thirty-eight  of  the  McDonalds  by  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  soldiers  under  Capt  Camp, 
bell. 

Gobelins.  A  tapestry  and  carpet  manu- 
factory at  Paris,  founded  by  Gobelin,  a  dyer, 
about  370  years  ago. 

Godlva,  Lady.  Wife  of  Leofric,  Earl  of 
Mercia.who  offered  to  remit  certain  exactions 
to  his  tenants  if  she  would  ride  naked  through 
the  streets  of  Coventry.  She  did  so,  all  the 
people  closingtheir  doors  and  keeping  within 
except  one,  "Peeping  Tom,"  who  was  struck 
blind  for  peeping  at  Her. 

Golconda.  The  neighborhood  of  some 
rich  diamond  mines  in  India. 

Gold  Fever.    1849;  peopled  California. 

Golden  Age.  A  period  of  innocence  and 
prosperity.  Nearly  always  refers  to  some 
past  age. 

Golden  Gate.  The  entrance  to  the  harbor 
of  San  I-'rancisco. 

Golden  Horn.  The  estuary  of  the  Bos- 
phorus,  upon  whose  banks  Constantinople  is 
built 

Gordian  Knot.  A  difficulty ;  an  obstacle. 
Gordius,  King  of  Phrvgia,  consecrated  to 
Jupiter  a  wagon,  the  beam  and  yoke  of  which 
were  tied  together  by  such  an  intricate  knot 
that  no  one  could  unravel  it.  An  oracle  hav- 
ing foretold  that  he  who  could  untie  this 
knot  would  be  master  of  Asia,  Alexander 
cut  it  asunder  with  his  sword. 

Gordon  Riots,  The.  In  17S0  in  London, 
the  hill  passed  by  the  House  of  Commons  for 
the  relief  of  the  Roman  Catholics  caused  so 
much  ill  feeling  that  Lord  George  Gordon,  a 
fanatic,  incited  the  mob  to  try  and  force  its 
repeal.  Dickens  in  his  Bamaby  Kudge  gives 
a  visid  description  of  these  riots. 

Gotham.  A  name  sometimes  applied  to 
New  York  City. 

Gotham,  The  Wise  Men  of.  Noted  for 
their  folly.    Gotham  was  sn  English  village. 

Great  Commoner,  The.    William  Pitt. 

Great  Duke,  The.    Wellington. 

Great  Eastern.  The  largest  vessel  ever 
launched.  She  was  built  to  carry  1,000  pas- 
sengers and  5,000  tons  of  cargo.'  Her  chief 
work  has  been  in  the  laying  of  ocean  tele- 
graph cables. 

Great  Pyramid,  The.  Is  at  Gheezeh, 
Egypt     It  is  4S4  feet  high. 

Greenbacks.  United  Ststrs  Treasury 
notes.    So  named  from  their  color. 

Green  Isle,  The.  Ireland.  Sometimes 
also  called  the  Emerald  Isle. 

Greenwood.  A  ccmctcnr  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y. 


V 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


-4 


Gregorian  Year.  1582 ;  it  being  proved 
that  the  years  were  eleven  minutes  shorter 
than  what  they  were  counted  at,  Gregory 
XIII.  took  ten  days  of  October  out  of  that 
year  and  advanced  the  dates  so  as  to  correct 
the  calendar.  The  reform  lias  been  accepted 
throughout  Christendom,  except  in  Russia. 
Example :  George  Washington,  born  Febru- 
ary n,  O.  S. 

Gretna  Green.  A  Scotch  village  famous 
for  runaway  matches. 

Grub  Street.  In  London;  used  to  be 
noted  fur  its  literary  denizens. 

Guelphs.  The  adherents  in  the  thirteenth 
century  of  the  Papacy  against  the  German 
Emperors.  They  were  the  constant  oppo- 
nents of  the  Ghibcllines,  and  between  them 
Italy  was  kept  in  turmoil. 

Guildhall.    The  London  town  hall. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  The.  A  plot  to  blow 
up  the  English  Parliament  in  its  House, 
November  5,  1605.     A  cellar  underneath  was 


stored  with  gunpowder  intended  to  be  touch- 
off  during  tne  session    by  Guy  Fawkes. 


ed 


The  discovery  was  made  in  time  to  prevent 
mischief.  To  use  a  modern  but  inelegant 
phrase,  the  plot  was  considered  by  some 
people  to  be  *  a  put-up  job." 

Gyges*  Ring.  A  ring  which  made  the 
wearer  invisible.  Gyges,  having  found  a 
man's  corpse  in  a  brazen  horse  that  he  dis- 
covered in  a  cave,  took  a  ring  from  the  finger 
of  the  dead  that  rendered  him  invisible.  By 
using  this  ring  he  entered  unseen  the  chamber 
of  the  King  01  Lydia  and  murdered  him.  He 
became  King. 


Habeas  Corpus  Act,  The.  Was  passed 
in  the  time  of  Charles  II.  and  provides  that 
the  body  of  any  person  restrained  of  liis  lib- 
erty must  on  proper  application  be  brought 
before  a  Judge  and  the  reason  of  hisc  onfine- 
ment  stated.  The  Judge  will  then  determine 
the  amount  of  bail  he  snail  furnish,  or  he  will 
remand  him  to  prison  or  allow  him  his  free- 
dom, as  the  case  may  require. 

Halcyon  Days.  A  period  of  happiness; 
days  of  peace  and  tranquility.  The  halcyon, 
as  the  kingfisher  was  anciently  called,  was 
said  to  lay  her  eggs  in  nests  on  rocks  near  the 
sea  during  the  calm  weather  about  the  winter 
solstice. 

Handicap.  Apportionment  of  the  weights 
that  must  be  carried  in  a  race  by  different 
horses,  considering  their  age  and  strength,  to 
equalize  their  chances. 

Hansard.  Name  of  the  firm  which  prints 
the  debates  of  the  British  Parliament. 

Hanse  Towns.  In  the  twelfth  century 
some  commercial  cities  in  the  north  of  Ger- 
many formed  an  association  for  the  protec- 
tion of  commerce.  To  these  other  similar 
cities  in  Holland,  England,  France,  Spain 
and  Italy  acceded,  and  for  centuries  this  con- 
federacy commanded  the  respect  and  defied 
the  power  of  Kings. 

Hanseatio  League.  The  name  of  the 
confederation  of  Hanse  towns.  There  were 
seventy-two  cities  in  the  league,  and  they 
held  triennial  conventions  called  Hansa.  It 
has  long  since  fallen  to  nieces.  Four  of  its 
members,  Lubeck,  Hamburg,  Bremen  and 
Frankfort,  arc  called  free  cities,  but  arc  really 
part  of  the  German  Empire. 

Hare,  Mad  as  a  March.  The  hare  is 
wilder  than  usual  in  March. 

Harpies.  Three  ravenous  and  filthy  mon- 
sters, each  having  a  woman's  face  and  the 
body  of  a  vulture.  Their  names  were  Aello, 
Ocypcte  and  Ccleno.  Juno  sent  them  to 
plunder  the  table  of  Phineus. 

Hari-Kari.  (Happy  dispatch.)  Japanese 
official  suicide. 

Harvest  Moon.     The    full  moon  at   or 
nearest  the  fall  equinox ;  rises  for  a  number  of 
days  about  sunset. 
Heathen  Chinee)  The.    A  poem. 


Heidelberg  Castle.  Ruins  near  Heidel- 
berg, Germany. 

Hegira.  The  date  of  Mohammed's  flight 
from  Mecca,  July  16th,  622.  The  epoch  from 
which  the  Mohammedans  compute  their 
time. 

High  Church.  The  more  conservative 
portion  of  the  Episcopal  Church. 

High  Seas,  The.  The  sea  beyond  three 
miles  irom  tiie  coast. 

History,  The  Father  of.  Herodotus, 
the  Greek  historian. 

Hobson's  Choice.  Take  what  is  offered 
or  go  without.  Tobias  Ilobson,  an  English 
stable-keeper,  made  whatever  customer  came 
to  hire  a  horse  take  the  one  nearest  the  door. 

Holborn.  A  street  in  London  by  which 
criminals  used  to  be  carried  out  to  execution 
at  Tyburn. 

Holy  Alliance.  Formed  in  1816  by  Aus- 
tria, Prussia  and  Russia. 

Holy  Family,  The.  The  name  of  pic- 
tures representing  in  group  the  infant  Jesus, 
St.  Joseph,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  John  the 
Baptist,  Anna,  and  St.  Elizabeth.  The  most 
celebrated  are  by  Michael  Angclo  at  Florence, 
by  Raphael  in  London,  and  Dy  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  in  the  Louvre. 

Holy  Land,  The.    Palestine. 

Holy  League,  The.  The  alliance  of  Pope 
Julius  II.,  France,  Germany,  Spain  and 
some  of  the  Italian  Republics  in  150S,  against 
Venice. 

Hon!  soit  qui  mal  y  pense.  (Shame  to 
him  who  evil  thinks.)  Motto  of  the  highest 
order  of  knighthood  in  Great  Britain,  that  of 
the  Garter,  instituted  by  Edward  III.  At  a  bail, 
a  garter  of  the  Countess  of  Salisbury,  having 
fallen  off,  was  picked  up  by  the  King,  who 
expressed  himself  in  the  above  phrase  and 
fastened  it  around  his  own  knee.  This  inci- 
dent led  to  the  formation  of  the  order. 

Honors  of  "War.  Allowing  a  surrendered 
enemy  to  keep  his  arms. 

Hotel  de  Ville.  The  city  hall  in  French 
and  Belgian  cities. 

Houris.  Beautiful  virgins  of  Paradise; 
promised  by  the  Koran  for  the  delight  of  the 
true  believers. 

Hundred  Hays,  The.  From  March  20, 
1815,  when  Napoleon  escaped  from  Elba,  to 
June  22,  1815,  when  he  abdicated. 


Iconoclast.  (Image-breaker.)  A  radical 
reformer. 

Hiad.  A  Greek  epic  poem  by  Homer,  re- 
lating the  story  of  the  siege  of  Troy  by  the 
Greets. 

Independence,  Declaration  of.  Issued 
July  4,  1776. 

Independence  Hall.  In  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  where  Congress  met  and  adopted  the 
Declaration  ot  Independence. 

Index  Expurgatorius.  A  list  of  books 
forbidden  to  be  read  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

Inns  of  Court.  The  four  London  law 
societies  which  have  the  sole  right  of  admit- 
ting candidates  to  the  Bar.  Thcv  are  Gray's 
Inn,  Lincoln's  Inn,  the  Inner  Temple  and 
the  Middle  Temple. 

Inquisition.  A  tribunal  established  in 
some  countries  to  try  heretics. 

Irish  Agitator,  The.    Daniel  O'Connell. 

Iron  City,  The.    Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Iron  Duke,  The.  The  Duke  of  W*dUng- 
ton. 

Iron  Mask,  The  Man  in  the.  A  mys- 
terious French  state  prisoner. 


Jack  Ketch.    The  hangman.    The  name 
of  an  English  hangman. 


Jack  Robinson.  Before  you  can  say 
Jack  Robinson;  at  once.  Jack  Robinson 
was  noted  for  the  shortness  of  his  visits ;  the 
servant  had  scarcely  time  to  repeat  his  name, 
before  he  would  leave. 

Jack,    The    Giant   Killer.      A  nursery 
hero. 
Jack,  Tho  American,  or  Union.    The 

blue  ground  of  the  American  fiag  with  the 
stars  but  without  the  stripes. 

Jacobins.  A  revolutionary  club,  1789,  in 
Paris,  held  its  meetings  In  what  had  been  the 
Jacobin  Monastery.  They  were  violent  and 
extreme  in  the  mciLcurccthcy  proposed.  Their 
name  spread  to  all  similar  organizations  and 
to  individuals  acting  with  them  throughout 
France. 

Jacobites.  Adherents  of  James  II.  of 
England,  and  of  the  Stuarts,  his  descendants. 

Jardin  des  Fl antes.  Botanical  and 
zoological  garden  in  Paris. 

Jardin  Mabillo.  Of  world-wide  notoriety. 
A  Parisian  resort  where  the  can-can  flourish, 
ed.    Suppressed  in  1SS2. 

Jericho,  Gone  to.    Disappeared;  ruined. 

Jerusalem  Delivered.  An  Italian  epic 
poem  by  Torquato  Tasso. 

Jingo,  Jingoism.  Expression  applied  in 
England  to  those  who  wanted  the  English 
Government  to  assume  an  aggressive  foreign 
policy,  1S74-18S0. 

John  Bull.  England.  Nickname  for  an 
Englishman. 

John  Chinaman.  The  Chinese  in 
America. 

Johnny  Cakes.  Made  of  Indian  meal 
baked  in  the  ashes. 

Jubilee,  Year  of.  Among  the  Jews  the 
jubilee  came  every  fiftieth  year,  which  was 
the  year  after  one  week  of  weeks  of  years  had 
passed  (seven  times  seven).  All  slaves  who 
were  of  Hebrew  blood  were  freed,  all  debts 
were  canceled  and  all  lands  returned  to  orig- 
inal owners  during  the  iubilce.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  it  is  observed  every  twenty- 
fifth  year. 

Juggernaut.  A  Hindoo  god  who  has  a 
famous  temple  in  India.  There  is  an  immense 
car  in  the  service  of  this  god,  which,  when 
moved  about  the  country,  causes  the  greatest 
excitement.  The  car  resembles  a  large  build- 
ing and  its  weight  is  very  heavy.  It  is  dragged 
along  by  the  multitude  and  their  fanati- 
cism is  so  great  that  crowds  of  devotees  cast 
themselves  under  the  wheels  and  are  crushed 
to  death,  a  fate  which  they  believe  ensures 
paradise. 

Julian  Era,  The.  A  method  of  reckoning 
time  from  46  B.C.,  when  Caesar  reformed  the 
calendar. 

Junius,  Letters  of.  Some  remarkable 
political  letters  written  during  the  reign  of 
George  III.    Their  authorship  is  unknown. 


Kansas,  Bleeding.  So  called  by  Horace 
Greeley  during  the  Free  Soil  controversy. 

Kensington  Gardens.  A  London  Park 
near  which  Queen  Victoria  was  born. 

Kilkenny  Cats,  The.    Disputing  people; 

from  the  old  verse : 

There  once  were  two  cats  in  Kilkenny, 

Who  each  thought  there  was  one  cat  too 
manv, 

So  they  howled  and  they  fit,  and  they  scratch- 
ed and  they  bit, 

Until  instead  of  two  cats  there  wasn't  any. 

King  can  do  no  wrong,  The.  Meaning 
that  the  Ministers  and  not  the  King  are  re- 
sponsible for  mistakes  of  government. 

King  of  Ivetot.  The  Seigneur  oflvetot 
was  made  king  of  his  estate  by  the  King  of 
France  as  a  recompense  for  the  killing  of  his 
father.  It  was  a  kingdom  of  eight  square 
miles. 


4k- 


K" 


804 


~A 


A   DICTIONARY   OF   FAMILIAR   ALLUSIONS. 


Kin*  Cole.  A  legendary  king  of  Britain, 
who  affected  tobacco  and  spirits. 

King  Cotton.  A  name  given  to  the  great 
Southern  industry  before  the  war. 

King's  Kvll.  The  scrofula.  So  called 
from  the  belief  that  a  king's  touch  would  cure 
the  disease. 

Kins;  Log.  A  good-for-nothing  ruler. 
The  name  comes  from  one  of  Esop's  fables, 
wherein  Jupiter  puts  a  log  to  rule  over  the 
frogs. 

KlnR-Miiker,  The.  Richard  Nevill,  the 
Earl  of  Warwick,  who  set  up  and  deposed 
klnga  at  his  will  during  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses,  In  the  fifteenth  century. 

Kins;  Stork.  A  tyrant.  The  sequel  to  the 
Esop  fable  mentioned  above.  The  frogs  grew 
tlreu  of  King  Log,  whereupon  King  Stork 
was  brought  in  at  their  request,  who  devoured 
the  whole  community. 

Kit  Kat  Club,  The.  A  London  club 
founded  in  16SS.  It  had  many  eminent  mem- 
bers. 

Knickerbocker.  A  member  of  any  old 
Dutch  family  in  New  York.  Derived  from 
Irving's  immortal  history. 

Knight  of  Malta.  A  chlvalric  and  mon- 
astic order  founded  during  the  Crusades,  also 
called  the  Knights  Hospitallers  of  St.  John. 

Know-Nothing*.  A  political  party  in  the 
United  States,  whose  cardinal  principle  was 
opposition  to  foreign  office-holders. 

Koh-i-Noor.  A  Golconda  diamond,  the 
largest  in  the  world,  now  one  of  the  crown 
diamonds  of  England.     Value,  5025,000. 

Koran,  The. .  The  Mohammedan  Bible. 

Kremlin,  The.  The  royal  Russian  resi- 
dence in  Moscow. 

Labyrinth,  The.  A  celebrated  structure 
built  by  Minos,  King  of  Crete,  which  con- 
sisted of  a  maze  out  of  which  no  one  who 
entered  could  find  the  way  back. 

Laconic  Curt.  So  called  from  the  brief 
speech  in  fashion  in  old  Laconia,  afterwards 
called  Sparta. 

I.iii-ryiniil  Christ!.    An  Italian  wine. 

Lake  School,  The.  A  society  of  English 
poets  consisting  of  Coleridge,  Wordsworth 
and  Southey. 

Land  of  Bondage,  The.    Egypt. 

I. mid  <>'  Cakes,  The.    Scotland. 

Land  of  Nod,  The.    Sleep;  Dreamland. 

Land  of  Promise,  The.  Canaan,  the 
goat  of  the  Jewish  wanderings  in  the  wilder- 
ness. 

Lang  Syne.    Long  ago. 

Langiie  d'Oo.  Provence,  a  part  of  France 
so  called  from  the  dialect  In  use. 

Langiie  d'USil.  All  of  France  except 
Provence. 

Laocoon,  The.  A  celebrated  statue  In  the 
Vatican  representing  Laocoon  strangled  by 
serpents. 

Laodicean.  A  person  luke-warm  in  re- 
ligion. 

Lares  and  Penates.  The  household  gods. 

Last  Judgment,  The.  The  theme  of  a 
Dumber  of  frescoes  of  the  Renaissance  period 
in  Italy.  r 

Last  Sapper,  The.  Similar  to  the  above. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci's  best  canvas  is  on  this 
subject. 

Lateran  Palace,  The.  One  of  the  Papal 
residences  at  Rome. 

Laughing  Philosopher,  The.  Democ- 
rltus  of  Abdi-ra,  who  believed  that  life  was 
only  to  ba  laughed  at. 

Leaning  Tower,  The.  A  celebrated 
structure  at  Pisa,  Italy,  which  leans  thirteen 
feet  out  of  the  perpendicular ;    17S  feet  high. 

Learned  Blacksmith,  The.  lilihu 
Burrltt. 


Leonine  Verses.  Verses  which  rhyme  at 
the  middle  and  the  end. 

Llbby  Prison.  A  Confedeiate  gaol  for 
prisoners  of  war  at  Richmond,  Va. 

Lllliput.  The  pigmy  land  in  Gulliver's 
travels. 

Lingua  Franca.  A  dialect  of  French, 
Italian  and  Arabic  spoken  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea. 

Lion  and  Unicorn.  The  supporters  of 
the  British  royal  arms. 

Lion  of  the  North,  The.  Gustavus  of 
Sweden,  the  great  leader  of  the  Protestant 
forces  during  flic  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Lion's  Share.  The  bigger  portion  in  a 
orriston.  So  called  from  one  of  Esop's 
fables. 

Little  Corporal,  The.  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte. 

Little  Giant,  The.  Stephen  A.  Douglass. 

Lloyds.  The  originators  of  marine  insur- 
ance. 

Lombard  Street.  The  financial  street  of 
London. 

Lone  Star  State,  The.    Texas. 

Long  Parliament.  The  Parliament 
which  sat  for  thirteen  years  at  the  beginning 
of  the  civil  war  in  England.  It  sat  from  1640 
to  1653. 

Lorelei.  A  malignant  but  beautiful  water- 
sprite  of  the  Rhine. 

Lotus-Eaters,  The.  Homer  in  the  Odys- 
sey describes  the  effect  of  eating  the  lotus  as 
making  the  eater  forget  his  home. 

Louvre,  The.    The  art  palace  of  Paris. 

Low  Church,  The.  A  part  of  the  Epis- 
copal Church  which  is  opposed  to  cere- 
monials. 

Luslad,  The.  The  Portuguese  epic  poem, 
written  by  Camoens,  describing  Vasco  da 
Gama's  adventures. 

Lynch  Lair.  Mob  law.  The  name  comes 
from  a  Virginia  farmer  who  instituted  the 
first  vigilance  committee  in  America. 

Mab,  Queen.  The  queen  of  the  fairies. 
So  called  trom  an  Irish  fairy  princess  named 
Medh,  who  flourished  in  the  night  of  time. 

Macadamize.  Paving  with  broken  stones. 
So  called  from  the  inventor,  Sir  John  Mac- 
Adam. 

Macaronic  Verse.  A  verse  made  by 
mixing  different  languages. 

Macchiavelllsm.    Political  trickery. 

M .-id  11  m  Tussaud's  Exhibition.  A  fam- 
ous London  wax-works  show. 

Mad  Poet,  The.  Nathaniel  Lee,  an  in- 
sane English  -iramatist. 

Madman  of  Macedonia,  The.  Alexan- 
der the  Great. 

Madman  of  the  North,  The.  Charles 
III.  of  Sweden. 

Madonna.    The  Blessed  Virgin. 

Maecenas.  A  noted  patron  of  poets  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Augustus  of  Rome. 

Magna  Charta.  The  charter  making  the 
cornerstone  of  English  liberty,  extorted  from 
Kingjohn  Lack-Land. 

Mahomet's  Coffin.  The  body  of  Ma- 
homet is  said  to  hang  in  mid-air  over 
Medina. 

Maid  of  Orleans.    J  oan  of  Arc. 

Maid  of  Snragossa.  Augustina  Zara- 
goxa,  the  heroine  of  the  siege  of  Ssragossa  in 

M  )i 

Maiden  Queen,  The.  Elizabeth  of  Eng- 
land. 

Maine  Law.  A  prohibitory  law  first 
adopted  In  Maine. 

Mnlthuslan  Doctrine,  The.  The  theory 
that  the  population  of  the  world  is  growing 
faster  than  the  food  supply. 


Mammoth  Cave.  A  cave  near  the  Green 
stiver,  Kentucky,  the  largest  cave  in  the 
world. 

Man  In  the  Moon.  According  to  the 
legend  the  man  who  first  broke  the  Sabbath. 

Mar  of  Destiny.    Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
Man  of  Iron,  The.    Bismarck. 
Man  of  Straw.    An  irresponsible  person. 
Mare's  Nest.    A  matter  which  seems  of 
importance  but  turns  out  to  be  nothing. 

Marriage  a  la  Mode.  The  title  of  six 
satirical  pictures  by  Hogarth. 

Marseillaise.  The  French  national  air, 
composed  by  Rouget  de  Lisle. 

Martinet.  A  strict  disciplinarian.  So 
called  from  a  French  officer  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line.  The  north 
boundary  of  the  Slave  States,  dividing  Vir- 
ginia and  Maryland  from  Pennsylvania. 

Mausoleum.  The  tomb  of  Mausolus, 
built  by  Queen  Artemisia,  one  of  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  world. 
Mayf  air.  The  west  end  of  London. 
Mereator'"ProJe«tfo».  (Or  Mercstor's 
Chart),  is  so  called  after  Gerard  Mercator,  a 
Flemish  gc ographer  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  first  to  give  an  unbroken  view  of  the  whole 
surface  of  the  earth.  In  it  all  the  meriaians  are 
straight  lines  perpendicular  to  the  equator,  and 
all  the  parallels  parallel  to  the  equator,  the 
effect  being  to  greatly  exaggerate  the  polar 
regions. 

Merry  Andrew.   A  buffoon, from  Andrew 
Horde, the  whimsical  physician  of  Henry  VIII. 
Merry  Monarch,  The.      Charles  II.  of 
England. 

Mesmerism.  Takes  its  name  from  Mes- 
mer  a  German  physician. 

Mezzo  Relievo.  Carved  or  cast  figures 
projecting  from  the  tablet  a  little  more  than 
hasso  relievo,  and  something  less  than  alto 
relievo,  are  called  mezzo  relievo. 

Middle  Ages,  The.  The  period  between 
the  destruction  of  the  Roman  Empire  and 
the  revival  of  learning  in  Italy — 476  to  1500. 

Middle  States,  The.  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania,  New  Jersey  and  Delaware. 

Minnesingers.'    (Love     singers.)       The 
German  lyric  poets  of  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries. 
Miserere.    The  fifty  -first  psalm. 
Mississippi   Bubble,  The.      A  hollow 
financial  scheme. 

Missouri  Compromise,  The.  A  measure 
that  prohibited  slavery  north  of  36°  jo1  north 
latitude. 
Mistress  of  the  Seas.  England. 
Molly  Magulres.  A  secret  society  in  the 
United  States.  Many  crimes  were  attributed 
to  it,  especially  tn  Pennsylvania. 

Monarch,  Le  Grand.  Louis  XIV.  of 
France. 

Monroe  Doctrine.    The  United  States  is 
not  to  meddle  in  European  affairs,  nor  to  al- 
low European  Governments  to  meddle  in  the 
affairs  of  the  American  Continent. 
Mont  de  Plete.    A  pawnbroker's  shop. 
Montmartre.    A  Parisian  cemetery. 
Monumental  City,  The.    Baltimore,  Md. 
Morey  Letter,  The.     A  forged  letter  at- 
tribuiingto  Gen.  Garfield  anti-Chinese  senti- 
ments, iSSo. 

Morganatic  Marriage.  A  marriage  be- 
tween a  man  of  high  rank  and  a  woman  of  a 
lower  one.  She  does  not  take  her  husband's 
title. 

Mother  of  Presidents.  Virginia:  hav- 
Ing  produced  seven  Presidents  of  the  United 
States. 

Mother  Carer's  Chickens.  Stormy 
petrels. 


/ 


IL 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


805 


Mother  Goose.  She  lived  near  Boston, 
and  was  a  nursery  rhymer.  She  sung  rhymes 
to  her  grandson  Thomas  Fleet,  who  printed 
them  in  1S19. 

Mount  Vernon.  The  home  of  Washing- 
ton, in  Virginia. 

Muscular  Christianity.  An  expression 
of  Charles  Kingsley.  "A  sound  mind  in  a 
sound  body." 

Music  of  the  Spheres.  Order,  harmony. 
Plato  taught  that  each  planet  had  a  siren 
whose  song  harmonized  with  the  motion  of 
our  sphere  and  with  that  of  the  others. 

Namby-Pamby.  Childish.  A  term  used 
for  poor  literary  productions. 

Nantes,  Edict  of.  A  decree  issued  at 
Nantes,  France,  in  1508, by  Henry  IV.,  grant- 
ing toleration  to  the  Protestant  religion.  Re- 
voked by  Louis  XIV.,  October  22, 1685. 

Nation  of  Shop-keepers.  The  name 
given  to  the   English  oy  Napoleon. 

Natural  Bridge,  The.  A  natural  arch 
over  Cedar  Creek  near  James  River  in  Vir- 
ginia.   It  is  200  feet  high. 

Newgate.    A  London  prison. 

New  World.    The  Americas. 

Nibelungen  Lied.  A  German  epic  poem 
of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Nine  Worthies,  The.  Joshua,  David, 
Judas  Maccabxus,  Hector,  Alexander,  Julius 
C?esar,  Arthur,  Charlemagne  and  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon. 

Noctes  AmbrosiansB.  The  title  of  a 
work   by  Prof.  Wilson    (Christopher  North). 

Noel,    Christmas  day. 

Non-Conformists.     Dissenters  from   the 
Church  of  England. 
Northern  Giant,  The.     Russia. 
Notre  Dame.    The  Cathedral  of  Paris. 

Odyssey  A  narrative  poem  of  the  adven- 
tures of  Ulysses  on  his  voyage  from  Troy  to 
Ithaca-Homer. 

Ogres      Giants  who  feed  on  human  flesh. 

Oi  Polloi.    The  multitude. 

Old  Abe      Abraham  Lincoln. 

Old  Bailey.    A  London  criminal  court. 

Old  Dominion,  The.    Virginia. 

Old  Guard,  The.  A  favorite  regiment  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte.  In  the  Chicago  Con- 
vention, 1880,  the  friends  of  Gen.  Grant  re- 
ceived this  name. 

Old  Hickory.    Gen.  Andrew  Jackson. 

Old  Probs.  (Old  Probabilities.)  The  U.  S. 
Signal  Service. 

Old  Public  Functionary.  President 
James  Buchanan. 

Old  South,  The.  A  famous  church  in 
Boston,  Mass. 

Orangeman.       A  Protestant    Irishman. 

Member  of  an  organization  which  cherishes 
the  memory  of  William  Prince  of  Orange. 

Orange  Peel.    Sir  Robert  Peel. 

Ordinance  of  1787.      An  act   fixing  the 

government    of  the  Northwest  Territory    of 
le  United  States. 

Orlando  Furioso.  An  Italian  poem  by 
Ariosto. 

Ossian.  The  son  of  Fingal,  a  Scotch 
bard.  Ossian's  poems,  published  in  1760,  were 
the  work  of  James  Mc  Pherson,  a  gifted  Cal- 
edonian. 

Ostend  Manifeso.      Was  issued  by  the 

United  States  Ministers  to  England,  France 
and  Spain  during  Pierce's  administration, 
declaring  that  Cuba  must  belong  to  the 
United  States. 

Ostracism.  The  Athenians  expelled  everv 
public  man  againstwhom  a  sufficient  number 
of  votes  were  cast.  The  votes  were  written 
on  oyster  shells. 


Palimpsest.  A  parchment  having  the 
original  writing  erased  and  new  writing  sub- 
tituted. 

Pall  Mall.    A  street  in  London. 

Palladium.  Is  something  that  affords 
defence,  protection  and  safety.  A  statue  of 
Pallas  was  the  palladium  of  Troy. 

Pantheon.  A  circular  building  in  Rome 
erected  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  It  is  now  a 
church,  the  Rotonda. 

Paradise  Lost.  A  poem  by  John  Milton 
treating  of  the  fall  of  man. 

Paradise  Regained.  Poem  by  Milton 
on  the  temptation  and  triumph  of  Jesus. 

Paris  of  America,  The.    Cincinnati. 

Parthenon.  A  temple  of  Minerva  in 
Athens. 

Partington,  Mrs.  The  American  Mrs. 
Malaprop.    The  creation  of  B.  P.  Shillaber. 

Pasquinade.  A  lampoon  or  satirical 
writing.  Political  squibs  used  to  be  posted 
on  an  old  statue  that  stood  in  Rome  near  the 
house  of  a  sneering  old  cobbler  named  Pas- 
quin. 

Peeler.  A  policeman.  Sir  Robert  Peel 
founded  the  Irish  constabulary. 

Peninsular  War.  The  war  between  En- 
gland and  France  in  Spain  and  Portugal, 
1S0S-1S12. 

People's  William.  William  E.  Gladstone. 

Pere-la-Chaise.     A  cemetery  near  Paris. 

Philippic.  An  invective.  The  orations 
of  Demosthenes  against  Philip  of  Macedon 
originated  this  word. 

Philistine.  A  word  in  use  in  the  German 
universities  for  a  person  below  caste. 

Philosopher's  Stone,  The.  A  substance 
supposed  to  have  the  property  of  turning 
anything  else  into  gold. 

Plon-Plon.  Prince  Napoleon  J.  C.  Bona- 
parte. 

Plumed  Knight,  The.  Jf.  G.  Blaine, 
American  statesman. 

Plymouth  Bock.  The  rock  at  Ply- 
mouth, Mass.,  where  the  Pilgrims  landed 
in  1620. 

Poet's  Corner.  A  corner  in  Westminster 
Abbey  where  poets  are  buried.  The  poetical 
column  in  a  newspaper. 

Pons  Asinorum.  (The  bridge  of  asses.) 
Fifth  proposition,  first  book  Euclid's  Geom- 
etry. 

Poor  Richard.    Benjamin  Franklin. 

Porkopolis.    Cincinnati. 

Prater,  The.  A  promenade  in  Vienna, 
Austria. 

Phoenix.  A  mythical  bird,  without  a  mate, 
renews  itself  every  five  hundred  years  by  be- 
ing consumed  in  a  fire  of  spices,  whence  it 
rises  from  the  ashes  and  starts  for  a  new 
flight. 

Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,  The.  Not  be- 
ing paid  for  having  drawn,  by  the  sound  of 
his  pipe,  the  rats  and  mice  out  of  Hamelin 
into  tne  river,  he  piped  the  children  of  the 
town  into  Koppelberg  hill,  where  130  of  them 
died. 

Pigeon  English.  A  mixture  of  English, 
Chinese  and  Portuguese. 

Protestant  Duke,  The.  The  Duke  of 
Monmouth,  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  of  En- 
gland. , 

Pyramids.  A  number  of  remarkable  old 
structures  in  Egypt. 

Quaker  City,  The.    Philadelphia,  Pa, 

Quaker  Poet,  The.    John  G.  Whittier. 

Quartier  Latin.  A  district  of  Paris  in- 
habited principally  by  students. 

Queen  of  the  Antilles.  The  island  of 
Cuba. 


Ranz  des  Vaches.  The  air  the  Swiss 
mountaineers  play  on  the  Alpine  horns  when 
tending  their  cattle. 

Railway  King,  The.  George  Hudson, 
an  Englishman. 

Rebellion,  The  Great.  The  war  be- 
tween Charles  I.,  of  England,  and  Parlia- 
ment. 

Red  Letter  Day.  A  fortunate  day.  In 
old  calendars  a  red  letter  was  used  to  mark 
the  saints'  days. 

Red  Tape.     Official  routine. 

Reign  of  Terror.  The  time  during  the 
French  Revolution  between  the  overthrow  of 
the  Girondists,  May  31,  1793,  and  the  fall  of 
Robespierre,  July  27, 1794. 

Reynard  the  Fox.  A  romance  of  the 
fourteenth  century. 

Rialto,  The.  A  bridge  over  the  Grand 
Canal,  Venice. 

Rights,  Declaration  of.  An  instrument 
securing  annual  Parliaments^  trial  by  jury, 
free  elections,  the  right  of  petition, and  deny- 
ing to  the  crown  the  privilege  of  keeping  a 
standing  army  or  of  levying  taxes,  was  drawn 
up  after  the  revolution  of  1689,  and  accepted 
by  William  and  Mary. 

Roost,  To  Rule  the.  To  take  the  leading 
part. 

Robert  the  Devil.  The  first  Duke  of 
Normandy. 

Robin  Goodfellow.  Puck,  a  celebrated 
fairy. 

Roland  for  an  Oliver,  A.  Tit  for  tat, 
Roland  and  Oliver,  two  peers  of  Charle- 
magne. So  many  romances  were  related  of 
these  knights  that,  whenever  one  told  an  im« 
probable  story  to  match  one  that  had  been 
told  before,  it  "was  called  giving  a  Roland  for 
an  Oliver. 

Rossius,  The  British.    David  Garrick. 

Rough     and     Ready.       Gen.     Zachary 

Taylor. 

Round  Robin.  Apetitionorremonstrance 
signed  by  the  names  in  a  circle,  so  as  to  con- 
ceal who  signed  it  first. 

Round  Table,  The.  King  Arthur's 
knights  sat  at  a  round  table  so  that  any  dis- 
tinction of  rank  was  avoided. 

Roundheads.  The  Puritans,  who  wore 
short  hair. 

Royal  Martyr,  The.  Charles  I.  of  En- 
gland. 

Royal  Society,  The.  A  society  for  the 
advancement  of  natural  science,  founded  at 
London,  1645. 

Rozinante.    The  horse  of  Don  Quixote. 

Rubicon,  To  Pass  the.  To  take  an  irre- 
trievable step.  When  Caesar  crossed  the 
Rubicon  he  Decame  an  enemy  of  the  Re- 
public. 

Rule  Britannia.    An  English  song. 

Rump  Parliament,  The.  A  remnant  of 
the  Long  Parliament  broken  up  by  Cromwell. 

Rye  House  Plot.  A  conspiracy  in  16S3 
to  assassinate  Charles  II.  and  the  Duke  of 
York.  Rye  House  was  the  name  of  the  con- 
spirators' place  of  meeting. 

Sabbath  Day's  Journey.  About  one 
mile. 

Sack,  To  Get  the.  To  be  discharged. 
The  Sultan,  when  he  wants  to  be  rid  of 
one  of  his  haram,  has  her  put  into  a  sack 
and  thrown  into  the  Bosphorus. 

Sadducees.  A  sect  of  the  ancient  Jews 
who  denied  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  and 
the  expectation  of  a  future  state. 

Sagas.  Scandinavian  books  containing 
the  Northern  legends. 

Saint  Bartholomew,  Massacre  of. 
Massacre  of  the  French  Huguenots  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  IX.,  on  St.  Bartholomew's 
day,  1573. 


■7" 


4^ 

8o6 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


Sailor  King,  The.  William  IV.  of 
Kngland. 

Suint  Cloud.  A  once  famous  French 
palace,  destroyed  in  the  1'  ranco-Prussian 
war. 

Saint  James,  The  Court  of.    The  En. 

Jlish  court,  so  called  from  the  Palace  of  St. 
ames  in  London,  formerly  a  royal  residence. 

Saint  Mark'*.  Cathedral  of  Venice, 
Italy. 

SnlntPanl'i.  The  cathedral  of  London ; 
designed  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 

Saint  Peter's.  At  Home;  is  the  most 
splendid  church  building;  in  the  world. 

Saint  Sophia.  A  mosque  in  Constantino- 
ple, Turkey. 

Saint  Stephens.  A  Gothic  cathedral  in 
Vienna,  Austria. 

Snlt  Itiver.  Oblivion.  Gone  up  Salt 
River  is  generally  taken  to  mean  political 
defeat. 

Sambo.    Nickname  for  colored  man. 

Sanctum.    One's  private  office. 

Sandwich.  A  piece  of  meat  between  two 
pieces  of  bread. 

Sang  Azul.    Of  aristocratic  descent. 

Sanhedrim.  The  Jewish  court  of  seventy 
elders.  ' 

Sans  Calottes.  (Without  trousers.)  The 
French  revolutionists. 

Sans  Souci.  Palace  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  at  Potsdam,  near  Berlin. 

Santa  Crooe.  A  church  In  Florence, 
Italy,  the  burial-place  of  Michael  Angelo, 
HallMO,  Machiavelli  and  others. 

Saturnalia.  A  festival  in  honor  of  Saturn 
observed  annually  bv  the  Itomans  by  givinir 
way  to  the  wildest  disorders.  Unrestrained 
■cense  for  all  classes,  even  to  the  slaves, 
ruled  the  city  for  three  days,  December  17  18 
and  19.  ' 

Schoolmen.    The  medixval  theologians. 

Scotland  Yard.  The  headquarters  of  the 
London  police. 

Scourge  of  God,  The.    Atilla,  King  of 

the  Huns.  • 

Scratch,  Old.    The  Devil. 

Scylla.  (Avoiding  Scylla  he  fell  into 
Charybdis.)  In  trying  to  avoid  one  danger  he 
Jell  into  another.  Scylla  and  Charybdis  were 
the  two  dangers  in  the  Straits  of  Messina 
Italy.  • 

Sea-girt  Isle,  The.    Great  Britain. 
Secessia.    The  seceding  Southern  States. 
Secular    names.      Games    held    by    the 
Komans  once  in  a  century. 

8cm I  ram  is  of  the  North.  Catherine  II 

s  of  Russia.  '' 

Scpt..ml>1.r  Massacres.     The  massacre 

of  the   French    Hoyallst   prisoners   in  Paris. 

kfued!"        *'  S         4l  W"    Ab°Ut  S'°°°  wcr° 

s.|,iu  mint.    A  Greek  version  of  theOld 

Testament  prepared  by  seventy  doctors. 

Scvrn-hlllnd  City,  The.     Rome. 

New  ,1    Wonders    of  the   World.     The 

Ida  o    hgypt;  the  Temple  of  Diana  at 

ua;  the  Tanging  gardens  of  Babylon- 

"; •     "loss,.,  at  tfWca;  the  Mausole,,,,,  ,. 

Hall    .rnassus;  the  statue  of  Zeus  bv  Phidias 

of  aZS^^™  (°'  "**— • 

Ru.il.    ,»2V  "£,in»t  I' >»nce,  Austria  and 
Huss.a,  1756  to  1701. 

SI,:.,„ro.k.    The  emblem  of' Ireland.     St. 

,',".,.  mnd"  "»»  °"  "  •"  prove  the  doctrine 
ot  the  Trinity. 

Spnnlsh  Main.  The  southwestern  part 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 


f- 


Sphinx.  An  emblem  of  silence  and  mys- 
tery. A  monument  near  Cairo,  Egypt;  half 
woman,  half  lion. 

St  .that    Mater.     A   Latin   hymn   on   the 
Crucifixion. 
>i\    Hundred,  Charge  of  the.    At  the 

battle  of  Baiaklava,  October  35,  1854,  by  a 
mistaken  order,  the  British  light  cavalry,  670 
strong,  made  a  most  gallant  charge  on  the 
Russians. 

Sleeping  Beauty,  The.    A  fairy  tale. 

Smell  of  the  Lamp.    A  phrase  first  ap- 

filled  to  the  orations  of  Demosthenes,  show- 
ng  their  careful  and  labored  preparation. 
Demosthenes  studied  in  a  cave  by  lamplight. 
Song  of  Roland.  An  old  French  poem 
recounting  the  deaths  of  Oliver  and  Roland 
at  Ronccsvalles. 

Shibboleth.  A  countersign.  The  pass- 
word of  a  secret  society.  When  the  Ephraim  - 
ilea,  after  being  routed  by  Jepthah,  tried  to 
pass  the  Jordan,  they  were  detected  by  not 
being  able  to  pronounce  properly  the  word 
.Shibboleth. 

Sick  Man,  The.     The  Ottoman  Empire. 

Sinews  of  War,  The.    Money. 

Single-Speech  Hamilton.  An  English 
statesman  of  the  eighteenth  century,  W,  G. 
Hamilton.  He  never  made  but  one  speech, 
but  that  one  was  most  eloquent. 

Stalwart.  A  member  of  the  Republican 
party  of  the  United  States  clinging  to  the 
principles  and  practices  of  the  party.  His 
opposite,  a  "Half-breed,"  is  a  Republican 
1  n willing  to  be  controlled  by  the  party 
leaders. 

Star  Chamber,  A  court  of  criminal  jur- 
isdiction in  England  having  extensive 
powers.  It  existed  from  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  until  that  of  Charles  I. 

"Stonewall**  Jackson.  Gen.  Thomas 
J.  Jackson,  Confederate  General. 

Strasburg  Cathedral.  At  Strasburg; 
Gothic;  46S  feet  high  ;  has  a  wonderful  clock. 

Swedish  Nightingale.  Jenny  Lind  (now 
Mme.  Goldschmidt). 

Sorbonne,  The.  A  university  in  Paris 
founded  by  Robert  de  Sorbonne  in  the  thir- 
teenth century. 

Sortes  Ribllcre.  Fortune-telling  by  con- 
sulting the  Bible. 

South  Kensington  Museum.  A  collec- 
tion of  works  of  art  and  manufactures  in 
■London, 

South  Sea  Bubble,  The.  A  company 
formed  m  1710  in  England  to  pay  the  national 
debt  and  to  have  in  return  a  monopoly  of 
the  South  Sea  trade.  This  company  lasted 
about  ten  years,  and  its  failure  was  the  ruin 
of  thousands. 

Tabooed.  Prohibited.  A  Polynesian 
word  meaning  consecrated;  used  for  what 
is  out  of  date  or  in  bad  taste. 

T.i  ininaiiy  nail .  A  section  of  the  Dem- 
ocratic party  in  New  York  City,  named 
from  their  place  of  meeting. 

TnmmnnyRlng.  Or  the  "Tweed  Ring," 
or  "the  Ring."  A  set  of  New  York  City 
officials  which  nhsorbed  large  sums  of  the 
city  money.     Exposed  in  1S71. 

Tammany,  Saint.  Patron  saint  of  the 
Democratic  party  in  New  York.  He  was  an 
Indi.in  chief,  whose  name  was  really 
Timcnund. 

Tap!*,  On  the.  On  the  carpet ;  proposed 
for  discussion.  From  the  tapis  or  cloth  on  a 
council  table. 

Temple  Bar.  A  stone  house  In  London 
over  which  the  heads  of  traitors  used  to  be 
exposed.    Torn  down  in  187$. 

Termngant.  A  shrew.  Termagant  was, 
according  to  the  Crusaders,  the  wife  of  Ma- 
homet. 


Terra  Flnna.    Dry  land. 

Tertium  Quid.  A  third  somebody  not 
to  be  named. 

Theatre  Francais.      A  theatre  in  Paris. 
Thi-leme,  Abbey  of.    A  creation  of  Rab- 
elais in  bis  Gargantua.     Its  motto  was,  "Do 

as  you  please." 

Thirty  Years'  War,  The.      Between  the 

Catholics   and  Protestants  in  Germany,  1618- 
164S.  " 

Thistle.  The  national  emblem  of  Scotland. 
One  night  when  the  Danes  were  attempting 
to  surprise  an  encampment  of  the  Scotch, 
one  of  them  trod  upon  a  thistle ;  the  pain 
caused  him  to  raise  an  alarm,  and  the  Scotch 
1  them.  Ever  since  the  thistle  is  the 
insignia  of  Scotland. 

Thor.  Is  the  god  of  war,  son  of  Odin,  the 
Scandinavian  Myth. 

Thread  needle  Street,  The  Old  Lady 
of.    The  Bank  of  Englr  .id. 

Three  FUtates  of  the  Rca'ji.  The  no- 
bility, the  clergy  and  the  commonalty; 
represented  in  the  two  houses  of  Parliament. 

Thunderer,  The.  The  London  Times 
(newspaper). 

Tick,  On.    On  credit. 

Tit  for  Tat.    An  equivalent ;  this  for  that- 

Tom  Thumb.  Charles  A.  Stratton.  Also, 
a  fairy  tale. 

Tory.  The  name  of  an  English  political 
party  ;  opposite  of  Whig. 

Tour,  The  Grand.  From  England 
through  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Germany 
and  home. 

Tower,  The.    The  citadel  of  London. 

Transfiguration, The.  One  of  Raphael's 
roost  famous  pictures,  now  in  the  Vatican. 

Trimmer.  One  who  takes  a  moderate 
course  in  politics. 

Trinity  Church.  An  Episcopal  church 
on  Broadway  at  the  head  of  Wall  Street,  New 
York.     The  richest  church  in  America. 

Triple  Alliance,  The.  Alliance  between 
Great  Britain,  Holland  and  Sweden  against 
France,  1668. 

Troubadours.  Provincial  poets  from  the 
eleventh  to  the  fourteenth  century. 

Trouveres.  Northern  French  poets  1100 
to  140a 

Trumpet,  To  Sound  One's  Own.  To 
boast.  The  entrance  of  kr-.ghts  into  a  list 
was  announced  by  the  heralds  with  a  flourish 
of  trumpets. 

Tuft-hunter.  A  toady.  At  Oxford  a 
nobleman  was  called  a  tuft  because  of  the 
gold  tuft  on  his  college  cap. 

Tntlrrles.  A  French  royal  palace  burn- 
ed by  the  Commune  in  1S71. 

Tulip  Mania.  A  European  craze  of  the 
seventeenth  century  centering  in  Holland. 
Everybody  was  buying  tulip  bulbs, which  ran 
up  to  enormous  prices.  Many  fortunes  were 
sunk  in  their  acquisition. 

Tune  the  Old  Cow  Died  of.  Words 
Instead  of  alms.  Old  song:  a  man  having 
nothing  with  which  to  feed  his  cow, sings  to 
her  of  the  grass  which  Is  to  grow.  The  ex- 
pression is  also  used  for  a  worn-out,  tiresome 
tune. 

Tyburn.  Once  a  London  place  of  execu- 
tion, now  a  wealthy  and  fashionable  quar- 
ter called  Tyburnia. 

Cfflxl.  A  buildinc  in  Florence  in  which  is 
a  magnificent  art  collection. 

Cltramontanes.  In  France,  the  more 
extreme  adherents  of  the  Pope. 

Underground  Railroad,  The.     Organi- 
sation of  the  different  means  used  for  t 
cape  of  mnaway  slaves,  about  the  middle  of 
the  present  century. 

t'nder  the  Rose.  (Sub  rosa.)  Confi- 
dentially. 


K 


A    DICTIONARY    OF    FAMILIAR    ALLUSIONS. 


F07 


Unlicked  Cub.  An  ill-bred  boy.  The 
bear  cub  was  believed  to  be  licked  into  shape 
by  its  dam. 

Unter  den  Linden.  A  street  in  Berlin 
having  four  rows  of  lime  trees. 

Unwashed,  The  Great.    The  mob. 

Upas  Tree.  An  object  that  does  harm 
and  should  be  avoided.  The  upas  tree  is 
common  in  Java;  its  gum  is  poisonous,  and 
fable  states  that  the  atmosphere  about  it  is 
as  deadly. 

Up  the  Spout.  Or  more  elegantly,  "gone 
where  the  woodbine  twineth,  or  "at  my 
uncle's,"  means  in  pawn. 

Upper  Ten  Thousand.  The  aristocracy ; 
fashionable  society. 

Utilitarians.  Those  who  believe  that  the 
fitness  of  anything  to  promote  happiness  is 
the  right  standard  of  morality. 

Utopia.  An  ideal  commonwealth.  The 
imaginary  island,  scene  of  Sir  Thomas 
More's  romance  of  Utopia. 

Valhalla.  The  palace  of  immortality, 
where  the  heroes  slain  in  battle  dwell.  (From 
the  Saga  legends.) 

Vampire.  An  extortioner.  A  fabulous 
.  bat  said  to  suck  the  blood  of  persons  during 
sleep. 

Vatican.  The  palace  of  the  Popes,  Rome, 
Vatican,  Council  of  the.    The  CEcume- 

nical  Council,   1S69,  promulgated  Papal  in* 

fallibility. 

Vedas,  The.  Revelations  of  Brahma  in 
four  sacred  books. 

Veni,  Vidi,  Vici.  (I  came,  I  saw,  I  con- 
quered.) Phrase  used  by  Julius  Ca:sar,  an- 
nouncing his  victory  at  Zela. 

Venus  de  Medici.  A  Greek  statue  at 
Florence. 

Venus  of  Milo.  A  Greek  statue  found  in 
the  Island  of  Melos,  1S20;  it  is  now  in  the 
Louvre. 

Verbum  Sap.    A  word  to  the  wise, 

Veronica.    A  relic  at  St.  Peter's,  Rome. 

Versailles.  A  palace  at  Versailles,  ten 
miles  from  Paris. 

Vespers,  The  Sicilian.  The  massacre  of 
the  French  in  Sicily,  March  30,  12S2.  The 
sounding  of  the  vesper  bell  was  the  signal. 

Via  Dolorosa.  The  sorrowful  way  of  our 
Lord  from  the  Mount  of  Olives  to  Golgotha. 

Vinegar  Bible,  The.  Has  "vinegar"  for 
"vinevard",  in  the  headline  of  Lukexxii. 
Oxford,  1767. 


Virgin  Queen,  The.    Queen  Elizabeth  of 

England. 

Vitus  Dance,  St.  A  disease  anciently 
supposed  to  be  under  control  of  St.  Vitus. 

Wabash  Avenue.    A  street  in  Chicago. 

Wall  of  China,  The.  A  wall  1,200  miles 
long  and  20  feet  high,  built  as  a  protection 
against  the  Tartars. 

Wall  Street.  The  great  financial  street 
of  New  York. 

Wallack's.    A  theatre  in  New  York. 

Walton,    An  Izaak.     An  angler. 

Wandering  Jew,  The.  A  legendary  per- 
sonage condemned  to  wander  over  the  world 
until  the  day  of  judgment. 

War  of  1812.  Between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  1S12-1S15. 

War  of  the  Host's.  The  English  civil 
wars  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lan- 
caster. 

Ward,  Artemus.     C.  F.  Browne. 

Washington  Street.  A  street  in  Boston, 
Mass. 

Wassail.  (What  hail!)  Abowlof  spiced 
ale  used  on  New  Year's  day  is  the  Wassail 
bowl. 

Waters,  The  Father  of.  The  Mississippi. 

Ways  and  Means.  An  important  com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Representatives;  is 
charged  with  the  duty  of  devising  ways  and 
means  for  the  supply  of  the  Government  ex- 
penses. 

Wedding:.  The  first  anniversary  of  a 
wedding  is  the  pater  wedding,  the  gifts  being 
paper  articles;  the  fifth,  wooden',  the  tenth, 
ttn ;  the  fifteenth,  glass;  twenty-fifth,  silver', 
fiftieth, golden  ;  seventy-fifth,  diamond. 

Well  of  St.  Keyne.  A  well  in  Cornwall. 
The  first  of  a  married  couple  to  taste  its 
waters  will  "  wear  the  breeches." 

Westminster  Abbey.  A  church  in  Lon- 
don where  many  of  the  illustrious  dead  of 
England  are  buried. 

Wetherell,  'Elizabeth.  Pseudonym  of 
Miss  Susan  Warner,  author  of  The  Wide, 
Wide  World. 

Whig.  The  name  of  a  political  party  now 
extinct. 

Whistle.  (To  pay  too  dearly  for  the  whis- 
tle). Dr.  Franklin's  story.  Cost  greater  than 
benefit. 

White-  Feather,  To  Show  the.  A  dis- 
play of  cowardice. 


White  House.     The  Presidential  mansion 
at  Washington. 

Whiteboys.     A  secret  society  in  Ireland, 
17S9. 

Wild    Huntsman,   The.  A   spectral 

huntsman  in    the  Mack  Forest.     German    W 
gend. 

Windmills,  To  Fight  with.    To  oppos< 
imaginary  objects.    Don  Quixote. 

Windsor  Castle.    A  royal  residence  near 
London. 

Wise  Men  of  the  East,  The.     The  three 
Magi  guided  by  a  star  to  Bethlehem. 

Witch  of  Endor,  The.     The  soothsayer 
who  foretold  the  death  of  Saul. 

Witch-Hazel.     A  forked  twig  used   for 
finding  witches  ;  in  use  still  for  finding  water. 

Wooden  Horse.    A  ruse  at  the  sie^e  of 
Troy. 

Woolsack,  To  Sit  on  the.    To  be   Lord 
Chancellor  of  England. 

Wyoming  Massacre.        The  Valley  of 
Wyoming  was  ravaged  by  Indians  in  177S. 


Xanthos.  The  prophetic  horse  of  Achilles. 
Xantippe.  The  scolding  wife  of  Socrates. 

Yahoo.  A  ruffian.  The  Yahoos  in  Gulli- 
ver's Travels  are  brutes  shaped  like  men. 

Yankee.  A  name  given  to  all  Americans. 
In  America  itself  the  name  is  only  used  for 
natives  of  New  England. 

Yarmouth  Bloater.    A  red  herring. 

Yellow  Jack.    The  yellow  fever. 

Young  America.  The  growing  genera- 
tion. 

Young  Chevalier.  Charles  Edward  Stu- 
art, the  second  pretender  to  the  throne  of 
Great  Britain.     (1720-SS,) 

Young  Germany.  Heinrich  Heine  and 
his  followers. 

Yosemite  Valley.  In  California.  Also 
a  picture  by  Bierstadt. 

Yule.     Christmas. 

Yule-log.  A  large  log  of  wood  burnt  on 
the  hearth  at  Christmas. 

Zend-Avesta,  The.  Persian  Scriptures 
written  in  the  Zend  language. 

Zollverein.  An  association  between  Ger- 
man States  for  the  maintenance  of  uniform 
tariff  rates. 


/ 


53 


8o8 


A    LEXICON    OF    FOREIGN    PHRASES. 


~A 


^ET?aisT?a[5M^[5Tra[g[raisifgisira[5M^I^^ 

sA*LEXICON+ORFOREIGN+PHRASESg 


m       '^<  I^W^I?^  ™*       Is 


Including  Sentences  and  Quotations  from  both  Living  and  Dead  Languages. 


'"VVVHlILE  it  is  not  considered  good  form 
L'-f  &  to  interlard  one's  discourse  with 
•  Kv  phrases  culled  from  foreign  languages, 
™] _'■'_'  ;1  there  are  many  cases  wherein  a 
thought  is  more  aptly  and  strikingly  put  in 
Latin  or  French  than  in  English.     When  this 


is  the  case  it  is  certainly  permissible  to  use  the 
term  which  puts  the  idea  in  the  best  shape.  It 
is  also  well  to  have  at  hand  a  comprehensive 
dictionary  which  will  show  at  a  glance  just  what 
a  word,  phrase  or  sentence  in  a  foreign  tongue 
means.  The  pages  which  follow  contain  the  most 
complete  lexicon  of  the  kind  ever  published. 


4>£ 


A  bas,  ¥.,  down  with. 

Ab  extra,  L.,  from  without. 

Ab  initio,  L.,  from  the  beginning. 

Ab  intra,  L.,  from  within. 

Ab  normis  sapiens, "L..  wise  without  teaching. 

Ab  origint,  L.,  from  the  origin. 

Ab  oi'o,  L.,  from  the  egg. 

Absent*  reo,  L.,  the  accused  being  absent. 

Ab  una  disce  omnes,L..,  from  one  judge  all. 

Ab  nrbo  condita,  L.,  from  the  founding  ot  the 

city. 
A  compte,  F.,  on  account. 
A  corps  perdu i  ¥,,  headlong. 
Ad  aperturam,  L.,  at  the  opening. 
Ad  fistra  per  aspera,  L.,  to  the  stars  through 

ililliculties.     (The  motto  of  Kansas.) 
Ad    calendas    Graecas,    L.,    at    the    Greek 

calends;     meaning  never,    as  the   Greeks 

had  no  calends. 
Ad  eaptandum  vutgus,!*.,  to  catch  the  vulgar. 
Ad  eund em,  L..,  to  the  same  (degree). 
Ad  extremum,  L.(  to  the  extreme. 
Adfinem}  L.,  to  the  end, 
Aa  infinitum,  L.,  to  infinity. 
Ad  interim,  L.,  in  the  meantime. 
A  discretion,  ¥.,  at  discretion. 
Ad  libitum,  I,.,  at  pleasure. 
Ad  literam,  L.,  (even)  to  the  letter. 
Ad  modum,  L.,  after  the  manner  of. 
Ad nauseum,  L.,  to  disgust. 
Ad  referendum,  L.,  for  reconsideration. 
Ad  rem,  L.,  to  the  point 
Ad  unutn  omnes,  L.,  every  one. 
Ad  valorem,  L.f  according  to  value. 
Ad  vitam  ant  cuipam,  I-.,  for  life  or  for  fault. 
jflquo  animo,  L.,  with  mind  content. 
AC  tat  is  suae,  L.,  of  his  (or  her)  age. 
Affaire  tf  amour,  ¥.,  a  love  affair. 
Affaire  eThonneur ¥,,  a  duel. 
Affaire  deeaeur,  I-.,  :m  affair  of  the  heart. 
Afortiori,  L.,  for  stronger  reason. 
A  la  camp<igne,  !•'.,  as  in  the  country. 
Ala  Francaise,  K.t  after  the  French  (man* 

ncr). 
A  r  Anglais*  F.,  after  the  English  (manner). 
A  la  mode,  V .,  after  the  fashion. 
Alere  fiammam,  L.,  to  feed  the  flame. 
Al  !><■•>  '.  It.,  in  ih.   open  air. 
Alii  volat  froprii*,  I    .  .  with  her  own 

wings.     (The  motto  of  Oregon.) 
Allei  vohs  en,  F.,  begone. 
Alloux,  h .,  roiiH'. 
Alma  mater,  I,.,  benign  mother. 
Alter  ego,  L.,  -ninth. 
Alter  idem,  I..,  another  similar. 
Amende  honorable,  I.,  an  apology, 
A  mense  et  thoro,  I,  .  mm  bed  and  board. 
Amorpatri*,  L.(  patriotism. 


Amour propre,  F.,  self-love. 

Ancien  regime,  ¥.,  the  old  rule. 

Anglice,  L.,  in  English. 

Animis  opibusque  paralt,  L.,  prepared  with 

our  lives  and  our  money.     (Motto  of  South 

Carolina.) 
Anno  atatts  sua,  L.,  in  the  year  of  his   (or 

her)  age. 
Anno  Christij  L.,  in  the  year  of  Christ 
Anno  Domini,  L.(  in  the  year  of  our  Lord. 
Anno  mundi.  L.,  in  the  year  of  the  world. 
Annus  miraoilis,  L..,  the  wonderful  year. 
Ante  bellum,  L..,  before  the  war. 
Ante  lucem,  L..,  before  the  light. 
Ante  meridiem*!*.,  before  noon. 
A  Pout  ranee,  ¥.,  to  the  death. 


Apercu.  F.,  sketch. 
Aplomb,  ¥.,  firmly ; 
A  posteriori,  L,.,  reasoning  from*  effect    to 


plomb,  FM  firmly ;  perpendicularly. 


cause. 

Apriori,  L.,  reasoning  from  cause  to  effect. 
A  propos,  F.,  to  the  point ;  by-thc-by. 
Aqua  vita:,  L.,  water  of  life;  alcohol. 
Argumentum  ad kominem,  L,.,  an  argument  to 

the  man. 
Argumentum  ad  ignoranttam,  L.,  an  argument 

for  the  ignorant. 
Argumentum  ad  baculum,  L.,  an   argument 

with  a  cudgel. 
Arriere  pensee,  F.,  on  afterthought. 
Ars  est  celare  artem,  L.,  art  is  to  conceal  art. 
Ars  lonqa.  vita  brevis  est,  L.f  art  is  long,  life 

is  short 
Asinus  ad  tyram,  L.,  an  ass  with  a  harp ;  an 

absurdity. 
A  teneris  annis,  L.,  from  tender  years. 
Audacesfortunafuvat,  L..,  fortune  favors  the 

bold. 
Aude  sapere,  L.,  dare  to  be  wilt, 
Audi  alteram,  L.,  hear  the  other  side. 
Aufait,  F.,  expert. 
Am  fond,  F.,  at  the  bottom. 
Aupis  atler,  ¥,,  at  the  worst. 
Aura popularix,  I..,  the  wind  of  public  favor. 
Aurea  mediocritas,  L.,  the  golden  mean. 
Au  reste.  F.,  forth. 
Au  revotr,  V.,  till  the  next  meeting. 
Aussitot  dit,aussitot  fatt,  F.,  no  sooner  said 

than  done. 
Ant  amat  aut  odit  mulier,  L.,  a  woman  either 

loves  or  hate*. 
Aut  Cm*ar  aut  nullus,  L.,  cither  C*sar  or 

nobody. 
Auto  da/*,  Portuguese,  an  act  of  faith ;  burn* 

ing  a  heretic. 
Auto  d*  $*,  L.,suicidc. 
Am  troisieme,  ¥.,  on  the  third  floor. 


Aut  vincere  aut  mori,  L.f  either  to  conquer  or 

die. 
Aux  armes,  F.,  to  arms. 
Avant-cour*urtF.,  a  forerunner. 
Avant -propos fF '.,  a  preface. 
Avec permission,  ¥.,  with  permission. 
A  verbis  adverbera,  L.,  from  words  to  blow*. 
A  vinculo  matrimonii,  L.,  from  the  bond  of 

marriage. 
A  volonte,  ¥.,  at  pleasure. 
A  rntre  sanit,  ¥.,  to  your  health. 

Bas  bleu,  F„  a  blue -stocking. 

Bean  ideal,  R,  an  ideal  beautr. 

Bean  monde,  F.,  the  fashionable  world. 

Beaux  maprBS.  ¥.,  men  of  wit. 

Beaux yeux,  b.,  beautiful  eyes. 

Bet  esprit,  ¥.,  a  brilliant  mind. 

Bete  noir,  F„  a  bugbear. 

Bien  seance,  ¥ .,  politeness. 

Billet  doux,  ¥.,  a  love-letter. 

Bis  dat  qui  cito  dat,  L.,  he  gives  twice  who 

gives  quickly. 
Blase,  ¥.,  surfeited. 
Bon  ami,  ¥.,  good  friend. 
Bonbon,  ¥.,  candy. 

Bon  gre  mal gre,  ¥.,  willing  or  unwilling. 
Bonhomie,  ¥ .,  good  nature. 
Bonis  avibus,  L.,  with  lucky  omens. 
Bon/our,  good  day. 
Bonne,  ¥.,  nurse. 
Bonne  foi,  ¥.,  good  faith. 
Bon  sotr,  ¥.,  good  evening. 
Brevi  manu,  L.,  immediately. 
Bmtnm  fulmen,  L.,  harmless  thunder. 

Cacoethes  toquendi,  L.,  an  itch  for  speaking. 

Cacoethes  scribendi,  L.,  an  itch  for  "riling. 

Ca>tera  desunt,  L.,  the  remainder  wanting. 

Cmteris    paribus,    L.,    other    tilings    being 
equal. 

Candida  pax,  L.,  white-robed  peace. 

Caput,  L.,  head. 

Caput  mortuum,  L.,  the  dead  body. 

Carpe  diem,  L.,  be  merry  to -day. 

C«*mi  tutissima    virtus,    L.,  Virtue    is    the 
safest  shield. 

Casus  belli,  L.t  a  cause  for  war. 

Catalogue  raisonne,  ¥.,  a  topical  catalogue. 

(  aus.i  sine  fuanou,  l*.,nn  indispensable  con- 
dition. 

Cedant  arma  togm,  L.,  let  arms  yield  to  the 
gown. 

Ce  n'est  que  te  premier  pa*  qui  tout*,  F.,  the 
first  step  alone  is  difficult. 
dire.  P.,  that 

Ckacnn  a  son  gout,  ¥,,  every  man  to  his  taste. 


Al 


A    LEXICON    OF    FOREIGN    PHRASES. 


=tf" 


809 


/ 


Chef,  F.,  the  head;  the  leading  person  or 
part. 

Chefde  batat'llon,  ¥.,  a  major. 

Chefde  cuisine^.,  head  cook. 

Chef-d'oeuvre,  ¥.,  a  masterpiece. 

Chere  amie,  F,,  a  dear  friend  ;  a  mistress. 

Chevalier  ct Industrie,  ¥.,  knight  of  industry; 
one  who  lives  by  his  wits. 

Chiaroscuro,  It,  distribution    of   light   and 
shade  in  painting.  m     .  , 

Cicerone,  It.,  a  guide  who  explains  curiosities. 

Cicisbeo,  It.,  a  male  attendant  on  a  married 
lady. 

Ci-devant,  F.,  formerly;  heretofore. 

Cogito,  ergo  sum,!*.,  I  think,  therefore  I  exist. 

Colubrem  in  sinufavere,  L.,  to  cherish  a  ser- 
pent in  one's  bosom. 

Comme  t'lfaut,  F.,  as  itshould  be. 

Companion  de  voyage,  F.,  a  traveling  com- 
panion. 

Compos  mentis,  L.,  sound  of  mind. 

Compte  rendu,  ¥.,  account  rendered;  report. 

Comte,  F.,  count. 

Comtesse,  F.,  countess. 

Con  amore,F.,v/ith  love  or  great  pleasure; 
earnestly. 

Con  commodo,  It.,  at  a  convenient  rate. 

Conditio  sine  qua  non,  L.,  a  necessary  condi- 
tion. 

Confrere,  F.,  a  brother  of  the  same  monas- 
tery; an  associate. 

Conge  d'e/iret  F.,  leave  to  elect. 

Conqniescat  in pace,  L.,  may  he  rest  in  peace. 

Cornell  de  famille,  F.,  a  family  consultation. 

Conseil  d'etat,  F.,  a  council  of  state;  a  privy 
council. 

Constantia  et  virtute,  L.,  by  constancy  and 
virtue. 

Consuetudo  pro  lege  servatur,  L.,  custom  is 
observed  as  law. 

Contra  bonos  mores,  L.,  againstgood morals 
or  manners. 

Coram  nobis,  L.,  before  us. 

Coram  non  judice,  L.,  before  one  not  the 
proper  judge. 

Corps  de  garde,  F.,  a  body  of  men  who  watch 
in  a  guard-room;  the  guard-room  itself. 

Corps  diplomatique,  F.,  a  diplomatic  body. 

Corpus  Christi,L..,  Christ's  body. 

Corpus  delicti,  L.,  the  body,  substance  or 
foundation  of  the  offence. 

Corrigenda,  L.,  corrections  to  be  made. 

Couleur  de  rose,  F.,  rose-color;  an  aspect  of 
beauty  and  attractiveness. 

Coup  d'essai,  F.,  a  first  attempt. 

Coup  d'etat,  F.,  a  stroke  of  policy  in  state  af- 
fairs. 

Coup  de  grace,  F.,  the  finishing  stroke. 

Coup  de  main,  V.,  a  sudden  attack;  a  bold 
effort. 

Coup  d'ceil,  F.,  a  slight  view ;  a  glance. 

Coup  de  theatre,  F.,  a  theatrical  effect;  clap- 
trap. 

Coule  qu'il coute,  F.,  let  it  cost  what  it  may. 

Credula  res  amor  est,  L.,  love  is  a  credulous 
at fair. 

Crescite  et   multiplicamini,  L.,  grow,  or  in- 
crease, and  multiply.   (The  motto  of  Mary- 
land.) 
Crimen  leesa  majestatis,  L.,  the  crime  of  high 

treason. 
Cui  bono?  L.,  for  whose  benefit  is  it?  what 

good  will  it  do? 
Cut  de  sac,  F.,  the  bottom  of  a  bag;  a  place 

closed  at  one  end. 
Cum  grano  satis,  L.,  with  a  grain  of  salt; 

with  some  allowance. 
Cum  privilegio,  L.,  with  privilege. 
Currente  calomo,  L.,  with  a  running  or  rapid 

pen. 
Custos  retulorum,  L.,  the  keeper  of  the  rolls. 

Da  capo,  It.,  from  the  beginning. 

D'accord,¥.,  agreed;  in  tune. 

Damnant  quoanon  intetligunt,  L.,  they  con- 
demn what  they  do  not  understand. 

X>e  bonne  grace,  ¥.,  with  good  grace;  will- 
ingly. 

X>e  die  in  diem,  L.,  from  day  to  day. 

De  facto,  L.,  from  the  fact;  really. 

Degage,  ¥.,  easy  and  unconstrained. 

Dei  gratia,  L.,by  the  grace  of  God. 

Dejeuner  a  la  fourchette ,  F.,  a  meat  breakfast. 


Dejure,  L.,  from  the  law;  by  right. 

Delenda  est  Carthago,  L..,  Carthage  must  be 
blotted  out  or  destroyed. 

De  mortuis  nil  nisi  bonum,  L.,  let  nothing  but 
good  be  said  of  the  dead. 

De  nihilo  nihil  jit,  L..,  of  nothing,  nothing  is 
made. 

De  novo,  L.,  anew;  over  again  from  the  be- 
ginning^. 

Deograltas,  L.,  thanks  to  God. 

Deojuvante,  I-.,  with  God's  help. 

Deo,  non fortuna,  L.,  from  God,  not  from  for- 
tune. 

Deo  volente,  L.,  God  willing;  by  God's  will; 
usually  contracted  into  Z>.  K. 

De  profundi's,  L.,  out  of  the  depths. 

Dernier  ressort,  ¥.,  a  last  resource. 

De  bonis  non,  L.,  of  the  goods  not  adminis- 
tered on. 

De gustibus  non  est  disputandunt,  L.,  there  is 
no  disputing  about  tastes, 

Desagrement,  F.,  something  disagreeable. 

Desideratum,  L.,  a  thing  desired. 

Desunt  catera,  L.,  the  other  things  are  want- 
ing; the  remainder  is  wanting. 

De  trop,  ¥.,  too  much,  or  too  many;  not 
wanted. 

Dies  tree,  L.,  the  day  of  wrath. 

Dies  non,  L.,  in  taw,  a  day  on  which  judges 
do  not  sit. 

Dieu  defend  le  droit,  F.,  God  defends  the 
right. 

Dieu  et  mon  droit,  F.,  God  and  my  right. 

Dignus  vindice  nodus,  L.,  a  knot  worthy  to  be 
untied  by  such  an  avenger,  or  by  such 
hands. 

Dit  Penates,  L.,  household  gods. 

Diimajores,  L.,  the  greater  gods. 

Diimtnores,  L.,  the  lesser  gods. 

Dirigo,  L..,  I  direct  or  guide.  (The  motto  of 
Maine.) 

Disjecta  membra,  L.,  scattered  limbs  or  re- 
mains. 

Distingue,  F.,  distinguished ;  eminent. 

Distrait,  F.,  absent  in  thought. 

Divertissement,  F.,  amusement;  sport. 

Divide  et  t'mpera,  L., "divide  and  rule. 

Dolce  far  niente,  It.,  sweet  doing-nothing; 
sweet  idleness. 

Double  entente,  F.,  double  meaning;  a  play 
on  words  ;  a  word  or  phrase  susceptible  of 
more  than  one  meaning.  (Incorrectly  writ- 
ten, double  entendre.) 

Dramatis  persona,  L..,  the  characters  or  per- 
sons represented  in  a  drama. 

Droit  des gens,  F.,  the  law  of  nations. 

Dulce  domum,  L.,  sweet  home;  homewards. 

Dutce  est  desipere  in  loco,  L.,  it  is  pleasant  to 
jest  or  be  merry  at  the  proper  time. 

Dulce  et  decorum  est  pro  patria  mori,  L,,  it  is 
sweet  and  becoming  to  die  for  one's  coun- 
try. 

Dum  spiro,  spero,  L.,  while  I  breathe,  I  hope. 

Dum  vivimus,  vivamus,  L.,  while  we  live,  let 
us  live. 

£au    de    Cologne,  F.,    a   perfumed   liquid; 

Cologne  water. 
Eau  de  vie,  F.,  water  of  life ;  brandy. 
Ecce  homo,  L., behold  the  man.  (Applied toa 

picture  representing  our  Lord  given  up  to 

the  Jews  by  Pilate,  and  wearing  a  crown  of 

thorns.) 
Editioprinceps,  L.,  the  first  edition. 
Egalite,  F.,  equality. 
Ego  et  rex  meus,  L.,  I  and  my  king. 
El  dorado,  Sp.,  the  golden  land. 
Emigre,  F.,  an  emigrant. 
Empressement,  F.,  ardor;  zeal. 
En  arriere,  F.,  in  the  rear;  behind. 
En  attendant,  ¥.,  in  the  meanwhile. 
En  avant,  ¥.,  forward. 
En  deshabille,  F.,  in  undress. 
En  echelon,  F.,  in  steps ;  like  stairs. 
En  famille,  ¥.,  in  a  domestic  state. 
Eitfans  perdtts,  F.,  lost  children  ;  in  mil.,  the 

forlorn  hope. 
Engrande  tenue,  F.,  in  full  dress. 
En  masse,  F.,  in  a  body. 
En  passant,  F.,  in  passing;  by  the  way. 
En  rapport,  F.,  in  relation  ;  in  connection. 
En  regie,  ¥.,  in  order;  according  to  rules. 
En  route,  ¥.,  on  the  way. 


Ense  petit  plaeidam  sub  lihertate  quietem,  ¥., 
with  the  sword  she  seeks  quiet  peace  under 
liberty.     (The  motto  of  Massachusetts.) 

En  suite,  ¥.,  in  company. 

Entente  cordiale,  ¥ .,  evidence  of  good-will 
towards  each  other,  exchanged  by  the  chief 
persons  of  two  states. 

Entourage,  ¥ '.,  surroundings;  adjuncts. 

En  tout,  ¥.,  in  all ;  wholly. 

Entree,  ¥.,  entrance;  first  course  at  meals; 
freedom  of  access. 

Entremets,  ¥ '.,  dainties  ;  small  dishes. 

Entrepot,  ¥.,  a  warehouse;  a  place  for  de- 
positing goods. 

Entre  nous^  ¥.,  between  ourselves. 

Entresol,  ¥.,  a  suite  of  apartments  between 
the  basement  or  ground  flour  and  the  sec- 
ond floor. 

En  verite,  F,  in  truth  ;  verily. 

E Pluribus  unum,  L.,one  composed  of  many. 
(The  motto  of  the  United  States,  as  one 
government  formed  of  many  independent 
States.) 

Errare  est  humanttm,  L.,  to  err  is  human. 

Esprit  borne,  ¥.,  a  narrow,  contracted  mind. 

Esprit  du  corps,  ¥.,  spirit  of  the  body;  fel- 
lowship ;  brotherhood. 

Esse  quam  videri,  L..,  to  be,  rather  than  to 
seem, 

Esto  perpetua,  L.,  let  it  be  perpetual;  let  it 
endure  forever. 

Et  c&tera,  L.,  and  the  rest ;  etc. 

Et  hoc  genus  omne,  L.,  and  everything  of  the 
kind. 

Et  sequentes,  L.,  Et  sequentia,  L.,  and  those 
that  follow. 

Et  sic  de  cateris,  I-.,  and  so  of  the  rest. 

Et  tu,  Brutel  L.,  and  thou  also,  Brutus ! 

Eureka,  Gr.,  I  have  found  it.  (The  motto  ot 
California.) 

Ex  adverso,  L..,  from  the  opposite  side. 

Ex  animo,  L.,  with  the  soul ;  heartily. 

Ex  capite,  L.,  from  the  head;  from  memory. 

Ex  cathedra,  L.,  from  the  bench,  chair  or 
pulpit;  with  high  authority. 

Excelsior,  L.,  higher;  more  elevated.  (The 
motto  of  New  York.) 

Exceptio  probate  regulam,  L.,  the  exception 
proves  the  rule. 

Excerpta,  L.,  extracts. 

Ex  concessio,  L.,  from  what  is  conceded. 

Ex  curia,  L.,  out  of  court. 

Ex  dono,  L.,  by  the  gift. 

Exempli  gratia,  L. ,  for  example ;  for  instance. 

Exeunt,     L.,  they  go  out. 

Exeunt  omnes,  L.,  all  go  out. 

Exit,  L.,  departure;  a  passage  out;  death. 

Exitus  actaJ>robat,  L.,  the  event  justifies  the 
deed.   (Washington's  motto.) 

Ex  necessitate  ret,  L.,  from  the  necessity  of 
the  case. 

Ex  nihilo  niliilfit,  L.,  out  of  nothing,  nothing 
comes. 

Ex  officio,  L.,  by  virtue  of  office. 

Ex  parte,  L..,  on  one  part  or  side  onlv. 

Ex  pede  Herculum,  L.,  we  see  a  Hercules 
from  the  foot;  we  judge  the  whole  from  the 
specimen. 

Exterimentum  crucis,  L.,  the  experiment  of 
the  cross;  a  decisive  experiment;  a  most 
searching  test. 

Experto  crede,  L..,  trust  one  who  has  had  ex- 
perience. 

Ex  post  facto,  L.,  after  the  deed  is  done. 

Ex  tempore,  L.,  off-hand;  without  premedi- 
tation. 

Extra  muros,  L,.,  beyond  the  walls. 

Ex  uno  disce  omnes,  L.,  from  one  learn  all ; 
from  one  you  can  judge  the  whole. 

Ex  usu,  L.,  from  or  t>y  use. 

Facetta,  L.,  witticisms;  humorous  pleas- 
antry. 

Facile  Princets,  L.,  evidently  pre-eminent; 
the  admitted  chief. 

Facilis  est  descensus  Averni,  L.,  the  descent 
to  hell  is  easy ;  the  road  to  evil  is  easy. 

Fac-simile,  L-,  an  exact  copy ;  a  likeness. 

Fait  accompli,  ¥.,  a  thing  already  accom- 
plished. 

Fas  est  et  ab  hoste  doceri,  L.,  it  is  well  to 
learn  even  from  an  enemy. 


^L 


ft* 


~A 


810 


A    LEXICON    OF    FOREIGN    PHRASES. 


Fata  Morgana,  It.,  a  meteoric  phenomenon 
nearly  allied  to  the  mirage. 

Fata    (slant,  I..,  the  Fates  oppose  It. 
aulruil,  !•'.,  an  easy  chair. 

ux  pas.  F\,  a  false  step  ;  a  mistake. 
ecil,  L.,  he   made  it;  put  alter  an  artists 
name.  ^ 

Felicitas  multos  habit  amtcos,  L.,  prosperity 
has  many  friends. 

Feliciter,  L.,  happily;  successfully. 

Frio  de  it,  L.,  a  self-murderer ;  onewho  com- 
mits  felony  by  suicide. 

Fimme  couverte,   P.,  a  woman  covered   or 
sheltered  ;  a  married  woman. 

Femme  de  chambre,  P.,  a  woman  of  the  cham- 
ber; a  chamber-maid. 

Femme  soit,  V.,  a  single  woman  ;  an  unmar- 
ried woman.  ..     , 

Ftra  natura,  L.,  of  a  wild  nature— said  of 
wild  beasts. 

Ftstina  Unit,  L.,  hasten  slowly. 

FeUchampttrc,V.,  a  rural  festival. 

/>//  /)»>»,  F.,  the  Corpus  Christi  fesUval  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

/V«  dtfoit,  F.,  a  bonfire ;  a  discharge  of  fire- 
arms on  joyful  occasions. 

Fiat  fustitia,  mat  ceelum,  L.,  let  justice  be 
done,  though  the  heavens  should  fall. 

Fidti  defensor  ,V,.,  defender  of  the  faith. 

Fides  Punica,!..,  Punic  faith  ;  treachery. 

Fidus  Achates,  L.,  faithful  Achates ;  a  true 
friend. 

Fills  de  chambre,  F.,  a  girl  of  the  chamber;  a 
chamber-maid. 

Fintm  rtspict,  L.,  look  to  the  end. 

Fit  fabricando  faberf  L.,  a  workman  Is  made 
by  working;  practice  makes  perfect. 

Flagranti  delicto,  L.,  in  the  commission  of 
crime. 

Fortiter  in  re,  L.,  with  firmness  In  acting. 

Fortuna  fiavet  fortibus ,  F.,  fortune  favors  the 
brave. 

Fronti  nulla  fides,  L.,  no  faith  in  appearance; 
there  is  no  trusting  to  appearances. 

Fuit  Ilium,  L.,  Troy  has  been. 

Fulmen  brittutn,  L.,  a  harmless  thunderbolt. 

Functus  officio,  L.,  having  discharged  bis 
office. 

Furor  loquendi,  L.,  a  rage  for  speaking. 

Furor poeticus,  L.,  poetic  fire. 

Furor  scribendi,  L.,  a  rage  for  writing. 

Garde  du  corps,  F.,  a  body-guard. 

Garde  mobile,  P.,  a  guard  liable  for  general 
service. 

Gardes  bien,  F.,  guard  well ;  take  care. 

Genius  loci,  I..,  genius  of  the  place. 

Gens  (farmes,  r  ..  armed  police. 

Gens  de  lettres,  F .,  literary  people. 

Gens  de  memtfamille,  P., "birds  of  a  feather. 

Gentilhomme,  V .,  a  gentleman. 

Germanice,  I..,  in  German. 

Gloria  in  excclsis,  L.,  glory  to  God  In  the 
highest. 

Gloria  Patri,  L.,  glory  to  the  Father. 

Gradus  ad  Parnassum,  L.,  a  step  to  Parnas- 
sus, a  mountain  sacred  to  Apollo  and  the 
Muses ;  a  book  containing  aids  In  writing 
Greek  or  Latin  poetry. 

Grande parure, F.,  full-dress. 

Gratis  dictum,!*.,  mere  assertion. 

Guerre  a  Poutrance,  L.,  war  to  the  uttermost. 

Hand  passibus   aquis,  L.(  not  with   equal 

■MM, 

Haul  gout,  F.,  fine  or  elegant  taste;  high 

flavor  or  relish. 
Hie  ei  ubique,  L.,  here  and  everywhere. 
Hie  facet,  L..,  here  liis. 
Hie  labor,  hoc  opus  est,  L.,  this  is  labor,  this 

is  work. 
Hie  sepullus,  L.,  here  buried. 
Hinc  ilia  lucrima,  L.,  hence  proceed  these 

tr.ir-.. 
HisloritUt,  F.,  a  little  or  short  history;  a 

tale.  ' 

Hoipolloi,  Gr.,  the  many ;  the  rabble. 
Hombre  de  un  libra,  Sp.,  a  man  of  one  book. 
Hommt  d' esprit,  L.,  a  man  of  talent;  a  witty 

man. 
Honi  soit  qui  maly  pense,  F.,  evil  be  to  him 

*rbo  evil  thinks. 
Honorarium,  L.,  a  fee  paid  to  a  professional 


Horribile  dictu,  L.,  terrible  to  be  said. 
Hors  de  combat,  F\,  out  of  condition  to  fight. 
Hortus  siccus,  L.,  collection  of  dried  plants. 
Hotel  de  ville,  !•'.,  a  town  hall. 
Hotel des  lnvalides,  L.,  the  military  hospital 

In  Paris. 
Humanum  est  errare,  L.,  to  err  is  human. 

Ich  dien,  Ger.,  I  serve. 

Id  est,  L.,  that  is— abbreviated  to  /.*. 

Imitatores  servumpecus,  L.,  imitators  ;  a  ser- 
vile herd. 

Imperium  in  imperio,  L.,  a  government  with  • 
in  a  government. 

In  wternum,  L.,  forever. 

In  armis,  L.,  under  arms. 

In  articulo  mortis,  L. ,  at  the  point  of  death. 

India  expurgatorius,!*.,*  list  of  prohibited 

In  esse,  L.t  in  being. 

In  exlenso,  L.,  at  full  length. 

In  extremis,  L.,  at  the  point  of  death. 

Infiagrante  delictu,  L.,  taken  in  the  act. 

In  forma  pauperis,  L.,  in  the  form  of  a  poor 

person. 
Inforo  conscientia,  L.,  before  the  tribunal  of 

conscience. 
Infra  dignitatem,  L.,  below  one's  dignity. 
In  hoc  signo  vinces,  L.,  under  this  sign,  or 

standard,  thou  shalt  conquer. 
In  hoc  statu,  L.f  in  this  state  or  condition. 
In  limine,  L.,  at  the  threshold. 
In  loco,  L.,  in  the  place. 
In  loco  parentis,  I..,  in  the  place  of  a  parent 
In  medias  res,  in  the  midst  of  things.  _ 
In  memoriam,  L.,  to  the  memory  of;  in  mem- 
ory. 
In  nomine,  L.,  In  the  name  of. 
In  nubibus,  L.,  in  the  clouds. 
In  face,  L.,  in  peace. 
In  perpetuum,  L.,  forever. 
In  petto,  L.,  within  the  breast;  in  reserve. 
In  plena,  L.,  in  full. 

Jm  posse,  L.,  in  possible  existence;  that  may 
be  possible. 

Inprasenti,  L.,  at  the  present  time. 

In  propria  persona,  L.,  in  one's  own  person. 

/«  puris  naluralibus,  L.,  in  naked  nature ; 
quite  naked. 

In  re,  L.,  in-the  matter  of. 

In  rem,  L.,  against  the  thing  or  property. 

In  r.rum  natura,  L.,  in  the  nature  of  things. 

In  situ,  L.,  in  its  original  situation. 

Insouciance,  F.,  indilfcrence  ;  carelessness. 

In  statu  quo,  L.,  in  the  former  state. 

Inter  alia,  L.,  among  other  things. 

Inter  nos,  L.,  between  ourselves. 

Inter  pocula,  L.,  between  drinks. 

In  terror  em,  L.,  as  a  warning. 

Inter  se,  L.f  among  themselves. 

In  totidem  verbis,!..,  in  so  many  words. 

In  toto,  L.,  in  the  whole ;  entirely. 

Intra  muros,  L.,  within  the  walls.         _ 

In  transitu,  L.,  on  the  passage;  during  the 
conveyance. 

In  vacuo,  L.,  in  empty  space;  free,  or  nearly 
free,  from  air. 

In  vino  Veritas,  L.,  there  is  truth  In  wine. 

Invito    Minerva,   L.,   against   the   will    of 
Minerva. 

Ipse  dixit,  t..,  he  himself  said  it;  dogmatism. 

Ifsissima  verba,  L.,  the  very  words. 

Ifsissimis  verbis,  I..,  in  the  very  words. 

Ipso  facto,  L.,  in  the  fact  itself. 

Ira  furor  brevis  est,  L.,  anger  is  a  short  mad- 
MM, 

Jacta  est  alea,  L.,  the  die  Is  cast. 

Je  ne  sais  quoi,  F.,  I  know  not  what. 

Jet  cTeau,  F.,  a  Jet  of  water. 

Jen  de  mots,  F.,  a  play  on  words ;  •  pun. 

Jen  a- esprit,  F.,  a  play  of  spirit ;  a  witticism. 

Jubilate  Deo,  L.,  be  joyful  in  the  Lord. 

Judicium  Dei,  L.,  the  judgment  of  God. 

Jupiter  tnnans,  L.,  Jupiter  the  thunderer. 

Jure  divino,  L.,  by  divine  law. 

Jure  humano,  L.,  by  human  law. 

Jus  canonicum,  L.,  canon  law. 

Jus  civile,  L,,  Civil  law. 

Jus  divinum,  I..,  divine  law. 

Jus  gentium,  L.,  the  law  of  nations. 


Justemilieu,  F.,  the  golden  mean. 
Labore  el  honore,  L.,  by  labor  and  honor. 
Labor  ipse  voluplas,  L.,   labor   itself  is    a 

pleasure. 
Labor  omnia  vincit,!.., labor  conquers  every- 
thing. 
La  fame  non  vuol  leggi.  It.,  hunger  obeys  no 

laws. 
Lcissexfaire.F.,  let  alone;  suffer  to  have  iu 

own  way. 
Lapsus  calami,  L.,  a  slip  of  the  pen. 
Lapsus  lingua,  L.,  a  slip  of  the  tongue. 
Lapsus  memoria,  L.,  a  slip  of  the  memory. 
Lares  et  penates ,  L.,  domestic  and  household 

gods. 
Latct  unguis  in  htrba,  L.,  a  snake  lies  hid  in 

the  grass. 
Laudaria  viro  laudato,  L.,  to  be  praised  by  a 

man  who  is  himself  praised. 
L'avenir,  F.,  the  future. 
Laus  Deo,  L.,  praise  to  God. 
Le  beau  monde,  V .,  the  fashionable  world. 
Lt  bon  temps  viendra,  I '".,  the  good  time  will 

come. 
Le  grand  monarque.F.,  the  great  monarch- 
applied  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France. 
Le  pas,  F.,  precedence  in  place  or  rank. 
Le  roile  vent,  ¥.,  the  king  wills  it. 
Lese-mafeste,  L.,  high  treason. 
L'etoilt  du  nord,  F .,  the  star  of  the   north— 

the  motto  of  Minnesota. 
I. e  tout  ensemble,  F.,  all  together. 
Lettre  de  cachet,  F.,  a  sealed  letter;  a  royal 

warrant. 
Lettre  de  marque,  F.,  a  letter  of  marque  or 

reprisal. 
Lex  non  scripta,  L.,  the  unwritten  law. 
Lex  scripta,  L.,the  written  law;  the  statute 

law. 
Lex  talionis,  L.,  the  law  of  retaliation. 
Liberum  arbitrtum,  L.,  free  will. 
Lima  labor,  L.,  the  labor  of  the  file ;  the  alow 

polishing  of  a  litenuy  composition. 
Lis  subfudice,  L.,  a  case  not  yet  decided. 
Lite  pendente,  L.,  the  law-suit  hanging ;  dur- 
ing the  trial. 
Litera  scripta  manet,  L.,  the  written   letter 

remains. 
Loci  communes,  L.,  common  places. 
Locos y  ninos  dixen  la  verdad,  Sp.,  children 

and  fools  speak  the  truth. 
Locum  tenens,  L.,  one  holding  the  place;  a 

deputy  or  substitute. 
Locus  standi,  L.,  a  place  for  standing ;  a  right 

t<>  interfere. 
L^cuxpenitentia,  L.,  place  for  repentance. 
Lusus  natura,  L.,  a  sport  or  freak  of  nature. 

Ma  chrre^F.,  my  dear— fern. 

Mafois,  F.,  upon  my  faith. 

Magna  est  Veritas  el  prcvaltblt,  L.,  truth   ia 

V great  and  it  will  prevail. 
agnum  bonum,  L.,  a  great  good. 
Magnum  opus,  I..,  a  great  • 
Maintien,  F '.,  deportment ;  carriage. 
Maison  de  santelF.,  a  private  hospital. 
Maitre  d'hotel,  F.,  a  house-steward. 
Malade  dupays,  F\,  home-sickness. 
Mala  fide,  t..~,  with  bid  faith  ;  treacherously. 
Malapropos,  V.,  ill  timed. 
Male  porta  male   dilabuntur,  L.,  things   ill 

gotten  are  ill  spent. 
Malgre  nous,  !•".,  in  spite  of  us. 
Ma'nibus  pedibusour,L.,K>lh  hands  and  feet. 
Malum  in  se.  Lj,  Main  itself. 
Mann  propria.  L.,  with  one's  own  hand. 
MtarmJGrm*,  P..  Starov*  Tuaadir. 
Materfcmilias,  L.,  the  mother  o.  a  family. 
Mauvaise  honte,  V.,  false  shame. 
M.mvais  suj't,  F.,  a  bad  subject ;  a  worthiest 

Maximns  in  minimis,  L.,  very  great  In  trifling 

Medio^tutissimns  ibis,  L..  you  will  go  most 

safclv  in  a  middle  course.  

Mega  bib/ion.  mega  iahon,  Gr.,  a  great  book 

is  a  great  evil."  , 

Me  indie,  L.,  I  being  judge;  n  my  opinion. 
Memento  mori.  I...  remember  death. 
Mens  sana  in  corf  ore  sano,  L.,  a  sound  mind 

In  a  sound  1'  ,    . 

Mens  sili  censes*  recti,  L.,  a  mind  conscioul 

of  rectitude. 


^. 


K 


A    LEXICON    OF    FOREIGN    PHRASES. 


8ll 


Mens  agitat  molem,  L.,  mind  moves  matter. 

Menu,  P.,  a  bill  of  fare. 

Mesalliance,  F.,  improper  association;  mar- 

riage  with  one  of  lower  station. 
Meum  ct  tuurn,  L.,  mine  and  thine. 
Mirabile  dictu,  L.,  wonderful  to  be  told. 
Mirabile  vtsu,  L-,  wonderful  to  be  seen. 
Mise  en  scene,  F.,  the  getting  up  for  the  stage, 

or  the  putting  in  preparation  for  it. 
Modus  operandi,  L.,the  manner  of  operation. 
Mollia  temporafandi,  L.,  times  favorable  for 

speaking. 
Mon  ami,F.,  my  friend. 
Mon  cher,  F.,  my  dear — masc. 
Monlani  semper  liberty  L.,  mountaineers  are 

always   freemen — the  motto  of  West  Vir- 
ginia. 
Afore  majorum,  L.,  after  the  manner  of  our 

ancestors. 
More  suo,  L.,  in  his  own  way. 
Motu proprio,  L.,  of  his  own  accord. 
Multum  in  parvo,  L.,  much  in  little. 
Mundus  vult  decipi,  L.,  the  world  wishes  to 

be  deceived. 
Mutatis  mutandis,  L.,  the  necessary  changes 

being  made. 

Natale  solum,  L.,  natal  soil. 

Necessilas  non  habet  legem,  L.,  necessity  has 

no  law. 
Nee,  F.,  born,  family  or  maiden  name. 
Ne  exeat,  L.,  let  him  not  depart. 
Ntfronticrede,  L.,  trust  not  to  appearance. 
Nemine  contradicente,  L.,  without  opposition. 
Nemine  dissentiente,  L.,  no  one  dissenting; 

without  opposition. 
Nemo  me  impune  lacessit,  L.,  no  oneprovokes 
me  with   impunity — the  motto  of  Scotland. 
Nemo  mortatium  omnibus  horis  sapit,  L.,  no 

one  is  wise  at  all  times. 
Nemo  repente fuit  turpissimus,  L.,  no  manbe- 

comes  a  scoundrel  at  once. 
Ne  plus  ultraj  L.,  nothing  further. 
Ne  $md  detriment!  respublica  capiat,  L.,  lest 

the  republic  should  receive  harm. 
Ne  sutor  ultra  crepidam,  L.,  let  the  shoe- 
maker stick  to  his  last. 
Nil  admirari,  L.,  to  wonder  at  nothing. 
Nil  desperandum,  L.,  never  despair. 
N\importe,  F.,  never  mind. 
Nisi  dominus,frustra,  L.,  unless  the  Lord 

helps,  nothing  is  gained. 
Nisi prius,  L.,  unless  previously. 
Nitor  in  adversum,  L.,   I  strive  against  op- 
position. 
Noblesse  oblige,  F.,  nobility  obliges;  nobles 

must  act  nobly. 
Nolens  volens,  L.,  willy-nillv. 
Noli  me  iangere,  L..   don't  iouch  me;  hands 

off. 
Nolle  prosequi,  L.,  to  abandon  prosecution. 
Nolo  episcopari,  L.,  I  am  unwilling  to  be  a 

Kishop. 
Nom  de  guerre,  F.,  a  war  name;  an  assumed 

name. 
Nom  de  plume,  F.,  a  pen  -nanus;  name  assumed 

by  an  author. 
Non  compos  mentis,  L.,  not  in  one's  right 

mind 
Non  constat,  L.,  it  does  not  appear. 
Non  est  inventus,  L.,  he  has  not  been  found. 
Non  multa,  sed multum ,  L.,  not  many  things, 

but  much. 
Non  nobis  solum,  L.,  not  for  ourselves  alone. 
Non  mi  ricordo,  It.,  I  do'not  remember. 
Noscitur  a  sociist  L.,    he  is  known  by  his 

companions. 
Nota  bene,  L.,  markwell. 
Nous  avons  change   tout  cela,  F.,  we  have 

changed  all  that. 
Nous  verrons,  F.,  we  shall  see. 
Nunquam  non  paratus,  L.,  never  unprepared. 

Oderint  dum  meturant,  L.,  let  them  hate,  pro- 
vided they  fear. 

Odiprofanum,  L.,  I  hate  the  vulgar. 

Odium  theologicum,  L.,  theological  hatred. 

Olla podrida,  Sp.,  a  mixture. 

Omne  ignotum  pro  magnijico,  L.,  everything 
unknown  is  thought  magnificent. 

Omnia  vincit  amort  L.,  love  conquers  all 
things. 

On  dit,  F.,  they  say ;  people  say. 


Onus probandi,  L.,  the  burden  of  proof. 

Ora pro  nobis,  L.,  pray  for  us. 

O  temporal  O  mores!  L.,  oh,  the  times!  oh, 

the  manners. 
Oti'tm  cum  dignitate,  L.,  ease  with  dignity. 
Outret  F,,  extravagant;  extreme. 

Palmam  qui  meruit  feral,  L.,    who    merits 

bears  the  prize. 
Par  excellence,  F.,  by  way  of  eminence ;  in  the 

highest  degree. 
Par  hasard,Y .,  by  chance. 
Paripassuj  L.,  with  equal  step. 
Parvenu,  t.,  an  upstart;  a  rich  "snob." 
Paterfamilias,  L.,  the  father  of  a  family. 
Pater patriie,  L.,  the  father  of  his  country. 
Pax  vobiscum,  L.,  peace  be  with  you. 
Peccavi,  L.,  I  have  sinned. 
Pendente  lite,  L.,  while  the  suit  is  pending. 
Per  annum,  L.,  by  the  year. 
Per  capita,  L.,  by  the  head  ;  on  each  person. 
Per  contra,  L.,  on  the  other  hand. 
Per  diem,  L.,  by  the  day  ;  every  day. 
Periculum  in  mora,  L.,  danger  in  delay. 
Per  se,  L.  by  itself. 
Personnel^  r., 

vice. 


the  staff;  persons  in  any  ser- 


Petitio principii,  L.,  begging  the  question. 

Petite,  F.,  small ;  little-Tern. 

Piece  de  resistance,  F.,  a  joint  of  meat. 

Pinxit,  L.,  he  (or  she)  painted  it. 

Pts  alter,  F.,  a  last  expedient. 

Plebs,  L.,  the  common  people. 

Poeta  nascitur,  non  ft,  L.,  a  poet  is  born,  not 

made. 
Point  d'appui,  F.,  point  of  support. 
Populus  vult  decipi,  L.,  the  populace  wish  to 

be  deceived. 
Posse  comitatus,  L.,  the  power  of  the  country ; 
the  force  that  may  be  summoned  by  the 
sheriff. 
Poste  reslante,  F.,  to  be  left  till  called  for. 
Post  meridiem,  L.,  afternoon. 
Post  mortem,  L.,  after  death. 
Post  obitum,  L.,  after  death. 
Pourparler,  F.,  a  consultation. 
Pour  prendre  conge,  F.,  to  take  leave. 
Precieuse,  F.,  a  fclue  stocking;  a  conceited 

woman. 
Preux  chevalier,  F.,  a  gallant  gentleman. 
Prima  donna,  It.,  the  first  lady;  the  princi- 
pal female  singer  in  Italian  opera. 
Prima  facie ,  L.,   on  the  first  face;  at  first 

sight. 
Primus  inter  pares,  L.,  first  among  his  peers. 
Pro  bono  publico,  L.,  for  the  public  good. 
Proces  verbal,  V.,  verbal  process ;  the  taking 

of  testimony  in  writing. 
Pro  el  con,  L.,  for  and  against. 
Pro  forma,  L.,  for  the  sake  of  form. 
Pro patria,  L.,  for  one's  country. 
Pro  tempore,  L.,  for  the  time. 
Punicafdes,  L-,  Punic  faith,  i.e.,   treachery. 

Quantum  sufficit,  L.,  as  much  as  is  sufficient. 
^uelque  chose,  F.,  something. 
Quidnunc,  L.,  what  now ;  a  gossip, 
^uidpro  quo,  L.,  an  equivalent. 
^uivive,  F.,  who  goes  there? 
\uod  erat  demonstrandum,  L.,  which  was  to 
be  demonstrated. 
Quondam,  L.,  at  one  time ;  once. 

Para  avis,  L.,  a  rare  bird. 

Rechauffe,  F.,  warmed  over;  stale. 

Recherche,  F.,  choice  ;  elegant. 

Redacteur,  F.,  an  editor. 

Redivivus,  L.,  restored  to  life. 

Reductio  ad  absurdum,  L.,  reduction  to   an 

absurdity. 
Rentes,  F.,  public  funds;  national  securities. 
Requiescat  in  pace,  L.,  may  he  (or  she)  rest 

in  peace. 
Res  angusta  domi,  L.,  the  narrow  things  at 

home ;  poverty. 
Resgestat,  L.,  things  done. 
Resurgam,  L.,  I  shall  rise  again. 
Revenons  a  nos  moutons,F.,  let  us  return  to 

our  sheep  ;  come  back  to  the  subject. 
Robe  de  ckambre,  F.,  a  dressing-gown. 
Roue,  F.,  a  rake. 
Roufre  et  noir,  F.t  red  and  black ;  a  game. 


Sanctum  sanctorum,  L.,  the  holy  of  holies. 

Sangfroid,  F.,  cold  blood  ;  self-possession. 

Sans  culottes,  F.,  without  breeches;  red  re- 
publicans. 

Sartor  resarlus,  L.,  the  tailor  patched. 

Sauve  qui feut,  F '.,  save  himself  who  can, 

Savoirfaire,  F.,  knowing  how  to  do  things. 

Savoir  vivre,  F.,  knowledge  of  the  world. 

Semper  idem,  L.,  always  the  same. 

Semper  paratus,  L.,  always  prepared. 

Sequitur,  L.,  it  follows. 

Seriatim,  L.,  in  order. 

Sic  itur  ad  astra,  L.,  thus  the  road  to  immor- 
tality. 

Sic  semper  tyrannis,  L.,  thus  always  with 
tyrants. 

Sic  transit  gloria  mttndi,  L.,  so  passes  the 
glory  of  the  world. 

Sic  volo,  sicj'ubeo,  L.,  thus  I  will ;  thus  I  com- 
mand. 

Similia  similibus  curantur,  L.,  like  tilings  are 
cured  by  like. 

Similis  simiti gaudet ,  L.,  like  is  pleased  with 

Si monumentum  quarts,  circumspice,L.., if  you 

seek  his  monument,  look  around. 
Sine  die,  L.,  without  a  day  appointed. 
Sine  qua  non,  L.,  an  indispensable  condition. 
Sistet  viator,  L.,  stop,  traveler. 
Si  vis  pacem,  para  helium,  L.,  if  you  wish 

peace,  prepare  for  war. 
Soi-disant,  P.,  self-styled. 
Spero  metiorat  L.,  I  hope  for  better  things. 
Spirt'tuel,  L.,  intellectual ;  witty. 
Spolia  opima,  L„  in  ancient  Home,  the  spoils 
of  a  vanquished  general  taken  by  the  vic- 
torious general;  a  rich  booty. 
Sponte  sua,  L.,  of  one's  own  accord. 
Statu  quo  ante  helium,  L.,  in  the  state  which 

was  Defore  the  war. 
Status  quo,  L.,  the  state  in  which, 
Stet,l*.,  let  it  stand. 
Suaviter  in  modo,fortiter  in  re,  L.,  gentle  in 

manners,  brave  in  deed. 
Subjudice,  L.,  under  consideration. 
Sub  poena,  L.,  under  a  penalty. 
Sub  rosa,  L.,  privately. 
Sub  silentio,  L.,  in  silence  or  stillness. 
Sui generis,  L.,  of  its  own  kind. 
Summum  bonum,  L.,  the  chief  good. 
Summum  jus,  summa  injuria,  L.,  the   rigor 

of  the  law  is  the  height  of  oppression. 
Surgit  amari  aliquia,  L.,  something  bitter 

arises. 
Suum  cuique,  L.,  let  each  have  his  own. 

Tableau  vivant,  F.,  the  representation  of 
some  scene  by  groups  of  persons. 

Tabula  rasa,  L.,  a  smooth  or  blank  tablet. 

Tadium  vita,  L.,  weariness  of  life. 

Taut  pis,  F.,  so  much  the  worse. 

Te  Deum,  L.,  a  hymn  of  thanksgiving. 

Tempora  mutantur,  et  nos  mutamur  in  illis, 
L.,  the  times  are  changed  and  we  are 
changed  with  them. 

Tempusfugit,  L.,  time  flies. 

Terminus  ad  quern,  L.,  the  time  to  which. 

Terminus  a  quo,  L.,  the  time  from  which. 

Terra firma,  L.,  solid  earth. 

Terra  incognita,  L.,  an  unknown  country. 

Tertium  quid,  L.,  a  third  something. 

Tete-a-tete,  F.,  head  to  head;  a  private  con- 
versation. 

Toga  virilis,  L.,  the  gown  of  manhood. 

Tokalon,  Gr.,  the  beautiful ;  the  chief  good. 

Totidem  verbis,  L.,  in  just  so  many  words. 

Toties  quoties,  L.,  as  many  as. 

Toto  carlo,  L.,  by  the  whole  heavens ;  diamet- 
rical'*' opposite. 

Tcujourspret,  F.,  always  ready. 

Tour  deforce,  F.,  a  feat  of  strength  or  skill. 

Tout-afait,  F.,  entirely:  wholly. 

Tout  ensemble,  F.,  the  whole  taken  together. 

Trojafuit,  L.,  Troy  was. 

Trottoir,  F.,  a  sidewalk. 

Tuquoque,  Brute 7  L.,  and  thou,  too.Brutus! 

Tutor  et  ultor,  L.,  protector  and  avenger. 

Tuum  est,  L.,  it  is  your  own. 

Ubimel,ibi  apes,  1,.,  where  honey  is,  there 

are  bees. 
Ultima  ratio  regum,  L.,  the  last  argument  of 

kings;  war. 


'71 


Y_ 


A 


V 


3l2 


A    LEXICON    OF    FOREIGN    PHRASES. 


=4 


Ultima  Thull,  L.,  the    utmost   boundary    or 

limit. 
Un  Hex  fait  n' est  jamais  perdu,  F.,  a  kindness 

is  never  lost. 
Unfait  accompli,  L„  an  accomplished  fact. 
Unguibus  el  roslro,  L.,  with  claws  and  beak. 
Usque  ad  nauseam,  L.,  to  disgust. 
Usus  loquendi,  I...  usage  in  speaking. 
Utile  dulci,  L.,  the  useful  with  the  pleasant. 
Ut  infra,  L.,  as  below. 
Uli possidetis,  L.i  as  you  possess;  state  of 

present  possession. 
Ut  supra,  L..,  as  above  stated. 

Vade  mecum,  L.,  go  with  me. 

Vale,  I..,  farewell. 

Valet  de  chambre,  F.,  an  attendant;  a  foot- 
man. 

Variat  lecliones,  L.,  various  readings. 

Variorum  not*,  L.,  the  notes  of  various 
authors, 

Vint,  vidi,  vici,  L.,  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

Vera  pro  graliit,  L..,  truth  before  favor. 


Verbatim  el  literatim,  L.,  word  for  word  and 
letter  for  letter. 

Verbum  sal  sapienli,  L.,  a  word  is  enough  for 
a  wise  man. 

Veritas  prevalebit,  I..,  the  truth  will  prevail. 

Veritas  vincit,  L..,  truth  conquers. 

Vestigia,  L.,  tracks;  vestiges. 

Vestigia  nulla  ntrorsum,  L.,  no  footsteps 
Iiitckwanl. 

Vexata  quttslio,  L.,  a  disputed  question. 

Vice,  L.,  in  the  place  of. 

Vice  versa,  L.,  the  terms  being  exchanged. 

Vid,  licet,  L.,  to  wit ;  namely. 

Vide  ut  rtipra,  L.,  see  what  is  stated  above. 

Viet  armis,  L.,by  force  and  by  arms;  by 
main  force. 

Vincil  qui  se  -vincit,  L.,  he  conquers  who 
overcomes  himself.^ 

Vinculum  matrimonii,  L.,  the  bond  of  mar- 
riage. 

Virtus  laudatur,  el  algel,  L.,  virtue  is  prais- 
ed, and  is  not  cherished  (is  starved). 

Virtus  semper  viridis,  virtue  is  ever  green 
and  blooming. 


Vis  inertia!,  L.,  the  power  of  inertia;  resist* 
ance. 

Viva!  regina!  L.,  long  live  the  queen  I 

Vivat  rex,  L.,  long  live  the  king. 

Viva  voce,  L,.,  by  the  living  voice;  by  oral 
testimony. 

Vivat  respublica  I  L.,  long  lire  the  republic  I 

Vivela  republiquel  K.,  long  live  therepublicl 

Vive  I'tmpereurl  F.,  long  live  the  emperorl 

Vivt  le  roil  F.,  long  live  the  king/ 

Voila,  F.,  behold ;  there  is  or  there  are. 

Volens  et potent,  L.,  able  and  willing;  motto 
of  Nevada. 

Volente  Deo,  L.,  God  willing. 

Volenti non  fit  injuria,!*., no  injustice  is  done 
to  the  consenting  person. 

Vox  it  pr ultra  nihil,  U.,  a  voice  and  nothing 
more ;  sound  without  sense. 

Vox  populi,  vox  Dei,  L.,  the  voice  of  the  peo- 
ple is  the  voice  of  God. 

Vulgo,  L..,  commonly. 

Vultus  est  index  antmi,  L.,  the  face  la  the  In- 
dex of  the  mind. 


^PK- 


«*?T|.E  UpME  OF  §K[$.m 


AMETHY8T, PEACE  OF  MIND. 

Regarded  by  the  ancients  as  having  the  power  to  dispel  drunkenness. 

OLOOD-STONE, I  MOURN  YOUR  ABSENCE. 

Worn  by  the  ancients  as  an  amulet  or  charm,  on  account  of  the  medi- 
cinal and  magical  virtues  it  was  supposed  to  possess. 

DIAMOND, pride. 

Awarded  supernatural  qualities  from  the  most  remote  period  down 
to  the  Middle  AgW<     Has  the  powerof  making  men  courageous 
and  magnanimous.     Protects  from  evil  spirits.    Influences 
the  gods  to  lake  pity  upon  mortals.     Maintains  con- 
cord between  husband  nnd  wife,  and  for  this 
reason  was  held  as  the  most  appropriate 
stone  for  the  espousal  ring. 

EMERALD, success  IN  LOVI. 

Mentioned  In  the  Bible  as  worn  In  the  breast-plate  of  the  High  Priest 
as  an  emblem  of  chastity. 


RUBY, A  CHEERFUL  MIND. 

An  amulet  against  poison,  sadness,  evil  thoughts.      A  preservative  of 

health.    Admonishea  the  wearer  of  impending 

danger  by  changing  color. 

8APPHIRE, CHASTITY. 

Procures  favor  with  princes.       Frees  from  enchantment.     Prevents 
Impure  thoughts. 

TOPAZ, FIDELITY. 

Calms  the  passions. 

TURQUOISE       ......     SUCCESS  AND  HAPPINESS. 

Preserves  from  contagion. 

GARNET, FIDELITY  IN  EVERY  ENGAGEMENT. 

ONYX, RECIPROCAL  LOVE.' 

OPAL, PURI  THOUGHTS. 

PEARL,   .........        PURITY  AND  INNOCENOl. 


V 


'V*J 


Jj 


^gp^pgp^ptjjM^P-^PM^MP^P-^p^ 


DICTIONARY  OF  ABBREVIATIONS. 

»AILY  is  the  use  of  abbreviations  increasing  in  America.  The  demand  for  continual  short-cuts  in  writing  as  well  as  in  everything 
else  has  built  a  great  number  of  logogriphs,  which  without  a  comprehensive  glossary  must  be  often  unintelligible.     Below  will 
be  found  all  the  abbreviations  in  good  English  usage. 


a.    In  commerce,  to. 

<&.     In  commerce,  at. 

A.A.G.  AssistantAdjutant-Gen- 
eral. 

A.A.P.S  American  Association 
for  the  Promotion  of  Science. 

A.A.S.  Academics  Americana  So- 
cius, Fellow  of  the  American 
Academy  (of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences). 

A.A.S.S.  Americana  Antiquar- 
ians Societatis  Socius,  Member 
of  the  American  Antiquarian 
Society. 

A.B.  Artium  Baccataureus, 
Bachelor  of  Arts. 

A.B.C.F.M.  American  Board  of 
Cotnissioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions. 

Abp.    Archbishop. 

Abr.    Abridgment. 

Abbr.    Abbreviation. 

A.B.S.    American  Bible  Society. 

A.C.  Ante  Christum ,  before 
Christ;  Arch-Chancellor. 

Acad.    Academy. 

Acct.    Account;  Accent. 

A.C.S.  American  Colonization 
Society. 

A.D.  Anno  Domini,  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord. 

A.D.C.    Aide-de-camp. 

Ad.    Advertisement. 

Adj.    Adjective. 

Adjt.    Adjutant. 

Adjt.-Gen.    Adjutant -General. 

Ad  lib.    Ad  libitum,  at  pleasure. 

Atlm.     Admiral ;  Admiralty. 

Adm.  Ct.     Admiralty  Court. 

Admr.    Administrator. 

Admx.     Administratrix. 

Ad  v.  Advalorem,  at  (or  on)  the 
value. 

Adv.  Adverb;  Advent;  Adver- 
tisement. 

Att.     AZlatis ,  of  age ;  aged. 

A.F.&A.M.  Ancient  tree  and 
Accepted  Masons. 

A.F.B.S.  American  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society. 

A.G.    Adjutant- General. 

Agr.     Agriculture. 

A.G.S.S,  American  Geograph- 
ical and  Statistical  Society. 

Agt.    Agent. 

A.H.  Anno  Hegiree,  in  the  year 
of  the  Hcgira. 

A.H. M.S.  American  Home  Mis- 
sionary Siciety. 

Ala.    Alabama. 

Aid.     Alderman. 

A.L.  of  H.  American  Legion  of 
Honor. 

Alex.     Alexander. 

Alg.    Algebra. 
fcAlt.     Altitude. 


A.M.  Anno  mundi.  In  the  year 
of  the  world ;  Artium  Mag- 
r'ster,  Master  of  Arts ;  Ante 
meridiem,  Before  noon,  morn- 
ing. 

Amb.    Ambassador.  (See  Emb.) 

Amer.    American. 

AMM.  Amalgama,  Amalgama- 
tion. 

Amt.    Amount. 

An.    Anno,  In  the  year. 

An.A.C.  Anno  ante  Christum, 
in  the  year  before  Christ. 

Anat.    Anatomy. 

Anc.    Ancient;  anciently. 

And.    Andrew. 

Ang.  Sax.    Anglo-Saxon. 

Anon.    Anonymous. 

Ans.    Answer. 

Ant.    Antiquity. 

Anth.    Anthony. 

Aor.  or  aor.    Aorist. 

A.O.S.S.  Americana  Orientalis 
Societatis  Socius,  Member  of 
the  American  Oriental  Society. 

A.O.U.W.  Ancient  Order  of 
United  Workmen. 

Ap.    Apostle ;  Applus. 

Ap.  Apud,  in  the  writings  of ;  as 
quoted  by. 

Apo.    Apogee. 

Apoc.    Apocalypse. 

App.    Appendix. 

Apr.    April. 

A.Q.M.G.  Assistant  Quarter- 
master-General 

A.R.  Anna  Regina,  Queen  Anne. 
Anno  regni,  year  of  the  reign. 

A.R.A.  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy. 

Arab.    Arabic,  or  Arabia. 

Ariz.  Ter.     Arizon:    i  crritory. 

Arg.  Argumento,  by  an  argu- 
ment drawn  from  such  a  law. 

Ai  ith.     Arithmetic. 

Ark.    Arkansas. 

A.R.R.  In  the  year  of  the  reign 
of  the  king. 

A.R.S.S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Antiquaries. 

Art.     Article. 

A.S.  or  Assist.  Sec.  Assistant 
Secretary. 

A.S.A.  American  Statistical  As- 
sociation. 

Asst.    Assistant. 

Afist.  Surg.     Assistant  Surgeon. 

A.S.S.U.  American  Sunday  - 
School  Union. 

Astrol.     Astrology. 

Astron.     Astronomy. 

A.T.     Arch -Treasurer. 

A.T.S.    American  Tract  Society. 

Ats.    At  suit  of. 

Atty.     Attorney. 

Atty.  -  Gen.    Attorney-  General. 


A.U.A.  American  Unitarian  As- 
sociation. 

Aub.TheoI.  Sem.  Auburn  Theo- 
logical  Seminary. 

A.UTC.    In  the  year  of  Rome. 

Aug.    August. 

Aur.    Gold,  Aurum. 

Auth.  Ver.  Authorized  version 
(of  the  Bible). 

Av.    Average ;  Avenue. 

Avoir.     Avoirdupois. 

A.Y.M.    Ancient  York  Masons. 

b.     Born. 

B.A.    Bachelor  of  Arts. 

B.A.    British  America. 

Bal.    Balance.   . 

Bait.     Baltimore. 

Bar.    Barrel ;  Barleycorn. 

Bart,  or  Bt.    Baronet. 

Bbl.     Barrel. 

B.C.     Before  Christ. 

B.C.    Bachelor  of  the  Classics. 

B.C.L.    Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.D.     Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

Bd.    Bound. 

Bds.  orbds.    Boards  (binding). 

B.E.     Bachelor  of  the  Elements. 

Benj.     Benjamin. 

Bk.     Book. 

B.  Lit.     Bachelor  of  Letters. 

B.LL.    Bachelor  of  Laws. 

Bl.,  Bis.    Barrel,  Barrels. 

B.M.    Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

B.  Mus.     Bachelor  of  Music. 
Bor-.     Borough. 

Bost.     Boston. 

Bot.     Botany. 

Bp.    Bishop. 

B.R.      The    King's    or    Queen's 

Bench. 
Brig.     Brigade ;  Brigadier, 
Brig. -Gen.      Brigadier- General. 
Brit.  British;  Britain. 
Brit.  Mus.     British  Museum. 
Bro.,  Bros.     Brother,  Brothers. 
Br.  Univ.     Brown  University. 
Brus.    Brussels. 
B.S.     Bachelor  of  Science. 
Bu.,  Bush.     Bushel. 
B.V.    Blessed  Virgin. 
B.V.    Farewell. 
B.V.M.     Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 
G,  Ch.  or  Chap.  Chapter ;  Consul. 

C.  or  Cent.     A  hundred,  Centum. 
C.A.     Commercial  Agent. 

ca?t.  par.  Other  things  being 
equal,  Ccetcr is  paribus. 

Cad.  Eng.     Cadet  Engineer. 

Cal.  California;  Calends;  Cal- 
endar. 

Cam.     Cambridge. 

Can.    Canon ;  Canada. 

Cant.    Canticles. 

Cap,  or  c.  Chapter,  Caput,  cap- 
itulum. 

Caps.    Capitals. 


Capt.    Captain. 

Capt.-Gen.    Captain-General. 

Card.    Cardinal. 

C.A.S  Fellow  of  Connecticut 
Academy,  Conn.  Academies  So- 
cius. 

Cash.    Cashier. 

ca.  resp.,  ca.  sa.    A  legal  writ. 

Cath.    Catholic. 

Cath.  Inst    Catholic  Institute. 

C.B.    Companion  of  the  Bath. 

C.B    Common  Bench. 

C.C.  County  Clerk;  County 
Commissioner. 

C.C.  Caius  College;  Account 
Current. 

C.C.  Chancellor  Commanuer; 
Consular  Clerk. 

C.C.C.     Corpus    Christi   College. 

C.C.P.     Court  of  Common  Pleas. 

C.E.  Civil  Engineer:  Canada 
East. 

Cel.  or  Celt.     Celtic. 

Ccn.      Century;  Centennial. 

Cf.,  orcf.    Compare,  Confer. 

C.G.  Commissary-General; Con- 
sul-General. 

C.G.S.  Commissary-General  of 
Subsistence. 

C.H,    Court-house. 

Ch.  Church;  Chapter;  Charles; 
Chaldron. 

Chamb.    Chamberlain. 

Chanc.    Chancellor. 

Chap.    Chapter;  Chaplain. 

Chas.    Charles. 

Chem.  Chemistry. 

Chf.  E.     Chief  Engineer. 

Chf.  Con.    Chief cfConstruction. 

Chf.  Med.  Pur.  Chief  Medical 
Purvevor. 

Chf.  Ord.    Chief  of  Ordance. 

Chr.     Christopher. 

Chron.    Chronicles. 

Cin.     Cincinnati. 

C.J.    Chiefjustice, 

CI.     Clergyman. 

Cld.     Cleared. 

Clk.     Clerk. 

CM.    Vincentians  or  Lazarists. 

CM.    Master  in  Surgery. 

CM.    Common  Meter. 

C.M.G.  Companion  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George. 

Co.    Company ;  County. 

Coad.     Coadjutor. 

Coad.  Bp.     Coadjutor  Bishop. 

Coad.  cum  jure  sue.  Coadjutor 
with  right  of  succession. 

C.O.D.  Cash  (or  collect)  on  de- 
livery. 

Col.  Colonel ;  Colossians ;  Col- 
orado. 

Coll.  Collector ;  Colloquial ;  Col- 
lege; Collection. 

Colo.    Colorado. 


^ 


i** 

•        m 

• 

I 

814 

DICTIONARY   OF 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

0 
\ 

' 

Com.       Commerce;   Committee; 

D.T.    T>octor  of  Theology. 

Fr.    Franc;     Francs;      French; 

H.R.     House  of  Representatives. 

CommcuU;.  |                      .ioner; 
Commodore :  Community. 

D.V.     God  willing,   Dto  volmte. 

.France. 

li.R.E.     Holy  Roman  Emperor. 
H.R.H.    HisorHerRoyalHigh- 

Dub.    Dublin. 

I  1.     Fragment 

Com.   Arr.       Committee  of  Ar- 

Dwt.    Pennyweight. 

Fr.    Francis ;     Father ;      Friar ; 

neas, 

rangements. 
Cotndg.     Commanding. 
Comdt.     Commandant. 

£.    East. 

Frank. 

H.R. I. P.     Here  he  rests  in  peace. 

ea.     Each. 

F.R.A.S.    Fellow  of  the  Astro- 

H.S.     Here  lies,  J  fie  situs. 

E.  by  S.    East  by  South. 

nomical  Society. 
F.R.C.S.L.     Fellow  of  the  Royal 

H.S.H.     His  Serene  Highness. 

Comm.     Commentary. 

Eben.     Ebenezer. 

h.t.     This  title;  In  or  under  this 

-u\o.     ComiiKidurr, 

Eccl.    Bcclstl 

College  of  Surgeons,  London. 
Fred.    Frederick. 

title, //o<r  titulo. 
h.v.     This  word,  /foe  -zerbum;  In 

Comp.    Compare ;  Compound. 
(  mn.  Ver.     Common  Version  (of 

Ecclus.     Ecclcsiasticus. 

Ed.     Editor:  Edition. 
Edia.     Edinburgh. 

F.K.G.S.     Fellow   of  the   Royal 

these  words.  ffis  verbis. 
Hund.     Hundred. 

the  Bible). 

graphical  Society. 
Fri.    Friday. 

Con.       Against;   In  opposition, 
Contra, 

Edit.     Edition. 

I,  II,  III.     One,   two,  three,  or, 

Edm.     Edmund. 

F.R.S.     Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 

first, second,  third. 

Con.  Cr.     Contra,  Credit. 

Edw.     Edward. 

ciety. 

la.     Iowa. 

Con.     Convent. 

B.K.     Errors  excepted. 

Frs.    Frisian. 

lb.  or  ibid.     In  the  same  place. 

Conch.     Conchology. 
Cong.     Congress ;  Congregation ; 
Ccmgregauonallat 

E.E.  &  M.P.     Envoy     Extraor- 

F.R.S.E.    Fellow  of  the  Royal 

Ich.     Ichthyology. 

dinary  and  Minister  Plenipo- 

Society, Edinburgh. 

Ictus.    Counselor  at  Law. 

tentiary. 

F.K.S.L.     Fellow  of  the   Royal 

Id.    The  same,  ftfem. 

Conj.  or  conj.      Conjunction. 

e.g.  For  example.  Exempli  gratia. 
e.g.     From  the  flock,  among  the 

t  v,  London. 

Id.  Ter.     Idaho  Territory. 

Conn.  orCt.      Connecticut. 

F.K.S.L.     Fellow  of  the   Royal 

i.e.    That  is,  fd est. 

Const.     Constable ;  Constitution. 

rest. 

Society  of  Literature. 

I. H.S.    Jesus  the  Savior  of  men. 

Contra. 

E.I.    East  Indies  or  East  India. 

F.S.A.     Fellow  of  the  Society  of 

ij.     Two  {medical). 
111.     Illinois. 

Conv.     Convent. 

Ehz.    Elizabeth. 

Arts. 

Cor.     Corinthians;  Corner. 

E.  Ion.     East  longitude. 

F.S.A.E.     Fellow  of  the  Society 

In.     Inch ;  Inches. 

Cored.     Corollary. 

Emp.     Emperor;  Empress. 

of  Antiquaries,  Edinburgh. 

incog.     Unknown,  fncognito. 

Cor  Sec.     Corresponding  Secre- 

Encyc.    Encyclopedia. 

Ft.     Foot ;  Feet ;  Fort 

incor.     Incorporated. 

tary 

E.N.E.     East- northeast. 

Fur.     Furlong. 

Ind.     Indiana;  Index;  Indian. 

C.P.     Common  Picas. 

Eng.     England ;  English. 

Eng.  in  Cnf.     Engineer  in  Chief. 

F.Z.S.    Fellow  of  the  Zoological 

Tnd.  Ter.     Indian  Territory. 

C.P.     Court  of  Prnh.iie. 

Society. 

Indef.     Indefinite. 

C.P.S.     Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal. 

Ens.     Ensign. 

G.  or  g.     Guineas. 

Inf.     Beneath  or  below,  Infra. 
in  f.     At  the  end  of  the  title,  law 

C.R.     Keeper  of  the  Rolls. 

Ent.     Entomology. 

G.A.     General  Assembly. 

Cr     Creditor;  Credit. 

Env.  Ext.   Envoy  Extraordinary. 

Ga.     Georgia. 

or  paragraph  quoted,  fnjine. 
in  lim.    At  the  outset,  fn  limine. 

Crim.  Con.     Criminal  conversa- 

Ep.    Epistle. 

Eph.     Ephesians ;  Ephraim. 

Epis.    Episcopal. 

Gal.     Galatians ;  Gallon, 

tion,  or  Adultery. 
C.S.     Court  of  Sessions;  Com- 

G.B.    Great  Britain. 

in  loc.     In  the  place ;  on  the  pas- 

G.C.   Grand  Chancellor. 

sage,  In  toco. 

missary  of  Subsistence. 

Esd.    Esdras. 

G.C.    Grand  Chapter. 

in  or.     In  the  beginning  and  be- 
fore the  first  paragraph  of  law, 

C.S.     Keeper  of  the  Seal. 
C.S.O.     Chief  Signal  Officer. 

E.S.E.     East -Southeast 

G.C.B.     Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

Esq.,  Esqs.      Esquire,  Esquires. 
Ban.    Esther. 

G.C.H.    Grand  Cross  of  Hanover. 

in  frincipio. 
I.N. R.I.    Jesus      of     Naxarath, 

Ct.,cts.      Cent,   Cents;  Connec- 

G.C.L.H.    Grand    Cross  of    the 

ticut. 

et  al.     And  others,  Et  alii 

Legion  of  Honor. 

King  of  the  Jews. 
Insp.-Gen.     Inspector- General. 

C.   Thcod.      In  the  Theodosian 

etc.  or  &c.       And   other  things ; 

G.E.     Grand  Encampment 

Code. 

And  so  forth. 

Gen.     Genesis ;  General. 

Inst.     Instant,    of    this    month ; 

C.W.     Canada  West. 

et  seq.     And  what  follows,  Et 

Gent.     Gentleman. 

Institute. 

Cwt.     Hundredweight. 

scquentia. 

Geo.     George. 

in  sum.     In    the    summary,     /* 

Cyc.    Cyclopedia. 

Evang.  Evangelical; Evangelist. 

Geog.     Geography. 
Gcol.     Geology. 

summa. 

d.     Penny  or  Pence. 

Ex.  Example. 
Ex.    Exodus. 

Int     Interest ;  Interpreter. 

d.    Died;  Day. 

Gcom.     Geometry. 

Gcr.     German ;  Germany. 

Interj.     Interjection. 

D.    Five  hundred. 

Exc.     Excellency;  Exception. 

Intr.     Introduction. 

Dak.  Ter.     Dakota  Territory. 

Exch.     Exchequer. 

G.L.     Grand  Lodge. 

in  trans.     In      the     passage,    /• 

Dan.    Daniel;  Danish. 

Exec.    Com.       Executive    Com- 

Gl.   A  gloss,  Glossa. 
Glas.     Glasgow. 

transitu. 

D.C.    Again  ;  Deputy  Consul. 

mittee. 

Introd.     Introduction. 

D.C.    District  of  Colombia. 

Execx.    Executrix. 

G.M.     Grand  Master. 

Io.     Iowa. 

D.C.L.     Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

ex.   g.       For    example,  Exempli 

G.O.     General  Order. 

I.O.G.T.     Independent  Order  of 

D.D.     Doctor  of  Divinity. 

gratia. 
Exr.  or  Exec.     Executor. 

Goth.     Gothic. 

Good  Templars. 

D.D.S.      Doctor  of  Dental  Sur- 

Gott     Gottingen. 

I.O.F.     Independent     Order     of 

DTE.     Dynamic  Engineer. 

Ez.     Ezra. 

Gov.     Governor. 

Forest 

Ezek.    Ezcklcl.       ' 

Gov. -Gen.     Governor-General. 

I.O.O.F.     Independent  Order  ot 

Dm,    Deacon. 

E.  &  O.E    Errors  and  omissions 

G.R.     King     George,     Georgia* 
Rex. 

Odd  Fellows. 

Dec.     December;  Declaration. 

excepted. 

I.O.U.     I  owe  you. 

D«R.  orDft,     Defendant. 

Fahr.     Fahrenheit. 

Gr.    Greek;  Gross. 

I.q.    Idem  quod,  the  same  as. 
Isa.    Isaiah. 

Di x-      DogfOa  <>r  di>jrees. 
I*i  1.      Delaware;  Delegate. 

F.A.M.    Free  and  Acceped  Ma- 

Gram.    Grammar. 

sons. 

Gro.     Gross. 

11.     Island. 

Dot  <>r  dot     Hi;  drew  it. 

Far.     Farthing. 

Grot.     Grotius. 

l.S.M.      Jesus    Sahator  mrnndi, 

Dep<     Deputy. 

D0p.  Q.M.G.       Deputy  Quarter- 

F.A.S.    Fellow  of  the  Antiquar- 

h.    Hour. 

Jesus  the  Savior  of  the  world. 

ian  Society. 

h.a.     This  year,  I  top  anno. 

Ital.     Italic;   Italian. 

master-Gent  r:il. 

■'  fcp.     Foolscap, 
F.D.     Defender  of  the  Faith. 

Hab.     Habakkuk. 

Itin.     Itinerant  or  Itinerary. 

Dept     Department. 

Hab.  corn.     You    may  have  the 
body,  Ifabeas  corpus* 

I V.     Four  or  fourth. 

Deut.     Deuteronomy. 
D.F.     Dean  of  the  Faculty. 

Fe.     Iron,  Ftrrum. 

IX.     Nine  or  ninth. 

Feb.     February, 

Hag.     Haggal. 

J.    Justice  or  Judge.    JJ.    Jus- 

D.G.    By  God's  m 
D.G.    Thanks  to  God. 

Fee.     He  did  It,  Fecit. 

Ham.  Coll.     Hamilton  College. 

tices. 

I     in.     Feminine. 

H.B.C.  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

j.     One  (medical). 

Diam.    Diameter. 

Fern.  Ac.  or  Acad.    Female  Ac- 

H.B.M,    His    or  Her  Britannic 

J. A.    Judge -Advocate, 
lac.     J 

Diet.     Dictator;  Dictionary. 

ademy 

M;ii 

Dim.     DiminntiM  . 

F.E.S.     Fellow  of  the   Entomo- 

H.C    House  of  Commons, 

Jam.    Jamaica. 

Dioc.     Dim 

logical  Society ;  of  the  Ethno- 

Hdkf.     Handkerchief. 

Jan.    January. 

Dloc  Stm.     Diocesan  Seminary. 

logical  Society*. 
Feud.     Feudal. 

U.K.     His  Eminence. 

J  as.    James. 

Disc.     Discount. 

h.e.      That  is,  or  this  is,  Hoc  est. 

J.C.D.      Juris    Civilis    Dmctor, 

Diss.     Dissertation. 

F.I  r.S.     Follow  of  the  Geological 

Hob.     Hebrews. 

Doctor  t  f  Civil  Law. 

in  It      District. 

Society. 

Her.     Heraldry. 

M.  Exc.     His  Kxcellency. 

J.D.     Jurum  Doctor,  Doctor  of 

DI   t      \itv.     District-Attorney. 

F.H.8.     Feiw  of  the  Horticut- 

Laws, 

Wv.    DMd 

tural  Society, 
fi.  fa.     Cause  it  to  be  done,  Fieri 

HI'.     Holy  Father. 
Hf.-bd.     11 

Jcr.    Jeremiah. 

I'M.    Doctoi  0!  M 

J  no.    John. 

D.M.D.      Doctor   Dental   Med- 

facias. 

f,    D<  fender  of  the  Faith. 

Hg.     Mrrrurv,  Hydrargyrum. 
nil.    His  Holiness. 

Jnna.    Jonathan. 

icine. 

Jos.    Joseph. 

josh.    Jorliua. 

Do.    The  Sara*.  DAfo 

Dot  ,  Dols.,$.     Dollars. 

Figure  ;  figurative. 
Fir.     Firkin. 

Ulul.     Hogshead. 

Hurt     Htston  ;  Historical. 

J. P.    Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Dom,        To  God,  the  best,  the 

Fla.    Florida. 

His.     ll,  re  1.     buried. 

H.L.      House  Of  I 

j.Ptod.    Ji                         ite. 

groat 

F.L.S.     Fellow  of  the  Linnxan 

j.R.     ju'roru*  Rett,  King  James. 

Jr.  or  Jun.    Junior. 

j.l'.n".  orJ.VJX     yuris  uSrius* 

Dom.  Prel.    Domestic  Prelate. 

Society. 

H.M,      Mis  or  Her  Ma)i 

D02.     Dozen. 

Fol,     1 

R.M.P,      I  retted  this  monument 

I>  l\      D01  ! !    Philosophy. 

ign. 

1  ton.      Honorable. 

que   Doctor.    Doctor    of    both 
(of  the  Canon   and  the 

k 

< 

Dr.     Debtor;  I).., 

Fellow  of  the  Philological 

Hoit.     Horticulture. 

l 

D.S.    From  the  sign. 

Society. 

Hos.     Hose  a. 

Civil  Law). 

r 

\£ 

N 

-, 

-J 

• — - 

■»  ■     « 

r 

h-3t— 


K" 


DICTIONARY    OF    ABBREVIATIONS. 


8l5 


Jud.    Judith. 

Judg.    Judges. 

Judge- Adv.    Judge -Advocate. 

Jul.    July;  Julius. 

Jul.  Per.    Julian  Period. 

Jun.    June;  Junius;  Junior. 

Jus. P.    Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Just.    Justinian. 

J.W.    Junior  Warden. 

K.    King. 

K.A.  Knight  of  St.  Andrew,  in 
Russia. 

K.A.N.  Knight  of  St.  Alexan- 
der Ncvskoi,  in  Russia. 

Kas.     Kansas. 

K.B.  King's  Bench;  Knight  of 
the  Bath. 

K.B.A.  Knight  of  St.  Bento 
d'Avis,  in  Portugal. 

K.B.E.  Knight  of  the  Black 
Eagle,  in  Russia. 

K.C.  King's  Counsel;  Knight 
of  the  Crescent,  in  Turkey. 

K.C.B.  Knight  Commander  of 
the  Bath. 

K.C.H.  Knight  Commander  of 
Hanover. 

K.C.S.  Knight  of  Charles  III. 
of  Spain. 

K.E.  Knight  jof  the  Elephant, 
in  Denmark.  * 

K.F.  Knight  of  Ferdinand  of 
Spain. 

K.F.M.  Knight  of  St.  Ferdin- 
and and  Merit,  in  Sicily. 

K.G.    Knight  of  the  Garter. 

K.G.C.  Knight  of  the  Grand 
Cross. 

K.G.C.B.  Knight  of  the  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Bath. 

K.G.F.  Knight  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  in  Spain. 

K.G.H.  Knight  of  the  Guelphs 
of  Hanover. 

K.G.V.  Knight  of  Gustavus 
Vasa,  in  Sweden. 

K.H.  Knight  of  Hanover; 
Knights  ofHonor. 

Ki.     Kings. 

Kil.  or  kii.     Kilderkin. 

Kingd.     Kingdom. 

K.J.    Knight  of  St.  Joachim. 

K.L.  or  K.L.A.  Knight  of  Leo- 
pold of  Austria. 

K.Li.H.  Knight  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor;  Knights  and  Ladtes 
ofHonor. 

K.M.     Knight  of  Malta. 

K.Mess.     King's  Messenger. 

K.M.H.  Knight  of  Merit,  in 
Ftolstein. 

K.M.J.  Knight  of  Maximilian 
Joseph,  in  Bavaria. 

K.M.T.  Knight  of  Maria  Ther- 
esa, in  Austria. 

K.N.     Know -Nothing, 

Knick.     Knickerbocker. 

K.N.S.  Knight  of  the  Royal 
North  Star  in  Sweden. 

Knt.     Knight. 

K.P.  Knight  of  St.  Patrick 
Knight  ofFythias. 

K.R.C.    KnightoftheRedCross. 

K.R.E.  Knight  of  the  Red  Ea- 
gle, in  Prussia. 

K.S.  Knight  of  the  Sword,  in 
Sweden. 

K.S. A.  Knight  of  St.  Anne,  in 
Russia. 

K.S.E.  Knight  of  St.  Esprit,  in 
France. 

K.S.F.  Knight  of  St.  Fernando, 
in  Spain. 

K.S.G.     Knight  of  St.  George,  in 

Russia. 
K.S.H.    Knight  of  St.   Hubert, 

in  Bavaria. 
K.S.J.     Knight  of  St.  Januarius, 

of  Naples. 
K.S.L.     Knight  of  the  Sun  and 

Lion,  in  Persia. 
K.S.M.  &  S.G.     Knight  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George,  in  the 
Ionian  Islands. 


K.S.P.    Knight  of  St.  Stanislaus, 

in  Poland. 
K.S.S.     Knight  of  the  Southern 

Star,  in  Brazil;  Knight  of  the 

Sword,  in  Sweden. 
K.S.W.    Knight  of  St.  Wladimir, 

in  Russia. 
K.T.      Knight    of   the    Thistle; 

Knight  Templar. 
Kt.    Knight. 
K.T.S.      Knight    of   the    Tower 

and  Sword,  In  Portugal. 
K.W.      Knight    of   William,  in 

the  Netherlands. 
K.W.E.     Knight  of   the  White 

Eagle,  in  Poland. 
Ky.     Kentucky. 
L.      Fifty     or     fiftieth;     Liber \ 

book;    Lake. 
L,  £  or    1.      Libra    or  Librae, 

Pound  or  pounds  in  weight. 
L.C.       Lord    Chancellor;    Lord 

Chamberlain ;  Lower  Canada. 
I.e.     Lower-case. 
L.C.B.     Lord  Chief  Baron. 
L.C.J.     Lord  Chief -Justice. 
L.D.     Lady-Day. 
Ld.     Lord. 
Ldp.     Lordship. 
Leg.     Legate. 
Legis.    Legislature. 
Lev.     Leviticus. 
Lex.     Lexicon. 
L.I.     Long  Island. 
Lib.    Liber,  book. 
Lieut.     Lieutenant. 
Lieut. -Col.   Lieutenant-Colonel. 
Lieut.-Gen.  Lieutenant-Gencral, 
Lieut. -Gov.        Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor. 
Linn.     Linnxan. 
Liq.     Liquidation. 
Lit.     Literally;  Literature. 
Liv.    Livre,  book. 
LL.B.       Legum      Bacca /aureus ■, 

Bachelor  of  Laws. 
LL.D.    Legum    Doctor,    Doctor 

of  Laws, 
loc.  cit.    Loco  citato,  in  the  place 

cited. 
Lon.    Longitude. 
Lond.    London. 
L.S.    Locus  sigilli,  Flace  of  the 

seal. 
Lt.     Lieutenant. 
LX.     Sixty  or  sixtieth. 
LXX.      Seventy    or   seventieth ; 

The  Septuagint  (Version  of  tne 

Old  Testament). 
LXXX.     Eighty  or  eightieth. 
M.    Meridies,  noon. 
M.    Mi  He,  a  thousand. 
M.  or  Mons.     Monsieur,  Sir. 
M.A.     Master  of  Arts. 
Mace.     Maccabees. 
Mad.     Madam. 

Mad. Univ.    Madison  University. 
Maj.     Major. 

Mai. -Gen.    Major-General. 
Mat.     Malachi. 
Man.     Manasses. 
Mar.     March. 
March.     Marchioness. 
Marg.    Margin. 

Marg.  Tran.    Marginal  Transla- 
tion. 
Marq.    Marquis. 
Masc.    Masculine. 
Mass.    Massachusetts. 
Math.    Mathematics ;  Mathema- 
tician. 
Matt.     Matthew. 
Max.    Maxim. 
M.B.       Medicitue    Baccalaureus, 

Bachelor  of  Medicine. 
M.B.       Musicee     Baccalaureus, 

Bachelor  of  Music. 
M.B.G.  ct  H.     Magna  Britannia, 
Gallia  et  Hibemia,  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  and  Ireland. 
M.C.    Member  of  Congress. 
Mch.     March. 

M.D.    Medicina  Doctor,  Doctor 
of  Medicine. 


Md.     Maryland. 

Mdlle.  or  Mile.    Mademoiselle. 

Mdse.    Merchandise. 

M.E.  Methodist  Episcopal;  Mil- 
itary  or  Mechanical  Engineer. 

Me.     Maine. 

Mech.  Mechanics,  or  Mechanical. 

Med.     Medicine. 

Mem.  Memorandum.  Memento, 
remember. 

Merc.    Mercury. 

Messrs.  or  MM.  Messieurs, Gen- 
tlemen. 

Met.     Metaphysics. 

Metal.     Metallurgy. 

Meteor.     Meteorology. 

Meth.     Methodist. 

Mex.    Mexico,  or  Mexican. 

M.-Goth.    Mceso-Gothic. 

M.H.S.  Massachusetts  Histori- 
cal Society;  Member  of  the 
Historical  Society. 

Mic.    Micah. 

Mich.    Michigan. 

Mil.    Military. 

Mil.  Acad.    Military  Academy. 

Min.    Mineralogy;  Minute. 

Minn.     Minnesota. 

Min.  Plen.  Minister  Plenipoten- 
tiary. 

Miss.    Mississippi. 

M.L.A.  Mercantile  Library  As- 
sociation. 

MM.  Their  Majesties ;  Mes- 
sieurs, Gentlemen ;  Two  thou- 
sand. 

M.M.S.  Moravian  Missionary 
Society. 

M.  M.  S.  S.  Massachusettensis 
Medicinal  Socielatis  Socius, 
F'ellow  of  the  Massachusetts 
Medical  Society. 

Mo.    Missouri;  Month. 

Mod.    Modern. 

Mon.    Monday. 

Mons.    Monsieur,  Sir. 

Mos.    Months. 

Mont.Tcr,     Montana  Territory. 

M.P.  Member  of  Parliament; 
Metropolitan  Police. 

M.P.P.  Member  of  Provincial 
Parliament. 

M.R.    Master  of  the  Rolls. 

Mr.     Mister. 

M.R.A.S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society ;  Member  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Science. 

M.R.C.C.  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Chemistry. 

M.R.C.S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons. 

M.R.G.S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society. 

M.R.I.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Institute. 

M.R.I.A.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy. 

Mrs.    Mistress. 

M.R.S.L.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Literature. 

M.S.  Memories  sacrum,  Sacred 
to  the  Memory;  Master  of  the 
Sciences. 

MS.  Manuscriptum,  Manuscript. 

MSS.    Manuscripts. 

Mt.    Mount  or  Mountain. 

Mus.B.    Bachelor  of  Music. 

Mus.D.    Doctor  of  Music. 

M.W.  Most  Worthy;  Most  Wor- 
shipful. 

Myth.    Mythology. 

N.  Nortn;  Number;  Noun ; 
Neuter. 

r..    Note. 

N.A.    North  America. 

Nah.     Nahum. 

Nat.    Natural. 

Nat.  Hist.    Natural  History. 

Nath.     Nathanael  or  Nathaniel. 

N.B.      New    Brunswick;    North 
British;      Nota      bene,     mark 
well,  take  notice. 
N.C.     North      Carolina;      New 
Church. 


N.E.    New  England ;  Northeast. 

Neb.     Nebraska. 

Neh.     Nehemiali. 

n.e.i.  Non  est  inventus.  He  is 
not  found. 

nem,  con.  or  nem.  diss.  Nemine 
contradicente.  No  one  oppos- 
ing;  Unanimously. 

Neut.     Neuter  (gender). 

Nev.    Nevada. 

New  Test,  or  N.T.  New  Testa- 
ment. 

N.F.    Newfoundland. 

N.G.  New  Grenada ;  Noble 
Grand. 

N.H.  New  Hampshire;  New 
Haven. 

N.H.H.S.  New  Hampshire  His- 
torical Society. 

Ni.pri.    Nisiprius  (law). 

N.J.     New  Jersey. 

n.l.  Non  liquet,  It  does  not  ap- 
pear. 

N.lat.     North  latitude. 

N.Mex.     New  Mexico. 

N.N.E.     North-Northeast. 

N.N.W.     North- Northwest. 

N.O.    New  Orleans. 

No.    Numero,  number. 

Nol.pros.  Nolens  prosequi,!  am 
unwilling  to  prosecute. 

Nom.  or  nom.     Nominative. 

Non  con.  Not  centent;  dissent- 
ing (House  of  Lords). 

Non  cul.    Non    cuipabilis,    Not 


Non  oust.  Non  obstante,  not- 
withstanding. 

Non  pros.  Non  prosequitur,  He 
does  not  prosecute. 

Non  seq.  Non  sequitur,  It  does 
not  follow. 

Nos.     Numbers. 

Nov.     November. 

N.P.  N  otary  Public ;  New 
Providence. 

N.S.  New  Style  (after  1752); 
■  Nova  Scotia. 

N.T.    New  Testament. 

N.u.    Name  or  names,  unknown. 

Num.    Numbers ;  Numeral. 

N.V.M.  Nativity  of  the  Virgin 
Mary. 

N.W.    Northwest. 

N.W.T.  Northwestern  Territory. 

N.Y.    New  York. 

N.Y.H.S.  New  York  Historical 
Society. 

O.     Ohio. 

Ob.     Obiit,  He  (or  she)  died. 

Obad.    Obadiah. 

Obj.    Objection;  Objective. 

O.K.  A  slang  phrase  for  "All 
correct." 

Obt.    Obedient. 

Oct.    October. 

O.F.  Odd  Fellow,  or  Odd-Fel- 
lows. 

O.F.P.  Order  of  Friar  Preachers. 

Old  Test,  or  O.T.  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

Olym.    Olympiad. 

Orit.     Ontario. 

Opt.    Optics ;  Optical;  Optional. 

Or.    Oregon. 

Ord.  Ordinance;  Order;  Ord- 
nance; Ordinary. 

Orig.     Originally. 

Ornith.     Ornithology. 

O.S.    Old  Style  (before  1752). 

O.S.F.    Order  of  St.  Francis. 

O.T.    Old  Testament. 

O.UJV.  Order  of  United  Ameri- 
cans. 

Oxf.    Oxford. 

Oxon.  Oxoniensis,  Oxonii,  of 
Oxford,  at  Oxford. 

Oz.     Ounce. 

P.     Pondere,  by  weight. 

P.  or  p.    Page;  Part;  Participle. 

Pa.     Pennsylvania. 

Pal.     Palaeontology. 

Par.     Paragraph. 

Par.  Pas.    Parallel  passage. 


/ 


-77 


**? 


K 


816 


DICTIONARY    OF    ABBREVIATIONS. 


7 


Pari.     Parliament. 
Pathol.    Pathology. 

Fayt.     PftJBM 

Pb.     Plumbum,  Lead. 

P.M.  llaccataureus, 

"phy. 
Poire*     t'OMtcriph,    Con- 
script Fathers;  Senator*. 

P.C.  Privy  Council;  Privy  Coun- 
cillor, 

P.D.    Philosophic  Doctor,  Doc- 
tor of  Philosophy. 

i 

JM-.     Protectant  Episcopal. 

P.K.I.     Prince  Edward  Island. 

Penn.     Pennsylvania. 

Pent.     Pentecost. 

Per.  or  pr.     By  the. 

IVr  in.    Per  annum,  by  the  year. 

Per  cent.      Per  centum,  by  the 
brad 

Peri.      Perigee. 

im.    r 

)'.(..     Past  Grand. 

Phar.    Pharmacy* 

Ph.it.    Philosfhtae  Baecataureus, 

i    >f  Philosophy. 
Ph.D.  Philosophic  Doctor,  Doc- 
tor ot  Philosophy. 
;  Philii 


ppians;  Phil- 


Phil.     Ph.  to 
osophy;  Philemon. 

Phila,  or  Phil.    Philadelphia. 

Philom.  Philomathts,  Lover  of 
learning. 

Philomath.  Philomathemati&is , 
A  lover  of  mathematics. 

Phil.Trans.  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions. 

Phren.     Phrenology. 

I'.ll.s.  Pennsylvania  Historical 
Society. 

Pinx.  Pinxit,  He  tor  she)  paint- 
ed it. 

Pk.     Peck. 

1*1.  or  nlur.     Plural. 

PItf.     Plaintiff. 

1*. M .  Post  meridiem,  Afternoon. 
Evening;  Postmaster;  Passed 
Midshipman  ;  Paymaster. 

P.  M.  G,       Postmaster-General. 

P.O.     Post-office. 

Pbi  i.    P<»«  Heal 

Pop.    Population. 

Port.     Portugal ;  Portuguese. 

Pos.  Position;  Positive;  Pos- 
session. 

P.P.  Pater  Patria.  Father  of 
his  Country;  Parish  Pr 

P.P.C.  Pour  prendre  conge,  to 
take  leave. 

Pp.  or  pp.     Pages. 

Pph.     Pamphlet. 

Pr.    By. 

P.R.       Poputus     Romanus,    the 

Roman  People!    Porto    Rico; 

Proof  reader;  Prize  King. 
P.R.A.     President  of  the  Royal 

Academy. 
P.R.C.     Post  Romam  conditam, 

After  the  building  of  Home. 
Prat    Pr  I 
Prep.    Prapoaraon. 
Prot     Protestant. 
Pro  tern.    Pro  tempore,  for  the 

tlma  Kelng, 
Prov.     Proverbs;  P>ov*ost. 
1'f  t.     Proximo,  next  (month). 
P. U.S.     President  of  the   Royal 

Society. 
P.S.     Post  scriptum.  Postscript. 
P.S.     Privy  Seal. 
Pi.    Psalm  or  Psalms. 
Pt.    Parr  ;  Pint  |  Pavmcnt;  Point; 

Port;  Post-town. 

Publication; 

Publl  bad:  Public 
Pub,  Doc.     Public-  Documents. 

P.v.      PoM-vill"' 
Pwt.         Pern  at; 

weights.  "* 

Pxt.  Pinxit,  He  (or  she)  painted 

Q.     Qurrn. 

q.     Quasi,  mm  it  were  ;  almost. 


Q.R.    Queen's  Bench. 

Q,C.     Queen's  College;  Queen's 

Counsel, 
q.d.     Quasi  dicat,  as  if  he  should 
say;  yuasi  dictum,  as  if  said; 
quasi  dtxisset.  as  if  he  had  said. 
q.e.     Quod  est,  which  is. 
q.e.d.      $uod  erat    demonstran- 
dum, which  was  to  be  proved, 
q . e . ( .      Quod      erat    faciendum , 

which  was  to  be  done, 
q.e.i.      Quod   erat  inveniendum, 

which  was  to  be  found  out. 
q.l.     Quantum  libet,  as  much  as 

you  pit 
QM.     Quartermaster. 
qm.      Quomodo,  how;    by  what 

means. 
Q.M.G.    Quartermaster- General. 
q.p  or  q.pl.     Quantum  placet,  as 

much  as  you  please. 
Qr.     Quarter. 
Q.S.    Quarter-sessions;  Quarter* 

section. 
q.s.   Quantum  sufiicit,  a  sufficient 

quantity. 
Qt.  Quart, 
qu.     or     qy.      Quare,     inquire, 

query. 
Quar.     Quarterly. 
Ques.    Question, 
q.v.       Quod    vide,    which     sec; 

quantum  vis,  as  much  as  you 

wilt. 
R.  Recite,  Take;  Regina. Queen  ; 

/?«•,  King;  River;  Rod ; Rood; 

Rises. 
R.A.      Royal    Academy;    Royal 

Academician ;      Royal       arch ; 

Royal  Arcanum ;  Royal  Artil- 
lery. 
R.C.  Rescriptum,  A  rescript,  Re- 
written. 
R.E.     Royal  Engineers. 
Rod     Recipe;   Recorder. 
1<<  ( (1.     Received. 
Rec.  Sec.     Recording  Secretary. 
Rcct.     Rector ;  Receipt. 
Ref.     Reference;  Reform. 
Ref.  Ch.     Reformed  Church. 
Reg.     Register;  Regular. 
Reg.  Prof?    Regius  Professor. 
Rcgr.     Registrar. 
Regt.     Regiment. 
u.  1.    Religion. 
Rep.    Representative;  Reporter; 

Republic. 
Rev.        Reverend ;      Revelation 

(Book  of);  Review;  Revenue; 

Revise. 

Rhct     Rhetoric. 

R.l.     Rhode  Island. 

RlcHd.     Richard. 

R.I. U.S.  Rhode  Island  Histori- 
cal Society. 

ELM.  Royal  Marines;  Royal 
Mail. 

K.M.S,     Roval  Mail  Steamer. 

R.N.     Roval  Naw. 

R.N.O.  Riddare  of  Nordstjerne 
Ord.-n  Knight  of  the  Order  of 
the  Polar  Stnr. 

Ro.     Recto,  Right-hand  page. 

Root    Row 

Horn.     Romans  (Rook  of). 

Rom.  Cath.     Roman  Catholic. 

li.V.  ffiartii  Professor,  the 
King':   Prof     •  < . 

RK.   TU^raajl 

U.S.     Recording  Secretary. 

Rs.  Rcsfflttsum,  Answer ;  AV- 
spondere.  To  answer. 

Royal    Society    of   Antr- 

Qnaitaa;  Royal  Scottish  Acad- 
emy. 

Royal  Society  of  Dub- 
lin. 

Royal  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh. 

tvof  London. 
R.S.Y.P.       Respondex    sit    rous 

ploit,  Answer  ji  ■ 
Ht.  lion.      1; 
Ut,  Rev,     Right  Reverend. 


Rt.  Wpful.     Right  Worshipful. 

H.W.     Right  Worthy. 

R.W.O.  RtddareafWasa  Orden, 

Knight  of  the  Order  of  v 
S.     South ;    Saint;    Sen: 

phur,  Sunday;  Sun;  Series. 
S.     Sotidus,  A  shilling. 
S.A.      South     America;     South 

Africa;  South  Austrolia. 
s.a.   Secundum  artem.  According 

to  art. 
Sam.     Samuel. 
Sjnsc.     Sanscrit. 
s.A.s.    Sih  i.  talis  Antiquariorum 

Socius,  Fellow  of  the   Society 

of  Antiquaries. 
Sat.     Saturday. 
Sax.     Saxon. 

Sax.  Chron.  Saxon  Chronicle. 
S.C.      Senatus  consultum,  A  de- 

drce  of  the  Senate ;  South  Car  - 

olina. 
Sc.     He  (or  she)  engraved  it. 
sc.  or  scil.     Namely. 
Scan.  Mag.    Scandal,  Scandulum 

magnatum;  or,  Great  scandal, 

Scandalum  magnttm. 
S.  caps.     Small  capitals. 
Schol.    A  note,  Scholum. 
Schr.    Schooner. 
Sci.fa.       Make    known     (legal), 

Scire  facias. 
Sclav.     Sclavonic 
Scot.     Scotland. 
Sculp,   or  sculp.      He   (or    she) 

engraved  it,  Sculfsit. 
S.D.  Sends  health.  Salutem  dicit. 
S.D.     Doctor  of  Science. 
S.E.    Southeast. 
Sec.     Secretary;   Second;    Sec- 
tion. 
Sec.  Leg.  Secretary  of  Legation. 
Sec.  leg.     According  to  law. 
Sec.  rcg.     According  to  rule. 
Sect.     Section. 
Sem.     It  seems. 

Sen.  &  Date;  Senator;  Senior. 
Sept.  September;  Siptu^gint. 
Seq.      Following,    Sequent  to ;    It 

follows,  Sequitur. 
Ser.     S 

Serg.     Serge:u.t. 
Serg.-Maj.     Sergeant- Major. 
Servt.     Servant, 
S.G.     Solicitor -General. 
Shak.     Shakspere. 
S.II.S.     Fellow  of  the  Historical 

Society. 
Sing.     Singular. 
S.Isl.     Sandwich  Islands. 
Sist     Sister. 
S.J.     Society  of  Jesus. 
S.J.C.     Supreme  Judicial  Court. 
Bkr.      Sanscrit. 

8.L.    Solicitor  at  Law. 

Sid.     Sailed. 

South  Latitude. 

S.M.    State  Militia;  Short  Meter; 
nit-Major;        Sena       of 
Malta. 

S.M.  Lond.  Soc.  Cor.  Corre- 
sponding Member  of  the  Lon- 
don Medical  Society. 

s.n.  According  to  nature,  Seeuu- 
dam  not  ar  am. 

Soc,  Isl.     Soci    ■      f 

Sol.  Solomon ;  Solution  ;  Solici- 
tor. 

Sol. -Gen.     Solicitor-  General. 

s.  ,>f  s-o.    Bong  of  Solomon. 

S.l*.     Without  issue,  Sine  prole. 

Sp.     Spam. 

S.I'.A.s,     Member  of  the  Amcri- 
1 

s.l* .< ..  Societvfnr  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  ( 

Sp.gr.     Specific  gravity. 

s. P.q.lt.  The  Roman  Senate 
■nd  P. 

Sq.ft.  Square  foot  or  square 
feet 

Sn,  in.     Square  inch  OT  inches. 

Sq.m.     Square  mile  <>r  mil 
Sq.r.     Square  rood  or  roods. 


Sq.yd.     Square  yard. 
Sr.     Sir  or  Senior;  Sister. 
S.R.I.     Holv  Roman  Empire. 
S.K.S.       Fellow    of     the    Royal 

Society. 
S.S.     Sunday  -school. 
SS.     Saints. 

SS.  ores.     To- wit.  Scilicet. 
ss.     Half,  Semis. 

South  -southeast. 
S.S.VV.     South -southwest. 
St.     Saint ,  Street ;  Strait. 
Stat.     Statute. 

S.T.D.     Doctor  of  Sacred  Theol- 
ogy- 


Ster.  or  Stg.     Sterling. 
Professor     of 


S.T.P.        Professor  "of     Sacred 

Theology, 
Su.     Sunday. 
Subj.     Subjective. 
Subst     Substantive, 
Su.  Goth.     Suit*  Gothic 
Sun.  or  Sund.     Sunday. 
Sup.      Supplement ;      Superfine ; 

Superior. 
Supt.     Superintendent. 
Surg.     Surgeon ;  Surgery. 
Surg.  -Gen.     Surgeon  -  General. 
Surv.    Surveyor. 
Surv.-Gen.     Surveyor-General. 
Sus.    Susannah, 
s.v.     Under  the  word  or  title,  Sut> 

verbo. 
S  W.    Southwest. 
Syn.     Synonym ;  Synonymous. 
T.     Territory. 
T.    All  together,  Tutti. 
T.  or  Tom.    Tome ;  Volume. 
T.E.     Topographical  Engineers. 
Tenn.     Tennessee* 
Ter.     Territory. 
Tex.     Texas. 

Text  Rec.    The  Received  Text. 
Th.  or  Thurs.     Thursday. 
Theo.     Theodore. 
Theol.     Theology;   Theological. 
Theoph.     Theonhilus. 
Thess.     Thessalonians. 
Tho\     Though. 
Thos.     Thomas. 
Thro'.     Through. 
Thurs.     Thursday. 
Tim.     Timothy. 
Tit.    Titus. 
T.O.    Turn  over. 
Tob.    Tobit 
Tom.     Volume. 

Topog.     Topography;       Topo- 
graphical. 
Tr.      Transpose;         Translator; 

Translation. 
Tr.,  Trs.     Tnistee,  Trustees, 
tr.    A  shake,  Trillo. 
Trans.    Translator ;  Translation ; 

Transactions. 
Trcaa.    Treasurer. 
Trin.     Trinity. 
Tues.  or  Tu.  '  Tuesday. 
Tvp.    T  vp  orra  pher. 
U.C.     •  me. 

U.E.I.C.     United      East      India 

I       tpany. 
V.]  C.     Doctor    of    both     Laws 

(Civil  and  Canon). 
UK.     Doited  Kingdom, 
ult.     Last ;  of  the  last  month,  I V- 

t:'mo. 
Unit    Unitarian. 
Univ.    Unlvca 
U.S.    United  states, 
u.s.    As  above,  I't  supra  or  uti 

supra. 

United  States  Arm  v. 
United  States  of  Amer- 


u  s;  \. 
US  \. 

U.s.M 

r.s.M 


United  Si 
Unit 
U.S.M.  V    Unite;  States  Military 
Acadcmv. 

f 
\.     United  States  Naval 
Aradcmv. 
U  S.S,     I   nib  d  st  ites  Senate. 
U.T.    Utah  Territory. 


^ 


^ 


DICTIONARY    OF    ABBREVIATIONS. 


8l7 


V.    Five  or  fifth. 

V.    Violin.     VV.    Violins. 

v.  or  vid.    See,  Vide, 

v.  or  vs.   Against ;  In  such  away: 

Versus ;  Versiculo. 
V.A.    Vicar  Apostolic. 

V.  Adml.     Vice-Admiral. 
Va.     Virginia. 

Vat.    Vatican. 

V.C.    Vice -Chancellor. 

V.C.    Vice-Consul. 

V.C.G.    Vice-consul-General. 

V.D.M.    MinisterofGod'sWord. 

Ven.    Venerable. 

Ver.     Verse ;  Version. 

V.F.    Vicar-Forane. 

V.G.    Vicar-General. 

v.g.  As  for  example,  Vtrbi  Gratia. 

VI.  Six  or  Sixth. 

VII.  Seven  or  Seventh. 

VIII.  Eight  or  Eighth. 
Vic.-Ap.     vicar- Apostolic. 
Vic-Gen.    Vicar-General. 
Vice-Pres.,  or  V.P.     Vice-Pres- 
ident. 


Vil.     Village. 

Vise.    Viscount. 

viz.  orvi.    To  wit;  Namely;  That 

is  to  say :   Videlicet. 
Vo.     Left  hand  page,  Verso. 
Vol.     Volume. 
V.R.     Queen  Victoria,    Victoria 

Regina. 
V.R:    Very  Reverend. 
VS.    Veterinary  Surgeon. 
Vt.    Vermont. 
Vul.    Vulgate  (Latin  version  of 

the  Bible). 
W.     West. 
Wash.     Washington. 
W.Ter.    Washington  Territory. 
Wed.    Wednesday. 
West.  Res.  Col.  Western  Reserve 

College. 
w.f.    Wrong  font. 
Whf.     Wharf. 

W.I.  or  W.Ind.    West  India. 
Wise.    Wisconsin. 
Wisd.    Wisdom  (Book  of). 
Wk.    Week. 


W.Lon.    West  longitude. 
W.M.    Worshipful  Master. 
Wm.    William. 
W.M.S.     Wesleyan   Missionary 

Society. 
W.N.W  West-northwest. 
Wpful.  Worshipful. 
W.S.  Writer  to  the  Signet 
W.S.W.  West-southwest 
W.T.  Wyoming  Territory. 
X.    Ten  or  tenth. 

X.  or  Xt.    Christ. 

XI.  Eleven. 

XII.  Twelve. 

XIII.  Thirteen. 

XIV.  Fourteen. 

XV.  Fifteen. 

XVI.  Sixteen. 

XVII.  Seventeen. 

XVIII.  Eighteen. 

XIX.  Nineteen. 

XX.  Twenty. 
XXX.    Thirty. 
XL.    Forty. 
XC.    Ninety. 


Xmas  or  Xm.     Christmas. 

Xn  or  Xtian.     Christian. 

XntyorXty.    Christianity. 

Xper  or  Xr.     Christopher. 

Vd.    Yard. 

y.  or  ye.    The. 

ym.    Them. 

yn.    Then. 

yr.    Their;  Your. 

ys.     This. 

yt.     That. 

Y.M.C.A.    Young  Men's   Chris 

tian  Association. 
Y.  M.  Cath.  A.      Young   Men's 

Catholic  Association. 
Yrs.     Years ;  Yours. 
Zach.     Zachary. 
Zech.     Zechanah. 
Zeph.     Zephaniah. 
Zool.     Zoology. 
&.    And. 
&c.    And  the  rest;  And  so  forth: 

£t  ceetera. 


V 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


=7? 


£ 


819 


^^^^^^^^^^^rj'J^^^^^rj,j.jrj.j,jrj,j,jrjrj,jrj,j,JrjrjrJUI 


RLPHHBETICnL    NDEX 


rlrlrlrJrlrlrlrirlrlrlrlrlrJrlr>rl,lrJr>^rlr'rJttP?rZWZ,JrlrlrlrJrlrlrJrJJrlrJrlrlrlrJrlrlJJrJJ 


OF  PRINCIPAL  SUBJECTS. 


Note. —  It  has  been  deemed  unnecessary  to  repeat,  in  this  summary  of  contents,  those  topics  which  have  been  arranged  in 
alphabetical  order  in  various  departments  cf  the  work.  A  glance  at  the  Table  of  Contents  will  enable  the  reader  to  determine 
under  which  heading  any  subject  of  reference  not  named  in  the  following  pages  may  be  found. 


A 

Abbreviations,  dictionary  of .................  813 

'  ■  in  letter-writing __._.._. ........  49 

Aberration  oflight 348 

Absorption  of  heat 349 

Abstract  of  title 468 

Abyssinia,  history  of... 316 

,  map  of ....... 299 

Accent 18 

■          marks 28 

Accommodation  of  the  eye 664 

■   ■          paper _ 408 

Acids 354 

Acknowledgment  of  deeds.    See  Special  Laws. 

Acne 652 

Acoustics _ 347 

Acquisition  of  territory. .....___...._. 544 

Acrostic 38 

Address,  proper  modes  of 50 

Adhesion 34s 

Administrators  and  executors.. 478 

Advice,  letters  soliciting 58 

Aerolites 369 

Affection,  letters  of. 56 

Affidavits _ _....  458 

■,  general  form  of .........  458 

to  accounts  .... ........ ._ 458 

to  petition 458 

—  to  signature  of  absent  witness 459 

Affinity,  chemical 345 

Afghanistan  and  Beloochistan,  history  of...._  311 

Africa,  history  of 314 

,  map  of 298 

Age 545 

Agency  and  attorney........................  456 

Age  of  Man ......... ... . 394 

Agreements  and  contracts.............. 453 

Agriculture,  Bureau  of 620 

■',  statistics  of 562,  563 

Ague 670 

Air 398,  545 

Air-balloons  .... 337 

Air,  forces  acting  upon 346 

Air-guns  ......... .. ...  337 

Air-pump  __..... ... ...... 347 

Alabama,  special  laws  of 502 


Albums,  new  designs  for 145 

Alchemy 353 

Alcohol 545 

Alcoholic  liquors 545 

Alexandrian  library 800 

Algebra 337 

Alien  and  sedition  acts 337 

Alkalis 354 

Allegory 34 

Alliteration 35 

Allusion 35 

Allusions,  dictionary  of  familiar 800 

Almanacs 337 

Alphabet 337 

Alphabets.     See  Penmanship, 

Alphabet,  telegraphic 416 

Altitude  as  affecting  climate .... ... 398 

Aluminum 402 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution   602 

Anaemia   643 

Anaesthesia 337 

Anapestic  verse ... 37 

Anchors 337 

Andorra 306 

Animal  and  vegetable  life 401 

Animal  kingdom,  the 400 

Animals,  age  and  weight  of „  545 

Antarctic  current,  the 397 

Anti-slavary  Society 337 

Antithesis 34 

Antonyms,  dictionary  of 64 

Aphaeresis 31 

Apocope 31 

Apophasis 35 

Apothecaries'  weight 446 

•  measure 446 

Aposcopesis ........ ......     31 

Apostrophj 27,  34 

Appetite,  excessive  (polyphagia)... .....  632 

Apprentices 459 

Aqueducts 545 

Arabia,  history  of. 312 

',  map  of 299 

Archaism 31 

Arbitration    460 

>  bond,  form  of 460 

,  form  of  submission  to 460 


Arbitrators,  form  of  award  of 460 

,  form  of  notice  to ......  460 

Architecture  for  Modern  Times 679 

Practical  architecture 679 

The  choice  of  a  site 680 

Building  a  home 680 

How  the  money  is  applied 681 

Water,  cellar,  ice-house 681 

Beautiful  homes — plans  and  estimates 682 

Noteworthy  suggestions 711 

Area  of  States  and  countries  (diagram) 336 

Argand  lamps 337 

Argentine  Republic,  history  of. 27a 

Arizona,  special  laws  of . ..... ...... 502 

Arkansas,  special  laws  of 503 

Armada 800 

Army  and  navy  expenditure    563 

Army  death  rate ....  545 

officers 609 

proportions 545 

■"■  statistics 610 

,  the  American 609 

Arquebus ..........  337 

Artesian  wells 346,800 

Articulation 40 

Artillery 545 

Asia,  history  of ....... ..  308 

Assignment *.  461 

Assignment  of  money  due  on  account...  . 462 

of  a  note 46c 

of  wages ...... . 462 

with  guaranty  of  assignor . .  462 

— ■  without  recourse  ... 462 

with  power  of  attorney 462 

■  See,  also,  Special  Laws. 

Assumed  names  in  literature 791 

Assurance 424 

Asteroids,  or  minor  planets 368 

Asthma 648 

Astigmatism 665 

Astrology 356 

Astronomy _... 355 

History  of  astronomical  science 355 

Astrology 356 

The  solar  system 357 

The  sun 358 

The  sun's  apparent  motion 358 


T?7 


^ 


T 


<a *w 


|V 


820 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


Astronomy—  Continued. 

Sun-spots 359 

Solar  prominences 359 

The  planets 359 

Mercury 359 

Venus 359 

Our  earth  and  her  satellite 360 

The  seasons 363 

The  moon 364 

The  phases  of  the  moon 365 

The  tides ,...  366 

Mars    367 

Jupiter,  the  giant  planet 368 

Saturn 368 

Uranus... 369 

Neptune 369 

The  asteroids,  or  minor  planets 369 

Meteors 369 

Comets 369 

The  zodiacal  light 370 

The  fixed  stars 370 

Motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies 370 

The  constellations 371 

Double  and  multiple  stars 371 

New  and  variable  stars 371 

Distance  of  the  stars 371 

Proper  motion  of  the  stars..... 372 

Nebula;  and  star-clusters 373 

The  nebular  hypothesis 373 

The  milky  way 374 

A  dictionary  of  astronomical  definitions  ..  374 

How  to  read  the  sky 376 

Maps  of  the  heavens 378,  389 

Atoms  and  molecules 343,  353 

Atomic  theory 353 

Attachments.    Set  Special  Laws, 

Attorney 456 

,  power  of ....  457 

Attorneys-General  ..........................  6ai 

Audiphone 348 

Aurora  boreal  is 399 

Australia,  history  of. 320 

— ■■■    ,  map  of 295 

Austria-Hungary,  history  of 381 

■t  map  of........... ...................  391 

Authors 545 

Avalanche 394 

Average  clause  (Insurance) 424 

Avoirdupois  weight 446 

Azoic  ago 394 

B 

Ballad 38 

Ball,  etiquette  of  the 7-*>> 

Balloons 548 

II ml ,  Imw  to  do  business  with  a 438 

Bank  discount 437 

inking 337 

Banking  frauds 4jq 

Banking,  statistics  of 548 

ll. ml  i>flicen  and  employes 497 

Banks  and  banking 43ft 

Banks,  national 43a 

■'  of  circulation 437 

of  deposit 427 

— -.-of  exchange 4«7 

Barbarians ^01 

Barbary  States,  history  of. 317 

Barker's  mill j4$ 


Bams,  designs  for 709 

Barometer 337,  346,  548 

Barrels,  measurement  of 4-45 

Barrenness 548 

Battering-ram 337 

Battery,  Bunsen's 352 

,  Grove's 35a 

— — ,  the  Daniells 35* 

,  the  Galvanic 351 

— ,  the  Leclanche 353 

,  the  so-called  Gravity 352 

Battles,  diagram  of  decisive 334 

,  statistics  of 548 

Bayonets 337 

Bays 548 

Beer 548,  575 

— — ,  production  of. 575 

Bees 548 

Belgium,  history  of. 384 

Bells 337.  54* 

Bellows 337 

Beloochistan,  history  of 311 

Bible 548 

Bicycle 548 

Biography,  a  Compendium  of. 309 

Birds,  flight  of 548 

Birthday  parties 723 

Bites  and  stings 676 

Bilious  temperament —  535 

Bill  of  exchange 4^9 

,  foreign 43° 

Bill  of  lading  as  security 43* 

Bill  of  sale 4*2 

,  common  form,  with  warranty.........  463 

,  personal  property 463 

,  short  form 463 

Blackboard  writing  and  drawing 14- 

Blankets 337 

Blank  verse 35 

Bleeding  from  the  lungs 675 

—  .—■-  from  the  nose 675 

Blindness 548 

Blood 638,642 

■  ,  composition  of. 643 

-■  ■,  circulation  of 337 

— — — ,  diseases  of  the 643 

,  elements  of 548 

Board  of  Trade,  Chicago 4ft 

Boards,  measurement  of. 444 

Boards  of  trade  and  stock  exchanges 411 

Board,  table  of_. 443 

Bolivia,  history  of. S72 

Bombs 337 

Bonds 463 

and  stocks 432 

— ,  government 433 

Bond,  general  form  of...... 464 

—  to  execute  an  assignment 464 

to  execute  a  deed 464 

.short  form  of 463 

secured  by  mortgage... *. 463 

Bones  of  the  human  body 654 

■^— ,  diseases  of  the 654 

Book-keeping 168 

Books  used  in  single  entry t6S 

Books  used  in  double  entry 169 

How  entries  are  made 169 

Row  to  detect  errors 169 

How  errors  are  made 170 

Subsidiary  books 170 


Book-keeping — Continued. 

The  two  systems  compared.... 171 

Book-keeping  by  single  entry 171 

Single  entry  cash-book 17a 

Single  entry  day-book  174 

Single  entry  ledger 176 

Deductions  from  single  entry  set 178 

Book-keeping  by  double  entry 179 

The  key  to  journalizing 179 

The  principles  of  double  entry  book-keeping  180 

How  to  close  the  ledger 180 

Balance  sheets 181 

Auxiliary  books 181 

Set  I.— Day-book 18a 

Set  L— Journal 183 

Set  I. — Ledger 184 

Set  I.— Trial  balances 186 

Day-book  and  journal  combined 187 

Set  II. — Journal  day-book ; 188 

Set  II.— Ledger 196 

Set  II. — Trial  balance  and  inventory 904 

Set  II.— Balance  sheet 305 

How  to  change  single  entry  books  into  dou- 
ble entry  ao6 

The  columnar  journal 306 

A  stx-column  journal — 307 

Combined  statement 208 

Books 337.  549 

Boots 337 

Boston  fire 337 

Brahminism 401,  554 

Brain 535 ,  549.  *5* 

——,  synopsis  of  the  various  organs  of 538 

Brazil,  history  of. 267 

Bread 337 

Breathing  (elocution) 40 

Bricks 337 

■  ■  ■)  number  required  for  a  building 444 

Bridges 337.  5*9 

Bronchitis........... 648 

Bruises 675 

Bucket-shops 4M 

Buckles 337 

Buddhism 401^  554 

Buenos  Ayres,  history  of 273 

Buildings,  capacity  of  public 55a 

Bulgaria,  history  of 306 

Bullets 337 

Bullion 337 

Burns 676 

Bushel,  legal  weight  of. 447 

Business  and  Social  Correspondence 48 

Style 48 

Arrangement  of  ideas 48 

Ornamentation 49 

Composition  of  letters 49 

Form  cf  a  letter jo 

Proper  modes  of  address 50 

Model  headings 5* 

Materials 5* 

Titles,  etc ji 

General  hints 53 

Letters  of  business 54 

Letters  of  recommendation 35 

Letters  of  courtesy,  friendship  and  affection.     56 
Letters  of  friendly  counsel  and  remonstrance    57 

Letters  soliciting  advice  or  favors 58 

Letters  of  sympathy  and  condolence 59 

Letters  between  parents  and  children 60 

Notes  of  ceremony  and  familiar  invitation  . .    61 


4^ 


K" 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


7f 


£< 


821 


Business  and  Social  and  Correspondence—  Cont'd. 

Miscellaneous  letters - 62 

Business  law,  points  of .. 408 

■  letters 54 

Butter 337 

By-laws  for  a  society 595 

c 

Cable  code 423 

Cadence  (elocution)  ........... ....... .     42 

Cadet  Corps 60S 

Caesural  pause 38 

Calendar 552 

1  for  the  century 450 

Calico  printing 337 

California,  special  laws  of 503 

Camels .. . 552 

Camera 349 

Camera  obscura 337 

Canada,  history  of,... ................  260 

,  map  of 270 

Canada  Pacific  Railway 261 

Canals 337,  552 

Cancer  of  the  stomach..... 634 

Candles .  337 

Cannon  .. . . 337 

Cantata 38 

Canzonet 38 

Cape  Colony,  history  of . ...  316 

Capital  letters,  the  use  of.... ._  24,    49 

Caps 337 

Carbonic  acid.... . . 552 

Carboniferous  age . .. ..........  394 

Carbon,  percentage  of,  in  food ._ 560 

Cards,  designs  for ............... 145 

,  etiquette  of 716 

.playing 337 

Carriage  house,  design  for 708 

Carriages . 337 

Carrier-pigeons ..  552 

Carving,  the  art  of.... 738 

Casks,  measurement  of... 445 

Catarrh . ...  647 

Cathedrals,  height  of.... 561 

Cattle-raising  statistics .. . 563 

Cattle,  table  for  computing  price  of 439 

■,  weight  of,  by  measurement. 444 

Causes  of  Success  and  Failure 524 

Caveats 486 

Cyclones ... 399 

Celestial  axis,  the . .  370 

Cellar,  number  of  perches  of  stone  required  ..  444 

Cellar,  how  to  build 6S1 

Census,  curiosities  of  the .  551 

Central  America,  history  of.... 265 

■- ,  map  of 394 

Centrifugal  and  centripetal  force 344 

Ceremony,  notes  of 61 

Chain-shot ..... 337 

Chaldean  period  ... . ... .... 355 

Change,  terms  used  on 415 

Character,  decision  of........ . 529 

— — — ,  how  to  read 538 

,  the  study  of 531 

Characters  offiction 786 

Charade 38 

Charcoal .......................  552 

Charts  and  Diagrams. 

Charts  of  universal  history 321,  329 


Charts  and  Diagrams — Continued. 

Thehistory  of  the  United  States 329,  332 

Political  parties  in  the  United  States 333 

The  eighteen  decisive  battles  of  the  world..  334 
Military  and  naval  strength  of  various  nations  335 
Comparative   area   in  square    miles   of  the 

States  and  foreign  countries 336 

Receipts  and  expenditures  U.  S.  government  546 
Public  debts  of  the  States  and  various  coun- 
tries  547 

Comparative  density  of  population 550 

Curiosities  of  the  census 551 

The  religions  of  the  world 554 

Distribution    of  Christians  throughout  the 

world  .. .. 555 

Comparative    showing    of   religions   in   the 

United  States 558 

Educational  statistics  of  the  United  States 

and  other  countries 559^ 

The  world's  industries  compared 562 

The  world's  commercial  balance  sheet  .....  562 

Shipping 563 

Steam  power 563 

Agriculture 563 

Cattle 563 

Army  and  navy  expenditure 563 

The  yearly  wheat  crop  in  principal  countries  566 
The  world's  yearly  production  of  the  precious 

metals 567 

Pig-iron _. 570 

Annual  production  of  coal 571 

The  world's  yearly  production  of  cotton  and 

tobacco 574 

Beer  production 575 

Railroads,  telegraph  and  telephone  lines....  578 

The  clocks  of  the  world 579 

The  new  system  of  standard  time 580 

Chattel  mortgages 476 

■.     See  also  Special  Laws. 

Check -book,  how  to  keep  stub  of 428 

Checks,  altered 429 

,  certified .„„,  , 429 

,  how  drawn  and  endorsed 428 

,  proportion  of,[to  coin  _. 552 

', raised ....  429 

Chemical  affinity 345 

phenomena  ....  ................ ...  354 

— ^—  substances,  common  names  of 552 

Chemistry 353 

Chess 337 

Chicago  fire 337 

Chickenpox 673 

Childbirth,  average  of  deaths  in 553 

Chili,  history  of. 267 

Chimes  on  bells 337 

China,  history  of. 309 

China,  Dresden 337 

Cholera, epidemic ................  637 

,  statistics  of 553 

— — ,  prevention  of . .......  638 

,  sporadic ..... ........ 636 

infantum 637 

morbus ....  636 

Christians,  distribution  of -  555 

,  number  of..... 554 

Chromatic  aberration  of  light 348 

Churches,  capacity  of 552 

Cipher  for  telegraphic  communication 416 

Circle,  area  of  a 445 

Circulatory  organs 638 


Cisterns,  construction  of 681 

,  measurement  of. 444 

Cities,  population  of 583,  584 

Civilization . 401 

Civil  rights  bill .. 337 

Civil  service  reform 337 

Civil  war,  troops  furnished 577 

Clay's  compromise 337 

Clearing-house  system... 431 

Clergyman's  sore  throat 630 

Climate 398 

,  mean  annual  temperature..... 553 

Climax  in  elocution 44 

in  rhetoric 35 

Clocks 337 

Clocks  of  the  world  (diagram) 579 

Clothing,  deformities  from . 655 

Cloth,  woolen 339 

Clouds ... .....  399 

Coaches 337 

Coal 337 

——  statistics 571 

Coffee,  production  and  consumption 553 

Cohesion 345 

Coin 337 

Coining 337 

Cold  in  the  head 646 

Cold,  remarkable  instances  of 573 

Colic 636 

Collection  of  debts.     See  Attachments,  under 
head  of  Special  Laws. 

Colorado,  special  laws  of  ..._.......... ..  504 

Colors,  contrast  and  harmony  in  .... 731 

Columnar  journal . .. ..........  206 

Combustion  and  heat... . .... ....  624 

Comets   369 

Commerce,  statistics  of 553,  562 

Commercial  law  and  forms.... 403 

Negotiable  paper 403 

Promissory  notes 403 

Endorsements . 404 

The  endorser's  responsibility 405 

Necessary  legal  points 405 

Forms  of  notes ._  405 

A  swindling  note 407 

Due-bills 407 

Orders  and  receipts _.  407 

Points  of  business  law _  408 

Laws  relating  to  interest „  409 

Laws  relating  to  limitation  of  actions   410 

Committees 589 

Compass,  mariner's 337,  350 

Compendium  of  Biography   . 209 

Complexion. 729 

Composition 32 

Style 32 

Purity 32 

Propriety 33 

Precision 33 

Perspicuity 33 

Unity *. 33 

Strength 33 

A  discourse  and  its  parts 34 

Figures  of  rhetoric... ...     34 

Prosody 35 

Versification  35 

Meter 36 

Iambic  verse   ....... .... . 36 

Trochaic  verse 37 

Anapestic  verse 37 


_M 


822 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


~A 


-4 


Composition—  Continued. 

Dactylic  verse 37 

Ciesural  pause 38 

Varieties  of  poetry 3s 

Various  kinds  of  poems 38 

Poetical  license 38 

Condolence,  letters  of 59 

Congress,  duties  of 633 

Connecticut,  special  laws  of... 5°4 

Consonants,  peculiarities  in  sounds  of 17 

Constellations 371 

,  guide  to  the  knowledge  of  the  ........  37° 

,  zodiacal  375 

Constipation   635 

Constitution  for  a  society,  form  of 594 

Constitution  of  the  United  States 599 

Consumption 553 

Continents,  elevation  of. 557 

Contracts  and  agreements 453 

Contract,  causes  which  vitiate  a 435 

,  building 455 

,  for  the  sale  of  property —  455 

,  short  form  of 455 

,  with  employe 455 

Contractions  (letter-writing) 49 

Conventions - 589 

Conversation 46 

.the  art  of. 7<3 

Convulsions - ---- 658 

Cooking,  loss  of  meat  in 56° 

,  the  art  of 739 

Copernlcan  system 356 

Copying 553 

Copyright  law .- 337 

Coral  Islands 39° 

Corners 4*3 

Corona  seen  In  solar  eclipses 366 

Corporations 465 

Coryza 646 

Costiveness   $35 

Cottages,  designs  for 68a 

Cotton 337 

,  area  under  cultivation 553 

gin 337 

— picking  table 44a 

— statistics 574 

,  table  for  computing  price  of. 439 

Counsel,  letters  of 57 

Courtesy,  letters  of 56 

Court  of  England,  presentation  at 714 

Creation,  the  six  eras  of. 39a 

Credit  Mobilier 801 

Cremation 55° 

Crises 556 

Cuba,  history  of. "66 

Cubic  or  solid  measure 446 

Culture  and  intelligence 4"» 

Culvrrins .-.';? 

Currency 55$ 

Currents 397 

Customs  receipt! v 546 

D 

Dactylic  verse 37 

Daguerreotypes „ 3.17 

Dakota,  special  laws  of 505 

Dates,  Dictionary  of 337 

Day  and  night 39' 

Dead  letters 615 


Death 556 

Death  rate,  army 545 

Deaths,  proportion  of  from  various  diseases...  556 

Debate,  questions  for 595 

Debating  clubs . 594 

Debts  of  various  countries 547 

Debut,  younglady's 723 

Declaration,  Mecklenburg 596 

Declaration  of  Independence 597 

Deed   467 

,  Chancellor  Kent's  form 467 

'  ■■—  "" ,  short  form  in  California 467 

——,  short  form  in  Indiana 468 

— — ,  short  form  used  in  Virginia  and  Texas  468 

—^—,  short  form  of  warranty 468 

,  short  form  of  trust 468 

',  quit  claim 468 

.     See,  also.  Special  Laws. 

Deaf  mutes 556 

Deformities  from  clothing ........  655 

Delaware,  special  laws  of. 505 

Department  of  public  business 587 

Departments  at  Washington 604 

Devonian  age 394 

Dew 399 

Diaeresis 28,  31 

Diagrams.     See  Charts  and  Diagrams. 

Dialects - 9 

Dialogue  reading    45 

Diamonds 337,  55° 

Diarrhcea 634 

Dice 337 

Dictionary  of  abbreviations 813 

of  astronomical  definitions 374 

■  of  biography 209 

of  dates 337 

of  facts  and  figures 544 

■ of  familiar  allusions 800 

of  foreign  phrases 808 

Dictionary  of  heroes  and  heroines  of  prose 

and  poetry 786 

of  mythology 79° 

— —  of  noms  de  plume 791 

of  prose  and  poetical  quotations 768 

.  of  synonyms  and  antonyms 64 

■  ■    .       of  terms  used  on  'change 415 

Didactic  poetry 38 

Diffraction  of  light 348 

Digestion 556,629 

Digestive  organs 626 

,  diseases  of 629 

Dinner-giving 718 

Diphtheria 673 

Diplomatic  service  of  the  U.  S 605 

Dipping-needle 337,  350 

Dipsomania 632 

Dipsomaniacs.     See  Drunkenness. 

Discoveries,  record  of 337 

Diseases,  proportion  of  deaths  from 556 

Dislocations 675 

Distilling 337 

District  of  Columbia,  special  laws  of 506 

Diving-bell 337 

Divorte.     See  Special  Laws. 

Drafts  and  bills  of  exchange 439 

Drafts,  how  drawn 429 

Dramatic  action 47 

Dress 730 

Drift 394 

Driving,  etiqnette  of 71*. 


Drowning 076 

Drunkenness,  statistics  of 55* 

Dry  measure 446 

Due  bilk,  forms  of 407 

Duties 434 

Dwarfs 557 

Dwellings,  designs  for 693 

Dynamical  electricity 35' 

Dysentery 633 

Dyspepsia... - °3° 


Earth  :     Our  Earth  and  her  Satellite 361 

Earth,  motions  of  the 391 

,  surface  of  the 394 

Earthquakes.. 395 

Ear,  anatomy  of  the 666 

"  ,  physiology  of  the 668 

- ,  diseases  of  the 668 


Easter,  the  festival  of 552 

Ecliptic 359,  374 

Eclipses — 365 

Ecphonesis 34 

Ecuador,  history  of 269 

Eczema 65a 

Edict  of  Nantes 338,  805 

Education,  Bureau  of 620 

,  progress  of 557 

,  statistics  of. 559 

Educational  Department 9 

Egypt,  history  of. 315 

,  map  of 299 


Electrical  machines 35* 

Electricity 35° 

Electric  light 337,  35* 

Electric  telegraph 339,  35« 

Electrolysis  and  galvanoplasty 352 

Electroplating 352 

Electrotyping 35a 

Elements 353 

Ellipsis 27.    3» 

Elocution 4° 

Vocal  culture '. 4° 

Proper  breathing 4° 

Articulation 4° 

Pronunciation 4* 

Modulation 41 

Quality  of  the  voice 4" 

Melody 4» 

Form 4» 

Force 4» 

Time 4* 

Stress 43 

Emphasis 44 

Word-individuality 44 

Analysis  and  grouping 44 

Transition 44 

Climax 44 

Repose 44 

Impersonation 45 

Dialogue  reading --     45 

Rules  governing  gesture 45 

The  three  forms  of  speech 46 

Conversation 46 

Reading... 47 

Public  speaking 47 

Dramatic  action 47 

Emancipation  proclamation 338 

Emergencies,  medical  and  surgical  treatment  in  675 


4* 


K" 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


7 


823 


Emphasis  (elocntion; . 44 

Enallage . 31 

Endocarditis  .... 641 

Endorsement  of  notes,  various  forms 404 

Engagements,  etiquette  of. 732 

England  and  Wales,  map  of 283 

English  language 13 

Its  origin  and  development . ........     13 

Constituents  and  alterations 13 

Anglo-Saxon,  a.d.  700-1100 14 

Semi-Saxon,  a.d.  1150-1250  .... ........     14 

Old  English,  a.d,  1300  . 15 

Middle  English,  a.d.  1350-1500 15 

Modern  English,  a.d.  1550 15 

Grammar  ........ 16 

Composition.. -     32 

Engraving ..........................  338 

Enteritis 634 

Envelopes 52,  338 

Epic  poetry 38 

Epigram 38 

Epilepsy 658 

Epilogue 38 

Epitaph  38 

Epithalamium 38 

Equator  374 

Equatorial  currents . 397 

Equinoctial 375 

Equinoxes   362*  375 

Erotesis 34 

Errors  in  book-keeping 170 

— —  in  speech 29 

Erysipelas 652 

Essay 34 

Etching 338 

Ether 348 

Ether  as  an  anaesthetic 338 

Etiquette  :  A  compendium  of  the  laws  of  eti- 
quette  712 

Etiquette,  general  hints  on 734 

Etiquette,  military 611 

Ethnology 400 

Etymology .... 28 

,  figures  of .... 31 

Euphemism ......     35 

Europe,  history  of 727 

— — ,  map  of 282 

Evictions  in  Ireland 557 

Exchange,  bills  of 429 

,  foreign  bills  of 430 

Excretory  organs 649 

Executive  department .........  604 

Executors  and  administrators 478 

Exemptions.    See  Special  Laws. 

Exhibitions 557 

Expectation  of  life 425,  586,  473 

,  as  affected  by  drink 556 

Expenditures  U.  S.  government 546 

Exports  and  imports.     See  Commerce. 

Express 338 

Extension  of  patents .  486 

Eye,  anatomy  of  the 660 

— — — ,  physiology  of  the 663 

,  muscles  of  the............. 66a 

— — „  diseases  «fthe.... .......... 665 

F 

Face-reading 534 

Facts  and  figures,  dictionary  of. 544 


Failure,  how  to  avoid 523 

Fainting..... 677 

fairs 557 

Falling  bodies,  the  law  of 344 

Familiar  allusions,  dictionary  of 800 

Familiar  Poems  and  Those  Who  Wrote  Them  741 

.    Thanatopsis.    Bryant 74"* 

Hiawatha's  Wooing.     Longfellow 743 

The  Barefoot  Boy.      W.tttier 744 

TheBells.      Poe 745 

Blow,   Blow,    thou    Winter  Wind.      Shak- 

sperc . . 746 

Bugle  Song.      Tennyson 746 

The  Sea.     Barry  Cornwall 746 

Those  Evening  Bells.      Moore 747 

The  Village  Preacher.     Goldsmith 748 

The  Ivy  Green.     Dicken* w. 743 

From  Home  to  Horn.,     Anon 749 

Battle  of  the  Angels.     Milton 750 

Farewell  to  His  Wife.    Byron 750 

The  Hour  of  Death.     Mrs.  Hemans 751 

A  Woman's  Question*  Mrs.  Browning ....  751 
A  Horseback  Ride.  Grace  Greenwood....  753 
Angel  Watchers.     Rosa  Vertner  Jeffrey...  752 

A  Farewell.    Kingslcy 753 

What  the  Birds  Say.      Coleridge 753 

A  Georgia  Volunteer.  Mary  A.  lownsend  754 
The  Picket  Guard.     Ethel  Lynn  Beers  .. . .  754 

The  Soldier's  Dream.      Campbell 755 

Bill  and  Joe.     Holmes *  755 

Extractfrom  Lucile.     Owen  Meredith 755 

Pictures  of  Memory.    Alice  Cary. , 756 

Go  to  Thy  Rest.     Mrs.  Sigourney 756 

We  Parted  in  Silence.    Mrs.  Crawford....  757 

The  Song  of  the  Camp.     Taylor 758 

Our  Own.    Margaret  E.  Sangster 758 

There  is  no  Death.     McCreery 758 

Makin*  an  Editor  outen  o'  Him.  Carleton*.  759 
The  Lightning-rod  Dispenser,     Carleton..  759 

Hannah  Jane.    Nasby 760 

John  Anderson,  my  Jo.     Bums 761 

Home,  Sweet  Home.     Payne 761 

The  Bivouac  of  the  Dead.     O'Hara 762 

The  Stars  and  the  Flowers.     Holmes 762 

BoatSong.    Moore 763 

Jim.     Bret  Harte 764 

Married.    Anon 764 

Winged  Words.     McGregor 765 

The  Closing  Scene.     Read 766 

The  Death  ofthe  Flowers.    Bryant 767 

Families,  number  in  U.  S 557 

Famines 557 

Farms,  number  in  XT,  S 557 

Far-sightedness 665 

Fasting,  notable  instances  of 557 

Fast  time •. 548,  585 

Fata  Morgana 400 

Fatty  degeneration  ofthe  heart 641 

Fauna .......  401 

Favors,  letters  soliciting 58 

Federal  courts 622 

Feet,  deformed. v „_ ..  655 

Feet,  poetic 35 

Fence,  the  legal... 489 

Fenian  raids . .......  338 

Fetichism 401 

Fevers  .... 669 

Fiction,  celebrated  characters  of ...... 786 

Fields  and  lots,  contents  of... 445 

Fields  of  fire 395 


k- 


Figures  in  grammar 31 

Filibustering 338 

Fire  engines............ ........... 338 

Fire  insurance 424 

Fixed  stars 370 

Flag,  American 338 

Flax  statistics 557 

Flora 40P 

Flourishing.... .  137 

Florida,  special  laws  of. 506 

Fogs 399 

Food,  foot-tons  of  energy  per  ounce  of . 560 

,  percentage  of  carbon  in 560 

,  relative  value  of 560 

,  statistics  of. 557 

Force  (Elocution) 42 

Force,  centrifugal  and  centripetal 344 

Forces  of  nature 343 

Foreign  phrases,  lexicon  of _.  808 

Foreign  population  of  U.  S 551 

Forests 560 

Forged  paper 408 

Forks 338 

Fortification 338 

Fractures 675 

France,  history  of. 289 

,  map  of . 200 

Free  Soil  Party —.333,  338 

Freight  car,  capacity  of 560 

French  without  a  Master 100 

Alphabet  and  pronunciation  . ....... 100 

Accents  and  other  marks 101 

Number  and  gender 101 

Parts  of  speech 101 

Exercises  in  the  use  ofthe  article 101 

The  noun  .......... ....  X04 

The  adjective 104 

Numeral  adjectives 104 

Ordinal  numbers 105 

Vocabulary  of  adjectives 105 

The  pronoun 105 

The  verb 106 

The  auxiliary  verbs............ ...........  106 

Regular  verbs .  108 

The  four  conjugations 108 

Vocabulary  of  verbs no 

Vocabulary  of  adverbs in 

Vocabulary  of  prepositions 112 

Vocabulary  of  conjunctions . 112 

Conversation  in  French.... 112 

Friction  . _ 345 

Friendship,  letters  of 56 

Frost-bites 676 

Frost,  remarkable  instances  of 573 

Fruit 560 

Fuel 56o 

Fugitive  slave  law 33B 

Futures 412 

G 

Galvanic  battery.... —...-............  351 

■  electricity.... 351 

Galvanometer 353 

Galvanoplastyj 353 

Gamut 338 

Gas-light _ 3-38 

Gastritis _ _  632 

Gems,  the  language  of. _ 812 

Geologic  ages 394 


54 


57 


Geology 39* 

Georg la,  special  llwl  of VI 

Geysers 395 

German  dlalecu ■ 

German,  etiquette  of  the 7" 

German  :    A  self-instructor  in  the  German  lan- 
guage      J* 

Alphabet  anil  pronunciation 8* 

.licle »3 

Combination  of  article  and  noun 83 

lata  in  the  article  and  noun 83 

The  adjective 87 

Vocabulary  of  adjective* 87 

Cardinal,  ordinal,  and  collective  numbers...     88 

Pronoun* — ............    89 

The  verb 89 

Aualllary  verba 89 

The  regular  verb 91 

Vocabulary  of  verba oa 

Adverba 9' 

Prepositions 93 

Conjunctions 93 

Conversation  In  German 93 

German  Legal  Builneas  Department 490 

Germany,  history  of - «79 

,  map  of. I m *9t 

Gesture  language " 

Gesture,  rules  governing 45 

Giants 5*o 

Gilding 338 

Glacial  period 394 

Glaciers 394 

Glass _ 338 

Gluttony <<i' 

Gold 5«7 

Government,  principal  forma  of. 4°' 

Grain,  measurement  of 444,  445 

Grammar,  F.nglish 16 

Orthography 16 

I-rllrrS l6 

Peculiarities  In  sounds  of  consonants 17 

Combination  of  vowels  ............•••»....  18 

Syllables >8 

Accent — .......................  18 

Words «8 

Word-building    19 

Prefixes 19 

Suffixes to 

Selling as 

Rules  for  spelling S3 

Reformed  spelling >3 

Forms  ofletters 84 

The  use  of  capital  letters 14 

Punctuation 15 

Etymology e8 

The  parts  of  speech al 

Soma  rules  of  grammar t8 

Plural  of  nouns to 

Rules  for  the  plural  of  foreign  noun* so 

Syntax 90 

Errors  In  speech 19 

Figures  of  orthography 31 

Figures  of  etymology 31 

Figures  of  synta* 31 

Figures  of  rhetoric 34 

Prosody 33 

■  V,  capacity  or  contenta  of. 445 

•iravity 344 

',  center  of 344 

.specinc 344,  560 


Great  Britain,  history  of 73 

Greece,  history  of 3°7 

Gregorian  year 803 

Gristmills 338 

Guano 5*o 

Guaranty I... 47° 

, general .................  47° 

of  fidelity 47° 

,  extension  of  time 47° 

-of  a  note 47° 

Guiana,  history  of '-'  > 

Gulf  stream.: 397 

Gunpowder 338 

Gunpowder  plot,  the 803 

Gun* 31* 


H 


Habeas  corpus  act  „„„„ ,„ 803 

Hail 399 

Hair 560 

,  care  of  the 729 

.false 338 

Half-hours  with  the  stars 376 

Handkerchiefs 338 

Hartford  convention . ........ 338 

Hay,  weight  of,  by  measurement 444 

Head,  measurement  of  the . 531 

Headache 630 

Heaet  and  blood-vessels 639 

Heart,  diagrams  of  the 640 

.diseases  of  the 641 

Heat 349,  56b,  616 

,  extremes  of. 573 

Heat-lightning 399 

Height  of  noted  cathedrals,  etc 561 

Hcmaplegia .... 658 

Hemorrhage . 675 

Heraldry 338 

Heroes  and  heroines  of  prose  and  poetry.....  786 

Hindoolsm 401 

Historical  chart* 331 

History  :  A  panorama  of  history.    A  graphic 

account  of  every  nation  on  tlse.  globe ..  352 

The  United  States »5' 

The  Dominion  of  Canada ..............  too 

Mexico  103 

Central  America 365 

Cuba 166 

South  America............... too 

Brazil l«7 

Chili *6> 

Peru *68 

The  United  State*  of  Colombia  >nd  other 

countries  of  South  America..... 169 

Europe   ay* 

Great  Britain 173 

Ireland ays 

Scotland 178 

Germany 179 

Austria-Hungary.. t8t 

Belgium   184 

Holland  (the"Netherlands) 184 

Norway  and  Sweden t88 

France tto 

Russia 1x13 

Italy too 

Spjin 300 

Portugal 301 

Switnrland 301 


HUtory—  Contintud. 

Turkey 304 

Roumania 306 

Bulgaria 300 

Servia  30* 

Andorra,  San  Marino  and  Monaco 306 

Greece 3»7 

Asia 308 

China 3°» 

Japan «  309 

British  India 3"> 

Afghanistan  and  Beloochistan 311 

Persia  3" 

Arabia  . .' 3™ 

Palestine 3" 

Siam 3'4 

Africa 3'4 

Egypt   3'S 

Nubia   3'5 

Abyssinia 310 

Cape  Colony 3"6 

Madagascar 3*7 

The  Barbary  States 3'7 

Republic*  in  South  Africa 3>8 

Oceanlca 3!9 

Australia ¥° 

Hoar  frost 399 

Holidays  in  the  U.S 5*» 

Holland,  history  of. '84 

Home  etiquette .- 7*9 

Homestead,  how  to  secure  a 017 

Homoeopathy 33s 

Hops 5«t 

Horizon 375 

Horse-power .... ...  501 

Horseshoes 338 

Hostess,  duties  of. 7'9 

Hot  springs 395 

Hour-glasses 338 

Housekeepers'  measure* 446 

House  of  Representatives 013 

Hunger,  deaths  from 557 

Hurricane — ...; 399 

Hydraulic  press 34* 

Hydraulics 34« 

Hydrometer 338 

Hydrostatic  pre**.... 34* 

Hydrostatics  and  hydraulic* 34* 

K/mn 3* 

Hyperbaton 31 

Hyperbole 34 

Hypcrmetropia — °°4 

Hypertrophy *4' 


I 


Iambic  verse 3° 

Ice 5«> 

Idaho,  special  laws  of S08 

Idiom 9 

Illegitimacy 5*> 

Illinois,  special  laws  of 5«>8 

Illiteracy.    Set  Education. 

Impersonation 45 

Import  duties,  general  average 573 

,  complete  schedules  of. 4.;5 

Imports  and  exports.    Stt  Ctmmtrct. 

Impromptu 39 

Inanition — 03s 

Incorporating,  form*  for 465 


iZ 


5£= 


V 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


"7 


8*5 


Incorporating,  state  license  for. 466 

India,  history  of  British  .....................  310 

Indian  Affairs,  Bureau  of ... .......  619 

Indian  agents 619 

Indiana,  special  laws  of.... 509 

Indians -.— 561 

Indian  traders .- 619 

India  rubber 561 

Industries  of  the  world 562 

Infallibility,  Papal 338 

Infantile  paralysis......... 658 

Inflammation  of  large  intestine 635 

Inflammation  of  small  intestine 634 

Inflammation  of  the  stomach 632 

Inflammatory  rheumatism 642 

Initials,  artistic .  146 

Inoculation 338 

Insanity 561,  660 

■  ,  treatment  of 660 

,  cases  of,  traceable  to  drink 556 

Insomnia 660 

Insurance 424 

,  history  of 338 

'  ■  ,  short  rates  table 442 

Intemperance.     See  Drunkenness, 

Interest,  compound,  tables  of 442 

—^—,  laws  relating  to 409 

— — ,  short  rule 442 

,  tables  of. 44* 

Intermittent  fever ... ... .  670 

Internal  revenue  .....s. 434 

■  receipts 546 

Intestines __ 628 

Introduction,  letter  of. — ...     63 

Inventions.    See  Dictionary  0/  Dates. 

Invitation,  notes  of . .....     61 

Iowa,  special  laws  of _ 510 

Ireland,  history  of. — ..  275 

,  map  of 286 

Iron  statistics 570 

Irony 35 

Islands 396 

Isothermal  lines 39S 

Italy,  history  of 296 

J 

Japan  current 397 

Japan,  history  of ...  309 

Jesuits 338 

Jews,  number  of -  554 

Judiciary  act 338 

Jupiter,  the  giant  planet....... 367 

Justice,  department  of........ ......... 621 

Juvenile  parties - 722 

K 

Kansas,  special  laws  of. 510 

Kentucky,  special  laws  of 511 

Kepler's  laws .  356 

Kidneys 649 

—      ,  diseases  of  the 650 

Knitting 338 

Knives 338 

Know-nothing  (or  American)  party 333,  338 

L 

Labor  statistics 564 

Lace 338 


Lakes 397 

— — ,  length  and  width  of. 564 

Lamp,  safety ... ...... .  338 

Land  grants 564 

Landlord  and  tenant 471 

Landlord's  agreement 472 

■■  notice  to  quit 473 

Land  offices ...  617 

Lands,  public...............................  617 

Language 9 

Origin  oflanguage ................      9 

Gesture  language 10 

Natural  language 10 

Articulate  language 11 

Classification  of  languages n 

Language  of  gems 812 

Languages ......401,  564 

Lanterns ... . ......... ..  338 

Laryngitis 647 

Lava 395 

Law,  commercial 403 

,  points  of  business 408 

Lease,  common  form  of 472 

of  farm  and  buildings 472 

of  a  mill 472 

,  short  form  of 472 

Legal  Business  Department 451 

How  to  avoid  litigation 451 

Legal  business  forms 453 

Agreements  and  contracts 453 

Agency  and  attorney 456 

Affidavits 458 

Apprentices 459 

Arbitration 460 

Assignments . — --  461 

Bills  of  sale 462 

Bonds 463 

Corporations 465 

Deeds 467 

Abstract  of  title 468 

Guaranty 47° 

Landlord  and  tenant 471 

Rights  of  married  women 473 

Real  estate  mortgages 474 

Chattel  mortgages 476 

Mechanic's  lien ... 477 

Wills 477 

Executors  and  administrators...... 47S 

Partnership 481 

German  legal  business  department 490 

Legal  fence 489 

Legislative  department 623 

Liver 628 

Lenses 34^ 

Leprosy 5°4 

Letter-carriers 616 

Letter  of  credit '- 43° 

of  revocation 457 

,  composition  of 49 

,form  of 50 

— ■    -  of  substitution 457 

Letters,  advertised 615 

-    ■      ,  registered _ 615 

Leverand  inclined  plane 345 

Lexicon  of  foreign  phrases 808 

Leyden  jar 338»  35* 

Liberty  party 338 

Library 338 

License,  poetical 38 

Life-average    564 


Life-boats 338 

Life,  duration  and  expectation  of. .....  5«€ 

Life  insurance 425 

Life-saving  service 607 

Life,  the  two  paths  of. 533 

Light -. 348 

,  electric 337,  352 

,gas 338 

Light-house  Board 607 

Lightning 351,  399 

Lightning-rods    .... . ... ---338,  351 

Lightning  Calculator 439 

Limitation  of  actions,  laws  relating  to 410 

Linear  measure 446 

Linen — ... ........ 338 

Liquid  measure 446 

Lithography 338 

Living,  cost  of_... 576 

Llanos 394 

Logs,  number  of  cubic  feet  in.... 445 

Longevity    ........ ...._... ... .  564 

Longitude  and  time  compared 446 

Louisiana,  special  laws  of....... 51a 

Lowlands 394 

Lumber  measure,  table  of. 443 

Lungs 644 

Lyceums  and  debating  clubs 594 

Lymphatic  temperament 534 

M 

Machines 345 

,  electrical _  351 

Madagascar,  history  of.............. ..  3:7 

Magic  lanterns .......... 338 

Magna  Charta 596  ' 

Magnetism  and  electricity 350 

Magnify ing-glasses 338 

Mail  contracts ..... 616 

Maine,  special  laws  of.. .. 512 

Malarial  fever ._  670 

Malthusian  doctrine 804 

Mammalian  age 394 

Mankind,  races  of. 400 

Manufactures,  statistics  of...... 562 

Maps  : 

The  United  States --.258,  259 

The  Dominion  of  Canada 270,  271 

Europe 282 

England  and  Wales 283 

Ireland. - 286 

Scotbnd 287 

France 290 

The  German  Empire  and  Austro- Hungarian 

monarchy 291 

The  West  Indies  and  Central  America 294 

Occanica  and  Australia 295 

Africa 298 

Egypt,  Abyssinia,  etc 299 

The  World  (Mcrcator's  Projection) 301,  302 

Maps  and  globes 338 

Maps  of  the  heavens 378-389 

Margins 413 

Marine  and  transit  insurance 424 

Mariner's  compass  _. 337 

Marriage,  a  woman's  chances  of. 564 

,  etiquette  of 73J 

Married  woman's  note 405 

Married  women,  rights  of. 473 

— -  -.    See  also  Special  Laws. 


4^= 

•f   6 ■»■ 


4k- 


4^ 


Man,  the  planet 306 

..•ary'am,,  special  Uwi  of. 5I3 

Massachusetts,  special  law*  of 5>3 

Matches,  friction 338 

34= 

,  general  properties  of .  343 

,  specific  properties  of. 343 

Measles 671 

Measures  and  weights 44* 

,  foreign 44** 

Meat,  loss  of  in  cooking 5°° 

Meats,  how  to  select 739 

Mechanic's  lien 477 

'     .    See  also  Special  Laws. 

Mechaniim  of  the  human  body 624 

Mecklenburg  declaration 59° 

Medical.    See  Physiology  and  Medici**. 

Medicines,  table  of  dotes 678 

Meeting,  how  to  call  a 587 

,  organizing  a 588 

Memorials  and  petitions 592 

Mental  temperament 535 

Mercury,  the  planet 3°° 

Metals 4°' 

,  as  conductors 5°4 

—      -  ,  chemical  relations  of 4oa 

,  fluid  density  of 564 

,  tenacity  of 564 

■-,  value  of 5^4 

,  some  strange 40* 

Meteors 3°* 

Meteorites 3°9 

Metric  system 449 

-,key  to  the 445 

Metaphor 34 

Metonymy 34 

Mexico,  history  of y - 963 

Michigan,speciallawsof 5M 

■  me % 347 

Microscopes   338»  349 

Military  Academy 338»  608 

M ilitary  and  naval  strength  (diagram) 335 

Military  etiquette 6it 

Militia 6" 

Milk 564 

Milky  way,  the 374 

Mimesis,  or  mimicry 3t 

4°* 

Minnesota,  special  law*  of 514 

Mirage 400 

Mirrors 33*.  349 

Mississippi,  special  laws  of. 515 

r)  compromise 338 

1  .tl  laws  of. 315 

Modulation  of  the  voice 41 

Mohammedanism 554 

Moisture  and  climate 398 

•  sand  atoms 34a,  353 

'nm 345 

3<X 

564 

.    See  Currency . 

Monty  orders 613 

Monroe  doctrine 338 

Montana,  special  law*  of 316 

Monuments,  height  of 561 

Moon,  the 3A4 

■    .1      t  map  of  the 364 

»P*th  of  the 303 

,  phases  of  the 365 


Mormons 33s 

Mortgages,  chattel 47* 

,  real  estate 474 

Mortgage,  assignment  of 475 

,  promissory  note  secured  by 475 

f  release  and  satisfaction  of 47° 

,  release  or  discharge  of 475 

—  -■,  shortest  form  of 475 

Motion 345 

,  perpetual 34* 

Motive  temperament 535 

Mountain  ranges  as  affecting  climate 398 

Mountains 394 

.height  of 565 

Mouth : *a* 

Mumps  63° 

Muscular  system 653 

Musical  note* 338 

Myopia -— 665 

N 

Nails,  size  and  weight  of. 565 

Nantes,  edict  of 338»  805 

National  banking  system 43* 

Natural  history 342 

Natural  philosophy 343 

Physics  and  chemistry 34a 

The  properties  of  matter 343 

Solids,  liquids,  gases 343 

The  forces  of  nature 343 

Hydrostatics  and  hydraulics 346 

Pneumatics  346 

Acoustics  347 

Optics 348 

The  theory  of  heat 349 

Magnetism  and  electricity 350 

Chemistry 353 

Nature 340 

■,  the  forces  o* 343 

Naval  armament  _.._   565 

Naval  expenditure 563 

Naval  history,  American 6:3 

Naval  strength  (diagram) 335 

Navies  of  the  world 335»6l3 

Navy  Department 612 

Near-sightedness 665 

Nebraska,  special  laws  of. 516 

Nebulae  and  star-clusters . 373 

Nebular  hypothesis 373 

Necessaries,  comparative  prices  of 57* 

Needles 338 

Negotiable  paper 403 

,  as  collateral  security 408 

——,  payment  of,  before  maturity 408 

,  State  laws  as  to  payment  of 408 

.    See.tfoU. 

Neptune,  the  planet 368 

Nervous  system 655 

,  diseases  of  the 658 

Nervous  temperament 535 

Netherlands,  history  of  the 884 

Neuralgia 658 

Nevada,  special  laws  of _ 516 

■npshiir,  special lawsof 517 

New  Jersey,  special  laws  of 517 

Nrw  Mexico,  special  laws  of 517 

Newspapers 338,  565 

Newton's  law  ot  gravitation 357 

New  York,  special  laws  of 318 


Nicknames  of  States  and  Territories 565 

Nicotine 5*5 

Nomsde  plume,  dictionary  of 791 

North  Carolina,  special  laws  of 518 

Norway  and  Sweden,  history  of. 288 

Notes  of  ceremony  and  familiar  invitation 61 

Notes,  promissory 4°3 

Note,  bearing  interest 405 

,  collateral 4°* 

•■     --,  common  form  of. -  4°4 

,  joint 4*5 

— — ,  joint  and  several..... 4°5 

,  judgment •. 406 

.judgment,  short  form  of. »  406 

. ,  married  woman's,  in  New  York 405 

...  f  negotiable  only  by  endorsement 405 

,  negotiable  without  endorsement 405 

,  not  negotiable .  4°S 

— ,  payable  at  bank 4°5 

■  ■     —  ,  partnership — -  4°5 

,payable  by  "nstallments 4°* 

• — —.payable  on  demand 405 

,  principal  and  surety 4P5 

,  sealed 4°* 

.secured  by  mortgage 475 

,  swindling  form 407 

Note,  special  forms  in  several  States 4°* 

Nubia,  history  of... 3*5 

,  map  of »99 

Nullification  ordinance 338 

o 

Occupation,  choosing  an.... 5*3 

Ocean 39* 

Oceanica,  history  of 3*9 

■ ,  map  of «95 

Oceanic  movements .-  397 

Oceans,  superficial  extent  of. 5*5 

Ode 3« 

Ohio,  special  laws  of 5<8 

Omnibuses 338 

Onomatopoeia 35 

Opera-glass 349 

Opium 5*5 

Optics 348 

Option  trading 4*3 

Order,  three  hundred  points  of 59* 

Orders,  forms  of 4°7 

Oregon,  special  laws  of 5*9 

Organs 338 

Orthography »6 

.figures  of.. • 31 

Ostend  manifesto 338.  %°S 

Oxidation  and  animal  heat 625 

Oysters 568 

P 

Psean 3s 

Pagans,  number  of > 554 

Palestine,  history  of. 3'* 

Palpitation  of  the  heart 641 

Pampas -  394 

Pancreas *»8 

Papal  court,  presentation  at. — .. 714 

Paper 33* 

— — ,  accommodation 4°8 

hangings 338 

1  money 338.  33* 


Al 


Paper.     See  also  Currency. 

•$  negotiable 4°3 

—  .■       ,  forged 4°8 

— — ,  stolen  or  lost 408 

Paragoge  31 

Paraguay,  history  of 269 

Parallax  375 

Parallel 35 

Paralysis 658 

,  infantile -  658 

Parchment 338 

Parents  and  children,  letters  between 60 

Parody — ...... 38 

Parliamentary  law 587 

Parsing... 28 

Parties  in  the  U.  S.  (diagram) 333 

Partnership 481 

agreement,  form  of 482 

,  notice  of  dissolution  of 482 

Parts  of  speech 28 

Party,  etiquette  of  the 720 

Pascal's  law 346 

Patent  Office 620 

PateRt-right  law 338 

Patents 483 

Paths  of  life 533 

Pause,  caesural 38 

Pauses  in  punctuation 27 

Paving  with  stones 338 

Pendulum 344 

Peninsular  war 805 

Penmanship,  practical  and  ornamental 116 

Positions 117 

Movement .-  118 

Scale  of  slant 118 

Movement  exercise 118 

Care  in  practice 118 

Writing  not  a  special  gift 119 

Unity  and  simplicity  of  form 119 

Economy  of  form 119 

Correct  proportion 120 

Correct  spacing 120 

Slant  of  writing 120 

Size  of  writing    121 

Conspicuous  faults 121 

Movement  exercises 124 

Principles 124,  128 

Copies 124 

Scale  of  proportion  of  letters 128 

Standard  alphabets 129 

Abbreviated  capitals  for  business 129 

Extended  letters  for  ladies'  epistolary  writing  129 
Specimens  of  business  and  correspondence 

writing 130 

Whole-arm  capitals 131 

Round  writing  for  headings 132 

Specimen  business  letters 133 

Artistic  penmanship 135 

Materials _ 136 

•     Pens 136 

Exercises  for  flourishing 137 

Specimens  for  blackboard  writing  and  draw- 
ing  142 

Ornamental  alphabets - 144 

Designs  for  flourished  cards  and  albums 145 

New  designs  for  artistic  initials 146 

Pennsylvania,  special  laws  of ,.  519 

Pens 338 

Pension  laws - 487 

Pension  Office 619 


Pericarditis  ..__*. 841 

Peritonitis 633 

Perpetual  motion 346 

Perseverance .  528 

Persia,  history  of 311 

Personification,  or  prosopopoeia 34 

Perspicuity  of  style 33 

Perspiration 651 

Pertussis 648 

Peru,  history  of 268 

Petitions _ %.... 592 

Pharyngitis,  acute . ._ 630 

— ,  chronic  granular 630 

Phenomena,  physical  and  chemical 342 

Philadelphia  riots 338 

Phonograph --338,  348 

Phosphorescence 396 

Phosphorus 338 

Photographs 338 

Photophone 348 

Phrenology 531 

Phrenological  organs,  chart  of. 538 

Phthiriasis 651 

Physical  geography 391 

Geology 392 

The  six  eras  of  creation 392 

The  geologic  ages 394 

The  earth's  surface 394 

Volcanic  phenomena 395 

Land  and  water... . 396 

The  air 398 

Climate 398 

Winds  and  weather 398 

The  animal  kingdom 400 

Ethnology 400 

Animal  and  vegetable  life 401 

Minerals  and  metals ...._  401 

Physicians,  number  of. 568 

Physiognomy,  or  face-reading 534 

Physiognomy,  comparative _ 536 

Physiology  and  Medicine _ 624 

The  mechanism  of  the  human  body 624 

Combustion  and  heat 624 

Oxidation  and  animal  heat 625 

Power  and  life  due  to  heat 626 

The  digestive  organs 626 

The  mouth 626 

The  teeth 627 

The  stomach 627 

The^intestines 628 

The  liver 628 

The  pancreas 629 

The  process  of  digestion 629 

Diseases  of  the  digestive  organs _  629 

Mumps 630 

Acute  tonsilitis — Quinsy 630 

Acute  pharyngitis — Sore  throat — Cold 630 

Chronic    granular     pharyngitis  —  Clergy- 
man's sore  throat 630 

Dyspepsia   630 

Polyphagia  —  Excessive    appetite  —  Glut- 
tony  632 

Polydipsia — Excessive  thirst 632 

Dipsomania  ._ 632 

Inanition— Starvation 632 

Gastritis — Inflammation  of  the  stomach  ..  632 

Ulcer  of  the  stomach 633 

Cancer  of  the  stomach 634 

Diarrhoea . 634 

Summer  complaint 634 


Physiology  and  Medicine — Continued. 

Enteritis — Inflammation  of  small  intestine.  634 
Dysentery — Inflammation   ef  large  intes- 
tine  63s 

Constipation — Costi  veness   635 

Colic 636 

Cholera  morbus 636 

Cholera  infantum 638 

Epidemic  cholera 639 

Prevention  of  cholera 638 

The  circulatory  organs  and  the  blood 638 

Absorption 638 

The  heart  and  Mood  vessels. 639 

Diseases  of  the  heart 642 

The  blood 642 

Diseases  of  the  blood 643 

The  respiratory  organs 644 

The  lungs 644 

The  mechanism  of  respiration 645 

Movements  of  respiration ....  646 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs 646 

Cold— Catarrh — Bronchitis 646 

Catarrh.. 647 

Acute  laryngitis... 647 

Disease  of  vocal  cords 647 

Bronchitis 648 

Pertussis — Whooping  cough 648 

Asthma 648 

Pleurisy    648 

Pneumonia 649 

The  excretory  organs 649 

The  kidneys 649 

Diseases  of  the  kidneys 650 

Theskin 651 

Diseases  of  the  skin 651 

Phthiriasis — lousiness 651 

Scabies — The  itch 652 

Tinea  trichophytina — Ringworm 652 

Acne 652 

Eczema — Salt  rheum 652 

Erysipelas    652 

The  muscular  system 653 

The  bortes 654 

Diseases  of  the  bones 654 

Rickets 654 

Deformity  from  clothing 655 

Deformed  feet  655 

The  nervous  system 655 

Diseases  of  the  nervous  system 658 

Neuralgia 658 

Convulsions 658 

Epilepsy 659 

Paralysis 659 

Insomnia 660 

Insanity 660 

The  eye 660 

Anatomy  of  the  eye. 660 

Physiology  of  the  eye 663 

Errors  of  refraction  and  accommodation..  664 
Diseases  of  the  eye  and  their  treatment  ..  665 

The  ear 666 

Anatomy  of  the  ear . 666 

Physiology  of  the  ear 668 

Diseases  of  the  ear  and  their  treatment 668 

Fevers 669 

Typhoid  fever 669 

Typhus  fever 670 

Malarial  fever— Intermittent  fever — Ague.  670 

Remittent  fever 671 

Yellow  lever.. % 671 


Al 


I*? 


Q •_ 


^ 


^r 


828 


AI.PHAKhTICAI.    INDI  X 


Physiology  and  Medicine — Continued. 

Rubeola — Measles .  671 

Variola — Small-pox 672 

Varioloid    673 

Vaccination— Cow-pox 673 

Vericella — Chicken-pox 67a 

Scarlatina— Scarlet  fever 673 

Diphtheria 673 

Rheumatism   673 

Emergencies   675 

Hemorrhage 675 

Accidents .  675 

Bite*  •'nd  stings 676 

Burns,  scalds  and  frost-bites 676 

Suffocation— Drowning 676 

Poisoning 677 

■ing    677 

Sunstroke 677 

Penological  table— Doses  of  medicines 678 

Pianoforte 338 

Pig  Iron  statistics 569 

Pflgrtet,  landing  of  the 33b 

P'ns 339 

Pistols 339 

Pilch  and  tar 339 

;  location) 41 

PhglfcM,  remarkable,  of  modern  time* 568 

Planets,  the 359 

Plank*.,  tin  .iMirement  of 444 

Plaster  of  Paris 339 

Pleonasm 31 

Plethora 643 

Pleurisy 648 

f nouns 29 

Pneumatics 346 

alt   649 

Poems,  various  kinds  of 38 

Poetical  quotations,  dictionary  of. 768 

Poetic  license 38 

Poc,T 35 

-.varieties  of 38 

.     See  Familiar  Poems. 

Poisoning 677 

Political  parties 333 

ia 63a 

■flat 63a 

Population,  center  of 551 

"——,  comparative  density  of 550 

— —  of  U.  S.,  proportions  of 551 

,  statistics  of. 568,  581 

Porcelain 339 

Portugal,  history  of 3©! 

ual  table 678 

Pottage,  rate*  of. 616 

stamps 0,5 

Postal  cars 6,6 

Postmasters,  duties  and  commission*  of... 615,  616 

Postmasters-General 6t6 

Post-office  Department 614 

Post-office,  origin  of. 339 

,  work  of  the 614 

'» 40a 

'  •t,,ry 339 

„..  368 

Poverty  not  an  obstacle  to  success 5a6 

Power  of  attorney  to  collect  debts,  rents,  etc..  457 

tosrll  Mock 45, 

— ,  short  form »■ 

Practical  calculations 444 

Prairies 394 


Precious  metals,  statistics  of 7....:.....-.  567 

Precision  of  style 33 

Preemption  of  public  lands 617 

Preferred  stock 433 

Prefixes   19 

Presbyopia  665 

Presentation,  rules  of 714 

President  of  U.  S.,  duties  of,  etc 604 

Printing 339 

Prologue 38 

Promissory  notes 403 

Pronunciation 41 

Propriety  of  style 33 

Prose  and  poetical  quotations 768 

Prosody ._ 35 

Prosopopoeia,  or  personification 34 

Protest  (drafts  and  notes) 430 

Protestants,  distribution  of 555 

Prothesis ^ 

Proxy.    See  Power  0/ Attorney. 

Ptolemaic  system 356 

Pu"ey 345 

PumPs 337,  347 

Punctuation _„.     35 

in  letter-writing 50 

points 25 

Purity  of  style 33 

Pyramids 339,  569 

Q 

Quarantine 607 

Questions  (parliamentary  law) 591 

Quicksilver 339 

Quinine 569 

Quhny 630 

Quit-claim  deed 468 

Quotations,  dictionary  of 768 

R 

Rabbits m 569 

I  mankind 4oo 

Radiation  of  heat 349 

Railroads,  history  of 339 

,  fastest  time 585 

Railway  mail  service 616 

signal  code 569 

Railways 569,  578 

Rain 349 

Rainbow 3^8 

Rainfall,  amount  of  on  a  building 444 

,  average  annual 569 

Rank  in  the  army  and  navy 612 

Reading   .- 

Ready  Reckoner 4j9 

Real  estate,  how  transferred 467 

Receipts  and  expenditures  U.S.  government..  546 

Receipts,  furnis  of ^7 

Receptions,  etiquette  of. 721 

Recommendation,  letters  of 55 

m  oflight 348 

Refraction  of  light 348 

Registered  letters 615 

Reign  of  terror * goj 

Rc"C'on 401,  369 

Religions  in  the  U.S.   55g 

of  the  world 554 

Remittent  fever __  670 

Rrm.inxtrancc,  form  of 593 

,  letters  of 57 


Repose  (elocution) 44 

Reptilian  age 395 

Republican  party -333,  339 

Respiration,  the  mechanism  of..... 645 

Respiratory  organs 644 

■  ,  diseases  of 646 

Resumption  of  specie  payments 339 

Rhetoric,  figures  of. 34 

Rheumatism,  acute  articular 673 

— — ,  chronic. 674 

—  -— ,  inflammatory.. 64a 

Rhode  Island,  special  laws  of 530 

Rhyme 35 

Ribbon  looms 339 

Rice  production 569 

Rickets 654 

Riding  and  driving,  etiquette  of. 734 

Rivers     397 

,  length  of 569 

Rocks 303 

Roman  Catholic  church 569 

Roman  Catholics,  distribution  of 555 

Roof,  numberof shingles  required  for  a 444 

Roumanla,  history  of 306 

Rubeola 671 

Ruling-machines 339 

Running  records 585 

Russia,  history  of. ........... ..  393 

Kyc  569 


Saddles 

Safety-lamp 

Saltpeter 

Salt  rheum 

Salts 

Salutation,  etiquette  of 

Sanguine  temperament 

San  Marino,  history  of 

Si  tire 

Saturn,  the  planet 

Savages  

Saws 

Scabies   

Scalds  

School  statistics.... 

Scientific  department 

Natural  philosophy 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Astronomy 

Physical  geography 

Scotland,  history  of 

1    ,  map  of. 

Seals  of  the  various  States.     See  S/eciaJ  Imw*. 

Seas 

Seasons 

,  change  of 

Secretaries  of  the  Interior 

of  the  Navy 

of  State 

of  the  Treasury 

of  War 

Sedan  chairs. 
Self-reliance . 

Senate 

September  1 

Serfs 

Servants,  management  of. . 


339 
338 
339 
65» 
354 
7»S 
535 
306 
38 
3*7 
40« 
339 
<5> 
676 
559 
340 
34» 
34> 
353 
355 
390 
»78 
»*7 

57* 

JD3 

39« 

On 
613 
605 
607 
6to 
3» 
5«» 
««J 
S06 
57» 
7* 


L 


V 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


*t* 


829 


Servia,  history  of . 306 

Seven  Years' War 806 

Sewing  machine 339 

Sex,  proportion  of,  to  population 551 

Sextant 339 

Shay's  Rebellion 339 

Sheep 572 

Sheep  barn,  design  for 711 

Shingles,  number  required  for  a  roof 444 

Shipping 572 

Shoemakers'  measure 572 

Short-hand  and  Type-writing 148 

History  of  stenography 148 

Short-hand  or  phonographic  alphabet 149 

Benn  Pittman's  system 149 

Type-writing  ..... . .. 150 

Advantages  of  the  different  systems 152 

Practical  short-hand 154 

Short-hand  amanuenses 155 

A  self-instructor  in  short-hand  writing 156 

Short  rates 424 

Siam,  history  of. 314 

Sicilian  Vespers 807 

Sick  headache 630 

Sickness,  ratio  of 572 

Signal  Service 608 

Silk  production 572 

Silurian  age ... 394 

Silvas 394 

Silver 567,  572 

Simile 34 

Simoon 399 

Siphon 347 

Sirocco,  the 399 

Six-column  journal 007 

Skin,  diseases  of  the 651 

Slavery 572 

■  See  also  Serfs. 

Sleeping-cars 339 

Slides  (elocution) 42 

Small-pox 672 

— ---,  statistics  of 572 

Snow .  399 

Soap 339 

Sodium _ 402 

Shipping  statistics ......................  563 

Soil  as  affecting  climate. 398 

Solar  prominences 359 

Solar  system,  the 357 

Solids,  liquids  and  gases 343 

Solid  measure 446 

Solstices 362,  375 

Song _ 38 

Sonnet 38 

Sore  throat 630 

■  ■    ■      ,  clergyman's.... 630 

S«und 347 

South  African  Republics 318 

South  Carolina,  special  laws  of..... 520 

South  Sea  bubble  ............ 806 

Spain,  history  of _ 300 

Speaking,  public .................—...    47 

Speaking  trumpets.. . ...............  339 

Special  laws  of  the  States  and  Territories  ....  502 

Specific  gravity.... ...................  560 

Spectacles 339 

Spectroscope 375 

Speech 9 

' ,  the  three  forms  of 46 

,  parts  of 28 


Spelling,  rules  for 23 

■  ,  reformed.. 23 

Spherical  aberration  of  light 348 

Spinning  wheel . 339 

Spiritlevel 346 

Sprains 675 

Springs 397 

Square  or  surface  measure. 446 

Starvation 632 

Stings  of  wasps  and  bees 676 

Stomach,  the 627 

,  cancer  of 634 

■ ,  inflammation  of. 632 

-     ■     ,  ulcer  of  the....... 633 

Strangulation 676 

Stamp  act 339 

Stamps,  postage 615 

Standard  time 580 

Stanza .......     36 

Starch,  percentage  of  ingrain 573 

Star-clusters 373 

Star-maps  .......378,  389 

Stars,  distance  of  the 37? 

,  double  and  multiple 371 

— — ,  fixed 370 

— — ,  how  named  and  numbered 371 

,  names  of  the  principal ........ 377 

,  new  and  variable 371 

,  proper  motion  of  the 372 

State  department 604 

Statist  ical'department 544 

Statute  of  frauds 454 

Statutes  of  the  United  States 339 

St.  Bartholomew,  massacre  of. 805 

Steamboat,  fastest  time 585 

Steam  power,  statistics  of....................  563 

Steam  engine 339,  349 

Steamship,  fastest  time 585 

Steel 339 

— ■  statistics 573 

,  tensile  strength  of 573 

Steppes 394 

Stereotype  printing.... 339 

Stirrups .... 339 

Stocks  and  bonds 432 

Stock  exchanges 411 

Strength,  comparative  scale  of 573 

Strength  of  style 33 

Stress 43 

Style  (rhetoric) 32 

(letter-writing) 48 

Suffixes 20 

Suffocation ...  676 

Sugar 33* 

Sugar  production 573 

Suicide  statistics _ 573 

Summer  complaint 634 

Sun 358 

,  apparent  motion  of  the....... 358 

Sunday-schools 339 

Sun-dials 339 

Sun-spots  359 

Sunstroke 677 

Supreme  Court 622 

Surface  measure 446 

Sweden,  history  of 288 

Switzerland,  history  of 301 

Syllables x8 

Syllepsis 31 

Sympathy,  letters  of 59 


Synxresis 31 

Syncope 31 

Synecdoche .  34 

Synonyms  and  antonyms,  dictionary  of. 64 

Syntax 29 

Syntax,  figures  of 31 

T 

Table,  etiquette  of  the 717 

Tariff  and  internal  revenue 434,  546 

Tariff,  general  average  of  importations 573 

Tariff  of  1883 435 

Tax  434 

Taxation 339 

Taxes  and  duties 434 

Tea 339 

statistics 573 

Teachers,  average  pay  of 559 

Teeth 627 

,  care  of  the 729 

Telegraph,  electric 339,  352 

,  mechanical 339 

— —statistics ....573,  578 

Telegraphic  alphabet 416 

Telegraphic  Code..... . ......._. .  416 

Telegraphic  Detector 416 

Telephone 339,  347 

,  statistics  of... 578 

Telescopes 339,  349 

Temperaments 534 

■    -  ■,  combination  of 535 

Temperature  and  climate 398 

Temperature,  variations  of . 573 

Tenant's  agreement 473 

Tenant's  notice  of  leaving 473 

Tennessee,  special  laws  of. 520 

Territory,  acquisition  of. 544 

Texas,  special  laws  of. 521 

Tides 366,  397 

Time 375 

,  comparative  diagram 579 

,  in  elocution 42 

— — ,  measures  of 446 

■,  standard 580 

— — .     See  also  Fast  Time. 

Tinea  tricophytina 652 

Title,  abstract  of. 468 

Titles 51 

Thermometer  .... ......... --339,  349.  57*> 

Thermometric  scales,  comparison  of 445 

Thirst,  excessive  (polydipsia) 632 

Thread 339 

Thunder 399 

Tmesis ......... . . 31 

Tobacco,  introduction  of 339 

.statistics  of. 574 

Toilet ...........  729 

Tonsilitis,  acute 630 

Topophone.. 348 

Tornadoes 399 

Torricelli's  experiment 346 

Trade-winds 398 

Transit  (astronomy) 375 

Transit  insurance _ 424 

Traveling,  etiquette  of 727 

Treasury  Department 606 

Triple  alliance,  the ......  806 

Trochaic  verse 37 

Trotting  records 585 

Troy  weight 44A 


K. 


Al 


«3° 


ALPHABETICAL    II 


Trutt  deed 408 

Tug-boats    57* 

Turf  record* 585 

Turkey,  hlitory  of 3°4 

Type*,  form*  of. 34 

Typhoid  fever — -  660 

Typhoon   —  399 

Typhu*  fever 070 

U 

t  the  stomach $33 

BtAtM,  growth  of -  581 

——,  history  of 353 

■  1    ■      ,  map  of 358 

,  population  of .....  58a 

<f  Colombia,  history  of 269 

f  style  (composition) 33 

Uranus,  the  planet 368 

Uruguay,  history  of 37a 

Utah,  special  laws  of. pi 

V 

Vaccination 330,  673 

Vacuum -pans 349 

Variola 673 

id 673 

Vegetation 401 

576 

Venezuela,  history  of 369 

Ventilator! 339 

Venus,  the  planet 360 

Ha 673 

Vermont,  ipecial  laws  of 53a 

Veime 36 

1  lion 35 

339 

Virginia, special  laws  of 511 

.  or  imagery 34 

V:ul  temperament 535 


Vocal  culture ¥> 

Vocal  cords,  disease  of 647 

Voice 40 

.quality  of. 4* 

Volcanic  islands 39*> 

mh>  phenomena 395 

Volcanoes 395 

Volute  electricity 351 

Voltaic  pile 35» 

Vowels  and  consonants rf 

Vulcan,  the  planet 359 

W 

Wages  and  cost  of  living 576 

Wages,  quick  method  of  computing 443 

Wall,  number  of  perches  of  stone  required....  444 

Wall-papers 339 

War,  cost  of 576 

—  ,  losses  by 576 

Win   I  Apartment 008 

War-ships 339 

Warranty  deeds 468 

Washington  city  government 604 

Washington  Territory,  special  laws  of. 523 

Watches 339 

Water 396,  577 

——,cvaporation  of 398 

Watered  stock 433 

Water-power 577 

Water-mills 339 

Waters,  inland 397 

Water-spouts 399 

Waves 397 

Wealth  of  nations 577 

Weather 398 

Weather-cocks 339 

Wedding  anniversaries 807 

■  etiquette 733 

Weight  and  stature  of  man 577 

Weight  of  various  substances 560 


Weights  and  measures 447 

,  foreign 448 

Wells  or  cisterns,  measurement  of 414 

West  Indies,  map  of... 994 

West  Virginia,  special  laws  of 5*3 

Wheat  statistics 566 

Wheel  and  axle 345 

Whirlpools 397 

Whirl  winds 398 

White  House 604 

,  presentational 714 

Whooping  cough 648 

Wild-fire : 339 

Wills   477 

— — ,  codicils  to 479 

,  forms  of... 479 

,  short  form  of j. 479 

.    See  also  Special  Laws. 

Winds  and  weather 398 

Winds  as  affecting  climate.. 398 

Wind,  velocity  and  pressrre  of. 577 

Wine.     See  Alcoholic  Liquors. 

Wire-drawing 339 

Wisconsin,  special  Laws  of 593 

Women  workers 577 

Wood,  number  of  cords  in  a  pile 445 

Woolen  cloth 339 

Words  and  word-building 18 

World,  map  of  the 301 

Wyoming,  special  laws  of. 533 

Y 

Yellow  fever 671 

Yellowstone  National  Park........... 339 

z 

Zeugma 31 

Zodiac 375 

Zodiacal  constellations 375 

Zodiacal  light 37o> 

Zoology 400 


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